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Articulatory Phonetics 1st Edition Bryan Gick Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Bryan Gick, Ian Wilson, Donald Derrick
ISBN(s): 9781405193214, 1405193212
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 8.89 MB
Year: 2013
Language: english
Praise for Articulatory Phonetics

“Life has just become less lonely for Acoustic and Auditory Phonetics. Gick,
Wilson, and Derrick have given us a marvelous addition to the classroom,
providing an authoritative description of speech articulation, an insightful
and balanced guide to the theory of cognitive control of speech, and a
highly readable introduction to the methods used in articulatory phonetics.
All students of phonetics should study this book!”
Keith Johnson, University of California, Berkeley

“Gick, Wilson, and Derrick offer an engaging, comprehensive introduction

to how articulation works and how it is investigated in the laboratory. This
textbook fills an important gap in our training of phoneticians and speech
scientists.”
Patrice Beddor, University of Michigan

“A rich yet approachable source of phonetic information, this new text is

well structured, well designed, and full of original diagrams.”
James Scobbie, Queen Margaret University
ARTICULATORY
PHONETICS
Bryan Gick, Ian Wilson,
and Donald Derrick

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

This edition first published 2013
© 2013 Bryan Gick, Ian Wilson, and Donald Derrick

Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s
publishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical
business to form Wiley-Blackwell.

Registered Office
John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

Editorial Offices
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For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how
to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at
www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell.

The right of Bryan Gick, Ian Wilson, and Donald Derrick to be identified as the authors of this
work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
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understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If
professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent
professional should be sought.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Gick, Bryan.
â•… Articulatory phonetics / Bryan Gick, Ian Wilson, and Donald Derrick.
â•…â•… p. cm.
â•… Includes index.
â•… ISBN 978-1-4051-9321-4 (cloth) – ISBN 978-1-4051-9320-7 (pbk.)â•… 1.╇ Phonetics.â•… 2.╇ Speech–
Physiological aspects.â•… 3.╇ Speech processing systems.â•… I.╇ Wilson, Ian, 1966–â•… II. Derrick, Donald.
â•… P221.G48 2013
â•… 414'.8–dc23
2012031381

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Cover image: Brain scan © Photodisc. Graphic of a digital sound on black bottom. © iDesign/
Shutterstock. Active nerve cell © Sebastian Kaulitzki/Shutterstock.
Cover design by Nicki Averill Design

Set in 10.5/13 pt Palatino by Toppan Best-set Premedia Limited

1â•… 2013
 Table of Contents

List of Figures ix
Acknowledgments xix
Introduction xxi

Part Iâ•… Getting to Sounds 1

1 The Speech System and Basic Anatomy 3
1.1 The Speech Chain 3
1.1.1 The speech production chain 6
1.2 The Building Blocks of Articulatory Phonetics 7
1.2.1 Materials in the body 9
1.3 The Tools of Articulatory Phonetics 10
Exercises 12
References 13

2 Where It All Starts: The Central Nervous System 15

2.1 The Basic Units of the Nervous System 15
2.1.1 The action potential: how the nervous
system communicates 18
2.2 The Central Nervous System 19
2.2.1 Speech areas in the brain 22
2.3 Measuring the Brain: fMRI, PET, EEG, MEG, TMS 27
Exercises 30
References 31
vi Articulatory Phonetics

3 From Thought to Movement: The Peripheral

Nervous System 33
3.1 The Peripheral Nervous System 33
3.1.1 Cranial nerves 34
3.1.2 Spinal nerves 36
3.2 How Muscles Move 38
3.3 Measuring Muscles: EMG 41
3.3.1 The speed of thought to movement 43
Exercises 45
References 46

4 From Movement to Flow: Respiration 47

4.1 Breathing Basics 47
4.1.1 Two principles for respiration 47
4.1.2 Lung volumes 48
4.1.3 Measuring lung volume 50
4.2 The Anatomy of Breathing 51
4.2.1 The lungs 51
4.2.2 The hard parts: bones and cartilages
of respiration 53
4.2.3 Passive forces of breathing 57
4.2.4 Inspiratory muscles 57
4.2.5 Expiratory muscles 61
4.2.6 The respiratory cycle revisited 64
4.3 Measuring Airflow and Pressure:
Pneumotachograph 66
4.4 Sounds 67
4.4.1 /h/ 67
4.4.2 Pitch and loudness 68
Exercises 68
References 69

5 From Flow to Sound 71

5.1 Intrinsic Laryngeal Anatomy 71
5.1.1 The hard parts 72
5.1.2 Intrinsic laryngeal muscles 74
5.2 Sounds: The Voice 78
5.2.1 Modal phonation 78
5.2.2 Theories of modal phonation 80
5.2.3 Pitch control 86
5.2.4 Voicelessness 89
5.3 Measuring the Vocal Folds: EGG 90
Exercises 91
References 94
 Table of Contents vii

Part IIâ•… Articulating Sounds 97

6 Articulating Laryngeal Sounds 99
6.1 Extrinsic Laryngeal Anatomy 100
6.1.1 The hard parts 100
6.1.2 Extrinsic laryngeal muscles 101
6.2 Sounds 106
6.2.1 Non-modal phonation types 106
6.2.2 The glottalic airstream mechanism 114
6.3 Measuring Laryngeal Articulations: Endoscopy 118
Exercises 120
References 122

7 Articulating Velic Sounds 125

7.1 Anatomy of the Velum 125
7.1.1 The hard parts 126
7.1.2 Muscles of the velum 129
7.2 Sounds 134
7.2.1 The oral-nasal distinction: more on the VPP 134
7.2.2 Uvular constrictions: the oropharyngeal isthmus 136
7.3 Measuring the Velum: X-ray Video 138
Exercises 140
References 141

