Frederick S.
Pardee School of Global Studies
The Pardee Atlas Journal of Global Affairs
<https://sites.bu.edu/pardeeatlas/>
The Anti-Immigrant Movement in the
United States
By: Selena Rincon
Abstract:
Opposition to immigration (and immigrants) has become
an important issue all over the world. In the United
States, there is a long history of anti-immigrant
sentiments that have affected Irish, Chinese, Mexican,
and many more communities. For over two hundred
Selena Rincon is a
second-year student in
years, there have been individuals, organizations, or
the MAIA program with a government institutions that have taken action against
specialization in immigration, both with successes and failures. In order to
Diplomacy. She is fully understand the different movements within the
passionate about
umbrella of anti-immigration, it is important to
immigrant rights and
hopes to work for the U.S. differentiate between legal and illegal immigration. While
State Department after some individual actors may support some forms of legal
graduation. immigration, that is not the case for many of the most
prominent anti-immigrant organizations.
Background:
To have a clear view of anti-immigrant movements throughout this country’s
history, one must understand the history of immigration. The reasons behind
immigration to the United States, before and after its independence in 1776,
have varied throughout centuries. For example, in the 1600s the Pilgrims
sought religious freedom while the Irish migration in the 1800s occurred
because of a potato famine. For as long as immigration has existed, there has
been anti-immigrant sentiment.
The Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 were an early sign of anti-immigrant views
by the United States. At the time, the Federalist party supported a stronger
national government, a national bank, and a good relationship with Great
Britain. U.S. President John Adams, a member of the Federalist party, passed
the four laws as a reaction to American fear of the impending war with France.
The four laws were the following: the Naturalization Act, the Alien Act, the Alien
Enemies Act, and the Sedition Act. The first law increased the residency
requirement for American citizenship from five to fourteen years. The second
law allowed the deportation of immigrants that were deemed to be “dangerous
to the peace and safety of the United States”. The third law allowed the
deportation of citizens from an enemy nation during war. The final law limited
freedom of speech and banned the publication of “any false, scandalous and
malicious writing.” These laws demonstrate that the Federalist government
considered immigrants a threat, a sentiment that continues to exist among
anti-immigrant groups.
A century later, the number of immigrants continued to increase at a rapid
speed, particularly immigrants from Eastern European countries. This led to an
increase in the number of white Americans who supported the concept of
nativism, an early form of anti-immigrant sentiment. It was the belief that
native-born Americans deserved more rights that foreigners. This did not
include the indigenous communities, rather the descendants of European
settlers. The concept of nativism continued to play a role in the evolvement of
the anti-immigrant movement throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. There
were periods of high anti-immigrant sentiments and time periods in which the
United States was in urgent need of immigrants. The Immigration Act of 1924
created a quota for the number of European immigrants that could enter the
United States while excluding Asian immigrants. A few decades later, the 1965
Hart-Celler Act ended the restrictive laws and led to a significant increase in
immigrants. This was a pivotal moment for the modern anti-immigrant
movement. While the anti-immigrant movement was gaining popularity and
shifting its tactics, the white supremacist movement was increasing in
popularity due to the failure of the Vietnam War.
In order to delve into the complexities of the anti-immigrant movement, it is
necessary to understand its connection to the zero-population growth (ZPG)
and white supremacist movements. They might share similar ideas and its
members may participate in multiple organizations, but they are separate
movements. The zero-population growth movement gained popularity in the
1960s and 1970s and is defined as a population that does not grow or decline.
The rate of immigration and emigration affect the overall growth rate of a
country. Even if there is a balance between the death and birth rate, if there is a
higher number of immigration than emigration, then the growth rate of a
specific country is not balanced. This concept allows the debate about
immigration to be centered on the well-being of a state in terms of its
population, rather than it being a racist or xenophobic way of thinking. If a
government wants to have a stable population, then it would need to strictly
control its immigration. Similarly, the white supremacist movement was not
necessarily focused on being anti-immigrant, rather it focused on the belief
that white people are superior. Presently, the movement has made changes to
their name and attempted to distance themselves from a strictly anti-
immigrant movement.
