Unit 2: Smart Grid Technologies

Overview of the technologies required for the Smart Grid:

To fulfil the different requirements of the Smart Grid, the following enabling
technologies must be developed and implemented:

[Link] and communication technologies: These include:

(a)​two-way communication technologies to provide connectivity between
different components in the power system and loads.
(b)​Open architecture for plug-and-play of home appliances; electric vehicles
and micro generation;\
(c)​Communications, and the necessary software and hardware to provide
customers with greater information, enable customers to trade in energy
markets and enable customers to provide demand side response;
(d)​Software to ensure and maintain the security of information and standards to
provide scalability and interoperability of information and communication
systems.
2. Sensing, measurement, control and automation technologies: These include:
(a)​Intelligent Electronic Devices(IED) to provide advanced protective relaying,
measurements, fault records and event records for the power system;
(b)​Phasor Measurement Units (PMU) and Wide Area Monitoring,Protection
and Control(WAPMAC) to ensure the security of the power system;
(c)​Integrated sensors, measurements, control and automation system and
information and communication technologies to provide rapid diagnosis and
timely response to any event in different parts of the power system. These
will support enhanced asset management and efficient operation of power
system components, to help relieve congestion in transmission and
distribution circuits to prevent or minimise potential outage and enable
working autonomously when conditions require quick resolution.
(d)​Smart appliances, communication, controls and monitor to maximise safety,
comfort, convenience and energy saving of homes;
(e)​Smart meters, communication, displays and associated software to allow
costumes to have a greater choice and control over electricity and gas use.
They will provide customers with accurate bills, along with faster and easier
supplier switching, to give consumers accurate real time information on their
 electricity and gas use and other related information and to enable demand
management and demand side participation.
[Link] electronic and energy storage: These include:
(a)​High Voltage DC(HVDC) transmission and back-to-back schemes and
Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) to enable long distance
transport and integration of renewable energy sources;
(b)​Different power electronic interfaces and power electronic supporting
devices to provide efficient connection of renewable energy sources and
energy storage devices;
(c)​Series capacitors, United Power Flow Controllers (UPFC) and other FACTS
devices to provide greater control over power flows in the AC grid;
(d)​HVDC, FACTS and active filters together with integrated communication
and control to ensure greater system flexibility, supply reliability and power
quality;
(e)​Power electronic interfaces and integrated communication and control to
support systems operation by controlling renewable energy sources, energy
storage and consumer loads;
(f)​Energy storage to facilitate greater flexibility and reliability of the power
system

Intelligent Electronic Devices (IED):

Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) are microprocessor-based control devices
designed to automate and control the operations of different power system
equipment like circuit breakers, transformers, capacitor banks, isolators, and more.
IEDs use various advanced control algorithms and communication technologies to
monitor, control, and protect equipment of the power system.
These devices receive data from various sensors connected across the grid and
process them to generate control signals. These control commands are then
sent to field devices to perform an appropriate action and maintain the grid
stability. Since IEDs are equipped with their own microprocessor, hence they can
perform complex calculations at a very fast speed and enable decision making
in real-time that in turn improves the operational efficiency of the grid.

Types of Intelligent Electronic Devices

There are various types of IEDs are used in smart grid systems, but the following are some major
of them −

​Protective Relays − These IEDs are responsible for detecting and isolating faults in the
grid.
​Voltage Regulators − These IEDs are used to automatically regulate the system voltage
to maintain it within specified limits.
​Recloser Controllers − These are IEDs responsible for automatically restore the power
supply after occurrence of a fault or abnormal conditions in the grid.
​Capacitor Bank Switches − These IEDs are integrated into the smart grid system to
regulate the reactive power flow in the system and maintain the power factor within the
specified limit.

Functions of Intelligent Electronic Devices

Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) perform the following crucial functions in a smart grid
system −
 ​ Data Acquisition and Processing

IEDs are equipped with high-speed microprocessor and communication system. These
components make the IEDs capable in data collection from the sensors and grid equipment and
their processing. This functionality of the IEDs provides real-time monitoring of the grid, storage
and analysis of historical data, and extraction of important information related to grid.

