DC GENERATOR

Definition: A DC generator is an electromechanical energy conversion device that converts

mechanical power into DC electrical power through the process of electromagnetic induction.

Working Principle (Statement): A DC generator operates on the principle of electromagnetic

induction i.e. when the magnetic flux linking a conductor changes, an EMF is induced in the
conductor.

The direction of induced EMF in the armature conductor of the DC generator is determined by
the Fleming’ right hand rule.

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule states that if we arrange our thumb, forefinger and middle finger
of the right-hand perpendicular to each other, then the thumb points towards the direction of
the motion of the conductor relative to the magnetic field, the forefinger points towards the
direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger points towards the direction of the induced
current.

A DC generator has a field winding and an armature winding. The EMF induced in the armature
winding of a DC generator is alternating one and is converted into direct voltage using a
commutator mounted on the shaft of the generator. The armature winding of DC Generator is
placed on the rotor whereas the field winding is placed on the stator.

Construction of a DC Generator / DC Motor

Here is the schematic diagram of a DC Generator/Motor
A DC generator/ Motor consists of six main parts, which are as follows

1. Yoke:
The outer frame of a DC generator/Motor is a hollow cylinder made up of cast steel or rolled
steel is known as yoke. The yoke serves following two purposes,

a. It supports the field pole core and acts as a protecting cover to the machine.
b. It provides a path for the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.

2. Magnetic Field System

 The magnetic field system of a DC generator/Motor is the stationary part of the
machine.
 It produces the main magnetic flux in the generator/Motor.
 It consists of an even number of pole cores bolted to the yoke and field winding wound
around the pole core.
 The field system of DC generator/Motor has salient poles i.e. the poles project inwards
and each pole core has a pole shoe having a curved surface.
 The pole shoe serves two purposes,
a. It provides support to the field coils.
b. It reduces the reluctance of magnetic circuit by increasing the cross-sectional area
of it.
 The pole cores are made of thin laminations of sheet steel which are insulated from
each other to reduce the eddy current loss.
 The field coils are connected in series with one another such that when the current flows
through the coils, alternate north and south poles are produced in the direction of
rotation.

3. Armature Core
 The armature core of DC generator/Motor is mounted on the shaft and rotates between
the field poles.
 It has slots on its outer surface and the armature conductors are put in these slots.
  The armature core is a made up of soft iron laminations which are insulated from each
other and tightly clamped together.
 In small machines, the laminations are keyed directly to the shaft, whereas in large
machines, they are mounted on a spider.
 The laminated armature core is used to reduce the eddy current loss.

4. Armature Winding
 The insulated conductors are put into the slots of the armature core.
 The conductors are suitably connected. This connected arrangement of conductors is
known as armature winding.
 There are two types of armature windings are used - wave winding and lap winding.

5. Commutator
 A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating emf generated in
the armature winding into the direct voltage across the load terminals (in case of DC
Generator).
 A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the direct current input to the
motor from the DC source into alternating current in the armature winding Iin case of
DC Motor).
 The commutator is made of wedge-shaped copper segments insulated from each other
and from the shaft by mica sheets.
 Each segment of commutator is connected to the ends of the armature coils.

6. Brushes
 The brushes are mounted on the commutator and are used to collect the current from
the armature winding (in case of DC Generator).
 The brushes are mounted on the commutator and are used to inject the current from the
DC source into the armature windings (in case of DC Motor).
  The brushes are made of carbon and is supported by a metal box called brush holder.
The pressure exerted by the brushes on the commutator is adjusted and maintained at
constant value by means of springs.
 The current flows from the armature winding to the external circuit through the
commutator and carbon brushes (in case of DC Generator).
 The current flows from the external DC source to the armature winding through the
carbon brushes and commutator (in case of DC Motor).

Working Principle of DC Generator (detailed Explanation):

The working principle of DC generator is based on the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction. According to this law, when the magnetic flux liked to a conductor or coil changes
an EMF is induced in the conductor or coil. The magnitude of this induced EMF is given by,
𝑑𝜙
𝑒=𝑁 ⋅⋅⋅ (1)
𝑑𝑡
Where, ϕ is the flux linkage of the coil and N is the number of turns in the coil.
In case of a DC generator, the magnetic flux (ϕ) remains stationary and the coil rotates. The
EMF induced where the coil is rotating and flux is stationary, is known as dynamically
induced EMF.

In order to understand the working principle of a DC generator, we consider a single loop DC

generator (i.e. N = 1) as shown in above figure. Here, the coil is rotated by some prime mover
(a source of mechanical energy), and there is a change in the magnetic flux linkage to the coil.

The following points explain the working principle of a DC generator −

 Position 1 − The induced EMF is zero because, the movement of coil sides is parallel
to the magnetic flux.

