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Bosch Professional Automotive
Information

Konrad Reif Ed.

Automotive
Mechatronics
Automotive Networking · Driving
Stability Systems · Electronics
Bosch Professional Automotive Information
Bosch Professional Automotive Information is a definitive reference for
automotive engineers. The series is compiled by one of the world´s largest
automotive equipment suppliers. All topics are covered in a concise but
descriptive way backed up by diagrams, graphs, photographs and tables
enabling the reader to better comprehend the subject.
There is now greater detail on electronics and their application in the motor
vehicle, including electrical energy management (EEM) and discusses the
topic of intersystem networking within vehicle. The series will benefit
automotive engineers and design engineers, automotive technicians in
training and mechanics and technicians in garages.
Konrad Reif
Editor

Automotive Mechatronics
Automotive Networking, Driving Stability
Systems, Electronics
Editor
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Konrad Reif
Duale Hochschule Baden-Württemberg
Friedrichshafen, Germany
[email protected]

ISBN 978-3-658-03974-5 ISBN 978-3-658-03975-2(eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03975-2

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014946887

Springer Vieweg
© Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2015
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is
concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting,
reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication
or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965,
in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable
to prosecution under the German Copyright Law.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply,
even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws
and regulations and therefore free for general use.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer Vieweg is part of Springer Science+Business Media

www.springer-vieweg.de
 Foreword V

▶ Foreword

As the complexity of automotive vehicles increases this book presents operational

and practical issues of automotive mechatronics. It is a comprehensive introduction
to controlled automotive systems and provides detailed information of sensors for
travel, angle, engine speed, vehicle speed, acceleration, pressure, temperature, flow,
gas concentration etc. The measurement principles of the different sensor groups are
explained and examples to show the measurement principles applied in different
types.

Complex technology of modern motor vehicles and increasing functions need a

reliable source of information to understand the components or systems. The rapid
and secure access to these informations in the field of Automotive Electrics and Elec-
tronics provides the book in the series “Bosch Professional Automotive Information”
which contains necessary fundamentals, data and explanations clearly, systemati-
cally, currently and application-oriented. The series is intended for automotive pro-
fessionals in practice and study which need to understand issues in their area of work.
It provides simultaneously the theoretical tools for understanding as well as the
applications.
VI Contents

▶ Contents

2 Basics of mechatronics 165 Overview of the physical effects for sensors

2 Mechatronic systems and components 167 Overview and selection of sensor
4 Development methods technologies
6 Outlook
168 Sensor measuring principles
8 Architecture 168 Position sensors
8 Overview 195 Speed and rpm sensors
11 Vehicle system architecture 207 Acceleration sensors
212 Pressure sensors
18 Electronic control unit 215 Force and torque sensors
18 Operating conditions 224 Flowmeters
18 Design 230 Gas sensors and concentration sensors
18 Data processing 234 Temperature sensors
22 Digital modules in the control unit 244 Imaging sensors (video)
26 Control unit software
30 Software Development 246 Sensor types
246 Engine-speed sensors
44 Basic principles of networking 248 Hall phase sensors
44 Network topology 249 Speed sensors for transmission control
48 Network organization 252 Wheel-speed sensors
50 OSI reference model 256 Micromechanical yaw-rate sensors
52 Control mechanisms 259 Piezoelectric “tuning-fork” yaw-rate sensor
260 Micromechanical pressure sensors
56 Automotive networking 262 High-pressure sensors
56 Cross-system functions 263 Temperature sensors
57 Requirements for bus systems 264 Accelerator-pedal sensors
59 Classification of bus systems 266 Steering-angle sensors
59 Applications in the vehicle 268 Position sensors for transmission control
61 Coupling of networks 271 Axle sensors
61 Examples of networked vehicles 272 Hot-film air-mass meters
275 Piezoelectric knock sensors
70 Bus systems 276 SMM acceleration sensors
70 CAN bus 278 Micromechanical bulk silicon acceleration
84 LIN bus sensors
90 Bluetooth 279 Piezoelectric acceleration sensors
100 MOST bus 280 iBolt™ force sensor
111 TTP/C 282 Torque sensor
124 FlexRay 283 Rain/light sensor
136 Diagnosis interfaces 284 Two-step Lambda oxygen sensors
288 LSU4 planar wide-band lambda oxygen
144 Automotive sensors sensor
144 Basics and overview
147 Automotive applications 290 Electric Actuators
150 Details of the sensor market 290 Electromechanical actuators
151 Features of vehicle sensors 295 Fluid-mechanical actuators
152 Sensor classification 296 Electrical machines
154 Error types and tolerance requirements
155 Reliability 302 Electrohydraulic Actuators
158 Main requirements, trends 302 Application and Function
 Contents VII

302 Requirements 404 Hydraulic modulator

303 Design and Operating Concept 404 Development history
304 Actuator Types 405 Design
313 Simulations in Development 408 Pressure modulation

316 Electronic Transmission Control 412 Sensotronic brake control (SBC)

316 Drivetrain Management 412 Purpose and function
317 Market Trends 414 Design
318 Control of Automated Shift Transmission 414 Method of operation
AST
322 Control of Automatic Transmissions 416 Overview of common-rail systems
338 Control of Continuously Variable 416 Areas of application
Transmission 417 Design
340 ECUs for Electronic Transmission Control 418 Operating concept
347 Thermo-Management 422 Common-rail system for passenger cars
349 Processes and Tools Used in 427 Common-rail system for commercial
ECU Development vehicles

350 Modules for Transmission Control 430 High-pressure components of common-rail

350 Application system
351 Module Types 430 Overview
432 Injector
354 Antilock Braking System (ABS) 444 High-pressure pumps
354 System overview 450 Fuel rail (high-pressure accumulator)
356 Requirements placed on ABS 451 High-pressure sensors
357 Dynamics of a braked wheel 452 Pressure-control valve
358 ABS control loop 453 Pressure-relief valve
362 Typical control cycles
454 Electronic Diesel Control (EDC)
370 Traction Control System (TCS) 454 System overview
370 Tasks 456 Common-rail system for passenger cars
370 Function description 457 Common-rail system for commercial
372 Structure of traction control system (TCS) vehicles
373 Typical control situations 458 Data processing
374 Traction control system (TCS) for four 460 Fuel-injection control
wheel drive vehicles 468 Lambda closed-loop control for
passenger-car diesel engines
378 Electronic Stability Program (ESP) 473 Torque-controlled EDC systems
378 Requirements 476 Data exchange with other systems
379 Tasks and method of operation 477 Serial data transmission (CAN)
380 Maneuvers
388 Closed-loop control system and controlled 478 Active steering
variables 478 Purpose
478 Design
394 Automatic brake functions 480 Method of operation
394 Overview 481 Safety concept
396 Standard function 481 Benefits of active steering for the driver
398 Additional functions
VIII Contents

482 Drive and adjustment systems 496 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) and
482 Power windows interference suppression
483 Power sunroofs 496 EMC ranges
484 Seat and steering column adjustment 497 EMC between different systems in the
vehicle
485 Heating, ventilation and air conditioning 504 EMC between the vehicle and its
485 Electronic heater control surroundings
485 Electronically controlled air conditioning 508 Guarantee of immunity and interference
system suppression

488 Vehicle security systems 510 Fault diagnostics

488 Acoustic signaling devices 510 Monitoring during vehicle operation
489 Central locking system (on-board diagnosis)
490 Locking systems 513 On-board diagnosis system for passenger
494 Biometric systems cars and light-duty trucks
520 On-board diagnosis system for heavy-duty
trucks
 Authors IX

 Authors

Basics of mechatronics Dipl.-Ing. Christian Gerhardt,

Dipl.-Ing. Hans-Martin Heinkel, Dipl.-Ing. Klaus Miekley,

Dr.-Ing. Klaus-­Georg Bürger. Dipl.-Ing. Roger Frehoff,

Dipl.-Ing. Martin Mast,

Architecture Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Bernhard Bauer,

Dr. phil. nat. Dieter Kraft, Dr. Michael Harder,

Dipl.-Ing. Stefan Mischo. Dr.-Ing. Klaus Kasten,

Dipl.-Ing. Peter Brenner, ZF Lenksysteme GmbH,

Electronic control units Schwäbisch Gmünd,

Dipl.-Ing. Martin Kaiser, Dipl.-Ing. Frank Wolf,

Dr. rer. nat. Ulrich ­Schaefer, Dr.-Ing. Johann ­Riegel.

Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Gerhard Haaf.

Electric Actuators
Basic principles of networking
Dr.-Ing. Rudolf Heinz,
Automotive networking
Dr.-Ing. Robert Schenk.
Bus systems
Dipl.-Ing. Stefan Mischo,
Electrohydraulic Actuators
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Stefan Powolny,
Electronic Transmission Control
Dipl.-Ing. Hanna Zündel,
Modules for Transmission Control
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Norbert Löchel,
Dipl.-Ing. D. Fornoff,
Dipl.-Inform. Jörn Stuphorn,
D. Grauman,
Universität Bielefeld,
E. Hendriks,
Dr. Rainer Constapel, Daimler AG Sindelfingen,
Dipl.-Ing. T. Laux,
Dipl.-Ing. Peter Häussermann,
Dipl.-Ing. T. Müller,
Daimler AG Sindelfingen,
Dipl.-Ing. A. Schreiber,
Dr. rer. nat. Alexander Leonhardi,
Dipl.-Ing. S. Schumacher,
Daimler AG Sindelfingen,
Dipl.-Ing. W. Stroh.
Dipl.-Inform. Heiko Holtkamp,
Universität Bielefeld.
Antilock Braking System (ABS)
Traction Control System (TCS)
Automotive sensors
Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
Sensor measuring principles
Automatic brake functions
Sensor types
Hydraulic modulator
Dr.-Ing. Erich Zabler,
Dipl.-Ing. Friedrich Kost
Dr. rer. nat. Stefan Fink­beiner,
(Basic Principles of Vehicle Dynamics),
Dr. rer. nat. Wolfgang Welsch,
Dipl.-Ing. Heinz-Jürgen Koch-Dücker
Dr. rer. nat. Hartmut Kittel,
(Antilock Braking Systems, ABS),
Dr. rer. nat. Christian Bauer,
Dr.-Ing. Frank Niewels and
Dipl.-Ing. Günter Noetzel,
Dipl.-Ing. Jürgen Schuh
Dr.-Ing. Harald Emmerich,
(Traction Control Systems, TCS),
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Gerald Hopf,
Dipl.-Ing. Thomas Ehret
Dr.-Ing. Uwe Konzelmann,
(Electronic Stability Program, ESP),
Dr. rer. nat. Thomas Wahl,
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Jochen Wagner
Dr.-Ing. Reinhard Neul,
(Automatic Brake Functions),
Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang-Michael Müller,
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Ulrich Papert
Dr.-Ing. Claus Bischoff,
(Wheel-Speed Sensors),
Dr. Christian Pfahler,
Dr.-Ing. Frank Heinen and
Dipl.-Ing. Peter Weiberle,
Peter Eberspächer
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Ulrich Papert,
X Authors

Sensotronic brake control (SBC) Active steering

Dipl.-Ing. Bernhard Kant. Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Wolfgang Rieger,
ZF Lenksysteme, Schwäbisch Gmünd.
Overview of common-rail systems
High-pressure components of common-rail Drive and adjustment systems
system Dipl.-Ing. Rainer Kurzmann,
Electronic Diesel Control (EDC) Dr.-Ing. Günter Hartz.
Dipl.-Ing. Felix Landhäußer,
Dr.-Ing. Ulrich Projahn, Heating, ventilation and air conditioning
Dipl.-Inform. Michael Heinzelmann, Dipl.-Ing. Gebhard Schweizer,
Dr.-Ing. Ralf Wirth Behr GmbH & Co., Stuttgart.
(Common-rail system),
Ing. grad. Peter Schelhas, Vehicle security systems
Dipl.-Ing. Klaus Ortner Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Jürgen Bowe,
(Fuel-supply pumps), Andreas Walther,
Dipl.-Betriebsw. Meike Keller Dr.-Ing. B. Kordowski,
(Fuel filters), Dr.-Ing. Jan Lichtermann.
Dipl.-Ing. Sandro Soccol,
Dipl.-Ing. Werner Brühmann Electromagnetic compatibility
(High-pressure pumps), Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang Pfaff.
Ing. Herbert Strahberger,
Ing. Helmut Sattmann Fault diagnostics
(Fuel rail and add-on components), Dr.-Ing. Matthias Knirsch,
Dipl.-Ing. Thilo Klam, Dipl.-Ing. Bernd Kesch,
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Andreas Rettich, Dr.-Ing. Matthias Tappe,
Dr. techn. David Holzer, Dr,-Ing. Günter Driedger,
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Andreas Koch Dr. rer. nat. Walter Lehle.
(Solenoid-valve injectors),
Dr.-Ing. Patrick Mattes and the editorial team in cooperation with the
(Piezo-inline injectors), responsible in-house specialist departments of
Dipl.-Ing. Thomas Kügler Robert Bosch GmbH.
(Injection nozzles),
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Mikel Lorente Susaeta, Unless otherwise stated, the authors are all
Dipl.-Ing. Martin Grosser, employees of Robert Bosch GmbH.
Dr.-Ing. Andreas Michalske
(Electronic diesel control),
Dr.-Ing. Günter Driedger,
Dr. rer. nat. Walter Lehle,
Dipl.-Ing. Wolfgang Schauer,
Rainer Heinzmann
(Diagnostics).
Basics
2 Basics of mechatronics Mechatronic systems and components

#BTJDT
PG
NFDIBUSPOJDT

The term “mechatronics” came about as Mechatronic systems

a made-up word from mechanics and and components
electronics, where electronics means
“hardware” and “software”, and mechan- Applications
ics is the generic term for the disciplines Mechatronic systems and components are
of “mechanical engineering” and “hy- now present throughout almost the entire
draulics”. It is not a question of replacing vehicle: starting with engine-management
mechanical engineering by “electronifi- systems and injection systems for gasoline
cation”, but of a synergistic approach and diesel engines to transmission control
and design methodology. The aim is to systems, electrical and thermal energy
achieve a synergistic optimization of me- management systems, through to a wide
chanical engineering, electronic hard- variety of brake and driving dynamics sys-
ware and software in order to project tems. It even includes communication and
more functions at lower cost, less weight information systems, with many different
and installation space, and better quality. requirements when it comes to operability.
The successful use of mechatronics in a Besides systems and components, mecha-
problem solution is dependent upon an tronics are also playing an increasingly
overall examination of disciplines that vital role in the field of micromechanics.
were previously kept separate.
Examples at system level
A general trend is emerging in the further
development of systems for fully automatic
vehicle handling and steering: more and
more mechanical systems will be replaced
by “X-by-wire” systems in future.

1 Mechatronic system

Environment

Forces, travel, etc. Forces, travel, etc.