​ Control and Automation

It is another important function that IEDs perform in a smart grid system. IEDs do data
processing and generate control commands to perform an appropriate action like tripping a
circuit breaker, voltage regulation of a transformer, switching of a capacitor bank, or any other
based on the data analysis. This function of IEDs plays an important role in making the grid
stable and reliable.

​ Protection and Fault Management

IEDs are also important for protecting our electric grid from faults. IEDs continuously monitor
the grid parameters like voltage, current, etc. and quickly respond to any abnormality. Hence,
these devices also help in minimizing the damages to system equipment.

​ Integration with SCADA and DCS

IEDs are generally integrated with the supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system
and the distributed control system (DCS). Therefore, IEDs also provide centralized monitoring
and control facilities in the smart grid.

​ Communication between Different Devices and Systems

IEDs are designed to provide a framework for interoperability that enables different grid devices
and systems to communicate effectively. Hence, through enhanced communication among
different system components, IEDs improve the overall functionality and efficiency of the smart
grid.

Advantages of Intelligent Electronic Devices

The deployment of intelligent electronic devices in smart grid systems offer the following major
advantages −

The use of IEDs in smart grids improve the reliability and stability of the electric grid.

​ IEDs provide real-time monitoring and automated control facilities in smart grid.
​ IEDs also help in preventing power outages and improve the grid resiliency.
 ​ IEDs significantly minimize the response time to faults by continuous monitoring of the
grid.
​ IEDs optimize the operations of system equipment by sending control commands in
real-time. This minimizes the energy losses and enhances the efficiency of the grid.
​ IEDs quickly identify faults through real-time monitoring of the grid and isolate them to
minimize the damages. IEDs automatically restore power supply in unaffected areas
through their self-healing capabilities.

Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU):

Smart grid is an advanced version of the electrical power system that uses modern technologies
to provide a reliable, efficient, and sustainable electricity delivery system. Phasor Measurement
Units (PMUs) are the key components in this transformation of the grid that provide
real-time monitoring and remote-control facilities.

A Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU) is a device used in smart grid systems to collect and
differentiate the power system signals from the voltage and current sensors and convert them into
phasors. In other words, a PMU is an advanced monitoring device that can measure and describe
each and every peak and down of the power system. It uses GPS signals to synchronize the
measurements of the phasors and provides accurate data in real-time. That is why PMUs are also
referred to as Synchrophasors.

As per Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), a phasor measurement unit is
a device that can estimate synchronized phasor, frequency, and rate of change of frequency from
voltage and current signals in the power system.

In a smart grid system, the phasor measurement units are the fundamental building blocks of the
wide-area monitoring system (WAMS).

In smart grid, a PMU is similar to a heart rate monitor screen in an ICU that provides time-based
heart beats of a patient. As we know, a SCADA system is capable of providing x-ray of the
power grid, but the PMU is more advanced than SCADA and can provide information about
stress on the system, disturbances in the system, etc. In simple words, a PMU provides a wide
area snapshot of the power system.

​ Phasor − A phasor is a mathematical representation of any waveform. In electrical,

phasors are used to determine any kind of discrepancies or power quality problems from
the waveform representation.
​ Synchrophasor − The phasor measurement that takes place at the same time is called
synchrophasor.
1. Analog Input Unit

The analog input unit of the PMU acts as an interface between the internal circuit of the PMU
and the electric grid. This component of PMU collects current and voltage signals from the
secondary windings of current and voltage transformers and performs signal conditioning to
convert these signals into required format. This process includes amplification, filtering, etc.

2. Anti-Aliasing Filter

Anti-aliasing filter is another major component of a PMU that prevents aliasing effect and signal
distortion during digitalization of signals. It band-limits the analog signals before their
digitalization to avoid aliasing.

