MEERUT INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY, MEERUT
Course Content
for

Power Plant (KME076)

B.Tech 4th Year

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Prepared By

Dr. Husain Mehdi

(Associate Professor)
 Vision, Mission of the Institute and Département
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University Lucknow
Vision of the Institute

To be an outstanding institution in the country imparting technical education, providing need-

based, value-based and career-based programs and producing self-reliant, self-sufficient
technocrats capable of meeting new challenges.

Mission of the Institute

The mission of the institute is to educate young aspirants in various technical fields to fulfill
global requirement of human resources by providing sustainable quality education, training and
invigorating environment besides molding them into skilled competent and socially responsible
citizens who will lead the building of a powerful nation.

Vision of the Department

To become a nationwide recognized department for research-oriented quality technical

education in line with emerging trends and evolving demands of society.

Mission of the Department

The mission of mechanical engineering department includes:

• To embrace excellent teaching learning techniques to provide practical quality
education that is commensurate with the emerging trends and industry demands.
• To promote research in interdisciplinary areas by forging collaborations with global
industries and establishing state-of-the-art research facilities in order to develop among
students innovative and creative capabilities.
• To mentor and guide young technocrats and inculcate them with the spirit of
entrepreneurship along with ethics, values and eco-sensitivity.

2
 Meerut Institute of Engineering and Technology
Department of Mechanical Engineering
B Tech – VII Semester
KME076- POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

L TPC : 5005
Course Type : Regular
Semester Offered : Odd
Academic Year : 2024-25
Time : Mon: 10.00 AM-10.50AM, Wed: 11:40-12:30 PM, 1:30 PM-
2:20 PM, Thurs: 10.00 AM-10.50AM, Fri: 1:30 PM-2:20 PM.
Faculty Handling : Dr. Husain Mehdi
Class Room : Q105

Course Description:

This course provides an in-depth introduction to various types of power plants, exploring
both conventional and non-conventional energy sources. Students will gain a comprehensive
understanding of the current status of power generation, future trends, and environmental
considerations such as carbon credits. The course covers the principles, layout, operation,
and maintenance of key power plant types, including thermal, hydroelectric, gas turbine,
nuclear, solar, and non-conventional power plants like geothermal, wind, and tidal energy
systems.

Course Outcomes

Course
On completion of this course, the student will be able to: BKL
Outcome
Understand the different sources of power generation and their
CO-1
impact on environment. K2
Understand the elements of power generation using conventional
CO-2
and non- conventional energy sources. K2
Understand the concepts of electrical systems used in power
CO-3
plants. K2
Apply the basic concepts of thermodynamics to measure the
CO-4
performance of different power plants. K3
CO-5 Apply the performance of power plants based on load variations.
K3

3
 Syllabus

Power Plant Engineering (KME076)

UNIT-I

Introduction to Power Plants Introduction to the sources of energy: conventional and non-
conventional; Principal types of power plants; Present status and future trends; Carbon
credits.

Thermal Power Plant General layout of modern thermal power plant, Review of Rankine
and modified Rankine cycles, Power plant boilers including critical and super critical boilers.
Fluidized bed boilers, boilers mountings and accessories. Feed water treatment and
condenser and cooling towers and cooling ponds, Turbine auxiliary systems such as
governing, feed heating, reheating, flange heating and gland leakage. Operation and
maintenance of steam power plant, heat balance and efficiency, Site selection of a steam
power plant.

UNIT-II

Hydroelectric Power Plant Hydro-electric plant, General arrangement of hydroelectric

power plant, Plant layout, Penstock and water hammer, Specific speed and capacity
calculations, Classification of hydro-plant, Low-, medium- and high-head plants, Pumped
storage plant, Run-off River power plant, Surge tanks.
Gas turbine power plant: Layout of gas turbine power plant, Elements of gas turbine power
plants, Gas turbine fuels, cogeneration, auxiliary systems such as fuel, controls and
lubrication, operation and maintenance, combined cycle power plants, Site selection of gas
turbine power plant, Integrated Gas fire based Combined Cycle (IGCC) systems. Controlling
of air fuel ratio (AFR) in power plant.