Basic system
(mostly mechanical)

Auxiliary
power

Actuator Sensor
engineering technology

Correcting Measured
variables variables
Reference
Feedback Processor variables
UAE1035E

K. Reif (Ed.), Automotive Mechatronics, Bosch Professional Automotive Information,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03975-2_1, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2015
 Basics of mechatronics Mechatronic systems and components 3

A system that was implemented long ago is Examples at component level

the “Drive-by-wire” system, i.e. electronic Fuel injectors are crucial components in
throttle control. determining the future potential of Diesel-
engine technology. Common-rail injectors
“Brake-by-wire” replaces the hydrome- are an excellent example of the fact that an
chanical connection between the brake extremely high degree of functionality
pedal and the wheel brake. Sensors record and, ultimately, customer utility can only
the driver’s braking request and transmit be achieved by controlling all the physical
this information to an electronic control domains (electrodynamics, mechanical en-
unit. The unit then generates the required gineering, fluid dynamics) to which these
braking effect at the wheels by means of components are subjected.
actuators.
One implementation option for In-vehicle CD drives are exposed to partic-
“Brake-by-wire” is the electrohydraulic ularly tough conditions. Apart from wide
brake (SBC, Sensotronic Brake Control). temperature ranges, they must in particu-
When the brake is operated or in the event lar withstand vibrations that have a critical
of brake stabilization intervention by the impact on such precision-engineered sys-
electronic stability program (ESP), the SBC tems.
electronic control unit calculates the re- In order to keep vehicle vibration away
quired brake pressure setpoints at the in- from the actual player during mobile de-
dividual wheels. Since the unit calculates ployment, the drives normally have a
the required braking pressures separately spring damping system. Considerations
for each wheel and collects the actual val- about reducing the weight and installation
ues separately, it can also regulate the space of CD drives immediately raise ques-
brake pressure to each wheel via the tions concerning these spring-damper sys-
wheel-pressure modulators. The four tems. In CD drives without a damper sys-
pressure modulators each consist of an tem, the emphasis is on designing a me-
inlet and an outlet valve controlled by chanical system with zero clearances and
electronic output stages which together producing additional reinforcement for
produce a finely metered pressure reg- the focus and tracking controllers at high
ulation. frequencies.
Only by combining both measures
Pressure generation and injection are mechatronically is it possible to achieve
decoupled in the Common Rail System. good vibration resistance in driving
A high-pressure rail, i.e. the common rail, mode. As well as reducing the weight by
serves as a high-pressure accumulator, approx. 15 %, the overall height is also
constantly providing the fuel pressure re- reduced by approx. 20 %.
quired for each of the engine’s operating
states. A solenoid-controlled injector with The new mechatronic system for electri-
a built-in injection nozzle injects fuel di- cally operated refrigerant motors is based
rectly into the combustion chamber for on brushless, electronically commutated
each cylinder. The engine electronics re- DC motors (BLDC’s). Initially, they are
quest data on accelerator pedal position, more expensive (motor with electronics)
rotational speed, operating temperature, than previous DC motors equipped with
fresh-air intake flow, and rail pressure in brushes. However, the overall optimization
order to optimize the control of fuel me- approach brings benefits: BLDC motors
tering as a function of the operating condi- can be used as “wet rotors” with a much
tions. simpler design. The number of separate
parts is therefore reduced by approx. 60 %.
4 Basics of mechatronics Mechatronic systems and components

In terms of comparable cost, this more Development methods

robust design doubles the service life,
reduces the weight by almost half and Simulation
reduces the overall length by approx. 40 %. The special challenges that designers face
when developing mechatronic systems are
Examples in the field of micromechanics the ever shorter development times and
Another application for mechatronics is the increasing complexity of the systems.
the area of micromechanical sensor sys- At the same time, it is vital to ensure that
tems, with noteworthy examples such as the developments will result in useful
hot-film air-mass meters and yaw-rate products.
sensors.
Because the subsystems are so closely Complex mechatronic systems consist of
coupled, microsystems design also re- a large number of components from differ-
quires an interdisciplinary procedure that ent physical domains: hydraulic compo-
takes the individual disciplines of mechan- nents, mechanical components and elec-
ical components, electrostatics and possi- tronic components. The interaction be-
bly fluid dynamics and electronics into tween these domains is a decisive factor
consideration. governing the function and performance
of the overall system. Simulation models
are required to review key design deci-
sions, especially in the early development
stages when there is no prototype avail-
able.

2 Model library for a micromechanical yaw-rate sensor

Microsystem

Mechanical Electro-
components mechanical
components

Rigid Elastic Comb-like Detection

bodies bodies structures electrodes

From From Bending Segment Undivided Divided From From

UAE0942-1E

segments segments beams of a circle stator comb stator comb segments segments
of a circle of a rectangle of a circle of a rectangle
 Basics of mechatronics Development methods 5

Basic issues can often be clarified by pro- However, an analysis of the typical compo-
ducing relatively simple models of the nents in mechatronic systems shows that
components. If more detail is required, they can be composed of a few simple ele-
more refined component models are ments specific to the domains. These stan-
needed. The detailed models focus mainly dard elements are, for example:
on a specific physical domain: • In the hydraulic system: throttle, valve
• This means that detailed hydraulic mod- or electric line
els of common rail injectors are avail- • In the electronic system: resistor, capac-
able, for example. These can be simu- itor or transistor
lated using special programs with nu- • In the mechanical system: ground with
meric calculation methods that are friction, transmission or clutch (or the
exactly tailored to hydraulic systems. equivalent for micromechanics)
Cavitation phenomena have to be taken
into consideration, among other things. The preferable solution is that these ele-
• Detailed models are also needed to de- ments should be stored in a central stan-
sign the power electronics that trigger dard model library that is also decentrally
the injector. Again, this involves the use accessible to product development. The
of simulation tools which must be devel- essence of the standard model library is
oped specifically to design electronic a documentation of all the standard ele-
circuits. ments. For each element, this comprises:
The development and simulation of the Description of physical behavior in
software that controls the high-pressure words
pump and the power electronics in the The physical equations, parameters
control unit with the aid of the sensor (e.g. conductivity or permeability),
signals also takes place using tools that state variables (e.g. current, voltage,
are specially designed for this area of magnetic flux, pressure) and
the overall system. The description of the associated inter-
faces
As the components in the overall system
interact with each other, it is not sufficient In addition, a major part of the environ-
to consider specific detailed models of the ment is a reference model written in a
components in isolation. The optimum so- modeling language that is independent
lution is also to take into account the mod- of the tool. Overall, the library includes
els of other system components. In most reference models from the mechanical,
cases, these components can be repre- hydraulic, electronic, electrodynamic
sented by simpler models. For example, and software areas.
the system simulation that is focussed on
the hydraulic components only requires
a simple model of the power electronics.

The application of various domain-specific

simulation tools during the development
of mechatronic systems is only efficient if
there is some sort of support for exchang-
ing models and parameters between the
simulation tools. The direct exchange of
models is highly problematic due to the
specific languages used for describing the
models of each of the tools.
6 Basics of mechatronics Development methods

V model depending on the technologies applied, for

The dependencies of the different product each of the associated domains (mechani-
development phases are illustrated in the cal engineering, hydraulics, fluid dynam-
“V model”: from requirement analysis to ics, electrics, electronics, and software).
development, implementation, testing and
system deployment. A project passes Recursions at each of the design levels
through three “top-down” levels during shorten the development stages signifi-
the development stage: cantly. Simulations, rapid prototyping, and
• Customer-specific functions simultaneous engineering are tools that al-
• Systems and low rapid verification, and they create the
• Components conditions for shortening product cycles.

A requirements specification (what) must Outlook

first be produced at each level in the form
of specifications. This results in the design The major driving force behind mecha-
specification, which is drawn up on the ba- tronics is continuous progress in the field
sis of design decisions (the actual creative of microelectronics. Mechatronics benefits
engineering work). The performance spec- from computer technology in the form of
ifications describe how a requirement can ever more powerful integrated computers
be met. The performance specs form the in standard applications. Accordingly,
basis for a model description which allows there is a huge potential for further in-
a review (i.e. validation) of the correctness creases in safety and convenience in
of each design stage together with previ- motor vehicles, accompanied by further
ously defined test cases. This procedure reductions in exhaust emissions and fuel
passes through each of three stages, and, consumption. On the other hand, new

3 Recursion method at one level

Deve

Requirement
specification (what) Tool-supported
test-case creation
lopm

Specifications Validation,
feasibility
ent p

Design decisions
(”creative engineering
work”)
roces

Model,
Test cases
prototype
s

(Virtual)
sample

Performance
specifications
Design
UAE0943-1E

specification (how)
 Basics of mechatronics Outlook 7

challenges are emerging with regard to The design approaches of mechatronic

the technical mastery of these systems. systems should strive toward continuity
However, future “X-by-wire” systems in several aspects:
without the mechanical/hydraulic fall- • Vertical:

back level must also provide the pre- “Top-down” from system simulation,
scribed functionality in the event of a with the objective of overall optimiza-
problem. The condition for their imple- tion, through to finite element simula-
mentation is a high-reliability and high- tion to achieve a detailed understanding,
availability mechatronic architecture and “bottom-up” design engineering
which requires a “simple” proof of safety. from component testing through to
This affects both single components as system testing
well as energy and signal transmissions. • Horizontal:

“Simultaneous engineering” across

As well as “X-by-wire” systems, driver-as- several disciplines in order to deal with
sistance systems and the associated man/ all product-related aspects at the same
machine interfaces represent another area time
in which the consistent implementation of • Beyond company boundaries:

mechatronic systems could achieve signifi- Step by step, the idea a “virtual sample”
cant progress for both users and vehicle is nearing our grasp
manufacturers.
Another challenge is training in order to
further an interdisciplinary mindset and
develop suitable SE processes and forms
of organization and communication.

4 V-model general overview

Product
Develo

Customer
n
Functio

wishes
Validation Test
Requirement
analysis Acceptance test
pment

Model Test
cases

System
requirement
proces

specifications
Validation Test
System

System design System test

Model, Test
System target prototype cases
s

specifications

Component
requirement
specifications
Validation Test
nts

Component design, Component test

development Model, Test
ne

prototypes cases
Compo

Component
UAE0944-1E

target
specifications

Component manufacture
8 Architecture Overview

"SDIJUFDUVSF

Over the last three decades, tremendous Overview

progress has been made in automotive
engineering. Modern injection and ex- History
haust-gas treatment systems drastically The on-board electrical network of a car
reduced pollutants in the exhaust gas, around the year 1950 comprised approx.
while occupant-protection and vehicle 40 lines. Essentially, cables were only re-
stabilization systems improved safety quired for the battery, starter, ignition and
on the road. Much of this success is due the lighting and signaling systems.
to the introduction of electronically-con- With the first electronic injection and
trolled systems. The proportion of these ignition systems, cabling complexity began
systems used in cars increased continu- to increase fast. Sensors fitted in the en-
ously. The requirements of safety and gine compartment (e.g. speed sensor,
environmental compatibility, but also engine-temperature sensor) had to deliver
the demand for comfort and convenience signals to the engine control unit, while
functions, will increase yet further and the fuel injectors required their triggering
this will in no small part be achieved signals from the electronic control unit.
through the use of electronics. Up to A further increase in cabling complexity
around 90 % of innovations in the motor resulted from the introduction and rapid
vehicle will be realized by electronics widespread adoption of the antilock brake
and microprocessor-controlled systems. system (ABS). Meanwhile, comfort and
The networking of these electronics cre- convenience systems, e.g. electrical power-
ates the prerequisite for having this wide window units, would also form part of the
variety of electronic systems integrated standard equipment. All these systems re-
within the complete vehicle system to quire additional connecting lines for the
form a whole. However, this results in connection of sensors, control elements
a complexity that can only be overcome and actuators to the control unit.
at considerable expense.

1 Proportion of electrics/electronics in the motor vehicle

Automobile 2000 Automobile 2010

100%
Electronics Electronics Electronics Electronics Electronics Electronics
80%
Hydraulics Pneumatics
Hydraulics Electronics Hydraulics Elec- Elec-
60% Pneumatics Hydraulics tronics tronics

40%
Mechanics Mechanics Mechanics
Mechanics Mechanics Mechanics
20% Mecha- Mecha-
Mechanics
nics nics
0%
40% 30% 22% 8% 30% 30% 25% 7% 8%
Driving Safety Con- Info- Driving Safety Con- Info- Commun-
and braking venience tainment and braking venience tainment ication/
navigation
Fig. 1
SVA0032E

Source:
Proportion of electrics/electronics, Proportion of electronics,
approx. 22% approx. 35%
Mercer management
consulting

K. Reif (Ed.), Automotive Mechatronics, Bosch Professional Automotive Information,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03975-2_2, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2015
 Architecture Overview 9

Technology of the present day shorten, the airbag and seat-belt preten-
In the 1990s the cabling work in a luxury sioners are set to emergency standby.
class vehicle amounted to around 3 km. The communication between the elec-
This figure clearly demonstrates how tronic control units cannot take more than
complex the vehicle system has become. fractions of a second. The more electronic
The growth of the proportion of electron- control units interact in the one complete
ics in the motor vehicle (Fig. 1) can mainly system, the more difficult it becomes for
be attributed to the growth in microelec- them to communicate undisturbed.
tronics and sensor technology. With the number of electronic control
At first, many of the new systems were units and the associated need for mutual
integrated into the vehicle by means of communication, the costs of developing
their own dedicated electronic control the systems rose as did the adaptation
unit. For the most part, the individual costs for making interfaces compatible.
electronic control units operated in mutual With the CAN bus (Controller Area Net-
independence. All the same, connecting work) developed by Bosch, a powerful and
lines became increasingly necessary be- widely used data bus system has become
tween electronic control units to enable commonplace in vehicles for the first time.
the exchange of data by means of PWM The data line of the CAN bus makes it pos-
signals, for example. Depending on the sible for the electronic control units to
vehicle class, there are between 20 and exchange specific and relevant items of
80 electronic control units fitted in today’s information with each other. At the start,
vehicles. They control such equipment as the network only comprised a few elec-
the engine, antilock brake system or the tronic control units, such as the engine-
airbags. The number of microcontrollers management system, the electronic stabil-
in the vehicle has therefore risen continu- ity program and the transmission control.
ously in recent years (Fig. 2). Gradually, further systems would expand
The components of the individual sys- this network, especially in the areas of
tems are optimally matched to each other. comfort and convenience and infotain-
The systems may originate from different ment. The CAN bus has gradually evolved
manufacturers that use previously agreed, into the standard for networking systems
albeit still their own, interfaces. The rain in the motor vehicle. Today it is the stan-
sensor, for example, “speaks” in a different dard for communication between elec-
way to the sensors for the engine manage-
ment. The following example demon- 2 Number of microcontrollers in the motor vehicle

strates just how networked the functions

150
in a modern vehicle are: the radar sensor 140
of the adaptive cruise control system 130
(ACC) measures the distance to the vehicle 120
Number of microcontrollers

110
traveling in front. If this distance is shorter
100
than a specified minimum distance, the 90
ACC electronic control unit sends this in- 80
formation to the engine management, the 70
60
ESP electronic control unit and the airbag
50
electronic control unit. The engine man- 40
agement reduces torque and thus driving 30
speed. If this is not sufficient, the elec- 20
SVA0033E