Kathleen Belew believes that the membership of the Ku Klux Klan increased
primarily as a consequence of the war, making anti-immigrant sentiments,
populism, and poverty less important factors. Yet, that did not prevent the
white supremacist movement from using the tactics that they had learned
during the war to torment immigrants. Louis Beam, a prominent white
nationalist helped train KKK members and implemented the Klan Border
Watch that targeted immigrants crossing the Texas-Mexico border. This began
occurring throughout all the border, not just Texas. And has influenced border
vigilantes that exist today.
Aside from the sporadic actions of those opposed to immigration, the creation
of four prominent organizations is the basis of the current anti-immigrant
movement. All of these organizations were established directly by or with the
help of John Tanton.
Important Actors:
John Tanton was president of ZPG from 1975 to 1977, a period in which he used
population control as a tool for establishing anti-immigrant rhetoric and
becoming a prominent activist in the field. Following his departure from ZPG,
he established the Federation for American Immigration Reform (FAIR) in 1979.
FAIR identifies itself as a non-partisan organization with 7 principles: ending
illegal immigration, no amnesty, protecting wages of American citizens,
improving interior enforcement, ending the abuse of the asylum system, and
implementing a pause to immigration. The organization’s website (and its
supporters) pride themselves on not being a racist organization, just one that
protects the United States from the negative consequences of immigration.
Yet, its founder has been involved in multiple white supremacist organizations
and received monetary donations from the Pioneer Fund.
FAIR has succeeded in becoming an important actor in the anti-immigrant
movement while protecting its image in a way that encourages the main-
stream media to use them as a legitimate source and advocate. In the past few
decades, FAIR has focused largely on being an advocate and using tools such
as lobbying, rallies, and media to spread their message. The Center for
Immigration Studies (CIS) plays a different role and focuses on the supposed
research that is meant to back up the claims that FAIR makes. Interestingly,
they were both founded by the same person. CIS began as a research branch of
FAIR and later on, became an independent think tank. Tanton helped Roy Beck
found NumbersUSA in 1996, another organization that promoted itself as anti-
immigrant, but not racist. All three organizations have worked together to
spread misinformation in order to promote their agenda.
At the same time, there has been a more proactive approach in the anti-
immigrant movement through the form of border vigilantes. Similar to their
predecessors, the KKK, these vigilantes have focused their efforts on the U.S.-
Mexico border with various groups focusing on different states. One group in
particular stands out for its use of “tours” as a tool for publicity. Larry Mitchell
Hopkins founded the United Constitutional Patriots (UCP), also known as the
Guardian Patriots, in an effort to decrease the number of immigrants crossing
the border. Members of this organization go to the border to detain immigrants
as they attempt to cross and then proceed to call patrol agents to apprehend
them. Many of their actions have been livestreamed on social media. This
paramilitary organization has a clear leadership structure and takes on a more
aggressive stance towards anti-immigration, one that prefers to focus on the
influx of immigrants entering from the U.S-Mexico border rather than from
other regions of the world. They differ from Tanton’s organizations in their
tactics and immediate goals. Although, in the end both actors want a country
without any undocumented immigrants and a limited number of legal
immigrants.
Tanton can be considered a major actor in the founding of the current anti-
immigrant movement but there are not many recent actors with as much fame
and support as former President Trump. In his infamous 2015 speech, he
referred to Mexican immigrants as criminals and rapists. This anti-immigrant
rhetoric launched a presidential campaign founded on anti-immigrant and
racist ideologies. Unfortunately, in the media it seemed that his words
resonated with a large American population, and the results of the 2016
election partially proved it. Although an immigration poll conducted in 2016
shows that 36% of individuals approved of the current immigration situation
and 36% wanted to decrease immigration, a number that has not changed
significantly in the past decade. Regardless, Trump’s words inspired anti-
immigrant movements who supported many of his immigration policies, such
as the zero-tolerance policy and the decrease in the annual refugee
resettlement cap. Trump became a symbol for the white supremacist
movement and the anti-immigrant movement, another sign of their
interconnectedness. As his presidency continued to support anti-immigration,
the number of hate crimes rose. Immigrants do not only have to worry about
organizations that lobby against their rights, but the individuals who are
influenced by them. For example, a Trump supported was charged with a hate
crime after pushing a Mexican man onto train tracks in New York City on April
20, 2018. The FBI reported that hate crimes against Latinos rose more than
21% in 2018. The success of Trump’s presidential campaign, and his
subsequent presidential term, gave a voice to the movement and its supporters
the strength to voice their opinions, verbally and physically, without remorse.