UNIT-III

Nuclear Power Plants Classification of nuclear reactors, Thermal fission reactors and
power plant and their location, Pressurized water reactor, Boiling water reactor, CANDU
heavy water reactor, Gas-cooled reactor, Fast breeder reactors, Organic substance cooled
reactor, Reactor control, Radiation hazards, Radioactive waste disposal, nuclear power
generation in India.
Solar Power Plant Solar energy collectors, Photovoltaic power system, Solar central
receiver system, Solar thermal energy, types of solar thermal plant, typical layout and

4
components, solar parabolic trough plants, solar tower power plants, and solar dish power
plants. Working principle of concentrating solar thermal power plant and their applications.

UNIT-IV

Non-Conventional Power Plants

Geothermal energy: Hydrothermal systems, Petro thermal systems, Hybrid geothermal
fossil systems, Problems associated with geothermal conversion,
Wind energy: Components of a wind generator, Horizontal and vertical axis wind mills,
Aerodynamic considerations of wind mill design, Coefficient of performance of wind mill
rotor, Availability of wind energy in India, Wind power by country.
Tidal energy: The simple single pool tidal system, The modulated single pool tidal system,
The two-pool tidal system, Ocean thermal energy conversion, Principle of working, Ocean
temperature differences, The open or Claude cycle, The closed or Anderson OTEC cycle,
Electricity generation from Fuel cells and city garbage.

UNIT-V

Electrical system: Introduction to generator and exciters, Earthing of power systems, Power
and unit transformer, Circuit breakers, Protective equipment, Switch gear.
Power Plant Economics: Types of loads, Effect of variable load on power plant design and
operation, Methods to meet variable load, Prediction of future loads, Terminology used in
power supply, Cost of electrical energy, Depreciation, Energy rates (tariffs) for electrical
energy, Factors affecting economics of generation and distribution of power
Environmental Aspects of Power Station Environmental aspects, Different pollutants due
to thermal power plant and their effect on human health, Thermal pollution of water and its
control, Effluents from power plants and impact on environment, Radiation from nuclear
power plant effluents, Methods of pollution mitigation and control

Books and References

1. Power Plant Engineering by Gupta, PHI India.

2. Power Plant Engineering by P.K. Nag, Tata McGraw Hill.
3. Power Plant Technology, by Wakil, McGraw Hill. Power Plant Engineering, by F.T.
Morse, Affiliated East-West Press Pvt. Ltd.
4. Power Plant Engineering by Hedge, Pearson India.
5. Steam & Gas Turbines & Power Plant Engineering by R.Yadav, Central Pub.House.

5
 Lecture Delivery Plan

Lecture CO Topics Teaching Reference Remark

No Pedagogy Book No If, any
1 CO1 Introduction to Power Plants Introduction to White board 2
the sources of energy.
2 CO1 Conventional and non-conventional White board 2
3 CO1 Principal types of power plants; Present White board 2
status and future trends;
4 CO1 Carbon credits, General layout of modern White board 1
thermal power plant,
5 CO1 Review of Rankine and modified Rankine PPT Notes
cycles, Power plant boilers including critical
and super critical boilers
6 CO1 Fluidized bed boilers, boilers mountings PPT 3
and accessories
7 CO1 Feed water treatment and condenser and White board 2
cooling towers and cooling ponds,
8 CO1 Turbine auxiliary systems, such as White board 1
governing, feed heating, reheating, flange
heating and gland leakage.
9 CO1 Operation and maintenance of steam power 1
plant, heat balance and efficiency, Site PPT
selection of a steam power plant.
10 CO2 Hydro-electric plant, General arrangement White board Notes
of hydroelectric power plant.
11 CO2 Plant layout, Penstock and water hammer, White board Notes
Specific speed and capacity calculations,
12 CO2 Classification of hydro-plant, Low-, White board 3
medium- and high-head plants, Pumped
storage plant, Run-off River power plant,
Surge tanks
13 CO2 Introduction of Gas turbine plant White board Notes
14 CO2 Layout of gas turbine power plant, Elements PPT 2
of gas turbine power plants, Gas turbine
fuels
15 CO2 Cogeneration, auxiliary systems such as PPT 1
fuel, controls and lubrication, operation and
maintenance
16 CO2 Lubrication system White board 2
17 CO2 combined cycle power plants, Site selection White board 3
of gas turbine power plant.

