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Biodegradable Polymers Blends and Composites 1st
Edition Sanjay Mavinkere Rangappa (Editor) Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Sanjay Mavinkere Rangappa (editor), Jyotishkumar
Parameswaranpillai (editor), Suchart Siengchin (editor), M. Ramesh (editor)
ISBN(s): 9780128237915, 0128237910
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 23.05 MB
Year: 2021
Language: english
Biodegradable Polymers,
Blends and Composites
Woodhead Publishing Series in Composites
Science and Engineering

Biodegradable Polymers,
Blends and Composites
Edited by

Sanjay Mavinkere Rangappa

Jyotishkumar Parameswaranpillai
Suchart Siengchin
M. Ramesh

Editor-in-Chief

Professor Costas Soutis

Series Editor

Professor Suresh G. Advani

Professor Leif Asp
Professor Yuris A. Dzenis
Professor Ing. Habil. Bodo Fiedler
Professor Adrian Mouritz
Professor Chun H. Wang
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 Table of Contents

1. Introduction to biodegradable polymers

2. Natural rubber-based polymer blends, composites and
nanocomposites
3. Soy protein-based polymer blends, and composites
4. Extraction and characterization of cellulose
5. Cellulose based blends and composites
6. Chitin and chitosan-based blends and composites
7. Starch based blends and composites
8. PLA-based blends and composites
9. PHBV based blends and composites
10. PVA-based blends and composites
11. PBAT-based blends and composites
12. Hydrogel- and aerogel-based composites
13. Polyolyhydroxybutyrate (PHB)-based blends and composites
14. Active and intelligent biodegradable films and polymers
15. Biodegradable biosourced epoxy thermosets, blends, and
composites
16. Analysis and characterization of starches from alternative sources
17. Biocomposites potential for nanotechnology
18. Zein-based blends and composites
19. Biodegradable polymer blends and composites from renewable
resources
20. Electrically conductive biodegradable polymer blends and
composites
21. Biodegradable polymer blends and composites for biomedical
applications
22. Biodegradable polymer blends for tissue engineering
23. Additive manufacturing with biodegradable polymers
24. Production of biodegradable films and blends from proteins
25. Biodegradable polymer blends and composites for food-packaging
applications
26. Biodegradable polymers and green-based antimicrobial
packaging materials
Index
Contributors

V. Abinaya Department of Mechanical Engineering, PSG Institute of Technology

and Applied Research, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Radhamanohar Aepuru Materials Engineering Division, Defence Institute of
Advanced Technology, Pune, Maharashtra, India; Central Institute of Petrochemicals
Engineering and Technology (CIPET): Institute of Plastics Technology (IPT), Kochi,
Kerala, India; Departamento de Ingeniería Mec
anica, Facultad de Ingeniería, Univer-
sidad Tecnol
ogica Metropolitana, Santiago, Chile
Anna Rafaela Cavalcante Braga Department of Chemical Engineering, Universi-
dade Federal de S~ao Paulo (UNIFESP), Diadema, Brazil
Monize Burck Department of Biosciences, Universidade Federal de S~ao Paulo
(UNIFESP), Santos, S~ao Paulo, Brazil
Jes
us María Frías Celayeta Dublin Institute of Technology, Environmental
Sustainability and Health Institute (EHSI), College of Sciences and Health, Dublin,
Ireland
Pijush Kanti Chattopadhyay Department of Leather Technology, Government
College of Engineering and Leather Technology (Post-Graduate), Maulana Abul
Kalam Azad University of Technology, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Naga Srilatha Cheekuramelli Central Institute of Petrochemicals Engineering and
Technology (CIPET): Institute of Plastics Technology (IPT), Kochi, Kerala, India;
Materials Engineering Division, Defence Institute of Advanced Technology, Pune,
Maharashtra, India; Departamento de Ingeniería Mec
anica, Facultad de Ingeniería,
Universidad Tecnol
ogica Metropolitana, Santiago, Chile
Kraipat Cheenkachorn Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok,
Bangkok, Thailand
Yu-Shen Cheng Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National
Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Douliu, Yunlin, Yunlin, Taiwan
Santi Chuetor Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, King
Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand
xiv Contributors