10
tronic stability program (ESP) must also
0
generate brake pressure to decelerate 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
the vehicle. If the distance continues to
10 Architecture Overview

tronic control units within different areas objectives simultaneously, development

of the electronics (drivetrain, suspension, partners are more frequently tapping into
body electronics and infotainment) and resources that are already available in sub-
forms a powerful backbone for networking systems. These can be sensors or actuators
these areas with each other. Additional bus as well as realized functions that are avail-
systems (e.g. LIN bus, MOST bus) are used able to different systems over the commu-
as subbuses or for transmitting at high nications network. For new systems and
data rates with comparatively low realtime functions, manufacturers strive to get by
requirements in the motor vehicle. on a minimum of additional resources.
In the meantime, engineers are faced with
Development trends a new challenge in the form of "networked"
The proportion of electrics and electronics thinking and subsystem integration, espe-
in the motor vehicle will continue to in- cially when the assemblies for the subsys-
crease. In the drivetrain, the number of tems originate from different development
components in the exhaust line (e.g. ex- partners (suppliers).
haust-gas sensors) is increasing due to Complaints in the field (i.e. with series-
stricter exhaust-emissions legislation. production vehicles) due to electrical or
While the demands for reductions in fuel electronic failures could be the conse-
consumption can, for example, be fulfilled quence of not having taken the interac-
by means of new valve-gear concepts, even tions of the subsystems into consideration.
this requires additional electronic compo- The causes – unmanageable behavior of
nents. A further increase in the proportion functionality spread among networked
of electronics results mainly from the systems, and their integration – are avoid-
growth of electronic systems in the areas able through the logical application of cer-
of safety, comfort and convenience, and tified development processes as early as
infotainment. in the specification phase. Furthermore,
modeling and tools for authoring a formal
Objectives description of architectures are gaining
Drivers demand a high level of reliability ever more in importance.
from a car. The vehicle manufacturer and
the supplier of assemblies, meanwhile, Broadened requirements for a complete
are constrained by other requirements motor vehicle system in the future are
such as minimization of manufacturing leading to increased networking of vehicle
costs, space restrictions and the weight components and subsystems. In this re-
of components. An opportunity to fulfill gard, new functions are being developed
these requirements in the face of the in- that go beyond the frontiers of traditional
creasing complexity of the “vehicle” sys- applications – and this is without addi-
tem is seen in the shift of the traditional tional expenditure on hardware wherever
implementation technologies of mechan- possible.
ics, hydraulics and electrics towards New development methods and technol-
microprocessor-controlled, electronic ogies are required to make this achievable.
systems. For this reason, the development With a top-down approach, new functions
of software will continue to gain in impor- are viewed from the perspective of the
tance in future. complete vehicle. This means that, in ac-
The current situation in the electrical cordance with the method of systems engi-
and electronic architecture of motor vehi- neering, functional requirements and non-
cles is characterized by an increase in functional requirements (e.g. quality ob-
functionality and an increasingly strained jectives, safety, costs, etc.) are set for the
costs situation. To achieve both of these vehicle as a whole and derived as specifi-
 Architecture Overview 11

cations for the subordinate subsystems. Vehicle system architecture

These requirements are formulated as a
model and can thus be used as a specifica- Architecture
tion for the subsystems and the creation The architecture of a system represents
of test cases. This is what is known as an its “construction plan”. It describes the
“executable specification”, which makes structural and dynamic system character-
it possible to prove the completeness and istics as a whole. The architecture is usu-
the traceability of the requirements, for ally specified in a description language.
example, or to identify the requirements Special draft mechanisms are used for
for interaction and communication be- specific requirements. With architecture
tween subsystems. In this way, it is possi- being a construction plan for different
ble to form an optimized architecture for realization technologies and a means of
the complete vehicle and its subsystems proving that functional and nonfunctional
and components. The functional relation- requirements have been fulfilled in the
ships between the complete motor vehicle system draft, different views of the system
system and the subordinate subsystems architecture are required. Examples of this
can be surveyed in different levels of detail include:
and suitable interfaces can be defined for • Hardware architecture
the functions. This approach supports an • Software architecture
expanding networking of functions. Syner- • Network architecture in the area of real-
gies are exploited between vehicle areas ization technologies
(domains such as the drivetrain, interior, • Cost and resource consumption in the
infotainment) that were hitherto consid- area of economical analysis and
ered in isolation and resources are spared. • For the area of social requirements,
As an element of the development pro- aspects such as safety, availability and
cess that works in the opposite direction, legal conformity
the generation of new functions from avail-
able resources and existing systems (bot- The problems that arise in the integration
tom up) should also be taken into consid- of differently structured subsystems can
eration to minimize innovation risks. be reduced by means of an architecture.
This is how new functions are integrated
into existing systems, for example. Exam- Functional structure
ples of this approach are measures to avert The domain of vehicle motion has the task
the consequences of an accident by “pre- of ensuring the controlled movement of
paring” subsystems for an imminent crash the vehicle as well as its directional stabil-
(closing windows, closing the sliding sun- ity. This task can be subdivided into vari-
roof, activating the airbag, etc.) or the as- ous levels (Fig. 3).
sistance of the driver in emergency brak- The navigation level is home to the plan-
ing situations in ESP in future. In this way, ning tools for the driving route. These are
it is possible to reduce the number of elec- merely informational in nature and have
tronic control units and counteract rising no interventional influence on vehicle
system costs. motion.
The development process described At vehicle guidance level, the decisions
characterizes the CARTRONIC® concept of the driver are implemented by means of
that Bosch developed in the 1980s. the steering wheel and accelerator pedal
The results of this concept are being but also various assistance systems for ve-
incorporated into the Autosar Initiative hicle handling (e.g. ACC, course stability
(see Autosar Initiative)
12 Architecture Vehicle system architecture

systems). At this level, the driver is able functional component represents the tasks
to overrule the assistance systems at any of the navigation level, which are to inform
time. the driver of the driving route determined
At the stability level, there are the sub- by means of a mapping system (Fig. 3).
systems that are able to correct the deci- Vehicle guidance represents the guidance
sions taken at handling level if these hap- level, and stability intervention the tasks
pen to be outside the range of safe refer- of the stabilization level. The vehicle mo-
ence variables (e.g. ABS, ESP). This may tion coordinator determines the correcting
be the case when cornering or on wet road variables for the actuators, e.g. of the
surfaces, for example. drive and electronic stability program
At stabilization level, correcting vari- (ESP), from the information input by
ables for implementation by the vehicle’s vehicle guidance and stability interven-
actuators are determined. Information tion.
about the environment (e.g. road condi- Figure 4 shows how the functional com-
tion, air temperature, rain sensor signal) ponents of guidance level, stabilization
is still required at the various levels for level and vehicle actuators are related in
the implementation of the relevant tasks. a hierarchical structure within vehicle
These tasks can be assigned to func- motion. Communication relationships
tional components, which are the architec- between the components and interactions
tural elements of the functional architec- with other domains, e.g. body and interior,
ture. In this way, the driver information are also featured in the model.

3 Levels in the vehicle motion domain

Environment Driving and assistance

systems
Navigation level
Road network
Driver information

Calculated distance

Road layout Guidance level

Traffic regulations
Vehicle guidance

Vehicle guidance data Vehicle

Road conditions
Stability level Actuators
Vehicle condition
Vehicle motion $
ive
coordinator
$
e
$
ing
View Stability
Weather conditions intervention $

SVA0034E

Vehicle motion
 13
Architecture Vehicle system architecture

In the same way as Vehicle motion is Systematic creation of EE system

refined, these functional components architectures
require further detailing until the refined The increasing amount of networking in
components represent manageable, traditional vehicle domains for the realiza-
clearly delimited tasks that make flexible, tion of new functions can be illustrated
modular implementation possible through using the ACC (Adaptive Cruise Control)
different realization technologies. Defined driver-assistance system as an example.
interfaces between the components enable Adaptive, same-lane driving is made possi-
communication and the exchange of data. ble by the networking of a combined
For example, the transmission control cruise and distance control system with
issues a request through the engine-man- the engine-management system, brake sys-
agement system for a specific reduction tem, transmission and cockpit. Here, sub-
in torque during a gearshift. This value is systems from the drivetrain, chassis and
exchanged as a physical variable via the infotainment (interaction with the driver)
interface. domains are used to realize the new func-
With its integration into a suitable pro- tion with minimal cost.
cedural model, the functional structure is The decision as to whether a function
the starting point for subsequent stages in (e.g. ACC) is realized in a dedicated logic
the development process. close to the sensor or in one of the exist-
ing, subscriber electronic control units
has no bearing on the function itself.

4 Example of a functional structure for the vehicle motion domain

Vehicle motion
Vehicle guidance

Acceleration
requirement

Steering angle

Vehicle motion coordinator

Brake torque
Drive torque Steering angle
Steering angle

Drive Brake Steering Chassis Stability intervention

Stop lamp
SVA0035E

Body, interior
14 Architecture Vehicle system architecture

Rather, the decision is affected by non- ization stages. This required a decoupled
functional requirements such as safety, development process and the exploitation
availability, costs or resource availability. of synergies between subsystems. The de-
In addition to the functional requirements, velopment frameworks took into consider-
these requirements mainly determine how ation the dependencies and interface con-
the function is realized. The “how” is de- tents within the individual domains and
scribed by the architecture of the system. with the rest of the vehicle, as is the case
Different requirements result in different with a networked system such as ACC,
system architectures. for example.

CARTRONIC® concept Bosch introduced this concept to the Auto-

With the CARTRONIC® architecture con- sar Initiative (Workpackage 10.x).
cept, all closed and open-loop control
tasks in the vehicle have been structured Software architecture
in accordance with logical, functional The independence of the functional struc-
viewpoints and modeled in the form of ture, or architecture, from the later real-
a functional architecture. Delimited func- ization stage results in a decoupling of
tions (and their dependencies) that imple- functionality and technology and thus
ment specific functional requirements forms the first stage of a model-based
have been represented by defined archi- development process. The functional
tectural elements. The functional struc- structure can be used on several occasions
ture, i.e. the structural description, repre- and expanded as the foundation for draft-
sented a hierarchical decomposition of ing system architectures. This architecture
the subsystems down to manageable size. is characterized by architecture drivers
Interactions between elements of the func- (specific criteria of the architecture) that
tional structure have been described by are essentially the product of nonfunc-
communication relationships. Since the tional requirements (e.g. costs, quality,
use of the architecture concept could have reusability, relocatability).
led to different functional structures, Further precision of the development
it was essential to reach agreement on frameworks devised from the functional
the tasks and interfaces. It was necessary structure, and of their interfaces in partic-
to choose interfaces that were based on ular, is required if it is to be possible to
physical variables and thus supported evaluate an electronic control unit for the
aspects such as reusability and inter- relocatability of functions and the integra-
changeability. tion of software, which is a contribution
of various participants in the project.
The motor vehicle system with all its open While retaining the realization-indepen-
and closed-loop tasks was dismantled into dent information from the functional
subsystems that implement clearly defined structure – such as an agreed torque inter-
tasks. These subsystems include the en- face – the frameworks are supplemented
gine management, brake system, transmis- by realization-specific information such
sion control, ACC, lighting management, as data type, quantization, runtime prop-
etc. Different levels of functional structure erties or resource requirements.
detail can be assigned to the system and
subsystem levels (Fig. 5). It was therefore In the same way as hardware and disci-
possible to create development frame- plines such as mechanics or hydraulics,
works for selected functional components software can also be classified as a realiza-
and component groups on which to base tion technology. Product-line or platform
implementation in the form of partial real- approaches have long been a familiar
 15
Architecture Vehicle system architecture

feature of mechanical development or pro- Network architecture

duction optimization and their application With the spreading of open standards
is virtually universal. The trend towards such as the CAN bus, the integration of
software-based system solutions and im- functions into application-specific elec-
provements, in conjunction with the vastly tronic control units, and satellites linked
expanding software scopes of electronic by subnetworks, network architecture has
systems, has given rise to the demand for become the synonym for the complexity
this strategy to also be transferred to soft- management of distributed systems.
ware-intensive systems. Extensions and “attachment solutions”
The decisive challenge faced today is are easily integrated until the limits of
less to do with technical feasibility but network capacity are reached. If these
more about how to develop methods fur- possibilities were to be exploited without
ther and apply already developed methods checking the system draft, this would
and processes in product developments result in unmanageable increases in com-
in a systematic and disciplined way, and plexities and integration conflicts. Biologi-
to anchor them within the organization. cal systems solve these unmanageable
The product-line approach in software de- complexities through specialization and
velopment was transferred to the motor the creation of subnetworks with new
vehicle domain with the participation of forms of organization. Their objectives
Bosch with methodological support from are stability and the ability to survive.
the software engineering institute (SEI). This model has, to a certain extent,
The method will be used systematically evolved on its own in motor vehicle sys-
in future Bosch product generations. tems through assignment to traditional

5 Functional architecture

System level

Subsystem
level

Hardware Software
architecture architecture

Network architecture
SVA0036E
16 Architecture Vehicle system architecture

fields of application or domains and the reliability are fulfilled by the multiple use
comparatively slow growth of networking of proven standards. Autosar concerns
within these domains. itself with all vehicle domains.
Based on the uniform electronics plat-
Bus systems for the individual domains are form, which primarily consists of standard
becoming more specialized due to their software modules, each vehicle manufac-
plainly different requirements. With the turer is then free to build its own specific
CAN in the drivetrain as the point of ori- content. They enable integration into the
gin, new bus systems such as the LIN sub- electronics network. These software func-
bus have begun to infiltrate the area of tions permit differentiation between the
body electronics or FlexRay in the case of competition.
safety-relevant x-by-wire systems. In the Not only does software have to conform
multimedia field, where demands for high to the Autosar standard. The electronic
data rates but low safety requirements control units must be built in such a way
prevail, bus systems such as Bluetooth that the Autosar software is able to run on
have started to make an appearance. them. The Autosar members are hoping
Breaking through these traditional do- that the new development methods yield
mains with ever more applications leads such benefits as shorter development
to known consequences, e.g. dramatic in- times and lower development costs.
crease in complexity, high start-up costs,
increasing integration times and costs, and Until now, it was often the case that dedi-
more demanding work in customer service cated electronic control units would be
as a consequence of diagnostics no longer developed and fitted for new functions
being manageable. A solution for these (e.g. electronic transmission control,
multidimensional optimization tasks has in antilock brake system, air conditioning).
the past been sought in the software field. The number of electronic control units
In the case of technical systems in particu- fitted in the vehicle grew continuously;
lar, the paradigm is still king, especially in today’s generation of vehicles are
software realizations, because the absence equipped with between 20 and 80 elec-
of physical boundaries supports unlimited tronic control units. In future vehicle gen-
growth. erations, it is intended that all functions
be covered by a network of 10 to 20 elec-
Autosar Initiative tronic control units. Some of these will
The Autosar Initiative (AUTomotive Open function a little like main computers that
Systems ARchitecture) was founded in will bundle the important function groups
July 2003 by several vehicle manufacturers together. These include the drivetrain,
and suppliers – Bosch among them. Their suspension management system, body
global objective is the joint development and interior and the multimedia/telematics
of an open system architecture for future domain. On data buses, sensors with inte-
automotive applications. The aims of the grated electronics output processed and
partnership include the standardization verified signals, while the buses carry the
of fundamental system functions (basic relevant control commands to actuators
software) and function interfaces; they with integrated triggering electronics.
will replace the company-specific, individ- In future, new functions will often be
ual solutions used to date. Model-based able to use the existing computer architec-
concepts and methods ought to reduce ture up to its performance limit and will
complexity in spite of an expanding range be widely realized in the form of a soft-
of functions. The demands for quality and ware add-on. This would therefore render
 17
Architecture Vehicle system architecture

unnecessary the additional electronic con- Outlook

trol unit that would have been required Increasingly greater demands for safety,
today. The system only needs to be supple- reliability and availability are being placed
mented by the sensors and actuators re- on the network architecture of modern
quired. vehicles. This is where energy network
architecture will play a key role. In the
Software will no longer be an inevitable face of vehicle functions increasingly be-
component of hardware, but will increas- ing realized electronically, this architec-
ingly become a stand-alone product. ture makes for a reliable supply of power
The first examples of business and col- to systems and thus forms the basis for
laborative models between supplier and the reliability and safety of future systems.
manufacturer have already been put into One possible future technology is the
practice at Bosch, e.g. in drivetrain man- transmission of power and information
agement. on the supply line. The following benefits
arise from the powerline communication
Examples (PLC) concept used in the public grid:
Individually-controlled drive components • Weight and cost reductions as well as
at each of the wheels with different wheel space savings from the discontinuation
positions and wheel loads permit optimum of data lines
use of tire force potential. This results in • Easier retrofitting for retrofit systems
increased driving dynamics and safety (spare parts trade)
while at the same time reducing consump- • Reduction in complexity of the wiring
tion, wear and emissions. For this to be harness in respect of manufacture and
possible, all active elements in the drive- installation
train, suspension and steering must be • Increase in system safety, especially in
networked. mechanically stressed zones (e.g. door,
One example of superordinate functions mirror) that are characterized by pre-
realized by networking is the ASIS (Active mature aging of lines and increased risk
Shift Strategy) drive strategy for automatic of failure
transmissions in passenger cars. Based on • Powerline as a redundancy path for sys-
the evaluation of various control elements tems relevant to safety
(e.g. accelerator pedal) and conclusions • Simultaneous, or parallel, implementa-
drawn from the information of other sys- tion of several bus systems or services,
tems (e.g. cornering detection from the e.g. diagnostics
wheel speeds), this strategy is able to con-
trol the gearshift in such a way as to meet
the driver’s real-time demand for agility
and power through selection of the appro-
priate gear. In future, the telematics will
be able to support additional, improved
driving strategies, e.g. through the use
of GPS signals for transmission control
in terms of predictive driving.
18 Electronic control unit Operating conditions, design, data processing

&MFDUSPOJD
DPOUSPM
VOJU

Digital technology furnishes an extensive Design

array of options for open and closed-loop
control of automotive electronic systems. The printed circuit board with the electri-
A large number of parameters can be in- cal components (Fig. 1) is installed in a
cluded in the process to support optimal housing of plastic or metal. A multiple
operation of various systems. The control plug connects the control unit to the sen-
unit receives the electrical signals from sors, actuators and electrical power sup-
the sensors, evaluates them, and then ply. The high-performance driver circuits
calculates the triggering signals for the that provide direct control of the actuators
actuators. The control program, the are specially integrated within the housing
“software”, is stored in a special memory to ensure effective heat transfer to the
and implemented by a microcontroller. housing and the surrounding air.
The control unit and its components are The majority of the electrical compo-
referred to as hardware. The Motronic nents are of the surface-mounted device
control unit contains all of the algo- technology type. This concept provides
rithms for open and closed-loop control extremely efficient use of space in low-
needed to govern the engine-manage- weight packages. Only a few power com-
ment processes (ignition, induction and ponents and the connectors use push-
mixture formation, etc.). through assembly technology.