The anti-aliasing filter is nothing but a low-pass filter that removes high-frequency components
above half of the sampling rate to prevent aliasing. It also ensures that all the analog signals
should have the same phase shift and attenuation.

3. Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)

ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter) is provided in a PMU to perform digitalization of the input

signals i.e., it converts analog signals from anti-aliasing filter into digital signals. In general, a
16-bit or more ADC is used for this purpose so it can capture fine details of the signals
4. GPS Receiver

GPS receiver is provided in a phasor measurement unit for precise time synchronization of the
measurements. It receives a time signal from GPS satellites that provides a time accuracy of
better than one microsecond. The output signal produced by the GPS receiver acts as a reference
clock for synchronization of measurements across different PMUs.

5. Phase Locked Oscillator

This component of the phasor measurement unit is responsible for ensuring that the digitalization
of the signals is synchronized with the reference clock provided by the GPS receiver.

This component of PMUs is important for providing a stable and accurate time reference for all
other components. It also produces a stable clock for synchronization of the sampling process in
the analog-to-digital conversion.

6. Phasor Microprocessor

The phasor microprocessor is a digital device that processes the digital data to calculate the
magnitude, phase angle, frequency, rate of change of frequency, etc. of the electrical signals.

For this purpose, the phasor microprocessor makes the use of algorithms and signal processing
techniques like DFT (Discrete Fourier Transform).

7. Modem

It is a communication device that establishes a fast communication between the PMU and the
phasor data concentrators. It transmits the output of the phasor microprocessor to the data
concentrators for further processing and analysis.

Working of Phasor Measurement Unit

By referring the above block diagram representation of the phasor measurement unit. We can
understand the working of it by breaking it down into the following steps −

​Signal Inputting − First of all, the PMU captures input voltage and current signals from
the electric grid by using voltage and current transformers respectively.
​Filtering − In the next step, it performs anti-aliasing filtering on the signals to remove
high-frequency components from the signals.
 ​Digitalization − Next, it converts the filtered analog signals into digital signals by using
a high-resolution analog-to-digital converter.
​Synchronization − In this step, the digitalization process of the signals is synchronized
with the reference signal received from the GPS receiver.
​Data Communication − At the final stage, the processed data by the PMU is transmitted
to data concentrators.

Advantages of Phasor Measurement Unit

The use of phasor measurement unit in a smart grid system offers the following benefits −

​ Phasor measurement units enable real-time monitoring and remote control in the electric
grid. Thus, they implement advanced protection schemes in the system to provide a stable
and resilient electric grid.
​ Phasor measurement units provide detailed reports on the grid conditions that enable
operators to understand the behavior of the system more effectively.
​ PMUs provide continuous monitoring of grid parameters like voltage, current, frequency,
phase angle, and many more. This helps grid operators to implement predictive protection
schemes and reduces the risks of blackouts.
​ Most phasor measurement units support an adjustable sampling rate that ensures
high-resolution capturing of data which is very important for dynamic analysis of the
grid.
​ By providing precise measurement and real-time data on grid performance, PMUs allow
to improve the grid stability through better control and accurate decision making.
​ Phasor measurement units also improve situational awareness by providing real-time and
time-synchronized data. This helps grid operators to rapidly detect and respond to faults.
​ As we know, PMUs are the important parts of the wide-area monitoring system (WAMS).
Hence, they provide improved visualization of the grid and help in better coordination
over a wide geographical area.