Jorge Alberto Vieira Costa College of Chemistry and Food Engineering, Federal
University of Rio Grande (FURG), Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
Mousumi Deb Advanced Polymer Laboratory, Department of Polymer Science and
Technology, Government College of Engineering and Leather Technology (Post-
Graduate), Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology, Kolkata, West
Bengal, India
B.D.S. Deeraj Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Space Science and
Technology, Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Mariana Buranelo Egea Goiano Federal Institute of Education, Science and Tech-
nology, Rio Verde, Goi
as, Brazil
onio Gilberto Ferreira Federal University of S~ao Carlos (UFSCar), Nuclear
Ant^
Magnetic Resonance Laboratory, S~ao Carlos, Brazil
Michele Giaconia Department of Biosciences, Universidade Federal de S~ao Paulo
(UNIFESP), Santos, S~ao Paulo, Brazil
R.K. Gond Department of Mechanical Engineering, Motilal Nehru National
Institute of Technology, Allahabad, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India
M.K. Gupta Department of Mechanical Engineering, Motilal Nehru National
Institute of Technology, Allahabad, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India
Nishar Hameed Factory of the Future, Swinburne University of Technology,
Hawthorn, VIC, Australia
Naman Jain Department of Mechanical Engineering, Meerut Institute of Engineer-
ing and Technology, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India
Farah Hidayah Jamaludin School of Biomedical Engineering and Health Sciences,
Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
Aswathy Jayakumar School of Biosciences, Mahatma Gandhi University,
Kottayam, Kerala, India; Department of Materials and Production Engineering, The
Sirindhorn International ThaieGerman Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS),
King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand
Jitha S. Jayan Department of Chemistry, School of Arts and Sciences, Amrita
Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri, Kerala, Kollam, India
Kuruvilla Joseph Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Space Science and
Technology, Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Yong Chae Jung Institute of Advanced Composite Materials, Korea Institute of
Science and Technology (KIST), Wanju-gun, Jeonbuk, Republic of Korea
Young Nam Kim Institute of Advanced Composite Materials, Korea Institute of
Science and Technology (KIST), Wanju-gun, Jeonbuk, Republic of Korea; Depart-
ment of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Yonsei University, Seodaemun-
gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
Contributors xv

A.V. Kiruthika Seethalakshmi Achi College for Women, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu,
India
Sukhila Krishnan Sahrdaya College of Engineering and Technology, Department
of Applied Science and Humanities, Kodakara, Thrissur, Kerala, India
Senthilkumar Krishnasamy Department of Materials and Production Engineering,
The Sirindhorn International ThaieGerman Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS),
King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand
Sudheer Kumar School for Advanced Research in Petrochemicals (SARP), Labo-
ratory for Advanced Research in Polymeric Materials (LARPM), Central Institute of
Petrochemicals Engineering & Technology (CIPET), Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Suelen Goettems Kuntzler College of Chemistry and Food Engineering, Federal
University of Rio Grande (FURG), Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
Maria Carolina Bezerra Di-Medeiros Leal Federal University of S~ao Carlos
(UFSCar), Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Laboratory, S~ao Carlos, Brazil
Xiau Yeen Lee Centre for Advanced Materials, Tunku Abdul Rahman University
College (TARUC), Setapak, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Ailton Cesar Lemes Department of Biochemical Engineering, Universidade
Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Technological Center, School of Chemistry, Ilha
do Fund~ao, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ),
School of Chemistry, Department of Biochemical Engineering, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Ravi Prakash Magisetty Materials Engineering Division, Defence Institute of
Advanced Technology, Pune, Maharashtra, India; Central Institute of Petrochemicals
Engineering and Technology (CIPET): Institute of Plastics Technology (IPT), Kochi,
Kerala, India; Departamento de Ingeniería Mec
anica, Facultad de Ingeniería, Univer-
sidad Tecnol
ogica Metropolitana, Santiago, Chile
Abra Mathew Material Sciences and Technology Division, CSIR-National Institute
for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
Sanjay Mavinkere Rangappa Natural Composite Research Group, Department of
Materials and Production Engineering, The Sirindhorn International ThaieGerman
Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS), King Mongkut’s University of Technology
North Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand
Nyak Syazwani Nyak Mazlan Bioresource and Biorefinery Research Group,
Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selan-
gor, Malaysia
C.D. Midhun Dominic Department of Chemistry, Sacred Heart College, Cochin,
Kerala, India
xvi Contributors