Operating conditions Hybrid versions combining compact

dimensions with extreme resistance to
The control unit is subjected to very thermal attack are available for mounting
high demands with respect to directly on the engine.
• Extreme ambient temperatures
(in normal vehicle operation from Data processing
–40 to +60...+125 °C)
• Extreme temperature changes Input signals
• Indirect materials and supplies In their role as peripheral components,
(oil, fuel etc.) the actuators and the sensors represent
• The effects of moisture and the interface between the vehicle and the
• Mechanical stress such as vibration control unit in its role as the processing
from the engine unit. The electrical signals of the sensors
are routed to the control unit via a wiring
The control unit must operate reliably harness and the connector plug. These sig-
when the vehicle is started with a weak nals can be of the following type:
battery (e.g. cold start) and with high
charge voltages (vehicle electrical system Analog input signals
fluctuations). Within a given range, analog input signals
can assume practically any voltage value.
Other requirements arise from the need Examples of physical quantities which
for EMC (ElectroMagnetic Compatibility). are available as analog measured values
The requirements regarding immunity to are intake-air mass, battery voltage, in-
electromagnetic interference and limita- take-manifold and boost pressure, coolant
tion of high-frequency interference signal and intake-air temperature. They are con-
emission are extremely stringent. verted into digital values by an analog-
digital converter in the microcontroller

K. Reif (Ed.), Automotive Mechatronics, Bosch Professional Automotive Information,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03975-2_3, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2015
 Electronic control unit Data processing 19

of the control unit and used for calcula- Signal conditioning

tions by the microcontroller CPU. The Protective circuits limit the voltages of in-
maximum resolution of these analog sig- put signals to levels suitable for process-
nals is 5 mV. This translates into roughly ing. Filters separate the useful signal from
1,000 incremental graduations based on most interference signals. When neces-
an overall measuring range of 0 to 5 V. sary, the signals are then amplified to the
input voltage required by the microcon-
Digital input signals troller (0 to 5 V).
Digital input signals only have two states. Signal conditioning can take place com-
They are either “high” or “low” (logical 1 pletely or partially in the sensor depend-
and logical 0 respectively). Examples of ing upon the sensor’s level of integration.
digital input signals are on/off switching
signals, or digital sensor signals such as Signal processing
the rotational-speed pulses from a Hall The control unit is the switching center
generator or a magnetoresistive sensor. governing all of the functions and se-
Such signals are processed directly by quences regulated by the engine-manage-
the microcontroller. ment system. The closed and open-loop
control functions are executed in the mi-
Pulse-type input signals crocontroller. The input signals that are
The pulse-shaped input signals from provided by the sensors and the interfaces
inductive-type sensors containing infor- to other systems (such as the CAN bus) are
mation on rotational speed and reference used as input variables. and are subjected
mark are conditioned in their own control to a further plausibility check in the com-
unit stage. Here, spurious pulses are sup- puter. The control unit program supports
pressed and the pulse-shaped signals generation of the output signals used to
converted into digital rectangular signals. control the actuators.

1 Design of a control unit using the example of an ME Motronic (sectional view through housing cover)
UAE0992Y
20 Electronic control unit Data processing

Output signals Control unit-internal communication

The microcontroller uses the output sig- In order to be able to support the micro-
nals to control output stages that usually controller in its work, the peripheral
provide enough power for connecting the components must communicate with it.
actuators directly. It is also possible to ac- This takes place using an address/data
tuate certain output stage relays for con- bus which, The microcontroller outputs
sumers that use up a great deal of power the RAM address whose contents are to
(e.g. motor fans). be read (for example) via the address bus.
The output stages are proof against The data bus is then used to transmit the
short circuits to ground or battery voltage, relevant data. For former automotive ap-
as well as against destruction due to elec- plications, an 8-bit bus topology sufficed.
trical or thermal overload. Such malfunc- This meant that the data bus comprised
tions, together with open-circuit lines or 8 lines which together could transmit
sensor faults are identified by the output- 256 values simultaneously. 65,536 ad-
stage IC as an error and reported to the dresses can be accessed using the 16-bit
microcontroller. address bus in this system. Presently,
more complex systems demand 16 bits,
Switching signals or even 32 bits, for the data bus. In order
Actuators can be switched on and off using to save on pins at the components, the data
the switching signals (e.g. motor fans). and address buses can be combined in a
multiplex system, i.e. addresses and data
PWM signals are dispatched through the same lines
Digital output signals can be in the form but offset from each other with respect
of PWM (Pulse-Width Modulated) signals. to time.
These are constant-frequency rectangular Serial interfaces with just a single data
signals with variable on-times (Fig. 2), line are used for data that does not have
Various actuators can be moved to various to transmitted extremely quickly (e.g. fault
operating positions using these signals memory data).
(e.g. exhaust-gas recirculation valve,
boost-pressure actuator). EOL programming
The extensive variety of vehicle variants
with differing control programs and data
records, makes it imperative to have a sys-
tem which reduces the number of control
2 PWM signals unit types needed by a given manufac-
turer. To this end, the Flash-EPROM’s com-
a plete memory area can be programmed
at the end of production with the program
b
and the variant-specific data record
(this is the so-called End-of-Line, or EoL,
programming).
Signal voltage

Another way of reducing the type

a diversity is to store several data variants
(e.g. transmission variants) in the memory,
b
which are then selected using coding at the
end of the production line. This coding is
UAE0738E

Fig. 2
a Period duration stored in an EEPROM.
(fixed or variable)
Time
b Variable on-time
 | Performance of electronic control units 21
Control unit

▶ Performance of electronic control units

The performance of electronic control units I/O facilities for timer-controlled signals and
goes hand-in-hand with advances achieved in an integrated analog-digital converter at the
the field of microelectronics. The first gasoline end of the 1980’s. It was then possible to cre-
injection systems were still analog – with lim- ate relatively powerful systems. Figure 3 shows
ited flexibility in the implementation of control a comparison between the performance of a
functions. These functions were constrained fuel-injection system (LH3.2) and an ignition
by the hardware. system (EZ129K) – equipped with 80C515
Progress advanced in quantum leaps with controllers – and that of the succeeding
the arrival of digital technology and the micro- Motronic systems. The ME7 has approximately
controller. The entire engine management sys- 40 times the performance capability of the
tem was taken over by the universally applica- LH/EZ combination with a clock frequency of
ble semiconductor microchip. The actual con- 40 MHz. With the benefit of a new generation
trol logic in microcontroller-controlled systems of microcontrollers and a further increase in
is in a programmable semiconductor memory. clock frequency on the ME9, this figure will
From systems that initially simply con- increase to a factor of well over 50.
trolled fuel injection, complex engine-manage- In the foreseeable future microcontrollers
ment systems were then developed. They con- will process more than just digital control se-
trolled not only fuel injection but also the quences. Signal processors are integrated that
ignition system including knock control, ex- can also directly process the signals provided
haust-gas recirculation and a whole variety by knock sensors, for example.
of other systems. This continuous process of
development is bound to continue in a similar Advances in the development of semiconduc-
vein over the next decade as well. The integra- tor memory chips are also worthy of note.
tion of functions and, above all, their complex- Complex control programs require an enor-
ity are constantly increasing. This pattern of mous amount of memory space. The capacity
development is only possible because the of memory chips at the start of the 1980s
microcontrollers used are also undergoing was still only 8 kilobytes. The ME7 now uses
a similar process of improvement. 1-megabyte chips and soon memory capacities
Microcontrollers in the Intel 8051 family of 2 megabytes will be required. Figure 3
were used quite some time until they were re- shows this pattern of development and likely
placed with 80515 derivatives with additional future trends.
Fig. 3
Chart illustrating
▶ Performance
3 Development of electronic control units capability of
engine-management
2,500

MPC555 56MHz systems

154

160
kB

kB
50

Flash: 2.5MB ME9.0

▶ Number of control
C167 40MHz
Connector pins (control unit)

136

unit connector pins

kB

ME7.0.1 Flash: 1MB

▶
1,024 kB

C167 24MHz Program memory

132
120

kB

ME7.0 Flash: 1MB capacity

20
Performance

C167 24MHz
ME7.0 ▶ Data memory
10

Flash: 512 kB
ROM

RAM

80C517A 16MHz
capacity (RAM)
M4.4.1
128 kB
4

Flash: 128 kB
86

80C517 15.8MHz
8 kB

M4.3 Flash: 64 kB
By way of comparison:
The performance
80535 12MHz
M1.8
55

capability of a state-
32 kB

EPROM: 32 kB
SMK1930E
0.5 kB

of-the-art engine-
1

80535 12MHz
LH3.2 + EZ129K
60

EPROM: 32 kB
management system
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 far exceeds that of
Apollo 13.
22 Electronic control unit Digital modules in the control unit

Digital modules in the In a microcomputer, however, the above-

control unit mentioned functions are integrated on a
silicon wafer (system-on-a-chip). This is
Microcontroller not functional on its own (standalone) and
Structure is therefore referred to as a single chip
A microcontroller consists of the following microcomputer.
interacting components (Fig. 1): The microcontroller is used to control
• Central processing unit (CPU): this con- self-regulating systems such as an engine-
tains the control unit and the arithmetic management system. Depending on the
and logic unit. The control unit executes application, they may also have expansion
the instructions from the program mem- modules connected to them (e.g. addi-
ory, whereas the arithmetic and logic tional memory for data and program
unit performs arithmetical and logical code).
operations. The user program is fixed and is not re-
• Input and output devices (I/O, Input/Out- placed for different applications. This is
put), which handle the exchange of data the difference between a microcontroller
with peripheral devices. Peripheral de- system, for example, and a PC.
vices include input and output devices
and external data storage media. Programming
• Program memory, in which the operating The only command form capable of direct
program (user program) is permanently interpretation by a microprocessor is a
stored (ROM, PROM, EPROM or flash bit pattern, i.e. the binary representation
EPROM). of a number. Since, however, this form of
• Data memory, which is accessed for instruction is not easy to work with for a
reading and writing (RAM). This con- programmer, and is therefore susceptible
tains the data that is currently being to errors, easily memorable abbreviations
processed. Non-volatile memory (mnemonics) are used. These are automat-
(EEPROM) is used for data that must ically translated by an assembler program
not be deleted when the supply voltage into bit patterns (machine code) that can
is switched off. be understood by the microprocessor.
• The bus system connects the individual For more complex systems and pro-
elements of the microcontroller. grams, high-level programming languages
• A clock generator (oscillator) ensures such as C are needed, as otherwise it would
that all operations in the microcon- be impossible to keep extensive programs
troller take place within a defined timing manageable and free of errors. Such lan-
pattern. guages require sophisticated translation
• Logic circuits are modules with special- programs (compilers) which convert the
ized tasks such as program interrupts. text of the high-level language into a form
They are integrated in individual that can be processed by the microcon-
I/O units. troller.
The machine code is stored in the
The chief components of a microcomputer program memory, where it remains
are generally separate modules connected permanently. The CPU accesses these
to one another on a printed-circuit board. components via the bus system, reads
The microprocessor within such as system the numerically coded commands and
– the CPU – is not functional on its own: executes then.
it is always part of a microcomputer.
 1
Microcomputer

Microprocessor Data memory Program memory Data memory

Central processing unit (user memory) Read-only memory Non-volatile read/

Microcontroller
(CPU) Volatile read/write (ROM, EPROM, write memory
memory (RAM) flash EPROM) (EEPROM)
for variable data For programs and
Arithmetic and logic unit permanent data records
(ALU) Memory capacity
4-, 8-, 16-, 32-bit Memory capacity Memory capacity 32 bytes to
64 bytes to 32 kbytes 2 kbytes to 512 kbytes 1 kbyte

Clock Bus 4-, 8-, 16-, 32-bit data circuit

generator
(oscillator)

I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O

Interrupt Event Signal acquisition Analog/ Digital Serial Bus
controller counter and output with digital inputs/ interface controller
time reference (A/D) outputs
converter (I/O) (UART,

…
(Timer, time SPI,
processing unit, CAN)
Electronic control unit

input capture,
output-compare
register)
Communication
Monitoring Resolution Resolution with external
circuit 50 ns 8 to 10 bit Data rate chips via
(watchdog) Counter Time range 4 to 32 8 to 32 200 bit/s to address/
8 to 64 bit 50 ns to 1s channels channels 1 Mbit/s data bus

… … … … … …
UAE0454-1E
Digital modules in the control unit
23
24 Electronic control unit Digital modules in the control unit

Semiconductor memories Memory modules are organized on a bit or

Applications word basis, depending on the application.
Memories are used to store large volumes A “word” is a group of bits that can be pro-
of cessed as a single unit. The word length is
• Digital signals representing data equal to the number of bits processed as
(I/O data, statuses, intermediate results a single unit. Eight bits are referred to as
involving frequent and rapid reading a byte.
and writing) Memories can be organized on the basis
• Program code (usually permanently of different word lengths. An 8 M x 8-RAM,
stored) and for example, has a memory capacity of
• Constants (permanently stored) 8 million times 8 bits (64 Mbits). The data
is organized into bytes (8 bits), making the
Storage involves memory capacity 8 Mbytes.
• Recording (writing)
• Permanent retention (actual storage) Word lengths of 4, 8, 16 and 32 bits are
and common in microcontroller systems.
• Location and retrieval (reading) of The word length is one of the factors that
information determines the performance capability of
the system. The word length that is used
Memories utilize physical effects that depends on the performance capability
clearly and easily create and show two requirements of the system.
different states (e.g. conducting/non-con-
ducting or loaded/not loaded). The infor- The most important terms are explained
mation that is to be stored must therefore below according to their standardized def-
exist in binary form, i.e. encoded as a initions, where applicable, or their most
series of “yes or no” statuses (logical “1” common usage (see Figure 2 for overview).
or logical “0”). Such a “yes or no” unit of
information is called a bit (binary digit).