Applications of Phasor Measurement Unit

In smart grid systems, the phasor measurement units are used for the following purposes −

​ Monitoring the grid over a wide geographical area

​ Accurately estimate the grid state
​ Rapidly identify and isolate the faults to minimize damages in the grid
​ Real-time monitoring of the grid conditions
​ Precisely measure the grid parameters and improve the protection
​ Better management of power flow across the grid, etc.
Smart Substation:
A smart substation is an enhanced version of a conventional substation. It combines the modern
digital and automation technologies with traditional electrical substation systems. The primary
goal behind developing smart substations is to automate the substation operations and improve
the reliability, efficiency, and security of the electricity distribution.
In an electrical power system, a substation is a central point of power generation, transmission,
and distribution. The substations are installed to change the voltage levels, perform switching
operations, protect the power system, and maintain the power quality.
from the point of generation to consumer, electric power flows through several electrical
substations. These substations are broadly classified into the following three categories −

1.​ Generating substations

2.​ Transmission substations
3.​ Distribution substations

Functions of a Substation:
The following are the general functions of an electrical substation −

​ Voltage level transformation (increase or decrease of the voltage)

​ Connecting generation, transmission and distribution systems together
​ Switching of electric power in transmission and distribution lines
​ Protection of transmission and distribution lines
​ Assuring power quality

Objectives of Smart Substation:

​ The real-time monitoring and control of the power distribution to achieve maximum
efficiency and reliability.
​ Automatic energy saving.
​ Minimizing the losses and providing reliable and affordable power supply to consumers.

What is Smart Substation?

A smart substation is nothing but an electrical substation which uses digital technologies,
automated control systems, and advanced communication systems for real-time monitoring and
control of electrical power systems to deliver electricity at higher efficiency and reliability.

Smart substations are an important part of the modern smart electric grid, as they provide
seamless integration of renewable energy resources, enhance grid reliability, improves efficiency
of the grid, and provide better power quality.
Some of the main components of a smart substation are described here −

​Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) − These devices are used for real-time monitoring
and control of the power system. The examples of IEDs include smart sensors, digital
relays, automated switching devices, etc.
​Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) − This system is provided to collect
information about energy consumption and system performance. The key components of
AMI are smart meters and data acquisition systems.
​Digital Communication System − In smart substations, a high speed and security digital
communication system is used for data exchange between substation and central control
system. This communication system also connects IoT devices used in the smart
substation.
​Automated Control and Monitoring System − This system is employed for providing a
centralized control, monitoring, and data analysis mechanism in the smart substation. A
common example of automated control and monitoring system used in smart substations
is SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition).
​Cybersecurity System − This system is used for protecting the smart substation and its
data from cyber threats.

Features of Smart Substations

The following are some important features of a smart substation −
 ​ A smart substation is able to perform continuous monitoring of electrical grid to detect
any kind issues in it.
​ Smart substations have automated and remote-control units to perform automatic grid
operations and switching operations from a distant place.
​ Smart substations use intelligent electronic devices to perform all kind of operations.
​ Smart substations also ensure that all the control and protection devices are networked
properly.
​ Smart substations adjust the grid parameters like voltage, frequency, etc. to make the grid
operations efficient.
​ Smart substations are equipped with technologies to minimize the power shortages and
identify power theft.
​ Smart substations use big analysis techniques to predict equipment or grid failures in
advance.

Advantages of Smart Substations

A smart substation has several advantages of a traditional electrical substation. The key benefits
of a smart substation are listed below −

​ Smart substations are more reliable as they can detect and isolate fault at a faster speed.
​ Smart substations provide a stable power supply.
​ Smart substations reduce energy losses through optimized grid operations.
​ Smart substations reduce the cost of operation and maintenance through the automation
and predictive maintenance.
​ Smart substations minimize the risk of electrical accidents.
​ Smart substations reduce the environmental impacts through renewable energy
integration and reduced greenhouse emission and carbon footprint.

Feeder Automation:

Feeder automation is defined as a process of automating the monitoring, control, and operations
of distribution feeders. Feeder automation involves the use of intelligent electronic devices
(IEDs), digital communication networks, and automated control systems to perform feeder
operations without any need of human intervention.
Major faults occur in the feeder section of the distribution networks. Therefore, it is very
important to continuously monitor the operation of a feeder which is manually not practical.
Hence, we need an automated system that can monitor and control the feeder operations.