K. Madhu Mitha Department of Mechanical Engineering, PSG Institute of Tech-

nology and Applied Research, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Smita Mohanty School for Advanced Research in Petrochemicals (SARP), Labora-
tory for Advanced Research in Polymeric Materials (LARPM), Central Institute of Pet-
rochemicals Engineering & Technology (CIPET), Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Michele Greque de Morais College of Chemistry and Food Engineering, Federal
University of Rio Grande (FURG), Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
Juliana Botelho Moreira College of Chemistry and Food Engineering, Federal
University of Rio Grande (FURG), Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
Marhaini Mostapha Bioresource and Biorefinery Research Group, Faculty of
Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
Daniella Carisa Murador Department of Biosciences, Universidade Federal de S~ao
Paulo (UNIFESP), Santos, S~ao Paulo, Brazil
M. Muthukrishnan Department of Mechanical Engineering, KITe
Kalaignarkarunanidhi Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Indu C. Nair Department of Biotechnology, Sahodaran Ayyappan Smaraka Sree
Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam (SAS SNDPYOGAM), Konni College,
Pathanamthitta, Kerala, India
Sanjay Kumar Nayak School for Advanced Research in Petrochemicals (SARP),
Laboratory for Advanced Research in Polymeric Materials (LARPM), Central Institute
of Petrochemicals Engineering & Technology (CIPET), Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Josemar Gonçalves de Oliveira Filho S~ao Paulo State University (UNESP),
School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Araraquara, Brazil
Jyotishkumar Parameswaranpillai Department of Bioscience, Mar Athanasios
College for Advanced Studies Thiruvalla (MACFAST), Pathanamthitta, Kerala, India
Alessandro Pegoretti University of Trento, Department of Industrial Engineering,
Trento, Italy
G.L. Praveen Wimpey Laboratories, Wimpey Building, Al Quoz, Dubai, United
Arab Emirates
E.K. Radhakrishnan School of Biosciences, Mahatma Gandhi University,
Kottayam, Kerala, India
Sabarish Radoor Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, The
Sirindhorn International ThaieGerman Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS),
King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand;
Department of Materials and Production Engineering, The Sirindhorn International
ThaieGerman Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS), King Mongkut’s University
of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand
Contributors xvii

G. Rajeshkumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, PSG Institute of

Technology and Applied Research, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
L. Rajeshkumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, KPR Institute of
Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
Abhinay Rajput Material Sciences and Technology Division, CSIR-National
Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala,
India
M. Ramesh Department of Mechanical Engineering, KITeKalaignarkarunanidhi
Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Sergiana dos Passos Ramos Department of Biosciences, Universidade Federal de
S~ao Paulo (UNIFESP), Santos, S~ao Paulo, Brazil
Maria Luiza Rezende Ribeiro Federal University of Goi
as (UFG), Nuclear
Magnetic Resonance Laboratory, Goi^ania, Brazil
Gislane Oliveira Ribeiro Federal University of Goi
as (UFG), Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance Laboratory, Goi^ania, Brazil
R. Ronia Richelle Department of Mechanical Engineering, PSG Institute of
Technology and Applied Research, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Daniele Rigotti University of Trento, Department of Industrial Engineering, Trento,
Italy
Haniyeh Rostamzad Fisheries Department, Faculty of Natural Resources,
University of Guilan, Sowmeh Sara, Guilan, Iran
Sushanta K. Sahoo Material Sciences and Technology Division, CSIR-National
Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala,
India
Kushairi Mohd Salleh Bioresource and Biorefinery Research Group, Faculty of
Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
Sathyaraj Sankarlal Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of
Technology, Calicut, Kerala, India
Appukuttan Saritha Department of Chemistry, School of Arts and Sciences,
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri, Kerala, Kollam, India
K. Sekar Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology,
Calicut, Kerala, India
S. Arvindh Seshadri Department of Mechanical Engineering, PSG Institute of
Technology and Applied Research, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
xviii Contributors