8 Articulating Vowels 143

8.1 The Jaw and Extrinsic Tongue Muscles 146
8.1.1 The hard parts 146
8.1.2 Jaw muscles 148
8.1.3 Extrinsic tongue muscles 152
8.2 Sounds: Vowels 154
8.2.1 High front vowels 156
8.2.2 High back vowels 156
8.2.3 Low vowels 157
8.2.4 ATR and RTR 159
8.3 Measuring Vowels: Ultrasound 160
Exercises 163
References 164

9 Articulating Lingual Consonants 167

9.1 The Intrinsic Tongue Muscles 167
9.1.1 The transversus and verticalis muscles 168
9.1.2 The longitudinal muscles 170
9.2 Sounds: Lingual Consonants 171
9.2.1 Degrees of constriction and tongue bracing 171
9.2.2 Locations of constriction 176
viii Articulatory Phonetics

9.3 Measuring Lingual Consonants: Palatography and

Linguography 180
Exercises 182
References 186

10 Articulating Labial Sounds 189

10.1 Muscles of the Lips and Face 192
10.1.1 The amazing OO 192
10.1.2 Other lip and face muscles 194
10.2 Sounds: Making Sense of [labial] 196
10.3 Measuring the Lips and Face: Point Tracking and Video 198
Exercises 202
References 203

11 Putting Articulations Together 205

11.1 Coordinating Movements 205
11.1.1 Context-sensitive models 207
11.1.2 Context-invariant models 207
11.1.3 Unifying theories 209
11.2 Coordinating Complex Sounds 210
11.2.1 Lingual-lingual sounds 211
11.2.2 Other complex sounds 216
11.3 Coarticulation 217
11.3.1 Articulatory overlap 218
11.3.2 Articulatory conflict 219
11.3.3 Modeling coarticulation 220
11.4 Measuring the Whole Vocal Tract: Tomography 221
Exercises 225
References 225

Abbreviations Used in this Book 229

Muscles with Innervation, Origin, and Insertion 233
Index 243
 List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Feed-forward, auditory-only speech chain

(image by W. Murphey and A. Yeung). 4
Figure 1.2 Multimodal speech chain with feedback loops
(image by W. Murphey and A. Yeung). 5
Figure 1.3 Speech production chain; the first half (left) takes
you through Part I of the book, and the second
half (right) covers Part II (image by D. Derrick
and W. Murphey). 6
Figure 1.4 Anatomy overview: full body (left), vocal tract
(right) (image by D. Derrick). 7
Figure 1.5 Anatomical planes and spatial relationships: full
body (left), vocal tract (right) (image by D. Derrick). 8
Figure 1.6a Measurement Tools for Articulatory Phonetics
(image by D. Derrick). 10
Figure 1.6b Measurement Tools for Articulatory Phonetics
(image by D. Derrick). 11
Figure 2.1 Central nervous system (CNS) versus peripheral
nervous system: coronal view with sagittal head
view (PNS) (image by A. Klenin). 16
Figure 2.2 A myelinated neuron (image by D. Derrick). 17
Figure 2.3 An action potential and its chemical reactions
(image by D. Derrick). 18
Figure 2.4a Gross anatomy of the brain: left side view of gyri,
sulci, and lobes (image by A. Yeung). 20
Figure 2.4b Gross anatomy of the brain: top view (image by
E. Komova). 20
Figure 2.5 The perisylvian language zone of the brain:
left side view (image by D. Derrick and A. Yeung). 23
x Articulatory Phonetics

Figure 2.6 Motor cortex, somatosensory cortex, and visual

cortex of the brain: left side view (image by
D. Derrick and A. Yeung). 24
Figure 2.7 Sensory and motor homunculi: coronal view of
brain (image adapted from Penfield and Rasmussen,
1950, Wikimedia Commons public domain). 25
Figure 2.8 Deeper structures of the brain: left side view
(image by D. Derrick and A. Yeung). 26
Figure 2.9 Structural MRI image with fMRI overlay of areas of
activation (in white): sagittal (top left), coronal
(top right), transverse (bottom) (image by
D. Derrick, with data from R. Watts). 28
Figure 3.1 Cranial nerves (left to right and top to bottom:
Accessory, Vagus, Glossopharyngeal, Trigeminal,
Hypoglossal, and Facial) (image by W. Murphey). 35
Figure 3.2 Spinal nerves: posterior view (image by
W. Murphey and A. Yeung). 37
Figure 3.3 Muscle bundles (image by D. Derrick, from United
States government public domain). 38
Figure 3.4 Motor unit and muscle fibers (image by D. Derrick). 39
Figure 3.5 Sliding filament model (image by D. Derrick). 40
Figure 3.6a EMG signal of the left sternocleidomastoid muscle
during startle response. On the left is the raw signal.
In the center is that same raw signal rectified.
On the right is the rectified image after low-pass
filtering (image by D. Derrick, from data provided
by C. Chiu). 42
Figure 3.6b EMG signal of the left sternocleidomastoid muscle
during startle response. On the left are 5 raw
signals. The top-right image shows those 5 signals
after they have been rectified and then averaged.
The bottom-right image is after low-pass filtering
(image by D. Derrick, from data provided by
C. Chiu). 42
Figure 3.7 Reaction and response times based on EMG of the
lower lip and lower lip displacement (image by
C. Chiu and D. Derrick). 44
Figure 4.1 A bellows (based on public domain image by
Pearson Scott Foresman). 48
Figure 4.2 Respiration volumes and graphs for tidal breathing,
speech breathing, and maximum breathing (See
Marieb and Hoehn, 2010) (image by D. Derrick). 49
Figure 4.3 Overview of the respiratory system: coronal
cross-section (image by D. Derrick). 51
 List of Figures xi