6
18 CO2 Integrated Gas fire based Combined Cycle White board Notes
(IGCC) systems
19 CO2 Controlling of air fuel ratio (AFR) in power White board Notes
plant.
20 CO3 Introduction of nuclear Power Plants PPT Notes
Classification of nuclear reactors
21 CO3 Thermal fission reactors and power plant PPT 2
and their location.
22 CO3 Pressurized water reactor, Boiling water White board 3
reactor, CANDU heavy water reactor.
23 CO3 Gas-cooled reactor, Fast breeder reactors, PPT 1
Organic substance cooled reactor, Reactor
control
24 CO3 Radiation hazards, Radioactive waste White board 1
disposal.
25 CO3 Nuclear power generation in India. White board Notes
26 CO3 Introduction of solar Power Plant Solar PPT 2
energy collectors
27 CO3 Photovoltaic power system, Solar central PPT 2
receiver system.
28 CO3 Typical layout and components, solar White board 3
parabolic trough plants
29 CO3 Solar tower power plants, and solar dish White board Notes
power plants.
30 CO3 Working principle of concentrating solar PPT Notes
thermal power plant and their applications

Books and References

1. Power Plant Engineering by Gupta, PHI India.

2. Power Plant Engineering by P.K. Nag, Tata McGraw Hill.
3. Power Plant Technology, by Wakil, McGraw Hill. Power Plant Engineering, by F.T.
Morse, Affiliated East-West Press Pvt. Ltd.
4. Power Plant Engineering by Hedge, Pearson India.
5. Steam & Gas Turbines & Power Plant Engineering by R.Yadav, Central Pub.House.

7
 Table of Contents

Front Page........................................................................................................................................... 1
Vision, Mission of the Institute and Département .............................................................................. 2
Course Outcomes................................................................................................................................ 3
Syllabus .............................................................................................................................................. 4
Lecture Delivery Plan ......................................................................................................................... 6
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................... 8
List of Figures................................................................................................................................... 12
Unit-1................................................................................................................................................ 14
What, Why and Where of Unit 1 ...................................................................................................... 14
1 Introduction to Power Plants .................................................................................................... 15
1.1 Thermal Power Plants....................................................................................................... 15
1.2 hydroelectric power plant ................................................................................................. 16
1.3 Gas turbine power plant .................................................................................................... 16
1.4 Nuclear power plants ........................................................................................................ 16
1.5 Solar power plant .............................................................................................................. 17
1.6 Non-conventional power plants ........................................................................................ 17
1.6.1 Wind Power Plants ................................................................................................... 17
1.6.2 Solar Power Plants .................................................................................................... 18
1.6.3 Geothermal Power Plants ......................................................................................... 18
1.6.4 Biomass Power Plants .............................................................................................. 18
1.6.5 Ocean Power Plants .................................................................................................. 19
1.6.6 Integrating Non-Conventional Power Plants ............................................................ 19
1.7 Conventional Energy Resources ....................................................................................... 20
1.7.1 Fossil Fuels ............................................................................................................... 20
1.8 Non-Conventional Energy Resources .............................................................................. 20
1.8.1 Solar Energy ............................................................................................................. 20
1.8.2 Wind Energy ............................................................................................................. 21
1.8.3 Hydroelectric Power ................................................................................................. 21
1.8.4 Geothermal Energy ................................................................................................... 21
1.8.5 Biomass Energy ........................................................................................................ 21
1.8.6 Ocean Energy ........................................................................................................... 22
1.8.7 Comparing Conventional and Non-Conventional Energy Resources ...................... 22