Suchart Siengchin Natural Composite Research Group, Department of Materials

and Production Engineering, The Sirindhorn International ThaieGerman Graduate
School of Engineering (TGGS), King Mongkut’s University of Technology North
Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand
Cleber Klasener da Silva College of Chemistry and Food Engineering, Federal
University of Rio Grande (FURG), Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
Harinder Singh Department of Chemical Engineering, Motilal Nehru National
Institute of Technology, Allahabad, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India
Komal Singh Department of Mechanical Engineering, Govind Ballabh Pant Univer-
sity of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, India
Vinay Kumar Singh Department of Mechanical Engineering, Govind Ballabh Pant
University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, India
Nayan Ranjan Singha Advanced Polymer Laboratory, Department of Polymer Sci-
ence and Technology, Government College of Engineering and Leather Technology
(Post-Graduate), Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology, Kolkata,
West Bengal, India
Malinee Sriariyanun Chemical and Process Engineering, The Sirindhorn Interna-
tional ThaieGerman Graduate School of Engineering, King Mongkut’s University
of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand
Aarsha Surendren Central Institute of Petrochemicals Engineering and Technology
(CIPET): Institute of Plastics Technology (IPT), Kochi, Kerala, India; Materials
Engineering Division, Defence Institute of Advanced Technology, Pune, Maharashtra,
India; Departamento de Ingeniería Mec
anica, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Tec-
nol
ogica Metropolitana, Santiago, Chile
Noor Izyan Syazana Mohd Yusoff School of Chemical and Energy Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia;
Centre for Advanced Composite Materials (CACM), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
Skudai, Johor, Malaysia; School of Biomedical Engineering and Health Sciences,
Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia;
Advance Membrane Technology Research Centre (AMTEC), Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
Prapakorn Tantayotai Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Srina-
kharinwirot University, Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand
Atthasit Tawai Chemical and Process Engineering, The Sirindhorn International
ThaieGerman Graduate School of Engineering, King Mongkut’s University of
Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand
Weng Hong Tham School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
Contributors xix

Nisa V. Salim Factory of the Future, Swinburne University of Technology,

Hawthorn, VIC, Australia
Bruna da Silva Vaz College of Chemistry and Food Engineering, Federal
University of Rio Grande (FURG), Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
Akarsh Verma Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Petroleum
and Energy Studies, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
C. Vibha Department of Materials and Production Engineering, The Sirindhorn In-
ternational ThaieGerman Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS), King Mongkut’s
University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand
Mat Uzir Wahit School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineer-
ing, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia; Centre for Advanced
Composite Materials (CACM), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor,
Malaysia
Chunhong Wang School of Textile Science and Engineering, Tiangong University,
Xiqing District, Tianjin, PR China
Tuck-Whye Wong School of Biomedical Engineering and Health Sciences, Faculty
of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia; Advance
Membrane Technology Research Centre (AMTEC), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
Nur Amira Zainul Armir Bioresource and Biorefinery Research Group, Faculty of
Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
Sarani Zakaria Bioresource and Biorefinery Research Group, Faculty of Science
and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
Acknowledgment

The work was supported by Thailand Science Research and Innovation Fund and King
Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok (KMUTNB), Thailand with
contract no. KMUTNB-FF-65-19.
Introduction to biodegradable
polymers 1
M. Ramesh 1 , Sanjay Mavinkere Rangappa 2 , Jyotishkumar Parameswaranpillai 3
and Suchart Siengchin 2
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, KITdKalaignarkarunanidhi Institute of
Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India; 2Natural Composite Research Group,
Department of Materials and Production Engineering, The Sirindhorn International
ThaieGerman Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS), King Mongkut’s University of
Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand; 3Department of Bioscience, Mar Athanasios
College for Advanced Studies Thiruvalla (MACFAST), Pathanamthitta, Kerala, India