Figure 4.4 Collapsed lung: coronal cross-section (image by

D. Derrick). 52
Figure 4.5a Bones and cartilages of respiration: anterior view
(image by A. Yeung). 53
Figure 4.5b Superior view of vertebra and rib (with right side
view of vertebra in the center) (image by D. Derrick). 54
Figure 4.6 Pump handle and bucket handle motions of the
ribcage: anterior view (left), right side view (right)
(image by D. Derrick, E. Komova, W. Murphey, and
A. Yeung). 56
Figure 4.7 Diaphragm: anterior view (image by W. Murphey
and A. Yeung). 58
Figure 4.8 Vectors of the EI and III muscles: anterior view
(image by W. Murphey and A. Yeung). 59
Figure 4.9 Some accessory muscles of inspiration: posterior
view (image by W. Murphey and A. Yeung). 60
Figure 4.10 II muscle vectors with EI muscle overlay: right side
view (image by W. Murphey and A. Yeung). 62
Figure 4.11 Abdominal muscles: anterior view (image by
W. Murphey). 62
Figure 4.12a Accessory muscles of expiration: deep accessory
muscles, posterior view (image by W. Murphey and
A. Yeung). 63
Figure 4.12b Accessory muscles of expiration: shallow accessory
muscles, posterior view (image by W. Murphey and
A. Yeung). 64
Figure 4.13 The respiratory cycle and muscle activation (image
by D. Derrick, based in part on ideas in Ladefoged,
1967). 65
Figure 4.14 Acoustic waveform, oral airflow, oral air pressure,
and nasal airflow (top to bottom) as measured by
an airflow meter (image by D. Derrick). 66
Figure 5.1a Major cartilages of the larynx: anterior view
(top left), posterior view (top right), right side view
(bottom left), top view (bottom right) (image by
D. Derrick). 73
Figure 5.1b Larynx: top view (image by A. Yeung). 73
Figure 5.2 Internal structure of a vocal fold: coronal
cross-section (image by W. Murphey). 74
Figure 5.3 Coronal cross-section of the vocal folds and false
vocal folds (image by W. Murphey). 75
Figure 5.4 Intrinsic muscles of the larynx: top view (left),
posterior view (right) (image by W. Murphey and
A. Yeung). 76
xii Articulatory Phonetics

Figure 5.5 Intrinsic muscles of the larynx: right side view

(image by E. Komova, based on Gray, 1918). 76
Figure 5.6 Schematic showing functions of the laryngeal
muscles: top view of the larynx (image by
D. Derrick). 77
Figure 5.7 Top view of the glottis (image by E. Komova,
based on Rohen et al., 1998). 79
Figure 5.8 High-speed laryngograph images of modal voice
cycle with typical EGG: top view. Note that the
EGG image does not come from the same person,
and has been added for illustrative purposes
(image by D. Derrick, full video available on
YouTube by tjduetsch). 80
Figure 5.9 Laminar (above) and turbulent (below) airflow
(image by D. Derrick). 82
Figure 5.10 The Venturi tube (left); demonstrating the Bernoulli
effect by blowing over a sheet of paper (right)
(image by D. Derrick). 83
Figure 5.11 A schematic of vocal fold vibration: coronal view
(image from Reetz and Jongman, 2008). 85
Figure 5.12 One-, two-, and three-mass models generate
different predictions (dotted lines) for the motion of
the vocal folds: coronal view (image by D. Derrick). 85
Figure 5.13 Flow separation theory: coronal view of the vocal
folds (image from Reetz and Jongman, 2008). 87
Figure 5.14a Muscles of the larynx – pitch control: top view
(image by D. Derrick and W. Murphey). 87
Figure 5.14b Muscles of the larynx – pitch control: right side
view (image by D. Derrick and W. Murphey). 88
Figure 5.15 Comparison of glottal waveform from acoustics and
EGG (image by D. Derrick). 91
Figure 5.16 Paper larynx (image by B. Gick). 93
Figure 6.1 Skull: right side view (on right), bottom view
(on left) showing styloid and mastoid processes
(image by A. Yeung). 100
Figure 6.2 Hyoid bone: isomorphic view (left), anterior view
(right) (image by W. Murphey). 101
Figure 6.3 Pharyngeal constrictor muscles: posterior view
(image by D. Derrick and W. Murphey). 102
Figure 6.4 Infrahyoid muscles: anterior view (image by
W. Murphey). 103
Figure 6.5 Suprahyoid muscles – digastric and stylohyoid:
right view (image by W. Murphey). 104
 List of Figures xiii

Figure 6.6 Suprahyoid muscles – mylohyoid and geniohyoid:

posterior view (image by W. Murphey). 105
Figure 6.7 Pharyngeal elevator muscles. The pharyngeal
constrictor muscles have been cut away on the left
side to show deeper structures. Posterior view
(image by D. Derrick and W. Murphey). 105
Figure 6.8 Breathy voice: one full cycle of vocal fold opening
and closure, as seen via high-speed video. Note that
the EGG image at the bottom does not come from
the same person, and is added for illustrative
purposes (image by D. Derrick, full video available
on YouTube by tjduetsch). 108
Figure 6.9 Creaky voice versus modal voice – as seen via a
laryngoscope: top view. Note that this speaker’s
mechanism for producing creaky voice appears to
engage the aryepiglottic folds. Note that the EGG
image at the bottom does not come from the same
person, and is added for illustrative purposes
(image by D. Derrick, with data from Esling and
Harris, 2005). 110
Figure 6.10 Vertical compressing and stretching of the true and
false vocal folds, as the larynx is raised and lowered
(image by D. Derrick and W. Murphey). 111
Figure 6.11 Voiceless aryepiglottic trill as seen via high-speed
video (image by D. Derrick, with data from
Moisik et al., 2010). 112
Figure 6.12 Falsetto: one full cycle of vocal fold opening and
closure, as seen via high-speed video. Note that the
EGG image at the bottom does not come from the
same person, and is added for illustrative purposes
(image by D. Derrick, full video available on
YouTube by tjduetsch). 114
Figure 6.13 Timing of airflow and articulator motion for
ingressive sounds: midsagittal cross-section
(image by D. Derrick). 116
Figure 6.14 Timing of airflow and articulator motion for
ejective sounds: midsagittal cross-section
(image by D. Derrick). 117
Figure 6.15 Comparison of glottal waveforms from acoustics,
PGG, and EGG. Note that the acoustic waveform
and EGG data come from the same person but the
PGG data were constructed for illustrative purposes
(image by D. Derrick). 119
xiv Articulatory Phonetics