8
1.9 Present Status of Power Plants ......................................................................................... 23
1.9.1 Market Dynamics and Performance ......................................................................... 23
1.9.2 Technological Advancements................................................................................... 23
1.10 Future Trends of power plant ........................................................................................... 23
1.10.1 Transition to Renewable Energy .............................................................................. 23
1.10.2 Decarbonization and Net-Zero Goals ....................................................................... 24
1.10.3 Technological Innovation ......................................................................................... 24
1.11 Challenges and Opportunities ........................................................................................... 25
1.12 Thermal Power Plant ........................................................................................................ 25
1.12.1 General Layout of thermal power plant .................................................................... 26
1.13 Rankine Cycle .................................................................................................................. 28
1.13.1 Thermodynamic Processes in the Rankine Cycle ..................................................... 29
1.14 Modified Rankine Cycle: A Detailed Explanation ........................................................... 30
1.15 Power Plant Boilers .......................................................................................................... 33
1.16 Basic Functionality of Power Plant Boilers ...................................................................... 33
1.16.1 Subcritical Boilers .................................................................................................... 34
1.16.2 Critical Boilers.......................................................................................................... 34
1.16.3 Supercritical Boilers ................................................................................................. 34
1.17 Fluidized Bed Boilers ....................................................................................................... 35
1.17.1 Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Combustion (AFBC): .................................................. 36
1.17.2 Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion (PFBC): ..................................................... 36
1.17.3 Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion (CFBC): ..................................................... 36
1.18 Boiler Mountings .............................................................................................................. 37
1.19 Boiler Accessories ............................................................................................................ 37
1.20 Feed Water Treatment ...................................................................................................... 38
1.21 Objectives of Feed Water Treatment ................................................................................ 38
1.22 Types of Feed Water Treatment ....................................................................................... 38
1.23 Condenser ......................................................................................................................... 39
1.23.1 Types of Condensers ................................................................................................ 39
1.24 Cooling Towers ................................................................................................................ 39
1.25 Cooling Ponds .................................................................................................................. 40
1.26 Turbine auxiliary systems ................................................................................................. 40
1.26.1 Governing System .................................................................................................... 40
1.26.2 Feed Heating System ................................................................................................ 41

9
 1.26.3 Reheating System ..................................................................................................... 41
1.26.4 Flange Heating System ............................................................................................. 42
1.26.5 Gland Leakage System ............................................................................................. 42
1.27 Site selection of a steam power plant ............................................................................... 43
1.27.1 Availability of Water ................................................................................................ 43
1.27.2 Proximity to Fuel Supply.......................................................................................... 43
1.27.3 Transportation Facilities ........................................................................................... 43
1.27.4 Availability of Land.................................................................................................. 44
1.27.5 Environmental Considerations.................................................................................. 44
1.27.6 Proximity to Load Centers ........................................................................................ 44
1.27.7 Topography and Geology ......................................................................................... 44
1.27.8 Climate Conditions ................................................................................................... 44
1.27.9 Availability of Skilled Labor .................................................................................... 45
1.27.10 Cost of Land and Legal Issues .............................................................................. 45
1.27.11 Socio-Economic Factors ....................................................................................... 45
1.28 Important Questions of first unit ...................................................................................... 46
Unit-2................................................................................................................................................ 47
What why and where of unit 2.......................................................................................................... 47
2 Introduction of Hydroelectric power plant ............................................................................... 48
2.1 Working Principle ............................................................................................................ 48
2.2 Components or plant Layout of a Hydroelectric Power Plant .......................................... 49
2.2.1 Types of Hydroelectric Power Plants ....................................................................... 49
2.2.2 Advantages of Hydroelectric Power Plants .............................................................. 50
2.2.3 Challenges and Environmental Considerations ........................................................ 50
2.3 Penstock............................................................................................................................ 50
2.4 Water hammer .................................................................................................................. 51
2.5 Classification of hydro-plant, ........................................................................................... 51
2.5.1 Low-Head Plants ...................................................................................................... 51
2.5.2 Medium-Head Plants ................................................................................................ 52
2.5.3 High-Head Plants...................................................................................................... 52
2.6 Pumped Storage Plant....................................................................................................... 53
2.7 Run-off River Power Plant ............................................................................................... 54
2.8 Surge Tanks ...................................................................................................................... 54
2.9 Gas Turbine Power Plant .................................................................................................. 55