Some of the key factors why we need feeder automation are listed here −

​ Feeder automation is required for reducing the frequency and duration of power outages
and improving the reliability of power supply.
​ Feeder automation is also essential for predicting the failures and inefficiencies in the
distribution networks and reducing the power interruptions.
​ Feeder automation is needed for integrating and managing the renewable energy
resources. It is required because renewable energy resources like solar, wind, etc. are
intermittent in nature.
​ Feeder automation is also important for enhancing the reliability, efficiency, and security
of the power distribution networks. This helps in reducing the energy cost and improving
consumer satisfaction.

Components of Feeder Automation System

The block diagram of a typical feeder automation system is depicted in the figure above. It
involves the use of following key smart devices and components −
 ​ Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs)

IEDs are the smart devices used for real-time monitoring and automated control of electric feeder
operations. Examples of IEDs include smart sensors, protection and control relays, digital
communication devices, smart meters, etc.

​ Communication Networks

In feeder automation, digital communication networks are used for transmitting data between
different components. Commonly used communication technologies are power line carrier,
ethernet, optical fiber, or wireless networks.

​ Distribution Management System

It is one of the key components of the feeder automation system. It is basically a centralized
software employed for collecting data from IEDs, performing their analysis, and send
appropriate commands to the control system.

​ SCADA System

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system is another software used in feeder
automation system. It is primarily used for real-time data acquisition and providing remote
control of feeder operations.

​ Automated Switches

These are the smart switches that can be operated from a remote location. The automated
switches receive commands from the SCADA system and control the flow of electricity through
the feeder.

Plug in Hybrid Vehicle:

Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) is a type of hybrid electric vehicle that consists of an IC
engine and electric motor to propel the vehicle. These vehicles are slightly different from normal
hybrid electric vehicles, as they have a large rechargeable battery and are charged by plugging
into an external source of power.

The unique combination of electric vehicle technology with the conventional vehicle technology
reduces the fuel consumption and emissions in the environment. Also, the plug-in hybrid electric
vehicles are charged from a charging station based on renewable energy like solar, wind, etc.
Therefore, these vehicles help in building a sustainable energy system.
It consists of the following major components −

1.​ Rechargeable Battery − To store electricity to run the electric motors.

2.​ Electric Motors − To drive the wheels of the vehicle.
3.​ Inverters − To convert battery’s DC electricity into AC power to drive the
motors.
4.​ Rectifier − To convert AC from external power into DC to recharge the
battery.
5.​ Charger − To provide a connection between the charging station and the
vehicle's charging port.
6.​ Fuel Tank − To store gasoline or diesel to power internal combustion
engines.
7.​ IC Engine − To drive the vehicle over long distances and at high speeds
when electric vehicle technology is not suitable.

Significance of PHEV in Smart Grid:

1.​ Demand Response and Load Management: This is one of the major functions that
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles perform in smart grids. Under this process, the PHEVs
are charged during low demand periods and discharged during peak demand periods to
supply power back to the grid. This process helps in balancing the supply and demand
and reduces the need for additional power generation. Thus, PHEVs act as an energy
storage system in the smart grid and enables grid operators to manage load demand
efficiently.
 2.​ Renewable Energy Integration and Energy Storage: Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
are charged from renewable energy-based charging stations. The battery used in these
vehicles has substantial storage capacity and hence can be used to store extra-energy
produced by the renewable energy resources. Therefore, these vehicles also help in
integration of renewable energy and energy storage systems into the smart grid.
3.​ Implementation of Vehicle to Grid Technology:The plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
provide bidirectional flow of electric power between vehicle and the grid. Therefore,
PHEVs also support in addressing power outages by providing flow of power from
vehicles back to the grid.
4.​ Economic Advantages: Plug-in hybrid vehicles also provide several economic benefits
like lower operating cost per km, reduced fuel consumption, lower re-filling cost, etc.
5.​ Environmental Benefits: The charging of PHEVs is primarily dependent on renewable
energy resources. Also, they consume less fuel. Hence, PHEVs emit lower pollutants and
greenhouse gases.
6.​

Energy Storage Technologies and applications:

Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)

Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) is a large-scale energy storage technology that stores
energy in the form of high-pressure compressed air and releases it to generate electricity when
needed. It is mainly used for grid-scale energy storage and balancing renewable energy sources.