1. Introduction
In developing countries, environmental contamination caused by polymeric materials
has reached high levels. Fossil fuel-derived polymers are not biodegradable, and their
resistance to microbial degradation causes them to be stored in the environment.
Furthermore, oil prices have recently risen dramatically. Evidence like this has fueled
research in biodegradable polymers (Mochizuki & Hirami, 1997). These polymers are
improved using techniques such as blending and composite forming, resulting in new
blends with different properties such as high efficiency, strength, and good process-
ability (Hamad et al., 2014; Nair & Laurencin, 2007; Liu & Zhang, 2011; Ramesh
& Rajeshkumar, 2018). Biobased degradable plastics and polymers were first devel-
oped during the 1980s. Biodegradable polymers can be used in a variety of forms,
from nondegradable to naturally degradable. These naturally degradable polymers
can be obtained from renewable sources, while synthetic polymers are made from
nonrenewable petroleum-based sources (Jo et al., 1992). Polylactic acid (PLA), poly-
butylene succinate (PBS), polybutylene succinate adipate (PBSA), polybutylene adipate
co-terephthalate (PBAT), polycaprolactone (PCL), and thermoplastic starch (TPS) have
all sparked interest in biodegradable polymers (Srithep et al., 2011). Biodegradable poly-
mers have low viscosity, poor resilience, low modulus and thermal sensitivity, and high
cost. To overcome these drawbacks, various methodologies such as copolymerization,
compositing, and mixing are commonly used. Blending is the most popular among
them, owing to its lower cost compared to the preparation of copolymers (Bhatia
et al., 2007; Raghavan & Emekalam, 2001; Ramesh, Kumar et al., 2020). In Fig. 1.1,
an overview of these polymers is provided based on their origin and production methods
(Mochizuki & Hirami, 1997).

Biodegradable Polymers, Blends and Composites. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-823791-5.00024-7

Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 Biodegradable Polymers, Blends and Composites

Figure 1.1 Classification of biobased polymers (Ghanbarzadeh & Almasi).

2. Biodegradable polymers
Biodegradation occurs as a result of the reaction of enzymes and/or chemical oxidation
in living organisms. This biodegradation happens in two phases. The first phase is the
fragmentation of polymers into lower molecular mass organisms by abiotic reactions
such as oxidation, photodegradation, or hydrolysis, or biotic reactions such as micro-
organism degradation. In the second phase the bioassimilation and mineralization of
polymer particles takes place by microorganisms (Jo et al., 1992). For researchers
and scientists, reducing the widespread use of petrochemical thermoplastics (polypro-
pylene, polystyrene, polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, and so on) and thermosets
(epoxy, polyester, vinyl ester, phenols, and so on) has become a problem. Researchers
and scientists are interested in developing biopolymers to replace petrochemical poly-
mers in this context. The main difference between petrochemical polymers and bio-
polymers is their structure. Biopolymers have well-defined primary, secondary, and
tertiary structures, whereas petrochemical polymers have repeated units called mono-
mers. Starch is a naturally occurring biopolymer, while PLA and polyhydroxybutyrate
(PHB) are two more widely used biopolymers.

2.1 Polyhydroxybutyrate
This is a biopolymer with a number of characteristics, including being insoluble in
water, and having low moisture absorption and strong ultraviolet resistance. PHB,
Introduction to biodegradable polymers 3

on the other hand, has lower thermal stability since its glass transition temperature is about
2 C. This also has a poor tolerance for acids and bases. It is suitable for medical use
because it is biodegradable. PHB is the most common polymer in the polyhydroxyalka-
noates (PHA) family, and it refers to the short-chain length PHA with monomers contain-
ing a number of carbon atoms. A biosynthetic method for the production of PHB has been
developed due to the fermentation of sugar by the bacterium Alcaligenes eutrophus. The
PHB homopolymer is highly crystalline in nature, exceedingly brittle, and moderately
hydrophobic, much like other PHA homopolymers. As a result, the PHA homopoly-
mers have in vivo degradation with respect to time (Mochizuki & Hirami, 1997).