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 2.9.1 Layout of gas turbine power plant ............................................................................ 55
2.10 Elements of gas turbine power plants ............................................................................... 58
2.11 Gas turbine Fuel ............................................................................................................... 59
2.11.1 Natural Gas ............................................................................................................... 59
2.11.2 Diesel Fuel ................................................................................................................ 59
2.11.3 Kerosene ................................................................................................................... 59
2.11.4 Biofuels..................................................................................................................... 60
2.11.5 Hydrogen .................................................................................................................. 60
2.11.6 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) ............................................................................... 60
2.11.7 Coal-Derived Gaseous Fuels .................................................................................... 60
2.11.8 Controls of Gas Turbines .......................................................................................... 61
2.11.9 Speed Control ........................................................................................................... 61
2.11.10 Temperature Control............................................................................................. 61
2.11.11 Load Control ......................................................................................................... 61
2.11.12 Protection Systems ............................................................................................... 62
2.11.13 Remote Monitoring and Diagnostics .................................................................... 62
2.12 Lubrication of Gas Turbines ............................................................................................. 62
2.12.1 Lubrication System Components.............................................................................. 62
2.12.2 Types of Lubricating Oils ......................................................................................... 62
2.12.3 Lubrication Practices ................................................................................................ 63
2.12.4 Cooling and Ventilation............................................................................................ 63
2.12.5 Emergency Lubrication ............................................................................................ 63
2.13 Site selection of gas turbine power plant, ......................................................................... 63
2.14 The Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) ..................................................... 65
2.15 Controlling the Air-Fuel Ratio (AFR) .............................................................................. 66
2.15.1 Importance of AFR Control ...................................................................................... 66
2.15.2 Components of AFR Control System ....................................................................... 67
2.15.3 Methods of AFR Control .......................................................................................... 67
2.15.4 Techniques for AFR Optimization ........................................................................... 67
2.15.5 Challenges in AFR Control ...................................................................................... 68
Important Question of Unit 2 .................................................................................................... 69
Unit 3 ................................................................................................................................................ 70
What, why, and where of unit 3........................................................................................................ 70
3 Introduction of Nuclear reactors ............................................................................................... 71

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 3.1 Classification of Nuclear reactors..................................................................................... 71
3.1.1 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) ........................................................................... 71
3.2 A thermal fission reactor .................................................................................................. 73
3.3 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) ................................................................................... 73
3.3.1 Working Principle of a Pressurized Water Reactor .................................................. 74
3.4 A Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) ..................................................................................... 75
3.4.1 Advantages of Boiling Water Reactors .................................................................... 76
3.4.2 Challenges and Considerations ................................................................................. 77
3.5 CANDU heavy water reactor ........................................................................................... 77
Important question of Unit 3 ............................................................................................................ 78

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 List of Figures

Figure 1: Layout of thermal power plant ............................................................................ 26

Figure 2: Schematic diagram of Rankine cycle .................................................................. 28
Figure 3: PV and TS diagram of Rankine cycle .................................................................. 29

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 Unit-1

CO-1 Understand the different sources of power generation and their impact on
environment.

Introduction to Power Plants Introduction to the sources of energy: conventional and non-
conventional; Principal types of power plants; Present status and future trends; Carbon
credits.
Thermal Power Plant General layout of modern thermal power plant, Review of Rankine
and modified Rankine cycles, Power plant boilers including critical and super critical boilers.
Fluidized bed boilers, boilers mountings and accessories. Feed water treatment and
condenser and cooling towers and cooling ponds, Turbine auxiliary systems such as
governing, feed heating, reheating, flange heating and gland leakage. Operation and
maintenance of steam power plant, heat balance and efficiency, Site selection of a steam
power plant.

What, Why and Where of Unit 1

What

This content provides an introduction to power plants, focusing on the various energy
sources (both conventional and non-conventional) and different types of power plants. It
outlines the general layout and operational aspects of thermal power plants, including an
overview of key components such as boilers, turbines, and cooling systems. Specific
attention is given to the Rankine cycle, fluidized bed boilers, auxiliary systems, and
maintenance practices. The content also touches on broader topics like carbon credits, site
selection, and future trends in power generation.

Why

Understanding power plants and energy generation is crucial for addressing growing global
energy demands, environmental concerns, and the transition to cleaner energy technologies.
The principles of thermal power plant operation, particularly the use of modern technologies
such as supercritical boilers and fluidized bed combustion, are vital for improving plant
efficiency, reducing emissions, and ensuring reliable power generation. Awareness of future
trends, carbon credits, and energy sources helps guide policy and industrial efforts toward
sustainable practices.