2 Overview of semiconductor memories

Semiconductor memories

Non-volatile memories Volatile memories

Factory programmed User programmed

Programmable
on a program- Programmable Static Dynamic
in the circuit memories memories
ming device

UV Electrically
Read-only erasable erasable
UAE0465-1E

ROM PROM EPROM Flash EEPROM SRAM DRAM

Read- Program- Erasable EEPROM Electrically Static Dynamic
only mable read- PROM erasable RAM RAM
memory only memory PROM
 Electronic control unit Digital modules in the control unit 25

Random-access memory (RAM) Erasable ROM

Random-access memory or RAM is a There are also ROMs whose contents can
short-term memory that allows direct ac- be erased and reprogrammed as outlined
cess to any storage location. Information below.
can be read/written from/to the memory
any number of times. EPROM (Erasable PROM)
This type of erasable read-only memory
Static RAM (SRAM) can have its contents completely wiped
Static RAMs use bistable switching ele- by irradiation with UV light and can then
ments as the data storage cells. Their func- be reprogrammed using a programming
tionality is similar to that of a flip-flop, device.
a simple circuit with two transistors, of
which either the one (logical “1”) or the EEPROM (Electrical EPROM)
other (logical “0”) conducts at any one The EEPROM (also known as E2PROM) can
time. In SRAM, the information remains be electrically erased and reprogrammed.
stored until the storage cell concerned Every storage cell of an EEPROM be indi-
is addressed and overwritten, or the vidually overwritten. For that reason,
operating voltage is switched off. this type of memory module can also
SRAM is therefore volatile memory. be used as nonvolatile data memory
(e.g. for learned information in engine
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) management systems).
Unlike SRAM, the information is stored
as an electrical charge in the gate capacity Flash EEPROM
of a CMOS transistor in dynamic RAM A more sophisticated variant of the
(DRAM). As such capacitors are suscepti- EPROM and EEPROM is flash EEPROM.
ble to leakage, the charge is gradually lost. In this case, electrical flash pulses are used
In order to retain the information, the to erase specific storage areas or the entire
charge has to be refreshed at regular contents of the memory. The erased areas
intervals (every few ms). can subsequently be reprogrammed.
The flash memory can be reprogrammed
Read-only memory on a programming station. However, the
Read-only memory (ROM) is permanent- advantage of flash EEPROM is that is can
storage memory that allows any memory also be reprogrammed while still inside
location to be accessed directly but – as the the sealed control unit.
name indicates – allows the information Flash EEPROM is used in cases where
only to be read and not modified. relatively large quantities of data need
A ROM is nonvolatile memory, i.e. the to be stored, but must also be modifiable
information it contains is retained even (e.g. program memory in vehicle control
when the operating voltage is switched off. units).
It is usually used to store program code
(control programs) and fixed data (func-
tion tables, encoding rules, engine charac-
teristic data maps) that need to be retriev-
able at any time. The information may
be indelibly entered in the memory by
the manufacturer or the user by means
of appropriate programming of specially
prepared memories (PROMs or program-
mable ROMs).
26 Electronic control unit Control unit software

Control unit software execute the command depends on the

microcontroller that is used and the clock
Real-time capability frequency. The microcontrollers that are
One of the requirements on electronic sys- currently used in vehicles can execute up
tems is real-time capability. This means to 1 million commands per second.
that control procedures must react to in- Because of the limited speed at which
put signals within an extremely short time. the program can be executed, a software
For example, a wheel that has a tendency structure with which time-critical func-
to lock must be detected so quickly that tions can be processed with high priority
the ABS control algorithm in the control is required.
unit can reduce the brake pressure via The engine-management program has
the hydraulic modulator quickly enough. to react extremely quickly to signals from
Brake slip is therefore reduced before the speed sensor, which records the en-
the wheel can lock. Engine management gine speed and the crankshaft position.
systems make considerable real-time ca- These signals arrive at short intervals that
pability demands so that crankshaft angles can be a matter of milliseconds, depending
can be adhered to with extreme accuracy on the engine speed. The control unit pro-
at fast engine speeds for injection and igni- gram has to evaluate these signals with
tion timing purposes. high priority. Other functions such as
The complexity of an electronic system reading in the engine temperature are not
therefore makes extremely high demands as urgent, since the physical variable only
of the software that is developed. The soft- changes extremely slowly in this case.
ware structure is explained below on the
basis of an example. Interrupt control
As soon as an event occurs that requires
Software structure an extremely rapid response (e.g. speed
The microcontroller in the control unit ex- sensor pulse), the program that is cur-
ecutes commands sequentially. The com- rently running must be interrupted. This
mand code is obtained from the program can be done using the microcontroller’s
memory. The time taken to read in and interrupt control facility. Events can trig-
ger a program execution interrupt, where-
upon the program jumps and executes
1 CPU power distribution principle the “interrupt routine”. When this routine
has been executed, the program resumes
Tooth at the point at which it was interrupted
interrupt
(Fig. 1).
An interrupt can be triggered by an ex-
Synchro
interrupt ternal signal, for example. Other interrupt
sources are timers integrated in the micro-
Ignition controller, with which timed output signals
interrupt can be generated (e.g. ignition signal:
microcontroller ignition output is switched
at a point in time that is calculated before-
Time frame
hand). However, the timer can also gener-
ate internal time frames.
Fig. 1 Background
Depiction of several program
SAE1003E

program levels on the Time t

example of the software
from a Motronic system
 Electronic control unit Control unit software 27

The control unit program reacts to several to the speed sensor signal. For this pur-
of these interrupts. An interrupt source pose, the engine-speed signal is connected
can therefore request an interrupt while to a microcontroller interrupt input. Every
another interrupt routine is currently falling signal edge at this input interrupts
being executed. Every interrupt source the current calculations that are in prog-
therefore has a fixed priority assigned to ress and forces a branch to the interrupt
it. The priority controller decides which routine. After executing the commands in
interrupt is allowed to interrupt another the interrupt routine, the program contin-
interrupt. ues execution at its point of origin.
In order to perform certain operations
Tooth interrupt the control unit program requires the time
The crankshaft is equipped with a pulse taken for the crankshaft to travel between
wheel (Fig. 2a) that has a certain number one tooth and the next. This calculation is
of teeth on its circumference. The teeth performed by an internal timer. This is a
are scanned by the speed sensor. This freewheeling 16-bit counter (Fig. 3) that
allows the crankshaft position to be re- increments at a certain rate, depending on
corded. The typical distance between the microcontroller oscillator clock cycle.
a pair of teeth on the crankshaft sensor This time frame amounts to about 0.5 µs.
wheel is 6°. In order to determine the When the falling tooth flank occurs,
crankshaft position, the control unit pro- the current counter status is recorded.
gram must execute certain routines as The difference (and therefore the tooth
each tooth is detected. At 6,000 rpm the interval) is calculated using the stored
detection time between two teeth is ap- counter from the previous tooth.
proximately 300 µs. Every command in
these routines must be executed within Example: crankshaft position calculation
this time. This requires a rapid response The engine-management system (Motronic
for gasoline engines, EDC for diesel en-
gines) must know the crankshaft position
2 Crankshaft sensor ring with speed sensor at any given point in time. This is a pre-
requisite for injecting into the right cylin-
a
der at the right time and ensuring that ig-
nition takes place at the calculated ignition
angle (Motronic systems). In order to

3 Time calculations via internal timer

Counter status

Tn+1
Tn

Time t
Speed sensor
b
signal
Digital
signal

SAE1004E

SAE1005E

Tn: Counter status at tooth n Fig. 2

Tn+1: Counter status at tooth n+1 a Design
b Speed sensor signal
28 Electronic control unit Control unit software

detect the engine position and the engine Since the synchronization program runs
speed, the control unit evaluates the speed over several teeth at fast engine speeds,
sensor signal (Fig. 2b). it has to be interrupted by the tooth inter-
There is gap in the crankshaft sensor rupt. The tooth interrupt is given higher
wheel in which two teeth are missing. priority than the synchronization pro-
The tooth space has a defined position gram.
in relation to the top dead center (TDC) of
cylinder no. 1. The control unit program Ignition interrupt
has to synchronize itself with this tooth The ignition output takes place within a
space. This is done by measuring the times certain crankshaft range, depending on
between two consecutive falling tooth the value from the ignition map. Since the
flanks. The time for the tooth space is specified ignition angle has to be adhered
considerably greater than the time before to exactly, the ignition output is controlled
and after the gap. Following a “short – by an interrupt. Like the synchronization
long – short” sequence the last thing to program, the ignition interrupt is also
be scanned was the falling flank of the called up once per combustion cycle.
second tooth after the space. The control unit program is aware of the
The crankshaft has rotated by 6° for crankshaft position in the 6° framework.
each falling tooth flank that has been de- However, this framework is not accurate
tected by the control unit program. This is enough for ignition angle output. For this
how the control unit program knows the reason, accurate ignition output between
crankshaft position within this time frame. two teeth must take place as well as this
Since cylinder no. 1 is in the tooth space approximate counting for the last 0 to
position in the vicinity of top dead center 6 crankshaft degrees. This is done using
(TDC) or bottom dead center (BDC), an ad- a timer (Fig. 5). Ignition angle output that
ditional signal is required to determine the was purely timer-controller would lead
position. The camshaft sensor provides to an ignition angle output error at high
a different voltage level in both cases. engine speed dynamics.
The control unit is therefore able to Firstly, the ignition coil must be enabled
uniquely assign the crankshaft and for a defined time (the so-called dwell pe-
camshaft positions. riod). In order to do this, the program cal-
culates the switch-on time by calculating
Combustion-synchronous interrupt
Some calculations have to be performed 4 Triggering the interrupt synchronously with
for every combustion cycle. For example, combustion
the ignition angle and the injection have
to be recalculated synchronously with
combustion for each cylinder. The pro-
gram does this by branching to the “syn-
Start synchronization
chronization program” after certain teeth
program
(Fig. 4). This interrupt takes place after
every 30 teeth (ignition interval) for a four-
Tooth counter elapsed
cylinder engine, and after every 20 teeth Synchronization program triggered
for a six-cylinder engine.
The synchronization program is fixed to Second tooth after the gap: reference mark
a certain tooth position and has to be exe- Preset tooth counter for triggering the
SAE1006E

cuted with high priority. For this reason it synchronization program

is activated via an interrupt (triggered by a
command in the tooth interrupt routine).
 Electronic control unit Control unit software 29

backwards from the ignition angle at which 5 Dwell and ignition time output
the ignition coil has to be switched off.
This makes it possible to calculate the
tooth after which the ignition coil has to
be switched off (approximate counting Ignition output
in 6° time frame). The remaining angle
(detailed counting 0 to 6°) is converted Switch on the ignition coil
Enter the time for ignition
into an output time using the current en-
gine speed. As soon as the specified tooth Enter time for detailed counting
position has been reached using approxi-
mate counting, a time is loaded with the Synchronization program:

SAE1007E
Calculate the dwell period and ignition angle
output value from the detailed counting.
Preset the tooth counter for the dwell period
When this time period expires, the timer time (approximate counting)
triggers an interrupt. The commands that
switch on the ignition coil are programmed
in this interrupt routine. Then the timer Background program
is preset to the dwell period value, which All other activities that do not run in
causes an interrupt to be triggered when an interrupt routine or a time frame are
the timer elapses, switching off the igni- processed in the background program.
tion coil and therefore initiating ignition. At fast engine speeds, the synchronization
program and the tooth interrupt are called
Time frame frequently, leaving little CPU time for the
Many control algorithms have to run background program. The time taken for a
within a certain time frame. Lambda con- complete run-through of the background
trol, for example, has to be processed program therefore increases rapidly with
within a fixed time frame (e.g. 10 ms) so the increasing engine speed. The back-
that the correcting variables are calculated ground program must therefore only
quickly enough. contain low-priority functions.
30 Electronic Control Units (ECUs) Software Development

Software Development QA2F

When: After function implementation
A study of the current series projects together What: Review of each individual function
with the use of development capacities and checking of following docu-
demonstrate that approximately 60% of the ments:
time spent on ECU development has to be 쐌 specification,
devoted to creating the necessary software. 쐌 function description,
For this reason, it is absolutely essential that 쐌 source code,
modern tools and processes be used. 쐌 data definitions, and
쐌 test documentation.
Development Process
Definition of Development Process QA2
A depiction of the development steps in the When: Prior to software delivery
form of a V-model (Figure 1) serves as the ba- What: Review of all QA2F documents
sis for all software-development activities.
This model is used to detail the process steps QA3
which facilitate implementation within a When: Prior to start of series production
product-development department. What: Series-production review for hard-
ware and software
Quality Assessment
Quality assessments are scheduled at defined An essential part of the development process
points of the development process (Figure 2) is also the distinction between specification
for the purpose of process monitoring: and implementation. This separation allows
programming by contract, whereby project
QA1 teams use the software knowledge of ReUse
When: At the start of the project teams who implement the functions (e.g.
What: Resource check (capacity, develop- Keyword 2000 protocol) for various cus-
ment environment, responsibility) tomers. To this end, the project teams write
out function contracts which establish the
QA1F boundary conditions of implementation. The
When: Prior to function implementation scopes and levels of testing of the individual
What: Function specification check functions are determined in the project-spe-
cific quality plan (PQSP) with the customer
requirements in mind.

1 Simplified V-model 2 Development process in detail

System System
Specification Test initialization delivery
Function analysis QA2
specification
System
QA1 integration/test
Function Function
initialization delivery
Function analysis QA2F
specification
æ UTS0325E

æ UTS0326E

Function
QA1F integration/test
Function
Implementation development
 Electronic Control Units (ECUs) Software Development 31

This also includes determining the QA x F Programming Guidelines

scopes. In any heterogeneous system of development
that is spread over countries and continents, a
The PQSP is a central element of project im- standardized procedure for creating software
plementation and should be fully discussed is a vital and integral part of the time to mar-
between vehicle manufacturer and supplier. It ket process. These guidelines address the fol-
lays down, among others things, the responsi- lowing points and are binding for all pro-
bilities, the customer relationships, the devel- grammers:
opment tools, the scopes of testing and docu-
mentation, etc. 쐌 general guidelines (terminology, vocabu-
lary, variation handling),
The process in the ReUse team is set out as 쐌 guidelines for software developments in C
follows: (templates, structure),
쐌 definitions and declarations (include,
defines, typedefs),
쐌 The person in charge of the project
쐌 check instructions (if, for, while, break,
formulates the task (if necessary,
return ...),
adoption of customer request).
쐌 coding specifications and instructions
쐌 The function contract is drawn up
(typecast, arithmetic, pointer),
(with details of task, project, desired
쐌 particular features when using variables
date, scope, and reference documents)
(alignment, address),
and given to the ReUse teams.
쐌 instructions on data consistency
(preemptive), and
쐌 instructions on resource relief.

쐌 The persons in charge of ReUse and These guidelines also serve as a source of
the project discuss the application and knowledge for effective code configuration in
establish the scopes and deadlines order to counteract the limitations in relation
together. to memory capacity and run time in the pro-
gramming of microcontrollers.

쐌 The person in charge of ReUse decides

on the variant and version handling
and implements the task.
쐌 All documents are handed over to the
person in charge of the project on
completion.