Figure 7.1 Velopharyngeal port (VPP) and the oropharyngeal

isthmus (OPI): right view (see Kuehn and Azzam,
1978) (image by D. Derrick). 126
Figure 7.2 Skull: right side view (left), bottom view (right)
(image by W. Murphey and A. Yeung). 127
Figure 7.3 Three types of cleft palate (incomplete, unilateral
complete, and bilateral complete): bottom view
(image from public domain: Felsir). 129
Figure 7.4 Muscles of the VPP: posterior isometric view
(image by D. Derrick and N. Francis). 130
Figure 7.5 Some locations where sphincters have been
described in the vocal tract (image by D. Derrick
and B. Gick). 132
Figure 7.6a Various VPP closure mechanisms: midsagittal view
(image by D. Derrick). 135
Figure 7.6b Various VPP closure mechanisms, superimposed on
a transverse cross-section through the VPP (image
by D. Derrick, inspired by Biavati et al., 2009). 135
Figure 7.7 The double archway of the OPI (image by
D. Derrick). 137
Figure 7.8 X-ray film of two French speakers each producing
a uvular “r” in a different way: right side view;
note that the tongue, velum, and rear pharyngeal
wall have been traced in these images (image by
D. Derrick and N. Francis, with data from
Munhall et al., 1995). 139
Figure 8.1 Traditional vowel quadrilateral (image from
Creative Commons, Kwamikagami, based on
International Phonetic Association, 1999). 145
Figure 8.2 A midsagittal circular tongue model with two
degrees of freedom (image by D. Derrick). 145
Figure 8.3 Full jaw (top left); mandible anterior view
(top right); right half of mandible – side view
from inside (bottom) (image by W. Murphey). 146
Figure 8.4 The six degrees of freedom of a rigid body in 3D
space (image by D. Derrick). 148
Figure 8.5 Shallow muscles of the jaw: right side view
(image by E. Komova and A. Yeung). 149
Figure 8.6a Deep muscles of the jaw: left side view (image by
E. Komova and A. Yeung). 150
Figure 8.6b Deep muscles of the jaw: bottom view (image by
E. Komova and A. Yeung). 150
Figure 8.7 Mandible depressors (posterior view on left;
anterior view on right) (image by W. Murphey). 151
 List of Figures xv

Figure 8.8 Extrinsic tongue muscles: right side view.

Geniohyoid and mylohyoid are included for
context only (image by D. Derrick). 152
Figure 8.9 Regions of control of the genioglossus (GG) muscle:
right midsagittal view (image by D. Derrick). 153
Figure 8.10 Overlay of tongue positions for three English
vowels (high front [i], high back [u], and low back
[ ]) from MRI data: right midsagittal view (image by
D. Derrick). 155
Figure 8.11a Ultrasound images of tongue: right midsagittal B
mode (image by D. Derrick). 161
Figure 8.11b Ultrasound images of tongue: right midsagittal B/M
mode (image by D. Derrick). 162
Figure 9.1 Example of a hydrostat (left) dropped onto a hard
surface – think “water balloon.” The sponge on the
right loses volume (i.e., there is no expansion to
the sides as it loses volume vertically), while the
hydrostat on the left bulges out to the sides. The
ball in the middle is partially hydrostatic – it also
bulges out to the sides, but loses some of its volume
vertically (image by D. Derrick). 168
Figure 9.2 Tongue muscles: coronal cross-section through the
mid-tongue; the location of the cross-section is
indicated by the vertical line through the sagittal
tongue image at the bottom (image by D. Derrick,
inspired by Strong, 1956). 169
Figure 9.3a Degrees of anterior tongue constriction for vowel,
approximant, fricative, and stop: midsagittal (top)
and coronal (bottom) cross-sections are shown;
dotted lines indicate location of the coronal
cross-sections (image by D. Derrick, W. Murphey,
and A. Yeung). 172
Figure 9.3b Lateral constrictions with medial bracing for a
lateral fricative (on the left) and medial constrictions
with lateral bracing for schwa (on the right):
transverse (top) and midsagittal (bottom)
cross-sections are shown; dotted lines indicate
location of the transverse cross-sections (image by
D. Derrick, W. Murphey, and A. Yeung). 172
Figure 9.4a Overshoot in lingual stop production: right
midsagittal view of vocal tract (image by
D. Derrick). 175
Figure 9.4b Overshoot in flap production: right midsagittal
view of vocal tract; the up-arrow and down-arrow
xvi Articulatory Phonetics