The Biden administration has begun but the long-lasting effects of Trump’s
presidency are yet to be seen.
Strategies:
The anti-immigrant movement has used various repertoires of contention in
order to promote their ideas. John Stanton created a coalition of organizations
that have been able to gather media attention, support, and have led to the
implementation of anti-immigrant laws. FAIR, CIS, and NumbersUSA were
incredibly successful during the Trump Administration while lobbying for an
end to DACA and Temporary Protected Status. The Western States Center has
spent the last thirty years researching the rise in anti-immigrant sentiments in
the United States and they believe that the vast majority of organizations and
prominent activists in the movement stem from one player, John Tanton. The
only exception in their research is the Remembrance Project, founded by Maria
Espinoza, and even then, although this specific organization was not founded
by or with the help of Tanton, Espinoza holds a strong relationship with FAIR.
The creation of a coalition benefits them because they work together to create
their data and they can exchange strategies that have succeeded in different
parts of the country. This has also helped them get financing for their different
projects and political campaigns.
Larry Hopkins also used coalitions as a tool for his anti-immigrant actions. In
October 2018, his border vigilante organization joined forces with Patriots of
the Constitution and Mountain Minutemen as a response to the migrant
caravan from Honduras, although they disbanded in 2019. The UCP has gained
media attention because of their use of social media and the tours that they
have given along the border. Initially, this benefited them because they
received funding through platforms like Venmo and PayPal but their increased
notoriety has led to them getting banned. By livestreaming their actions, they
gained a large audience and other anti-immigrant individuals decided to
participate in their tours or donate. Despite the fact that they are now banned
on funding platforms, there will continue to be ways for them to receive
donations.
John Tanton and Larry Hopkins have played different roles in the anti-
immigrant movement but their desires stem from the same interest: to see a
United States with less immigrants, with a special interest in the decrease of
immigrants coming from Central and South America.
Successes
Throughout different time periods, the movement has had many successes in
the form of anti-immigration laws being implemented, militias being able to
instill fear in immigrants, and more recently, the successful presidential
campaign of a nativist politician. A major success for the movement occurred
in 1996 when President Clinton signed the Illegal Immigration Reform and
Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA). The reform included many changes to
immigration laws, including removing discretionary relief for long-term lawful
permanent residents (LPRs) who were convicted of an aggravated felony. It
also created the 3-year, 10-year, and permanent bars, punishments for
immigrants who had resided in the United States without legal status. For
example, if an individual lived in the United States illegally between 180 to 365
days, left the US, then tried to return, they would receive a 3-year ban. A person
with multiple deportations would be permanently barred from entering the
country legally. This law created a strict punishment system for immigrants
and set stricter standards of behavior, which pleased the anti-immigrant
community slightly. There were still activists who believed that the law is not
strict enough for illegal immigrants and does not do enough in regards legal
immigration. Mark Krikorian, the Executive Director of Center for Immigrant
Studies in 2007, believed that there needed to be a significant decrease in legal
immigration. He shared Barbara Jordan’s sentiments that “Those who should
get in, get in; those who should be kept out, are kept out; and those who should
not be here will be required to leave”. Although a success in damaging the
overall well-being of immigrants and instilling fear to decrease immigration,
this law was only one step towards achieving the larger goals of the anti-
immigrant movement. Next, there needed to be stricter deportation laws, as
well as limits to legal immigration.
Another success for the movement is the effect that militias have had on
immigrants, the southern border, and their overall popularity. As previously
mentioned, the United Guardians have used social media to gain popularity
among anti-immigrant individuals. This leads to donations that allow them to
continue monitoring the border and detaining immigrants as they attempt to
cross into the U.S. These militias have succeeded in creating fear among both
immigrant communities and communities of color. In 2009, Raul and Brisenia
Flores were shot and killed by 3 members of the Minuteman American Defense.