In order to ensure that the created software

can be reused to the greatest possible extent,
there are C-programming guidelines binding
an all programmers which are called up in the
relevant reviews (e.g. QA2F).
32 Electronic Control Units (ECUs) Software Development

Tools for Creating Software As the wide variety of tools demonstrates, the
As well as the formal aspects such as process process involved in creating the software for
and programming guidelines, it is crucially an ECU of the latest generation is highly
important to ensure that the tools are subject complex. Figure 4 provides a simplified
to constant support in the interests of prod- overview of the interplay between the indi-
uct quality. Figure 3 provides an overview of vidual tools from the specification through to
the tools currently used for the various devel- the finished ECU program.
opment phases. Significant features of this
tool chain are: By way of example, two component parts of
쐌 constant support throughout the entire de- the tool chain will now be explained in closer
velopment process and detail:
쐌 product-specific, optimized solutions with 쐌 Design with ASCET-SD and
tools partly developed in-house. 쐌 Vehicle simulation with TCM-Simutec.

3 Tools in the development process 4 Simplified process sequence

Organization: MS Project Design

ASCET-SD Function model
Proto- Implemen- Object model
Design Test
typing tation Prototyping
ASCET- ASCET- ESPRIT INCA-PC ASCET-SD Source files
SD SD Innovator TCM-
StP Codewright LabCar Code generation
DAMOS++ ASCET-
ASCET-SD LabCar ESPRIT ETC program
æ UTS0327E

Test/application
Documentation: MS Word
INCA/PC

Key:
ASCET: advanced simulation and control
æ UTS0328E

engineering tool
ASCET-SD: ASCET software developer
StP: software through pictures
(Aonix) for OO modeling
ESPRIT: engineering software-production
5 Function design with ASCET-SD
user interface for tools
Innovator: Software-development
environment (MID)
Codewright: Software-development
environment (Premia)
DAMOS: database for microcontroller-
oriented systems
INCA-PC: integrated car application system
TCM-Simutec: Vehicle simulator
æ UTS0329Y

ASCET-LabCar: Vehicle simulator for HiL simulation

ClearCase: Configuration-management tool
 Electronic Control Units (ECUs) Software Development 33

Design with ASCET-SD Vehicle simulation with TCM-Simutec

ASCET-SD (Figure 5) offers the following To test the functions of a transmission-
functions for designing software: control system in the laboratory, there is a
쐌 interactive creation of function simulator for the vehicle and transmission
descriptions and function models, environment which provides the input signals
쐌 a graphical user interface, for ETC. One such simulator is shown in Fig-
쐌 support of object-oriented design, data- ure 7.
flow-oriented design and state machines. The front panel of the simulator is
equipped with assorted rotary potentio-
The ERCOSEK operating system is an integral meters, switches, and pushbuttons which en-
part of the development environment, and fa- able input variables such as output speed, se-
cilitates real-time simulation of the function lector-lever position, transmission
model. temperature, etc., to be specified.
The top of the simulator accommodates a
ASCET-SD offers the following support for breakbox which permits access to every ECU
the rapid prototyping of functions: pin. Measuring instruments can be easily
쐌 ASCET-SD operates as a bypass computer connected to these sockets to enable, for
for the series ECU, i.e., individual ECU example, a PWM signal of a pressure-regula-
functions run on the PC, while the other tor output to be viewed on an oscilloscope.
functions continue to be executed by ETC The laboratory car also contains computer
(Figure 6). cards which simulate the other ECUs in the
쐌 The connection is established via the CAN vehicle network (e.g. ECUs for engine man-
or the INCA probe. agement, for ABS, etc.) and also their signals.

The next step is the automatic C-code creation Process and Maturity Model
and the creation of the corresponding data A clear definition of the development process
files for the application from the models. and the corresponding implementation in the
projects are made possible by a software de-
For further information, log on to velopment which can be evaluated with a ma-
turity model such as CMM (capture maturity
http://www.etas.de model).

6 Test setup for ASCET-SD in bypass 7 TCM-Simutec (laboratory car)

2 4

1 Fig. 6
1 ASCET-SD and
3 INCA-PC
2 ASCET hardware
æ UTS0330Y

æ UTS0311Y

(ETAS ES 1000.2)
3 ETK
4 ETC-Simutec
(laboratory car)
34 Electronic Control Units (ECUs) Software Development

8 Software layer model The operating system with its services and the
hardware-compatible software are imple-
Transmission software from mented on this hardware:
vehicle manufacturer or Bosch
ERCOSEK EEPROM Hardware KWP 2000
(OS) driver Input/Output driver
Program
library Device Device Device
driver driver driver

Component
driver The interface layer and program library for
the application software contain:
Operating system Diagnosis Diagnosis Security
handling monitoring software

æ UTS0331E
functions (SSK)
Hardware EEPROM KWP2000 Shift by wire
handling application functions

The application software

Software Structure (customized software) comprises:
The software structure described in closer de- e.g. ASIS (RB/ZF) Transmission software
tail in the following is implemented within AGS (BMW)
the transmission-control system. This layer Software sharing (interface)
model (Figure 8) comprises
쐌 the application software (transmission soft-
ware) with program library provided by Operating System
the vehicle manufacturer or supplier (in It is absolutely essential to use an OSEK-con-
this case by Bosch), forming operating system to fulfill the cur-
쐌 the operating system, rent real-time demands on an ECU. The ER-
쐌 the component driver, and COSEK operating system from ETAS is used in
쐌 the hardware. Bosch transmission control units (available
for all kinds of microcontroller).
The separation of hardware and application
software ensures that the software can be eas- An operating system is subdivided into
ily ported to new hardware platforms. Only processes and tasks (Figure 9):
the second layer, consisting of the operating A process is a function which has no call or
system and component driver (BIOS), has to return parameters.
be adapted. A task consists of different processes and is
The contents of the individual layers will characterized by
now be broken down in the following: 쐌 the sequential execution of processes,
쐌 the allocation of processes 씮 task,
The ECU hardware, the first layer of the soft- 쐌 each task being assigned a priority,
ware layer model, consists of the microcon- 쐌 tasks being assigned to a time base.
troller (here, by way of example, the
MPC555), the memory, the interfaces (SPI, For task changing, there is either cooperative
CAN and UART), and the peripheral chips scheduling or preemptive scheduling (task
(ASICs): management):

Cooperative Scheduling
CPU core SPI TPU MIOS CAN UART In the case of cooperative scheduling,
timer and (2) (2)
a task can only be interrupted between two
Memory, hardware, driver, etc.
processes by a higher-priority task (Figure 10).
 Electronic Control Units (ECUs) Software Development 35

The advantages of this procedure are low and a response time that is not dependent on
memory requirement (register banks, stack), process implementation. The disadvantages
simple management, and data consistency. are increased memory requirement (stack,
The disadvantages are the limited response register banks) and data-consistency prob-
time (dependent on the process run time) lems.
and the jitter over the task period.
Mixed Scheduling
Preemptive Scheduling ERCOSEK offers the option of mixing both
Owing to the drawbacks of cooperative types of scheduling in one application.
scheduling, preemptive scheduling is used in A combination of hardware and software
operating systems which operate as real-time scheduling serves this purpose. Figure 12
systems. shows the distribution between cooperative
With this form of scheduling, a higher-pri- and preemptive using the priorities assigned
ority task can interrupt a lower-priority task to the tasks.
at any time (Figure 11). The advantages of A software call starts the operating system.
this procedure are the very short response It can support different application modes
times, the minimal jitter over the task period, (e.g. different task sets for initialization, oper-

9 Processes and task 11 Preemptive task change

Task Activation
and start
Task B

Task B
Process 1
Task

p1B p2B p3B p4B

Process 2

Process 3
…

p1A p3A p4A

æ STS0332E

æ STS0334E

Prozess n Task A

Time t

10 Cooperative task change 12 Priority distribution

Activation Task B
Hardware-based

Start Task B
scheduling

Task B preemptive
Priority
Task

p1B p2B p3B p4B

Software-based
scheduling

p1A p2A p3A p4A

æ STS0333E

æ STS0335E

cooperative
Task A

Time t Distribution
36 Electronic Control Units (ECUs) Software Development

13 Application-mode change ation and ECU run-on, Figure 13). Each ap-
plication mode consists of an initialization
phase and an execution phase. Interrupts are
Application
prohibited during initialization of an applica-
Mode n Mode n+1 tion mode.
Further documents on the subject of
ERCOSEK / OSEK can be found on the
Mode

Internet at:
Init Execution Init Execution http://www.etas.de
http://www.osek-vdx.org

æ STS0336E
Acquisition of Input and
Output Variables
Zeit t
Access to the hardware is obtained within the
framework of the software layer model in ac-
14 Hardware access in the layer model cordance with three layers (Figure 14):
쐌 user layer,
쐌 configuration layer, and
User layer 쐌 hardware layer.

Access to hardware capsule: The first implementation example to be

featured is access (A) via global RAM cells.
via global as direct access Table 1 describes the name of the RAM cell,
RAM cells (function call)
the signal direction (input or output), the sig-
nal type (analog, digital, frequency, or PWM),
the description, and the physical conversion.
The second example featured is access via
(B) function interfaces. Table 2 is structured
Configuration layer along the same lines as Table 1, but here the
global RAM cell is replaced by a function call.
Configuration: Filtering:
Access to Elimination of The objective in the configuration layer is
hardware malfunctions to obtain independence from platform and
channels
project in the conversion of the hardware ac-
Coherence: Scaling: cesses into real software. This is achieved on
Data timing Conversion
into physical the one hand by using tools which automati-
variables cally create the C-code for access to the hard-
ware, and on the other hand by using C-
macros which are then resolved on a proces-
Hardware layer
sor-specific basis.

ADC DIO PWM SPI Serial Freq

æ STS0337E

"Low-level"-channels
 Electronic Control Units (ECUs) Software Development 37

1 Hardware access via global RAM cells

RAM cell I/O Type Content Scaling

ugt_Batt In ANA 16 bit Battery voltage 0...25 000 mV
CGT In ANA 8 bit Oil temperature –40...+215°C
ccu_Chip In ANA 8 bit Substrate temperature –40...+215°C
fgt_Fet Out DIG 8 bit Status HSD-Fet 0.. 1 (On/Off)
fpo_L1 In DIG 8 bit Selector lever pos 1 0..1 (On/Off)
fpr_PinM In DIG 8 bit M button 0..1 (On/Off)
NAB In FREQ 16 bit Output speed 0...20 000 rpm
NAB32 In FREQ 8 bit Output speed/32 0...255 rpm/32
NTU In FREQ 16 bit Turbine speed 0...20 000 rpm
NTU32 In FREQ 8 bit Turbine speed/32 0...255 rpm/32
hmv1 Out PWM 16 bit Solenoid-valve output 0...1000 per mil
idr1s Out ANA 16 bit Nominal current 0..12 000 mA
pressure regulator
Table 1

2 Hardware access via functions

Software function I/O Return value Content Scaling

GetHWIO_U_IgnRunCrnk() In ANA Battery voltage 0...32 V
16 bit
GetHWIO_T_TransOil() In ANA Oil temperature –40...+215°C
16 bit
GetHWIO_b_HSD() In ANA Status HSD-Fet 0...1 (on/off)
8 bit
GetHWIO_e_TapUpDwnReq() In ENUM Tip (+/–) function 0 x 00...0 x 40
8 bit
TsHWIO_PRNDL In DIG Transmission control panel 0...1
GetHWIO_s_PRNDL(void) 8 bit
TsHWIO_FreqParams In FREQ Turbine speed Time stamp +
GetHWIO_s_NTU(void) struct counter value
TsHWIO_NAB_DualEdgeParams In FREQ Output speed, Time stamp +
GetHWIO_s_NAB_DualEdge() struct edge can be changed over counter value +
operating edge
SetHWIO_e_NAB_DualEdgeCptr Out – nout Rising, falling, both
Mode( BYTE ) Edge changeover Table 2

A further signal-acquisition component 15 ECU network

involves the exchange of signals via the a

communication interface. The CAN bus
(controller area network) has gained
acceptance in this field in the last few years. ECU 1 ECU 2 ECU 3 ECU 4

CAN replaces the conventional wiring

harness or the previously standard network of
ECUs (Figure 15). The bus system must b
satisfy the following requirements here:
Real-time updating for
safety functions: 10 ms ECU 1 ECU 2 ECU 3 ECU 4
Convenience functions: 10...100 ms
Maximum cable length: 40 m
æ STS0338E

CAN - Bus
Fig. 15
a Conventional
b With CAN
38 Electronic Control Units (ECUs) Software Development

3 Bit rates as a function of cable (bus) length The system must also be resistant to tempera-
Maximum bit rate Bus length
ture and moisture. The CAN bus has also
kbit/s m gained acceptance in the field of automation
1000 40 technology. Table 3 lists the maximum possi-
500 100 ble data rates for different cable lengths.
250 250 Figure 16 shows the circuit-engineering
125 500
implementation of the CAN interface in an
40 1000
ECU.
Table 3

16 CAN interface In the microcontroller itself, message

handling is conducted via a dual-port RAM
Microcontroller (Figure 17). Since this RAM chip, as the name
suggests, can be described from two sides
CAN controller (CAN transceiver and microcontroller), the
CPU workload is substantially relieved for
TX0 TX1 RX0 RX1
signal transfer.
TxD RxD Ref Rs +6V
VCC Complete arbitration (message organization,
CAN transceiver 100nF who sends what when) on the CAN bus is
Gnd
CAN_L CAN_H
performed automatically by the CAN trans-
ceiver. It does not require any computing
CAN_H
power in the microcontroller (Figure 18).
A distinction is made within CAN messages
æ UTS0339E

RT CAN-BUS RT between standard and extended data frames

BUS CAN_L BUS (Figures 19 and 20).
termination termination

17 Use of dual-port RAM with the CAN bus 19 CAN standard data frame

Standard Data Frame Inter Frame Space

recessive
Message 1 low high
1 11 1 1 1 4 0…64 15 1 1 1 7 3
Message 2 dominant
Bus idle
Start of Frame

RTR Bit (D)

IDE Bit(D)
(reserved (D))
Data Length Code
Identifier Field

Data Field

CRC Sequence
CRC Delimiter
ACK Slot
ACK Delimiter
End of Frame
Intermission

CAN-
Bus CPU
Message n
æ UTS0340E

æ UTS0342E

workload
Acceptance Message Host CPU
filter management
Arbitration Control CRC Acknowledge
Field Field Field Field

18 CAN-bus arbitration 20 CAN extended data frame

Bus idle recessive

Extended Data Frame Inter Frame Space

NODE A recessive
dominant 1 11 1 1 18 1 2 4 0…64 15 1 1 1 7 3
dominant
Bus idle
Start of Frame
Identifier
SRR Bit (R)
IDE Bit(R)
Extended Identifier
RTR Bit(D)
(2 reserved (D))

Data Field
CRC Sequence
CRC Delimiter
ACK Slot
ACK Delimiter
End of Frame
Intermission
Bus idle
Data Length Code

recessive
NODE B
æ UTS0343E
æ UTS0341E

dominant
NODE B loses the arbitration
switches to receive Arbitration Control CRC Acknowledge
mode Field Field Field Field
 Electronic Control Units (ECUs) Software Development 39

The standard data frame is characterized by Object-Oriented Approach

the following data (Figure 19): Vehicle Control
Data capacity: 0...8 bytes As an introduction, Figure 21 shows the 1-2
Identifier length: 11 bits US and 2-1 DS shift curves for a driving pro-
Message length: max. 130 bits gram.
The shift curves shown in Figure 22 extend
In contrast, the extended data frame this system for different driving programs
(Figure 20) has the following from super economy (XE) to super sport
characteristic data: (XS). They clearly show that the upshift point
Data capacity: 0...8 bytes in the sporty driving program moves towards
Identifier length: 29 bits higher vehicle speed or higher engine speed
Message length: max. 150 bits and thereby achieves optimum utilization of
engine performance.
Gear Selection and Adaptive Functions
Transmission control has undergone various
phases or expansion stages within the frame-
work of development. 21 1-2 US shift curve

The basic functions and the adaptive

%
programs for shifting points and pressure
100
control are now standard in the field of elec-
Accelerator-pedal position

tronic transmission control (ETC). Where

2-1 RS

S
1-2 H

the various marques and vehicles differ is in

the different strategies employed in the auto-
matic adaptation of the transmission to the 50 1
driving style and the traffic situation. This
also represents an area of software which is
being increasingly taken up by the vehicle
manufacturer directly and which is no longer
in the hands of a supplier. The adaptive func-
æ STS0344E

0
tions for shifting-point control and pressure 0 30 km/h
control have already been discussed in the Vehicle speed υF
chapter sections entitled Shifting-Sequence
Control and Adaptive Pressure Control.
The following text will now deal with 22 1-2 curve with several driving programs

Bosch-specific implementations of automatic

adaptations (learn functions). The adaptive %
shifting strategy determines a gear cyclically 100

from the driver command, the vehicle status,

Accelerator-pedal position

2-1 RS XS
2-1 RS XE

S XS
S XE

and the driving situation. It is adaptive in re-

1-2 H
1-2 H

lation to the driver type (sportiness) and also

takes into account automatic or manual gear 50 1
preselections (tip/nudge operation, as is fa-
miliar, for example, from Porsche Tiptronic©
or BMW Steptronic©). The complete software
package has been modeled with an object-
oriented approach for optimum reuse.
æ STS0345E

0
0 50 km/h
Vehicle speed υF Fig. 21 and 22
1 Upshift
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
 CAPITULO XXIII

Da consaguinidade entre os selvagens.