2.2 Poly-lactic acid

This is a biodegradable polymer made from potato, sugarcane bagasse, maize, and
other agricultural fermentation wastes. PLA is a lactic acid cyclic dimer made from
D- or L-lactic acid polycondensation or lactide ring opening polymerization. The nat-
ural isomer is L-lactide, while the synthetic mixture is D-lactide (Ayala et al., 2009).
PLA is a hydrophobic nature polymer due to the availability of eCH3 groups. It is
much more resistant to hydrolysis than polyglycolide due to the steric shielding effect
of methyl groups. The average glass transition temperature for commercial PLA is
64 C, the elongation at break is around 31%, and the tensile load carrying capacity
is about 32 MPa (Ray et al., 2005). It has excellent mechanical properties and is
easy to process. However, it has some disadvantages, such as low impact strength,
higher water absorption, and high brittleness. It has a wide variety of uses, including
pharmaceuticals, packaging, textiles, and household items. PLA can be processed to
improve chain mobility and allow the crystallization process. This process is done
with oligomeric acid and citrate ester with low-molecular-weight polyethylene glycol
(Ray & Bousmina, 2005). The rate of PLA degradation varies depending on the crys-
tallinity index. PLA has a low degradation value when compared to polyglycolide, and
so certain copolymers have been examined as bioresorbable orthopedic materials
(Ramesh, Rajeshkumar, & Balaji, 2021). The biodegradation nature of PLA also
can be improved by a grafting process. During this process L-lactide on chitosan
was used to perform ring opening polymerization with a catalyst. The transition tem-
perature and thermal stability of grafted copolymers rise as the grafting percentage
rises. As the lactide content rises, the graft polymer’s degradation decreases (Zhao
et al., 2012).

2.3 Polyglycolide
Polyglycolide is the simple linear aliphatic polyester made by ring opening poly-
merization of a cyclic lactone and glycolide. It is crystalline in nature, with a crys-
tallinity index of around 50%, and hence is insoluble in several organic solvents.
Polyglycolide has a melting temperature of 220e225 C and the range of the glass
transition temperature is 35e40 C (Xie et al., 2013). The polyglycolide has good
mechanical strength. However, due to its poor solubility and high rate of acid-
producing degradation, its biomedical applications are limited. As a result,
4 Biodegradable Polymers, Blends and Composites

caprolactone, lactide, or trimethylene carbonate glycolide copolymers have been

developed for medical instruments (Nair & Laurencin, 2007; Ramesh & Rajeshkumar,
2021).

2.4 Natural rubber

Natural rubber has been used to prepare biocomposites by reinforcing high-strength
natural or synthetic fibers due to their high strength ratio, high water resistance, and
high durability. Latex is a product that is typically obtained from a rubber tree. Latex
is a milky, sticky colloid that is collected using tapping processes. During tapping, in-
cisions in the bark are made, and the fluid is collected in vessels. The latex is extracted
and poured into dry rubber preparation coagulation tanks or ammoniation-sealed
airtight containers. Ammoniation keeps the latex in a colloidal state for a long time.
It is normally coagulated under formic acid cleaning control or refined into latex
concentrate for the manufacture of dipped products. Natural rubber is used mainly
in industries, including transportation, pharmaceutical, agricultural, and aerospace
(Mochizuki & Hirami, 1997; Jo et al., 1992).

2.5 Starch
Starch, a polymeric carbohydrate, is one of the most widely used biopolymers pro-
vided by green plants. It contains a significant number of glucose-bound glycosidic
bonds. It is found in a variety of crops, including wheat, corn, and rice. It is a white
color powder that is odorless, tasteless, and soluble in water and ethanol. It can be con-
verted to sugar and used to make ethanol for whisky, beer, and biofuels by malting and
fermenting it (Jo et al., 1992).

2.6 Polycarbonate
Polycarbonate is made by ring opening trimethylene carbonate that has been catalyzed
with diethyl zinc. A flexible polymer with a high molecular weight has been produced,
but it performs poorly in mechanical aspects (Raquez et al., 2008). Because of this na-
ture, its applications are restricted, and copolymers are used more frequently. Glycolide
and dioxanone were used to make copolymers (Balakrishnan et al., 2010; Reddy et al.,
2008). Polypropylene carbonate is made by copolymerizing propylene oxide and CO2.
Polycarbonate has positive qualities such as usability and impact tolerance. Its thermal
withstanding nature and biodegradability must be enhanced. A traditional method is to
combine it with other polymeric materials (Ramesh, Rajeshkumar, Deepa et al., 2021).
Poly[oligo(tetramethylene succinate)-co(tetramethylene carbonate)] a polyester carbon-
ate is marketed by Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Co. The carbonate content of the copolymer
can be modified. The melting temperature of this is around 105 C. The addition of car-
bonate to polyoligotetra-methylene succinate may have caused crystal structure disorder,
lowering its melting temperature and making it more susceptible to enzymatic and mi-
crobial attacks than polyolefins. It has been shown that this copolyester carbonate has a
higher microbial degradability than both of its constituents (Vroman & Tighzert, 2009).
Introduction to biodegradable polymers 5