tap symbols indicate an upward vs. downward flap

motion, after Derrick and Gick (2011) (image by
D. Derrick, with x-ray data from Cooper and
Abramson, 1960). 175
Figure 9.5 An electropalate (top) and electropalatography data
(bottom); black cells indicate tongue contact on the
electropalate (image by D. Derrick). 181
Figure 9.6a Clay tongue model exercise (image by D. Derrick,
B. Gick, and G. Carden). 184
Figure 9.6b Clay tongue model exercise (image by D. Derrick,
B. Gick, and G. Carden). 185
Figure 10.1 The Tadoma method (image by D. Derrick). 192
Figure 10.2 Muscles of the lips and face: anterior coronal view
(image by W. Murphey). 193
Figure 10.3 Orbicularis oris muscle: right midsagittal
cross-section (left), coronal view (right) (image by
D. Derrick). 193
Figure 10.4 Labial constrictions by type (stop, fricative,
approximant). Midsagittal MRI images are shown
above, and frontal video images below (image by
D. Derrick). 196
Figure 10.5 Video images of lip constrictions in Norwegian
(speaker: S. S. Johnsen). 199
Figure 10.6 Optotrak: example placement of nine infrared
markers (image by D. Derrick). 200
Figure 10.7 Electromagnetic Articulometer (EMA) marker
placement: right midsagittal cross-section (image by
D. Derrick). 201
Figure 11.1 Light and dark English /l/ based on MRI images:
right midsagittal cross-section; tracings are overlaid
in lower image (image by D. Derrick). 212
Figure 11.2 Bunched vs. tip-up English “r”: right midsagittal
cross-section; tracings are overlaid in lower image
(image by D. Derrick). 213
Figure 11.3a Schematic of a click produced by Jenggu Rooi
Fransisko, a speaker of Mangetti Dune !Xung: right
midsagittal cross-section (image by D. Derrick, with
data supplied by A. Miller). 214
Figure 11.3b Tracings of the tongue during a palatal click [‡]
produced by Jenggu Rooi Fransisko, a speaker of
Mangetti Dune !Xung: right midsagittal cross-section
(image by D. Derrick, with data supplied by
A. Miller). 214
 List of Figures xvii

Figure 11.3c Tracings of the tongue during an alveolar click [!]

produced by Jenggu Rooi Fransisko, a speaker of
Mangetti Dune !Xung: right midsagittal cross-section
(image by D. Derrick, with data supplied by
A. Miller). 215
Figure 11.4 Non-labialized schwa (top) versus labialized [w]
(bottom): right midsagittal cross-section (image by
D. Derrick). 217
Figure 11.5 Vocal tract slices (in black), showing cross-sectional
area of the vocal tract during production of schwa
(image by D. Derrick). 222
Figure 11.6 CT image of the vocal tract. The bright objects
visible in the bottom-center and bottom-right are an
ultrasound probe and a chinrest, respectively; this
image was taken during an experiment that used
simultaneous CT and ultrasound imaging: right
midsagittal cross-section (image by D. Derrick). 223
Figure 11.7 MRI image of the vocal tract: right midsagittal
cross-section (image by D. Derrick). 224
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
 A young lad lived with the magician and served him, but though he
worked for the great master he was an ignorant youth who was
scarcely allowed so much as to enter the learned man’s private
room. But one day, when his master was absent, he went in there,
and satisfied his curiosity by looking around to his heart’s content.
Here was the wondrous apparatus for changing copper into gold,
and lead into silver; and the mirror in which could be seen all that
was passing in the world; and the shell which, when held to the ear,
enabled one to hear any words being spoken by whatever person
one desired to know about.
The lad tried in vain with the crucibles to turn copper into gold and
lead into silver. Next he gazed long and vainly into the mirror, but
clouds and smoke passed over the scenes within, and he could
discern nothing clearly. Then he put the shell to his ear. That too
disappointed him, for he could hear only indistinct murmurings like
the breaking of waves on a distant shore.
“I can do nothing,” he said, “because I do not know the right words
to utter and make things go right. The words I need are locked from
sight in yonder book.”
Just then he noticed with surprise that the book lay open. The
master had forgotten to lock it, and the lad ran eagerly to look at its
secret-revealing pages. Some of the words were in black ink and
some in red, and they seemed to be in a strange language. He could
not see a single one that appeared familiar, and he sat down and put
his finger on a line and spelled it through.
At once the room was darkened, and the house trembled, and
there was a startling clap of thunder. Then the lad saw standing
before him a horrible winged creature, breathing fire, and with eyes
like burning lamps. It was the demon Beelzebub whom he had called
up to serve him.
“Set me a task!” cried the demon with a voice like the roaring of an
iron furnace.
The boy shivered with fright, and his hair stood on end. He knew
not what to do or say.
“Set me a task or I shall strangle you,” said the demon.
But the lad could not find voice to speak. The evil spirit stepped
toward him and reached out his hands toward the boy’s throat. The
youth shrank from the demon’s burning touch, while again the
command was dinned in his ears. “Set me a task!”
“Water yon flower,” said the boy in despair, pointing to a geranium
which stood in a pot on the floor.
 Instantly the demon left the room, but a moment later he returned
with a barrel on his back and poured its contents over the flower.
Again and again he went and came, and poured more and more
water until the floor of the room was ankle-deep.
“Enough, enough!” gasped the lad.
But the demon heeded him not. The boy did not know the words
that must be spoken in order to send the demon away, and the evil
spirit continued to fetch water. It rose to the boy’s knees, and yet
more water was poured. It mounted to his waist, and still Beelzebub
brought barrel after barrel full. It rose to the lad’s armpits, and he
scrambled to the table-top. Presently the water was half way up the
window and washing against the glass, and it swirled around the
lad’s legs where he stood on the table. It kept on rising and reached
his breast.
In vain he ordered and begged the demon to desist. The evil spirit
refused to obey, and he would have been pouring water even to this
day had not the master returned. He came in haste, for he had
recollected that he had left his book unlocked, and he arrived just as
the water had reached his pupil’s chin. Without a moment’s delay he
shouted the proper words to make Beelzebub return to his fiery
home, and the lad was saved.
 THE WHITE TROUT