Como entre nós, a consaguinidade entre estes barbaros tem

muitos graus e ramos, e se observa entre todas as familias com
tanto cuidado como fazemos, excepto porem a castimonia, que tem
alguns embaraços entre elles, menos no primeiro grau—de pae para
filha.
Entre os irmãos e irmans não ha casamentos, mas duvido, e não
sem razão, da regularidade da vida d’elles, e nem isto merece ser
escripto.
Bróta o primeiro ramo do tronco de seos avós, que elles chamam
Tamoin,[41] e debaixo desta denominação comprehendem todos os
seos ante-passados desde Nóe até o ultimo dos seos avós, e admira
como se lembram e contam de avô em avô, seos ante-passados, o
que difficilmente fazemos na Europa podendo remontar-nos, sem
esquecer-nos, até o tataravô.
O segundo ramo nasce e cresce do primeiro e chama-se Tuue,
«pae», e é o que os gera em legitimo casamento, como acontece
entre nós, porque para os bastardos ha outra Lei, de que fallarei em
lugar proprio.
Este ramo paterno dá outro, que se chama Taire, «filho», o qual
se córta e divide-se em diversos galhos, a que chamam chéircure,
«meo irmão mais velho», um dia—a cumieira da casa e da familia, e
chéubuire, «meo irmãosinho», que só cuidará da casa, si fallecer seo
irmão mais velho.
Tendo filhos um destes irmãos, qualquer que seja o sexo, deve
chamar o irmão de seo pae chétuteure, «meo tio» e sua mulher
chéaché, «minha tia». Da mesma forma si seo pae tiver irmans elle
as chama chéaché, «minha tia», como tambem os maridos d’estas
chétuteure, «meo tio».
Os tios e tias chamam os meninos de seos irmãos e irmans
chéyeure «meo sobrinho», e as meninas reindeure ou chereindeure,
«minha sobrinha».
Os filhos de dois irmãos, isto é, de um irmão e os de outra irman
se chamam os homens rieure ou cherieure, «meo primo», e as
moças yeipere ou cheitipere «minha prima.»
Quanto á descendencia do lado das mulheres, a avó é o tronco,
seja paterna ou materna, e chama-se ariy ou cheariy, «minha avó.»
A mãe é o segundo ramo, e chama-se Ai, «mãe», ou cheai,
«minha mãe».
Seguem-se gradualmente a filha, cujo nome é tagyre, filha, ou
cheagyre, «minha filha», a irman teindure, «irman», ou chéreindure,
«minha irman», a tia yaché, «tia», ou chéaché, «minha tia», a
sobrinha reindure ou chereindure, «minha sobrinha», ou «minha
pequena irman», modo de fallar entre elles, a prima yetipere,
«prima», ou cheytipere, «minha prima.»
Eis os ramos de consaguinidade entre elles.
Para os homens.

Avô.
Pae.
Filho.
Irmão.
Tio.
Sobrinho.
Primo.

Traduzido em sua lingua é

 Chéramoin ou tamoin.
Tuue ou chéru.
Tayre ou chéayre.
Cheircure ou chéubuire.
Tuteure ou chétuteure.
Yeure ou chéyeure.
Rieure ou chérieure.

Para as mulheres.

Avó.
Mãe.
Filha.
Irman.
Tia.
Sobrinha.
Prima.

Em sua linguagem.

Ariy ou Ché-Ariy.
Ai ou Chéai.
Tagyre ou Chéagyre.
Theindeure ou Chéreindeure.
Yaché ou Chéaché.
Reindure ou Chéreindure.
Yetipere ou Ché-yetipere.
 Alem d’estas consaguinidades existem mais duas por contractos
de alliança; uma quando se dá sua filha á um individuo, ou quando
se recebe uma moça para casar-se com seu filho, e outra quando,
por contracto d’alliança com os francezes, lhes dam suas filhas para
concubinas.
Aos que dam suas filhas chamam taiuuen «genro», ou
Chéraiuuen, «meo genro».
Á mulher de seo filho chamam Tautateu, «nóra», ou Cherautateu,
«minha nora».
Chamam os Francezes seos alliados por hospitalidade Tuasap,
«compadre» ou ché-tuasap, «meo compadre» e as vezes Chéaire,
«meo filho,» ou Cheraiuuen, «meu genro,» quando sua filha é
concubina do Francez.
É este o ramo d’alliança.

Genro.
Nóra.
Compadre.

Em sua linguagem é

Taiuuen, ou Ché-raiuuen.
Tautateu ou Cherautateu.
Tuassap ou Chetuassap, ou então Ché-aire.

São bastardos os filhos, que tem fóra do casamento legitimo á

moda d’elles, e entre estes bastardos ha ainda certa ordem.
A primeira é dos que tem pae e mãe, ambos Tupinambás: a
segunda dos que tem por mãe uma india Tupinambá e por pae um
Francez: a terceira dos filhos de um Tupinambá e de uma escrava: a
quarta de uma Tupinambá e de um escravo: a quinta finalmente de
uma escrava e de um Francez.
 A linha dos bastardos é a seguinte:

De um Tupinambá com uma Tupinambá.

De uma india Tupinambá com um Francez.
De um Tupinambá com uma escrava.
De uma india Tupinambá e um escravo.
De uma escrava e de um Francez.

Em sua linguagem chamam estes bastardos Marap, ou Ché-

marap, e aos bastardos dos Francezes Mulatres, «mulatos.»
São diversas as leis d’estes bastardos conforme sua descendencia,
e antes de tratar d’ellas convem estabelecer a regra geral para com
os bastardos, que é quando...
(Falta uma folha.)
... elles o chamam Toreuue, «folgasão,» Cheroreuue, «sou divertido,
folgasão:» o que é agradavel e tem para dizer alguma coisa chama-
se aron-ayue.
Suas saudações, perguntas e respostas, quando juntas, são o
mais amavel que é possivel, mormente quando as fazem com acento
muito longo, brando, e insinuante, especialmente as mulheres e as
moças, e como sei que será agradavel ao Leitor vou aqui transcrever
algumas de suas frazes communs e ordinarias.[42]
Quando se levantam pela manhã dizem

Tyen-de-Koem. Bom dia.

Nein Tyen-de-Koem Para vós tambem.

A tarde, do regressar do trabalho, quando se despedem

Tyen de Karuq. Boa tarde.

Nein Tyen de Karuq. Para vós tambem.
 Quando chega a noite, e querem dormir, dizem reciprocamente.

Tyen-de-potom. Boa noite.

Nein-Tyen-de-petom. Para vós tambem.

Se alguem se derige a elles, ou passa ao pé d’elles ou se encontra

no caminho, muitas vezes pára um pouco, com expressão docil e
rosto prasenteiro perguntam um ao outro:

Mamo sui pereiu? D’onde vindes?

Mamo peresso? Onde ides?

Logo que respondem e dizem d’onde vem e para onde vão, podeis
ficar certo que se trata de uma das coisas seguintes, constante
emprego de sua vida e exercicio, isto é, da pescaria no mar, da
entrada nos bosques, da derrubada das arvores, da visita de suas
roças, da plantação de raizes, da colheita dos fructos, e dos nabos,
da caçada, dos passeios por varios lugares, da visita das aldeias e
das habitações de uns e outros.
São estas as respostas d’elles.

Paranam-sui-kaiut. Venho do mar.

Pira-rekie-sui-kaiut. Venho de pescar.
Kaa-sui-kaiut. Venho do matto.
Ybuira monosoc, ou então ybuira Venho de cortar matto.
mondoc.
Ko-sui-kaiut. Venho da roça.
Ko-piraruer-kaiut. Venho de roçar.
Maetum aruere. Venho de cavar e de
plantar.
Vuapoo-aruere kaiut. Venho de colher fructos.
Kaaue-aruere kaiut. Venho da caça.
Mosu-aruere-kaiut. Venho de passeiar.
Taaue-sui-kaiut. Venho de tal aldeia.
Ahere-piac-sui-kaiut. Venho de ver tal pessoa.
Chere-suiu então cheretansui. Venho de minha casa.
Ne in cheaiurco. Adeos, vou-me embora.
Ne in oro iurco. Adeos, vamo-nos embora.

Quando vae algum visinho procural-os em sua casa, ou quando

sentem falta de alguma coisa, procurando por ahi algures elles
perguntam:

Que procuraes? Maeperese-kar?

Que perguntaes? Maraereico?

Então dizem o que procuram, e respondem ás perguntas mui

francamente; por exemplo:

Quero comêr. Agerure deué-cheremyuran ressé.

Quero farinha. Agerure uiressé.
Quero carne. Agerure soo ressé.
Quero peixe. Agerure pyra ressé.
Quero agoa. Agerure v-ressé.
Quero fogo. Agerure tata cheué.
Quero uma faca. Agerure xè.
Um machado. Iu.

Se veem alguem pensativo, elles lhe perguntam o que ha e no

que pensam.

Que pensaes? Mara-péde-ie-mongueta.

Elle responde:

Não penso em coisa alguma. Ai Kogué.

Penso em alguma coisa. Maerssé-kaien-arico.
Penso em vós. Dressé kaien-arico.

Si veem um conversando com outros, tem muita curiosidade de

saber o que dizem, e por isso vão procural-os, e amigavelmente lhe
perguntam:

Que dizeis? ou então, em que Mára-erepe? Mára-erepipo?

conversavam? Mara-peie-peiupé.

Respondem elles:

Fallavamos de nossas occupações. Ore-rei-koran koiomongueta.

Fallavamos de vós. Deressé koia-mongueta.

Assim passavam entre si a vida mui pacifica e familiarmente.

 CAPITULO XXV

Dos caracteres incompativeis entre os

selvagens.

Costumava Socrates dizer, que assim como o vinho aspero e

grosseiro é de digestão má e desagradavel ao paladar, assim
tambem os caracteres rudes, grosseiros e impectuosos não servem
para companheiros de uma conversação entre homens.
Escreveo Plutarcho, que assim como o som aspero dos caldeirões
e panellas quebradas encolerisam os tigres a ponto de fazel-os
accommetter desesperadamente e saltar sobre os que vem fazer
perto d’elles tão incommodo e desagradavel barulho, assim tambem
fazem as más inclinações, ou os maus caracteres entre os homens.
Aborrecem sobre todas as coisas o companheiro, que provoca e
faz mal ao seo visinho, e chamam-no Moiaron, e quando se insultam
por palavras, chamam-no então Oroacap.
Quando encontram taes caracteres, fogem d’elles e evitam iguaes
contestações, e ainda fazem mais, previnem os Francezes seos
compadres, afim de que nada peçam á tal gente.
Si por ventura teem mulheres com esse genio ficam muito
contrariados, e não necessitam ser muito rogados afim de livrarem-
se d’ellas, ou de consentir que vão para onde bem lhes parecer.
Ha em Juniparan, na Ilha, um hermaphrodita, no exterior mais
homem do que mulher, porque tem face e voz de mulher, cabellos
finos, flexiveis, e compridos, e comtudo casou-se e teve filhos, mas
tem um genio tão fórte que vive porque receiam os selvagens da
aldeia trocar palavras com elle.
Presenciei a mudança de uma familia inteira somente para evitar a
visinhança de um selvagem de muito máo caracter.
 Escarnecem e despresam o homem, que se accommoda com as
provocações e questões de sua mulher quando ella tem mau genio.
Em quanto ahi morei, aconteceo aborrecer-se um selvagem do
mau genio de sua mulher a ponto de empunhar com a mão direita
um cacete, e na esquerda segurar nos cabellos d’ella querendo
experimentar se este oleo e balsamo adoçaria o azedume de seo
mal, porem admirou-se de vêr, que cahindo o fogo na chaga mais o
augmentasse, porque podendo escapar-se de suas mãos, á vista dos
visinhos, tomou tambem ella outro cacete, quiz fazer o mesmo ao
marido, e depois de se haverem espancado reciprocamente com
grande applauso de todos, ficaram ambos com igualdade de
circumstancias frente a frente um do outro, sendo depois o marido a
fabula e o assumpto de todas as conversas, quer dos grandes quer
dos pequenos. Diziam os antigos nas suas Casas-grandes, que elle
não teve remedio si não ficar com sua mulher, porque já a conhecia.
Vi os abandonar e deixar seos generos a quem vendem, só para
evitar questões com o comprador.
Notareis, que elles só tem—sim e não—quando negociam juntos,
ou com os Francezes, nunca regateando.
Muitos outros exemplos eu poderia ainda reproduzir, porem
bastam estes.
Avaliam muito bem as pessoas colericas, a que chamam
Poromotare-vim, e reciprocamente se advertem dizendo—
Cheporomatare-vim, «estou encholerisado,» e então ninguem lhe diz
nada, antes buscam abandonal-o o mais que podem, o que
exprimem por Mogerecoap, «abrandar alguem». Aimogerecoap,
«abrando o que está encolerisado.»
Observei muitas vezes, quando viam um Francez enraivecido,
ficarem como que fóra de si, mudarem de côr, e fugirem da vista
d’elle, dizendo uns aos outros Ymari turuçu «está muito zangado,
está muito enfurecido.» Ché-assequeié seta. «Tenho medo d’elle.»
Aconteceu encolerisarem-se muitas vezes duas ou tres pessoas da
nossa equipagem na aldeia, em que estavam. Vieram por isto os
Principaes ao Forte de São Luiz queixarem-se e pedindo, que lhes
tirassem de lá esses Francezes, porque lhes faziam medo, e
especialmente a seos filhos, o que conseguiram.
Si as questões de palavras e as raivas são temiveis, muito mais
ainda o são os insultos e as disputas, o que é muito raro, a ponto de
espancarem-se, o que chamam ionupan «espancar-se», e ainda
mais quando se ferem, o que explicam por iuapichap, «ferir-se,»
mormente quando depois de se haverem maltratado reciprocamente
vão por despeito queimar as suas casas, o que exprimem pela
palavra Iuapic «incendiarios» reciprocos: todos sentem estas coisas,
e ninguem se atreve a metter-se entre elles para aplacal-os: eis
como fazem: vae cada um para seu lado, e tomando uma porção de
pindoba secca, acendem-na, atiram sobre a cobertura de sua propria
casa, dizendo uns aos outros—salve quem poder sua casa, queimei
a minha, ninguem podia oppôr-se a minha vontade, e assim em
poucos momentos a aldeia está queimada e ninguem lhe diz nada.
Aconteceria isto muitas vezes na Ilha, se não fosse o receio que
tinham dos Francezes.
Não gostam de ser injuriados, seja homem ou mulher, e nem
mesmo as publicas consentem que se as chame Pataqueres
«meretrises.»
Recorda-me que tendo tido uma india escrava um filho de um
Francez, as outras lançaram-lhe isto em rosto chamando-a
Pataquere, «meretriz» com o que se doeu muito, e disse que, se
continuassem, ella mataria seo filho ou o enterraria vivo.
Chamam a injuria Curap.
Ninguem se admire de evitarem estes selvagens a colera e seos
effeitos, por ser esta paixão contraria a natureza do homem,
fazendo-o inteiramente bruto, como disse São Basilio Magno, na
Homilia 10, da ira, e transformar o homem n’um animal feroz—
Hominem penitus in feram converti: São Gregorio de Nissa, na
Oração 2ª sobre a bemaventurança, compara a colera com esses
antigos feiticeiros do Paganismo, que por encanto mudavam e
transformavam o homem em diversos animaes ferozes como o javaly
e a panthera. A colera faz o mesmo.
São Gregorio Magno, no 5º livro da sua Moral, cap. 30, diz ser o
cerebro do colerico o buraco, onde se geram as víboras.—
Cogitationes iracundi viperæ sunt generationis.
Platão contra esta paixão aconselhava, como remedio, aos seos
discipulos, que observassem bem os gestos e as palavras de um
homem colerico, e ou que se mirassem n’um espelho quando se
enraivecessem.
Não é coisa nova e nem fóra de proposito o temerem e fugirem
estes selvagens quando veem um homem encolerisado,
especialmente um Francez, porque diz o proverbio, cap. 27—
Impetum concitati spiritus ferre quis poterit?
Não é menos difficil de crer-se, que, por despeito, apoz calorosa
ou inconveniente questão, queimem elles suas casas, porque no
Proverbio 26 acha-se sicut carbones ad prunas et ligna ad ignem—
assim como o carvão é para o brasieiro, e a lenha para o fogo, assim
tambem a questão de palavras é para o homem naturalmente
colerico, sic homo iracundus suscitat rixas, e no Ecclesiastico 28,
secundum ligna sylvæ, sic ignis exardescit—tal é a quantidade da
lenha qual a força do fogo, fallando da colera.
 CAPITULO XXVI