2.7 Soy-based biodegradable polymers

In terms of environmental concerns, polymer disposal has become the most important
subject for scientists. As a result, researchers are attempting to create biopolymers from
biodegradable and environmentally friendly agricultural materials, such as starches
and proteins. Soybeans have numerous advantages, including low cost, ample avail-
ability, and suitability for the manufacture of a wide range of chemicals and biodegrad-
able plastics. Other biopolymers include polybutylene succinate and PCL, which are
commonly used for fiber reinforcement in biodegradable materials.

2.8 Polycaprolactone
This is a cyclic monomer that is relatively inexpensive. The ring-opening polymeriza-
tion process of caprolactone in the mixture of a tin octoate catalyst yields a semicrys-
talline linear polymer (Tan et al., 2011). Polycaprolactone is soluble in different
solutions. Its glass transition temperature is about 50 C, and its melting range is
around 63 C. It is a semisolid material with a medium- and high-density polyethylene
modulus, a low tensile value of around 25 MPa, and a high elongation breakage when
used at room temperature. Because of its low transition temperature, polycaprolactone
is used as a compatibilizer or a soft block in polyurethane processing. PCL is easily
degraded by fungi and enzymes (Nam et al., 2012; Nie et al., 2012). To speed up
the degradation process, many copolymers containing lactide or glycolide have been
created (Biresaw & Carriere, 2002).

2.9 Polyurethanes
Polyurethane has been widely developed to meet the highly diverse fields of new
methodologies such as application coatings, adhesives, fabrics, foams, elastomers,
etc. (Middleton & Tipton, 1998). It is a specific polymer substance with an extensive
range of physical and chemical characteristics. Polyurethanes are used to make three
components: a diisocyanate, a chain extension, and a polyol material. They combine
to form a different polymer with alternating hard and soft segments. The soft compo-
nent is used to make polyols like polyester polyols and polyether polyols. A hard sec-
tion is used to build the diisocyanate and the extender. The biodegradation process of
polyurethanes is influenced by the chemical composition. The deterioration can be
modified by selecting an appropriate soft part. Biodegradability is not an issue with
polyether-based polyurethanes. Polyurethanes are readily biodegradable if the polyol
is a polyester (Maharana et al., 2009).

2.10 Polyanhydrides
Kumar et al. (Saravana Kumar et al., 2017) conducted a study of polyanhydrides and
found that they are interesting biodegradable materials due to their hydrolyzable sites
in the repeating unit. The rate of degradation is determined by the polymer
6 Biodegradable Polymers, Blends and Composites

components. Aromatic polyanhydrides degrade slowly with respect to time, while

aliphatic polyanhydrides degrade in a matter of days. Diacyl chloride reaction with
coupling agents (Briassoulis, 2004), diacid or diacid ester melt condensation, anhy-
dride polymerization opening loop, interfacial condensation, and diacyl chloride reac-
tion with coupling agents have all been investigated. Aliphatic homopolyanhydrides
have restricted applications due to their high crystallinity index and rapid degradation.
The rate of degradation of polyanhydride can be corrected by adjusting the hydropho-
bic and hydrophilic constituents in the polymer. Slower degradation was aided by the
polymers’ diacid building blocks’ increased hydrophobicity. These polymers with hy-
drophobic aromatic comonomers, such as carboxyphenoxypropane, have been studied
widely as biomaterials (Jacobsen & Fritz, 1999). As a wide variety of diacid monomers
are available, polyanhydrides with various linkages have been made which include
ether, ester, and urethane linkages. Anhydride-amide copolymers have also been
developed to enhance the mechanical strengths of polyanhydrides for medical applica-
tions (Miller et al., 1977). The other approach is to use acrylic functional groups in the
monomeric unit. As a consequence, photo-cross-linkable polyanhydrides are formed.
The mechanical properties of these cross-linked polyanhydrides vary depending on the
monomeric species.