Working Principle of CAES

1.​ Charging Phase (Energy Storage)

○​ Excess electricity (from renewable sources or off-peak power) is used to compress
air and store it in underground caverns, tanks, or reservoirs at high pressure.
○​ The compressed air is typically stored at 50-70 bar in large underground
formations such as salt caverns, depleted gas fields, or aquifers.
2.​ Storage Phase
○​ The compressed air remains stored until electricity demand increases.
3.​ Discharging Phase (Power Generation)
○​ When electricity is needed, the compressed air is released and heated (using a heat
exchanger or combustion with natural gas).
○​ The expansion of air drives a turbine connected to a generator, producing
electricity.

Key Advantages

✅
✅ Large-Scale Storage – Suitable for grid-level energy storage.​

✅
✅
Long Discharge Duration – Can store energy for hours to days.​
Supports Renewable Energy – Balances fluctuations in solar and wind power.​

✅ Long Lifespan – Can last 20-40 years with proper maintenance.​

Relatively Low Cost – Compared to lithium-ion batteries for large-scale storage.

Supercapacitors (Ultracapacitors)

Supercapacitors, also known as ultracapacitors or electrochemical capacitors, are energy storage

devices that store energy through electrostatic charge separation rather than chemical reactions
(as in batteries). They are known for their high power density, rapid charge/discharge capability,
and long cycle life.

Working Principle of Supercapacitors

Supercapacitors operate based on electrostatic double-layer capacitance (EDLC) and/or

pseudocapacitance, depending on the materials used.

1.​ Charging Phase

 ○​ When a voltage is applied, ions in the electrolyte accumulate on the surface of
highly porous electrodes (usually activated carbon, graphene, or carbon
nanotubes).
○​ This forms an electric double layer at the interface, storing energy
electrostatically.
2.​ Storage Phase
○​ The charge remains stored without significant chemical reactions, allowing for
very high charge/discharge efficiency (~98%).
3.​ Discharging Phase
○​ When the circuit is completed, the stored charge is quickly released, supplying
high power over a short period.

Key Advantages of Supercapacitors

✅
✅ High Power Density – Can deliver power very quickly, much faster than batteries.​

✅
✅
Fast Charging and Discharging – Charges within seconds to minutes.​
Long Lifespan – >1 million charge/discharge cycles (much longer than batteries).​

✅
✅
High Efficiency – 85-98% round-trip efficiency.​
Low Maintenance – No degradation like chemical batteries.​

✅ Operates in Wide Temperature Range – Performs well in -40°C to 85°C environments.​

Environmentally Friendly – No toxic metals or electrolytes like lead-acid or lithium
batteries.
 Parameter SMES Supercapacitors Pumped Compressed
Hydro Air Energy
Storage (PHS) Storage
(CAES)

Energy Density Very low Moderate High High

Power Density Very high Very high Moderate Moderate

Response Time Instantaneous Instantaneous Slow (minutes Slow (minutes)

to hours)

Efficiency 90-98% 85-98% 70-85% 40-70%

Discharge Short (seconds to Short (seconds to Long (hours Long (hours)

Duration minutes) minutes) to days)

Lifespan Long (over 20 Very long (>10⁶ Very long (50+ Long (20-40
years) cycles) years) years)

Size & Small to medium Small to medium Large Large

Scalability (geographical (requires
constraints) underground
storage)

Environmental Low (requires Low (uses Moderate Moderate (air

Impact cryogenic non-toxic (land and and water
cooling) materials) water use) concerns)

Cost High (due to Moderate High High (requires

superconductors) (depends on (capital-intens geological
materials) ive) sites)

Application Grid stability, Quick Bulk energy Bulk energy

power quality charge/discharge storage for storage for
systems grids grids