Da economia dos selvagens.

Dizia Pitacus ser bem regulada a familia quando n’ella encontram-

se duas coisas—falta de superfluidade tanto no que diz respeito á
vida como ao governo da casa, e o que é necessario para isto.
Diz Cicero, que perguntando-se a Catão, qual é o melhor governo
de uma casa, elle respondera—onde houver comida, vestuario e
amor ao trabalho.
Parece-me ser estas sentenças mais applicaveis aos selvagens, e
aos que passam vida frugal do que á outra classe de individuos.
São Thomaz definindo a economia concluio dizendo não ser outra
coisa mais do que uma boa ordem domestica, e para conseguir-se
este fim convinha, que a familia tivesse viveres e tudo o mais
necessario a vida, sendo mui essencial não só uma boa intelligencia,
como tambem que cuidassem todos os membros d’ella em seos
deveres.
A propria natureza, e não qualquer sciencia adquirida, ensina isto
aos selvagens.
As aldeias são divididas em quatro habitações, sob o governo de
um Muruuichaue, para o temporal, e um Pagy-uaçú «um feiticeiro»
para as molestias e bruxarias.[43]
Cada habitação tem o seo Principal: estes quatro Principaes estão
sob as ordens do maioral da aldeia, o qual conjunctamente com
outros de varias aldeias obedecem ao Principal soberano da
provincia. Cada...
(falta uma folha.)
 CAPITULO XXVIII

Do cuidado que do seo corpo tem os

selvagens.

Platão chamava o corpo um privilegio da Naturesa, e Crates, o

philosopho, um reino solitario.
Mereceriam estas duas sentenças amplo desenvolvimento, si não
nos occupassemos de uma historia, que exige estylo conciso, sem
superfluidade de palavras ou digressões fóra de proposito.
Applicamos comtudo o dizer d’estes dois philosophos ao nosso
assumpto para notar, que tendo a naturesa, por longos annos,
recusado vestidos aos corpos dos indios, os compensara formando-
os bellos e agradaveis, sem o menor auxilio de suas mães, que
apenas os lavam e carregam como si fosse qualquer pedaço de pau.
Assenta-lhes muito bem a opinião de Crates chamando o corpo
um reino solitario e deserto, porque assim como os animaes do
deserto crescem e ficam vigorosos, em quanto residem ahi, isto é,
em sua plena liberdade, assim tambem quando sob o dominio do
homem e presos, embora no Palacio dos Reis e principes da terra,
para serem vistos e observados como novidade, principiam logo a
emagrecer, a entristecer-se, a perder o desejo da propagação e de
conservação da especie, somente por terem perdido a liberdade que
outr’ora gosavam no seu reino solitario.
Negando a natureza á estes selvagens viveres bem preparados,
bebidas bem feitas, vestidos pomposos, leitos macios, soberbas
casas e palacios, compensou-os porem, dando lhes plena liberdade
como aos passarinhos no ar, e as bestas no campo, sem lastimarem-
se, como fazem outros quando comparam as pretendidas
commodidades d’este Mundo.
 Se o diabo com o fim de roubar-lhes o bem da salvação, não se
metesse entre elles, levantando novas discordias afim de se
matarem e comerem reciprocamente, não haveriam por certo
homens mais felizes no mundo por causa de sua natural franqueza e
liberdade, que, adubando as suas carnes as transformam em
perfeita e saudavel nutrição, e d’ahi provem a bellesa de seos
corpos.
Espero a objecção para responder—isto é, de se terem visto
muitos indios sordidos e horriveis. Respondo: não é no rosto, onde
se deve observar a forma e a bellesa de um homem, e eis a razão
porque Demostenes zombou, quando os embaixadores de Athenas
regressando de sua commissão junto a Philippe, Rei de Macedonia,
gabavam muito a formosura d’elle: não, não, disse Demostenes, não
é digna de louvor a belleza do rosto de um homem, tão commum
entre os Cortezãos, porem merece encomios a sua estatura, a
proporção de seos membros, e a sua figura e elegancia.
Fallo de haver a naturesa dado ordinariamente aos selvagens, e
especialmente aos Tupinambás, corpo bem feito, bem proporcional e
elegante, e quando estragam seos rostos por incisões, fendas, e
extravagancias de pinturas e de ossos, o fazem pela ideia erronea,
que tem, de serem por isto reputados valentes.
Tem muito cuidado na limpesa de seos corpos: lavam-se muitas
vezes, e não se passa um só dia, em que não deitem muita agua
sobre si, em que se não esfreguem com as mãos por todos os lados
para tirar o pó e outras immundicies.
Penteiam-se as mulheres muitas vezes.
Receiam emmagrecer, o que chamam em sua linguagem
angaiuare, e lastimam-se diante dos seos semelhantes dizendo Ché-
angaiuare, «estou magro,» e todos se compadecem mormente
quando chegam de qualquer viagem abatidos pelo trabalho: todos o
lastimam e o deploram, dizendo Deangoiuare seta, «ah! quanto está
magro, só tem ossos.»
 Eis a causa unica por que não podiam residir comnosco os rapazes
baptisados, visto temerem muito as mães, que não emagrecessem
em poder dos Francezes, os quaes suppunham ter falta de tudo.
Não consentiam que seos maridos trouxessem comsigo os filhos
para vêr os Padres e as Capellas de Deos, senão á força, e com vivas
recommendações para que voltassem, e quando se lembravam
d’elles grande era a sua tristesa, e choravam.
Conservei em minha companhia um rapaz de Tapuitapera
chamado Miguel, já baptisado, e que muito bem sabia a doutrina
christã, afim de ensinal-a aos meos escravos.
Residio comigo por alguns mezes, porem não poude ficar mais por
causa das importunações de sua mãe, e a dor que mostrava
chorando e lamentando-se constantemente, de maneira que veio
seo pae de proposito para leval-o, dizendo-lhe que sua mãe o
esperava cheia de piedade (modo de fallar para mostrar compaixão):
veio pedir-me licença para o seo regresso chorando por deixar-me
(tanto amam e estimam seos paes!) dizendo que sua mãe estava
magra, e cheia de tristesa por sua ausencia e pensando tambem que
elle definhava estando comigo, asseverando-me que contaria á sua
mãe o bom tratamento que eu lhe dava, e a licença que lhe concedi
de voltar a sua casa.
Um de nossos escravos commetteo uma falta, pela qual ia ser
castigado: mal soube elle desta resolução, e quando ia ser preso,
disse que estava magro, e que não o açoitassem como si fosse
gordo, porque a gordura cobre os ossos, apara os açoites e impede
que a dor lhes chegue. «Si me açoitaes com força me quebraes as
veias apenas cobertas pela pelle», e assim dizia por ser muito
magro.
Para engordarem reuniam-se muitos indios, embarcavam-se n’uma
canoa grande, muniam-se de farinha, de flechas e de cães, iam á
terra firme, onde matavam a caça, que apeteciam, como veados,
onças, capivaras, vaccas bravas, tatùs, e muitos passaros, e ahi se
demorando em quanto havia farinha, engordavam á farta com estas
comidas, e voltavam depois para a Ilha trasendo muita caça assada.
Quando á Ilha regressou da guerra do Pará o indio Brasil
julgando-se magro, pedio licença ao Sr. de Ravardiere para ir á terra
firme levando comsigo alguns Francezes afim de engordar, o que lhe
foi permittido.
Embrenharam-se muito pelo sertão, e quando a felicidade os
encheo de caça, aconteceo-lhes uma desgraça—acabou-se-lhes a
farinha: viram-se obrigados a comer palmito, como si fosse pão, com
a carne que tinham, o que contrariou muito os Francezes não
habituados a esta especie de pão, sentindo muito que a festa não
fosse completa, havendo tanta carne, sem pão e sem sal.
Aconteceo-lhes o mesmo, que a Midas, possuidor de muito ouro,
quando sua mulher lhe apresentou na meza muitas iguarias, todas
porem de ouro, ou então á Tantalo morrendo de sêde apezar de
cercado d’agoa: o mesmo lhes aconteceo, emagreciam em vez de
engordarem por não levarem a farinha necessaria.
N’este ponto os Francezes imitam os selvagens, e por isso estes os
estimam.
Os Francezes residentes no Fórte pedem licença para passeiar e
refazerem-se de forças.
Quando os selvagens sabem d’isto, vão á caça, e mediante a troca
de alguns generos offerecem a estes passeiadores dois ou tres
banquetes: findos estes regressam á sua terra, e assim vão
continuando ora n’uma aldeia, ora n’outra, girando por toda a Ilha,
ou provincia de Tapuitapera e Comã divertindo-se e engordando.
Os Francezes hospedados por seos compadres n’estas aldeias não
são muito felizes em seos passeios, porque se ha então alguma
coisa boa não é para elles, e sim para os viandantes.
Costumam os selvagens dar o melhor, que possuem aos hospedes,
por dois ou tres dias, findos os quaes tratam-nos com o uso
commum e trivial.
 Admire-se, eu vos peço, ainda que ligeiramente, o grande amor de
Deos para com os homens, dando-lhes o sentimento natural da
caridade para com o proximo. O que fazem de melhor os christãos,
ou observam os Religiosos, do que a caridade puramente natural dos
selvagens, que não podem alcançar a gloria, bem differente do que
acontece á caridade sobre natural dos christãos, que espera a
recompensa da vida eterna?
O aceio do corpo faz-se por muitas maneiras, e entre ellas
contam-se estas.
Trazem sempre na bocca a herva do Petun, (tabaco ou fumo) cujo
fumo expellem pela bocca e narinas com intenção de seccar as
humidades do cerebro e as vezes o engolem para limpar o estomago
de cruezas que sahem por meio do arrôto.
Apenas acabam de comer fumam o Petun, e o mesmo praticam
pela manhan e a noite, quando se levantam e deitam-se.
A proposito de Petun devo contar a ideia supersticiosa, que
formam desta herva e do seo fumo.
Crêem, que esta herva os torna discretos, judiciosos, e
eloquentes, de forma que antes de começarem algum discurso usam
d’ella: não me parece, que seja comtudo muito supersticiosa, porque
ha nisto uma razão natural: eu mesmo a experimentei, e reconheci,
que a sua fumaça exclarece o entendimento dissipando os vapores
dos orgãos do cerebro, fortalece a voz seccando a humidade e
escarros da bocca, permittindo assim facilidade á lingua para bem
exercer suas funcções.
É facil experimentar-se isto usando-se d’ella com parcimonia e em
occasião propria, porque o abuso continuado d’ella não me parece
bom e saudavel aos que se alimentam de bebidas e carnes quentes,
porem é util aos que sentem frios e humidos o estomago e o
cerebro.
Eis a razão porque o selvagem, habitante d’esta zona humida, e
que bebe de ordinario somente agoa, uza constantemente d’este
fumo afim de descarregar o cerebro de humidades e frialdade, e o
estomago de cruezas, o que tambem praticam os marinheiros e os
habitantes das praias.
Pondo-se de infusão por espaço de 24 horas esta herva, presta-se
muito para purificar o corpo de infecções. Usa-se somente do vinho.
Crêem tambem que, engolindo o fumo, ficam alegres, joviaes e
previnidos contra a tristesa e melancolia.
Vou referir-vos alguns casos que me contaram:
Um selvagem que foi morto na bocca de uma peça, e de quem
hei-de fallar no Tratado do Spiritual, antes de se encaminhar para o
supplicio pedio um macinho de Petun, como ultima consolação
d’esta vida afim de morrer com energia e alegria. Apenas alcançou o
que desejava mostrou-se alegre e sempre cantando até o fim.
Quando seos companheiros o ataram á bocca da peça, elle pedio
para que não amarrassem o braço direito de fórma que o
embaraçasse de levar á bocca o Petun: quando a bala dividio o seo
corpo em duas partes, uma foi para o mar, e a outra cahio na base
do rochedo, e n’esta achou-se ainda seguro pela mão direita o
mólho de Petun.
Os selvagens sentenciados á morte não soffrem a pena sem
usarem antes do Petun, conforme o costume da terra, e não
deixavam este habito nem mesmo os doentes.
Os feiticeiros do paiz servem-se d’esta planta com proveito, o que
agora não refiro, e sim guardo para o fazer mais adiante, si não me
esquecer.
Empregam ainda outro meio para a conservação da saude.
Comem muitas vezes e pouco de cada uma: depois que comem
lavam muito bem a bocca, e se tem sêde quando comem, bebem
pouco apenas para apagar a sêde, gargarejam bem a agua na bocca
para aplacar o ardor do paladar.
Cozinham muito bem suas comidas, e não usam d’ellas meias
cozidas ou aferventadas, sendo n’isto mais cuidadosos do que os
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