3. Biodegradable polymer blends

3.1 PLA-based blends
3.1.1 Poly-lactic acid/polystyrene (PLA/PS) blends
PLA/PS blends of interfacial tension were characterized by Biresaw and Carriere
(Biresaw & Carriere, 2002; Mohamed et al., 2007a; Ramesh, RajeshKumar, &
Bhuvaneshwari, 2021) using various techniques of experiments and simulation.
They assessed the thermal behavior and interfacial compatibility between a PLA/
PS blend, and it was discovered from the results that a physically formed bonding
existed between the unshared electron pair of PLA carbonyl groups and the PS elec-
trons of the aromatic ring that is termed as an n-bond, which was observed by a tran-
sition in the carbonyl absorption band at nearly 1760 cm 1 of individual PLA to the
lower wavelet number in the PLA/PS blend. The consequence of this bond formation
was a form of poor interfacial compatibility that resulted in the blend having a higher
maximum thermal stability than pure PLA (Hamad et al., 2011; Biresaw & Carriere,
2004). Tensile property tests were used to assess the compatibility of PLA/PS poly-
mer blends, which were compared to other PS/biodegradable systems made using
extrusion processes, such as PCL/PS and PBS/PS (Hamad et al., 2010). In contrast
to PLA/PS, PCL and PBS blended with PS demonstrated excellent compatibility.
The analysis of the rheological characteristics of PLA/PS blends revealed conven-
tional thinning across the shear length of the specimen under normal shear stress
rates and it was also observed that as the content of PLA increased, blend viscosity
decreased (Li & Shimizu, 2009).
Introduction to biodegradable polymers 7

3.1.2 PLA/PE blends

As compared to pure PLA, blending PLA in PE enhances the impact strength, which
was even more evident when compatibilizers were used, while tensile properties, such
as tensile modulus, Young’s modulus, and elongation, were lower in compatible and
incompatible materials than in pure PLA. Raghavan and Emekalam prepared PLA/PE
blends, and the degradation of blends due to the influence of additives of starch was
investigated (Ramesh & Kumar, 2020; Kanzawa & Tokumitsu, 2011; Wang et al.,
2012). They discovered that adding starch to the mixture makes it more acid degrad-
able. The mechanical characteristics of PLA/PE blends were studied, and it was
discovered that adding the filler materials to be blended increased the Young’s
modulus, while it lowered the load-bearing capacity and the elongation of the blends
(St-Pierre et al., 1997). Many experimenters (Prinos et al., 1998) have manufactured
PLA/PE polymer blends and evaluated their mechanical and thermal properties.
Weak compatibility was observed and hence the blend’s tensile characteristics
decreased without an increase in thermal stability.

3.1.3 PLA/ABS blends

ABS’s strong mechanical properties, such as impact strength, tensile strength, and ten-
sile modulus, have contributed to the widespread use of novel materials with stand-
alone characteristics in blending technology. Blends of PLA/ABS biopolymers have
been also manufactured, made compatible with the aid of styrene/acrylonitrile/glycidyl
methacrylate copolymer (SAN-GMA) through the incorporation of ethyltriphenyl-
phosphonium bromide (ETPB) as a catalyst material, and have been characterized
by a number of authors (Kaseem et al., 2012a). In the presence of ETPB, SAN-
GMA was an important compatibilizer for promoting the reaction between PLA/
ABS blends, as demonstrated by a large increase in rubber particle dispersion as
well as enhanced impact toughness and Poisson’s ratio, with only a slight decrease
in tensile modulus and strength as compared with individual PLA.

3.1.4 PLA/PP blends

Experiments have been carried out by a number of experimenters (Ramesh, Deepa
et al., 2020; Rosa et al., 2010; Leo et al., 2011; Schlemmer et al., 2007) on
manufacturing and analysis of PLA/PP blends for their properties. The morphological
and thermal characteristics of PLA/PP blends were only partially compatible at the
time of melting. The morphology of the 50% PLA blend revealed ill-defined interfaces
similar to those used in compatible PLA/PE systems. PLA/PP blend fibers are also
more resistant to hydrolysis than pure PLA, and PP improves PLA’s ability to be
converted to a dye material.

3.1.5 PLA/PC blends

Some experimenters (Schlemmer et al., 2009; Balaji et al., 2021; Pimentel et al., 2007)
have prepared PLA/PC blends with the radical indicator dicumyl peroxide (DCP), and
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