T
HERE was once a beautiful lady who lived beside a lake in the
western part of Ireland, and she was to be the bride of a king’s
son. But just before the time set for the wedding he was
murdered and thrown into the lake. So of course he couldn’t keep his
promise to the fair lady—more’s the pity.
The lady was that tender-hearted she went out of her mind
because of losing the king’s son. She pined away, and one day
disappeared, and it was thought that the fairies had taken her.
After a time a white trout was seen in a stream that flowed into the
lake, and the people didn’t know what to make of the creature, for
such a thing as a white trout had never been known before. Years
and years the trout was there, and no harm was ever done to it until
some wicked sinners of soldiers came to those parts. They laughed
at the people and gibed and jeered at them for never trying to catch
the white trout. One of them, in particular, swore he would have the
white trout for his dinner some fine day.
Sure enough, the blackguard caught the trout, and away he went
home with it, pitched the pretty little thing into the frying-pan, and put
the frying-pan over the fire. The trout squealed just like a Christian
when it found itself thus cruelly treated, and the soldier laughed till
he was like to split; for he was a hardened villain. When he thought
one side was done, he turned the trout over to fry the other, but to
his surprise saw not a sign of a burn on it anywhere. “This is a queer
trout that can’t be fried,” said he. “But I’ll give it another turn by and
by.”
 As soon as the heathen thought that side was done he turned the
trout again, and behold not a bit more broiled was it than when he
began. “Bad luck to me,” said the soldier, “but this beats the world.
However, cunning as you think yourself, I’ll try you again, my
darling.”
So saying, he turned the trout over and over, and he kept the fire
blazing hot, but not a sign of a burn would show on the pretty
creature. He might have known he was doing a wrong thing, seeing
that his endeavors accomplished nothing, and yet he kept on as he
had begun.
“Well, my jolly little trout,” said he at last, “maybe you’re fried
enough, though you don’t seem to be any more so than you were
when I pulled you out of the stream. But perhaps you are better than
you look, and a tit-bit after all.”
Then he picked up his knife and fork to have a taste of the trout,
but the moment he put his knife into the fish there was a piercing
screech, and the trout flopped out of the frying-pan into the middle of
the floor. Immediately, on the spot where it fell, stood a beautiful lady
—the loveliest creature that eyes had ever seen, dressed in white,
and a band of gold in her hair, and her arm stained with blood.
“Look where you cut me, you villain,” said she, and she held her
arm out toward him. “Why couldn’t you leave me cool and
comfortable in the river, and not disturb me in my duty?”
The soldier, trembling with terror, stammered out some lame
excuse, and begged for his life, asked her ladyship’s pardon, and
declared that he did not know she was on duty. “If I had known it,”
said he, “I am too good a soldier to have meddled with you.”
“I was on duty,” the lady affirmed. “I was watching for my true love,
who is coming to me; and if he comes while I am away, so that I miss
him, I’ll turn you into the little fish that is called a pinkeen, and I’ll
hunt you up and down for evermore, while grass grows or water
runs.”
The soldier nearly fainted away at the thought of being turned into
a pinkeen. He begged for mercy harder than ever, and the lady said:
“Renounce your evil ways, or you’ll repent too late. Be a good man
for the future and go regularly to church; and now take me and put
me back in the river where you found me.”
“Oh, my lady!” exclaimed the soldier, “how could I have the heart
to drown a beautiful lady like you?”
Before he could say another word the lady had vanished, and he
saw the little trout on the floor. So he put it on a clean plate, and
away he ran to the river as fast as he could go, fearful that her lover
would come while she was away. He ran and he ran until he came to
the edge of the stream and then he threw the trout into the water.
From that day the soldier was an altered man. He reformed his
ways, went to church regularly, and fasted three times a week,
though he would not eat fish even on fasting days, for after the fright
he got, fish would never rest on his stomach. At length he left the
army and turned hermit, and every day he prayed for the soul of the
white trout.
 THE FORTY-NINE DRAGONS