They father and daughter were in their home at the time of their deaths, but
other militia members have participated in the assault, false imprisonment,
and kidnapping of immigrants as they attempt to cross the desert. Today,
environmental factors and wild animals are no longer the only fears about
making the dangerous journey into the United States. There are now militarized
anti-immigrant activists who also pose a danger.
The anti-immigrant movement had a large success when the White House was
under the control of multiple nativist leaders: Donald Trump, Steve Bannon,
and Jeff Sessions. Political scientist Cas Mudde defines the American definition
of nativism as “xenophobic nationalism” and although he describes Trump as
inconsistent with his ideologies, Bannon and Sessions are considered nativists
and have had a large influence on Trump. When Trump realized that nativist
rhetoric would increase his number of supporters, he began to incorporate it
more in his campaign speeches. Trump has consistently shown that he is
willing to change his opinions to please his followers. At the end of the day, it is
difficult to know what he truly believes in and what he does not. Whether or not
he is truly a nativist is irrelevant when many of the policies created during his
administration could be described as such, such as the travel ban that affected
mostly Muslim and/or Arab immigrants. They catered to a group of Trump
supporters who voted for him because they believed that he would prioritize
America and its people, except that their definition of “American” includes
white, protestant, and multi-generational U.S. born individuals. Eric Kaufmann,
a political scientist at the University of London’s Birkbeck College, believes that
Trump’s supporters identify with him because they are nativists and view
immigration as damaging to the United States. In 2016, 59% of the GOP voters
who believed that immigrants were threatening U.S. values, felt very warmly
towards Trump. In comparison, 14% of the GOP voters who believe immigrants
strengthen U.S. values, felt very warmly towards him. The use of nativism
became a win-win situation for Trump and his followers. He gained more votes,
enough to become President, and his followers gained a president who limited
immigration.
Failures:
Despite the previous mentioned successes, the anti-immigrant movement has
failed in many ways, to the benefit of the immigrant community and
communities of color. While Trump was able to win the 2016 presidential
election, he failed to be reelected. Initially, Trump’s anti-immigration opinions
could have gained the support of moderate voters but as his nativist rhetoric
worsened, those who were more open to immigration saw his points as too
xenophobic. The percent of individuals that think immigrants are good for the
U.S has risen for Republican, Democratic, and Independent voters from 2018
to 2020. Trump’s actions attracted the attention of voters who already shared
his beliefs but were potentially holding back their opinions. Seeing a president
willing to speak so openly in xenophobic and racist ways allowed others to feel
like they could do the same. In that way, he was a success for the anti-
immigrant movement. He failed the movement because his disturbing
speeches and his strict policies did not stop the number of immigration
supporters from increasing. Since he failed to be reelected, there is hope that
the new administration will be able to reverse his extreme policies and
potentially, create more immigrant friendly policies.
Another failure in the movement is the restoration of Deferred Action for
Childhood Arrivals (DACA). DACA, implemented during the Obama
administration, prevents the deportation of certain undocumented immigrants
who were brought to the U.S. as children and grants them work permits. During
Trump’s administration, he tried to end the program in September 2017. As an
attempt to phase out the program, the new policy stopped accepting new
applications for individuals who now qualified. His actions led to outcries from
NGOs, immigrant advocacy groups, and even some members of the Republican
party that are more supportive of immigration. Fortunately, in December 200
U.S. District Judge Nicholas G. Garaufis restored the program and ordered the
Department of Homeland Security to begin accepting first-time applications
again. For anti-immigration activists who see DACA as a form of amnesty that
allows thousands of illegal immigrants to remain in the country, this decision
was a major failure.