 Position 2 − The coil sides are moving at an angle to the magnetic flux, and hence a
small EMF is generated in the loop.

 Position 3 − The coil sides are moving at right angle to the magnetic flux, therefore the
induced EMF is maximum.

 Position 4 − The coil sides are cutting the magnetic flux at an angle, thus a reduced
EMF is induced in the coil sides.
 Position 5 − No flux linkage with the coil side and the coil sides are moving parallel to
the magnetic flux. Therefore, no EMF is induced in the coil.
  Position 6 − The coil sides move under a pole of opposite polarity and hence the
polarity of induced EMF is reversed. The maximum EMF will induce in this direction
at position 7 and zero when it is at position 1. This cycle repeats with rotation of the
coil.

In this way, EMF is induced in a DC generator. Though, this induced EMF is alternating in
nature, which is then converted in the unidirectional EMF by using a device
called commutator.

EMF equation of DC generator

Let,

ϕ = flux per pole

P = number of poles in the generator

Z = no.of armature conductors

A = no.of parallel paths

N = speed of armature in RPM

E = EMF generated

Thus, the magnetic flux (in weber) cut by a conductor in one revolution of the armature is given
by,

dϕ = P × ϕ
If N is the number of revolutions per minute, then the time (in seconds) taken complete one
revolution is,
60
dt =
N
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the EMF induced per conductor is
given by,
dϕ 60 PϕN
EMF/conductor = = Pϕ ( N ) =
dt 60

The total EMF generated in the generator is equal to the EMF per parallel path, which is the
product of EMF per conductor and the number of conductors in series per parallel path, i.e.,

E = (EMF/Conductor) × (No. of conductors/parallel path)

PϕN Z
⇒E= ×
60 A
ϕZN P
∴E= X ⋅⋅⋅ (1)
60 A
Equation (1) is called the EMF equation of DC generator.

For wave winding,

Number of parallel paths, A=2

 ϕZNP
∴E= 120

For lap winding,

Number of parallel paths, A=P

ϕZN
∴E= 60

For a given DC generator, Z, P and A are constant so that the generated EMF (E) is directly
proportional to flux per pole (ϕ) and speed of armature rotation (N).
 DC MOTOR
Definition: A DC motor is an electromechanical energy conversion device, which converts
electrical energy input into the mechanical energy output.

Working Principle (Statement): The operation of the DC motor is based on the principle that
when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical force acts on the
conductor.

The magnitude of this force is given by,

𝐹 = 𝐵𝑖𝑙 Newtons

Where,

 B is the magnetic flux density,

 I is the current flowing in the conductor or coil, and

 l is length of the conductor.

The direction of this Force is given by the Fleming's left hand rule.
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule states that if we arrange our thumb, forefinger and middle finger
of the left-hand perpendicular to each other, then the thumb points towards the direction of the
force experienced by the conductor, the forefinger points towards the direction of the magnetic
field and the middle finger points towards the direction of the electric current.

Working Principle of DC Motor (detailed Explanation):

In order to understand the working principle of dc motor, consider a two pole DC motor as
shown in Figure-1.
When terminals of this DC motor are connected to an external source of DC supply, the
following two phenomenon happen inside the machine:
 The field electromagnets are excited developing alternate N and S poles.
 The armature conductors carry electric currents. Where, conductors under N-pole carry
currents in one direction (say inside of the plane of the paper), while conductors under
S-pole carry currents in the opposite direction (say outward of the plane of the paper).
 Since, in this case, each conductor is carrying a current and is placed in a magnetic
field. Due to the interaction between the current and magnetic field, a mechanical force
acts on the conductor.
 By applying Fleming’s left hand rule, it is clear that the mechanical force on each
conductor is tending to move the conductor in the anticlockwise direction. The
mechanical forces on all the conductors add together to produce a driving torque that
sets the armature rotating.
 When the conductor moves from one pole side to the other, the current in that conductor
is reversed due to commutation action, and at the same time, it comes under the
influence of the next pole of opposite polarity. As a result, the direction of the force on
the conductor remains the same. In this way, the armature of a DC motor rotates
continuously in one direction.
 In a DC motor, when the armature rotates under the influence of the driving torque, the
armature conductors move through the magnetic field, and therefore an EMF is induced
in them by the generator action. This induced EMF in the armature conductors acts in
opposite direction to the applied voltage Vs and is known as the back EMF or counter
EMF.
 The magnitude of the back EMF is given by,

𝜙𝑍𝑁 𝑃
𝐸𝑏 = 𝑋 𝐴 ⋅⋅⋅(1)
60

 The back EMF Eb is always less than the applied voltage Vs. However, this difference
is small when the DC motor is running under normal conditions.