O
NCE upon a time there were two brothers, the older of whom
was rich and had four children, while the younger was poor
and had seven children. At last the family of the poor brother
was in such want that the mother went to the rich man and said: “I
am very wretched, for I am unable to provide my children with
enough to eat. I take a little meal and mix it with a great deal of bran,
and so manage to make bread. It is well nigh a year since my
children have had any meat. They get nothing but the meal and bran
bread.”
“And yet,” said he, “your children are strong, while mine, in spite of
plentiful and rich food, and other comforts, are always ailing.”
“Yes,” said the woman, “though our lot is one of poverty and
hunger, yet, thanks be to Heaven, our children are hale and hearty.
But I fear for the future, and I have come to implore you, if you need
to hire any work done, that you do not send for any one but me; and
may God bless you and give health to your children.”
As she spoke these words the tears ran from her eyes, and the
man called his wife and said to her: “Here is our sister-in-law wanting
work. Have we something for her to do so she may not sit idle?”
“Yes,” answered his wife, “let her come twice a week and knead
bread for us.”
When the poor woman heard these words she was glad, for she
thought that when she kneaded the fine white bread they would give
her some of it, and her children would eat and rejoice. She rose to
go away, and they said to her, “Good-by, and remember to come
tomorrow morning.”
They let her depart without relieving her want by giving her a scrap
of anything. As she set off toward home she said to herself: “Would
that I were rich and could go to my cupboard and bring out a bit of
cheese, or a piece of bread, or a little rice, or other household store
to gladden the hearts of the poor!”
Her children were eagerly awaiting her at home, but alas! she
came with empty hands.
The next day she went early to the rich man’s house to knead
bread, and when she finished her task they bade her farewell and
told her to be sure to come next time, but they gave her nothing
whatever.
As soon as she returned home the children said, “Have you
brought us some food, mother?”
“No,” she replied, “but maybe they will send us a bit of bread when
the baking is done.”
However, she waited in vain. Two or three days later she got word
that they wanted her to come and knead again. So she went to the
rich man’s house and began her work. As she was kneading, the
thought came into her head not to wash her hands until she reached
home. Then she could give to the children the water in which she
washed off the dough and flour. She hurried home as soon as she
had done kneading, and said to her children, “I am going to give you
a little milk soup.”
Then she washed her hands thoroughly, and divided the water
among them, and they liked it so much they said, “Mother, whenever
you go to knead, be sure to bring us some of that broth to drink.”
Twice a week she went to the rich man’s house to knead bread,
and her children had never been more hearty and vigorous. One day
the rich man was passing by his younger brother’s house, and he
put his head in at the door and said, “How do you do here?”
 He looked at the children and was amazed to see how fat they
were. That put him in a great rage, and he went home and called to
his wife: “Come at once, and tell me what you give to my sister-in-
law, who does the kneading for us.”
She was frightened by the way he shouted at her. “I never give her
anything,” she declared, “because I am so afraid of giving her too
much and then getting a scolding from you.”
“You must have given her something,” he persisted, “for her
children are so fat they look as if they would burst.”
“Well,” said his wife, “she takes nothing away with her but her
unwashed hands, and after she gets home she gives the water in
which she washes her hands to the children to drink.”
“Then you must put a stop to that,” he ordered.
So the next time, when the woman had finished kneading, the rich
man’s wife said to her, “Wash your hands and then go.”
The poor woman obeyed with a sad heart, and quailed to think of
returning home without being able to give her children even the milk
soup wash to which they had become accustomed. As soon as she
reached her house the children gathered about her, clamoring that
she should make haste and give them their usual treat; but she said,
“I washed my hands before I came away this time.”
All the children began to weep and to say, “How could you so
forget us as not to bring us that beautiful broth?”
In the midst of the lamentations the father entered the house, and
asked, “What ails the children that they cry so noisily?”
She told him all that had happened, and he was much grieved.
“Perhaps I can find a little food on the mountain-side,” said he. “I will
take a bag and try to get some herbs and edible roots.”
So away he went, and he wandered a long distance. At last he
found himself on the top of a high crag and saw, not far away, a
great castle. “I wonder to whom that castle belongs,” said he.
 He went nearer and climbed into a tree to get a better view of it.
While he was looking, behold, a number of dragons came out. He
counted them, and there were forty-nine. They left the door open and
went away out of sight. So he climbed down from the tree and went
to the castle, where he walked about from room to room and saw
that it contained a vast amount of treasure. Into his bag he put as
much gold as he could carry and hurried away with it, fearful that the
dragons would catch him.
When they came back they perceived that some of their money
was gone, and henceforth they determined that one of them should
stay behind in the castle when the others went out.
The man returned home and said to his wife: “God has taken pity
on us. See, here we have enough gold to make us rich,” and he
opened his bag and showed her the golden money he had brought.
On the following day he purchased a house and moved his family
into it. “But let us continue to live simply,” said he to his wife. “We will
buy what we need and avoid extravagance.”
“Yes,” said she, “that is best. I do not forget how recently I have
been glad to give the children milk soup to drink to save them from
starving.”
For two months they lived happily, and had plenty to eat, and gave
generously to the poor. Then the wife of the older brother came to
visit them, for she had heard that they were well off now. Her own
family, on the contrary, had begun to suffer misfortune. Their sheep
had died, their crops had failed, and unseasonable frosts had ruined
their fruit trees.
The wife of the younger brother did not feel any ill will toward her
visitor because of the way she had been treated in the days of her
misery, and she welcomed her heartily, and gave her the best seat,
and set before her the choicest food in the house. This was very
different from the treatment that had been accorded her, for the older
brother’s wife used to receive her in the kitchen and never asked her
to sit down.
 After some time the visitor said: “Sister, pray tell me where your
husband has found work, that my husband may if possible get work
there also. We have been unfortunate of late and are in great want.”
“My husband has not got any employment,” responded the other.
“You remember when I was last at your house and you made me
wash my hands. That day he went to the mountains and found a
castle where he got a lot of gold.”
“Would he take my husband to that castle?” asked the former rich
woman. “Perhaps we too may thus gain relief.”
“He will do what he can for you, I am sure,” said the other. “If your
husband will bring a bag tomorrow he will show him the way. He
does not wish to get any more treasure for himself because he thinks
we already have enough.”
The next morning the older brother came with a bag under his arm
and said: “Good morrow, brother, how do you do? I hope you are
well.”
Hitherto, if he saw his brother, he looked the other way, or turned
aside, lest he should be asked for help. But the former poor man
welcomed him and said: “It gives me joy to have you enter my
house, for I have very seldom had the pleasure of seeing you.”
“Things have gone badly with me,” said the older brother, “and
now I know not what to do.”
“Well,” said the other, “we will go to the mountains, and very likely
you will have the luck to get as rich as ever.”
So they started off together, and when they came to where they
could see the castle the younger brother showed his companion the
tree from which he had watched the castle. “Climb up among the
branches,” said he, “and wait till the dragons that dwell in the castle
come out. Count them. If forty-nine come forth you can descend and
enter the castle free from fear. But unless the entire forty-nine leave,
do not go in.”
 While he was looking a number of dragons came out