Pro-Immigrant Movement Recommendations:
Rather than focusing on anti-immigrant movements and the way they can
improve so they can achieve their goals, this paper will focus on how pro-
immigrant groups can help prevent the previously mentioned movement from
succeeding. To prevent the anti-immigrant movement from gaining more
success in the future, it is imperative that organizations that support
immigrants be more proactive in helping individuals and lobbying the
government to take legal action in favor of immigrants. There are two main
groups that need to be addressed: the immigrants and the government. In
reaching out to the immigrant community, organizations can build better
relationships with the individuals they are trying to protect and can educate
individuals in the ways they can protect themselves. In terms of the
government, organizations should pressure them to take a stronger stance
against hate crimes. Overall, it is recommended that pro-immigrant
movements do these three things: Educate immigrant communities about law
enforcement and their protections against hate crimes, increase accountability
for news media to accurately represent both immigrants and the organizations
that spout hate towards them, and lobby the government to take a hard stance
against xenophobia and to show it through their enforcement of anti-hate
crime laws.
Both international and national organizations should focus on educating
immigrant communities in the U.S. and communities abroad that have high
rates of emigration. Locally, many immigrant communities (and communities
of color) do not trust law enforcement. They do not know that the police exist
to protect their rights, regardless of their legal status. If there is a hate crime
committed against them, immigrants should know that they can receive help
without repercussions, they may even receive a form of legal aid depending on
the crime. For those immigrants that become U.S. citizens and have the right to
vote, the community should try to show them why it is important that they do
so. They may live in communities full of people of color and not realize the
extent of the damage that anti-immigrant organizations can cause. If
immigrants do not believe that the number of xenophobic voters can directly
affect their lives, they might be less inclined to vote. It would help them to also
be prepared to know how to react when exposed to racism and anti-immigrant
sentiments. Internationally, education is also important because individuals
continue to migrate to the U.S., and they need to know what rights they have as
soon as they reach the border. The reality is that when someone decides to
cross into the U.S, they may not change their minds regardless of what they
hear but having the basic understanding of how the legal system works will
protect them from the dangers of militias. Knowing the risks that come with
crossing illegally will also help them make informed decisions.
Pro-immigrant groups should also work towards holding the media
accountable for their portrayal of immigrants and the use of information that
comes from think tanks like CIS. If news outlets want to report on the number
of immigrants arriving at the border, they should use reliable information, not
an organization that has been tied with white supremacist groups and that has
consistently been shown to use false statistics. Some steps that can be taken
are social media campaigns, boycotts of certain news outlets, and petitions. If
news outlets want the support of diverse audiences, then they should make the
effort to accurately report on immigration. This would not focus on news
outlets that have already taken a clear stance against immigration, rather on
the organizations that label themselves as moderate, neutral, or more left
leaning. If they want to educate the public on issues pertaining to immigration,
they need to do a better job with their methods. An example of this is the
previously mentioned confusion between FAIR, CIS, and NumbersUSA. It
should be clear that all three organizations are related and have used false data
multiple times. If they are to be used as a source for immigration, they should
be seen as one rather than separate entities that have arrived at the same
conclusion.
Another recommendation for immigration activists is to focus on lobbying the
government, both local and federal, so that they take a harder stance against
xenophobia and are stricter in enforcing their anti-hate crime laws. President
Biden, the members of his administration, and directors of government
programs must make it clear that they are against xenophobia, are pro-
immigrant, and will not follow the path of their predecessors. It is no longer
acceptable to just announce that you are appalled by a specific hate crime that
has occurred, as with the death of the Flores family, but vehemently state that
all forms of xenophobia, racism, and mistreatment of immigrants is
unacceptable. Activists should pressure the government to take these steps. It
is also important to hold Biden accountable for the promises that he made to
the immigrant community and that helped get him elected. He must create a
path for citizenship for DACA recipients and activists should make sure the
administration does not “forget” their promises. Calling representatives and
senators to make it clear what the community wants is one way to help with
this.
Conclusion:
The anti-immigrant movement has had a strong hold in American society and
their visibility increased during the Trump administration, but the numbers
show that Americans continue to support immigration. Regardless of the
successes that the anti-immigration movement has had in the past, if
immigration activists continue to fight against xenophobic organizations and
racists politicians, the United States can become a country that welcomes
immigrants.
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Ibid.