Torque Equation of a DC Motor:

In DC motors, the back EMF Eb induced in the armature opposes the applied voltage, thus the
applied voltage has to overcome this EMF Eb to force a current Ia in the armature circuit for
motor action. The required power to overcome this opposition is given by,

𝑃𝑚 = 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 ⋅⋅⋅ (2)

The power Pm is one which actually is converted into mechanical power. For this reason, the
power Pm is also called as electrical equivalent of mechanical power developed.

The mechanical power Pm is related to the electromagnetic torque Tg as,

𝑃𝑚 = 𝑇𝑔 𝜔 … (3)

Where, ω is speed in rad/sec.

Now equating equation (2) and (3) we get,

𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 = 𝑇𝑔 𝜔 … (4)
 𝜙𝑍𝑁 𝑃 2𝜋𝑁
Substitute, 𝐸𝑏 = 𝑋 𝐴 and 𝜔 = in equation (4)
60 60

We get,
𝜙𝑍𝑃𝐼𝑎
𝑇𝑔 = … (5)
2𝜋𝐴

This is the torque equation of DC motor. It can be further simplified as:

𝑇𝑔 = 𝐾𝑎 𝜙 𝐼𝑎 … (6)
𝑍𝑃
Where, 𝐾𝑎 = 2𝜋𝐴 , is constant for a particular machine and therefore the torque of DC motor
varies with only flux φ and armature current Ia.

Types of DC Machines:
DC Machines (Generator or Motor) are classified as:
1. Separately Excited
2. Self-excited
a. Series
b. Shunt
c. Compound

Applications of DC Machines:
At present, a large amount of electrical energy is generated in the form of alternating current.
Consequently, the use of DC machines (motors or generators) has become limited. However,
dc machines are still used in several applications like for supplying excitation systems of
alternators, in electrolytic processes, welding processes, etc.
A. Applications of DC Generators
There are different types of DC generators are available for the various types of applications.
The applications of various types of DC generators based on their characteristics are as follows:
1. Separately Excited DC Generators
A separately excited DC generator requires an independent external DC source for the
excitation of field winding. Thus, it is expensive and being rarely used. Following are some
application of separately excited DC generators −
 These are able to produce a wide range of voltage output, they are primarily used in
laboratory and commercial testing.
 These are used in speed regulation tests.
 These generators operate in a stable condition with any change in field excitation.
Therefore, they are also used in supplying power to the DC motors, whose speed being
to be controlled.
 a. Series DC Generators
A series DC generator has limited applications. Some of the applications of a series DC
generator are as follows:
 The rising characteristics of a series DC generator makes it suitable for voltage boosting
applications in the feeders in the various types of distribution systems.
 A series DC generator has the tendency to supply constant load current. Hence, several
series generators can be connected in series to provide high voltage DC power
transmission at constant load current.
 The series DC generators are also used in supplying field excitation current in DC
locomotives for regenerative breaking.
 The series generators also find applications in series arc lightening.
b. Shunt DC Generators
A shunt DC generator produces constant terminal voltage for small distance operations.
Therefore, these are used in following applications:
 They are used for battery charging applications.
 Shunt DC generators with field regulators are used for lighting and power supply
purposes.
 Use for giving excitation to the alternators.
c. Compound DC Generators
The compound DC generators are used in following applications:
 The over compounded generators have ability to compensate voltage drop in the
transmission lines and tends to maintain constant voltage at the consumer's end.
Therefore, the over compounded generators are used in supplying loads through long
transmission lines.
 Cumulative compound generators are used for supplying power to DC motors.
 Cumulative compound generators are used for lighting, power supply purposes and for
heavy power services, etc.
 The differential compound generators are used for arc welding purposes where a large
voltage drop and constant current is required.
B. Applications of DC Motors
The applications of different types of DC motors are given below:
a. Series DC Motor
 Series DC motors are used in applications where high starting torque is required.
 Series DC motors are used in cranes and hoists.
 Series DC motors are used in electric tractions.
 They are used in air compressors.
 They are also used in vacuum cleaners.
 Series DC motors are also used in sewing machines, etc.
b. Shunt DC Motor
 Shunt DC motors are used in applications that require constant speed.
 Shunt DC motors are used for driving lathe machines.
 These are also used in centrifugal pumps and blowers.
 These are used in fans, conveyors, and spinning machines.
 These DC motors are also used in lifts.
c. Compound DC Motor
 Compound DC motors are used in those applications which require high starting torque
and constant speed.
 Used in printing presses.
 They are also used in shears.
 They are used in elevators and lifts.
 Compound DC motors are also used in rolling mills and heavy planners, etc.