With these words he turned his steps toward home. His brother
watched eagerly from the tree, and by and by he saw the dragons
coming forth, and he counted them. But he counted wrong, and
instead of saying forty-eight he said forty-nine. Then he scrambled
down from the tree, hurried to the castle, and looked about, seeking
the treasure, that he might fill his bag. Suddenly he heard a voice
say, “So you are the thief and have come back to steal more of our
gold!”
He found himself confronted by a dragon that had come out of a
near-by room where it had been staying on guard. Immediately it bit
off his head, and took both the body and the head and hung them at
the entrance to the castle. When the other dragons came home he
said to them: “There is no need to keep watch any longer. I have
killed the thief and hung him up where he will serve as a warning to
all other thieves that may approach our castle.”
After that none of the dragons stayed at home, but each day they
went out together.
Two days passed, and the wife of the former rich man got uneasy
because her husband did not return. She went to the house of her
brother-in-law, and when she told him that her husband had not
come back he said he would go and seek him. Off he went, and as
soon as he drew near to the castle he climbed the tree and looked
and saw his brother’s body hanging at the entrance. Then he waited
till the dragons came out. He counted them with great care, and
there were forty-nine. After they had gone from sight he went and got
his brother’s body and put it in a bag that lay near the entrance. It
was the very bag his brother had brought to contain the gold he
hoped to get.
The younger brother carried his burden home and sent for his
sister-in-law. When she came and saw her dead husband she wept
and would not be comforted. At last she said: “We must get a tailor to
sew him together. I cannot bury him like that, in two pieces.”
 So the man went out and got a tailor, who sewed the head on to
the body, and afterward the burial took place. Then the younger
brother gave his sister-in-law some money, and said, “Go and
provide for yourself and your children, and if you are in want again,
do not hesitate to come and ask me for what you need.”
Meanwhile the dragons had returned to their castle and found the
dead man gone. “So the thief had an accomplice!” they exclaimed.
“We must destroy him also.”
The chief dragon was a powerful magician, and the next day he
assumed the form of a man, and went to the town to try to discover
who had come to their castle and removed the body with its severed
head. While he was loitering about, uncertain how to get the desired
information, he concluded he would go to a tailor and have a suit of
clothes made. The tailor took his measure, and the dragon said:
“Now mind you sew the seams well so the stitches won’t come out.
You must do a careful job, or I will not pay you. It’s not often I have a
nice suit made, and I am particular. Use good strong thread and—”
“Stop!” cried the tailor with rising anger. “There is no need for you
to make such a fuss. Why, yesterday I had to sew together a dead
man whose head had been separated from his body. His relations
were entirely satisfied with the way I did the difficult task. If I can do a
job like that so well, in spite of the fact that it was out of my line, you
can be assured I have the skill to make you a satisfactory suit. So
have done with your advising, or you will drive me crazy.”
“Do you know the person who hired you to sew the dead man?”
asked the dragon.
“Of course I do,” answered the tailor. “He lives near by. If you like, I
will point out his house, and you can go in and ask him whether the
body was well sewed or not.”
So he took the dragon a little way along the street and showed him
where the brother of the dead man dwelt. But instead of going into
the house, the dragon went to a carpenter’s shop and ordered forty-
eight chests, each just big enough to contain one of the dragons.
When the chests were finished he had them sent to a lonely spot
outside of the town, and thither he summoned his dragons. They got
into the chests, and he hired wagons to bring the chests to the house
of the dead man’s brother. He himself went on ahead, and toward
evening he found the former poor man seated in his doorway. “Sir,”
said he, “I have had forty-eight chests sent to me. You can see them
coming down the street on those wagons. Would you be so kind as
to let me leave them in your yard for the night?”
“You are welcome to leave them there for the night,” said the man,
“and as much longer as suits your convenience.”
After the wagons had been unloaded and the dragon chief had
gone, the man’s children began climbing about and jumping on the
chests. The dragons who were inside groaned from time to time, and
said, “Ah, would it were dark that we might eat them all.”
Presently the children took notice of the groanings and the words,
and they ran to their father and said: “Those chests are bewitched.
They are talking.”
The man thought a moment and said, “Forty-eight, and the one
that brought them makes forty-nine!”
Then he went to the chests and put his ear to one of the keyholes.
He heard the direful words and the groaning, and he said to himself,
“Now that I have you monsters in my power I’ll make sure of you.”
So off he went and bought some iron rods, heated them red hot in
his kitchen fire, and one by one thrust them into the chests until he
had killed all the forty-eight dragons. That done, he called his
servant, opened one of the chests, and said: “My man, look here.
Some one has played us a trick and put a dragon in this chest. If I
had not killed the creature it would have devoured us all. Take it and
throw it into the sea.”
The servant lifted it on his back, went to the seashore, which was
not far away, and threw the creature down where the rising tide
would soon carry it away. Then he went home, but while he was
gone his master had opened another chest. The man had his
servant look in, and said: “Here is the dragon. Surely you did not
throw it far enough out into the sea, else how would it have
returned?”
Again the servant carried a dragon to the shore, and once more
returned to find what was apparently the same dead dragon. His
master kept him going nearly all night, and when he made the trip
with the forty-eighth dragon he was so exasperated that he waded
right into the sea and cast it out as far as he could. When he
returned home, he said, “Master, is it back?”
“No,” the man answered, “it has not come back. You must have
thrown it in very deep.”
Next morning the chief dragon came, and he was a good deal
perturbed, because he had expected his dragons would destroy the
family of the former poor man, and then join their chief before
daylight at an appointed spot outside of the town. “I find that one of
your chests is open and empty,” the man informed the dragon.
He led the way to the yard, and when the dragon bent over to look
into the chest the man seized him and pushed him inside, slammed
down the cover, and locked it. Then he ran for a red-hot iron, and
soon the last of the dragons had perished.
The castle among the mountains was now without an owner, and
the man took possession of it and lived there as happy as a prince—
and may whoever reads this story, or hears it read, live happier still.
 THE FOUR CLEVER BROTHERS

T
HERE was once a poor man who had four sons, and when they
were grown up, he said to them: “Dear children, you must go
out into the world now, for I have nothing to give you. It is my
wish that you should each learn a trade by which you can gain a
comfortable livelihood, if not wealth.”
So the four brothers took their walking-staffs in their hands, bid
their father good-by, and tramped away down the street and passed
out of the town gate. After they had traveled some distance, they
came to where four roads branched away from the one they were
tramping. “Here we must part,” said the eldest brother, “but four
years from this day we will meet here again, and tell each other what
we have accomplished.”
Then each went his own way, and the eldest presently met a man,
who asked him where he was going and what he intended to do.
“I want to learn a trade,” the youth answered.
“Then come with me and learn to be a thief,” said the man.
“No,” responded the youth, “that is no longer considered an
honorable employment; and in the end I should swing as the clapper
in the field bell.”
“Oh, you need not fear the gallows!” said the man. “I will only
teach you how to take things that no one else wants or knows how to
get hold of, and I will make you so expert that nobody can find you
out.”
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