14
Where

This content is applicable in academic settings for courses on energy systems, mechanical
engineering, or environmental studies. It is also useful for engineers, power plant operators,
and policymakers involved in energy generation and management. Additionally, it has
relevance in industrial sectors where power plant design, operation, and maintenance are
critical, as well as in government initiatives focused on energy planning and carbon
reduction strategies.

1 Introduction to Power Plants

Power plants, also known as power stations, are industrial facilities that generate electricity
for residential, commercial, and industrial use, playing a vital role in modern society by
powering homes, businesses, and public infrastructure. They come in various types based on
the energy source used, including fossil fuel power plants that burn coal, natural gas, or oil;
nuclear power plants that use nuclear fission; hydroelectric power plants that harness water
energy; and renewable energy power plants like wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass.
Combined cycle power plants improve efficiency by using waste heat from one cycle to
power another. The importance of power plants cannot be overstated, as they are the
backbone of modern energy systems, ensuring a continuous electricity supply essential for
lighting, heating, transportation, and industrial processes. However, the power generation
sector faces challenges such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions, transitioning to
renewable energy, and enhancing energy efficiency. Emerging technologies like advanced
nuclear reactors, energy storage systems, and smart grids are set to transform power
generation, making it cleaner and more resilient. As the energy landscape evolves, power
plants will continue to adapt to meet the growing demands of a changing world, playing a
crucial role in achieving a sustainable energy future. Power plants are classified into several
types based on the energy sources they utilize to generate electricity. Each type has its own
unique characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages.

1.1 Thermal Power Plants

A thermal power plant is a facility where heat energy is converted into electrical energy.
This process typically involves the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas, or oil to
produce steam. The steam is then used to spin turbines connected to generators, which
produce electricity. Thermal power plants are among the most common and traditional
sources of electricity worldwide due to their ability to generate large amounts of power.
However, they also contribute significantly to environmental pollution, emitting large
quantities of carbon dioxide and other pollutants into the atmosphere. Despite these
concerns, thermal power plants remain a critical component of the global energy

15
infrastructure, especially in regions where renewable energy sources are not yet fully
developed or economically viable.

1.2 hydroelectric power plant

A hydroelectric power plant harnesses the energy of flowing or falling water to generate
electricity. It is one of the oldest and most widely used forms of renewable energy, relying
on the natural water cycle. Typically, a dam is built across a river to create a reservoir or to
divert water flow. As water is released from the reservoir or channeled through the dam, it
flows over turbines, causing them to spin and generate electricity through connected
generators. Hydroelectric power plants are valued for their ability to provide a consistent
and reliable source of energy with minimal greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, they
offer the benefits of energy storage and grid stability by adjusting water flow to meet
demand. However, the construction of large dams can have significant environmental and
social impacts, including the displacement of communities and changes to local ecosystems.
Despite these challenges, hydroelectric power remains a vital component of the global shift
toward sustainable energy.

1.3 Gas turbine power plant

A gas turbine power plant is a type of power generation facility that uses natural gas or other
liquid fuels to produce electricity. The core of the plant is the gas turbine, where air is
compressed and mixed with fuel before being ignited. The high-temperature, high-pressure
combustion gases expand rapidly, driving the turbine blades to spin. This mechanical energy
is then converted into electrical energy through a connected generator. Gas turbine power
plants are known for their efficiency, reliability, and ability to start up quickly, making them
ideal for meeting peak electricity demand and providing backup power. They can operate
independently or as part of a combined cycle power plant, where the waste heat from the gas
turbine is used to produce steam, driving an additional steam turbine to generate more
electricity, thereby enhancing overall efficiency. Despite their reliance on fossil fuels, gas
turbine power plants emit lower levels of greenhouse gases compared to traditional coal-
fired plants, making them a more environmentally friendly option within the fossil fuel
category.

1.4 Nuclear power plants

Nuclear power plants generate electricity through nuclear fission, a process in which atomic
nuclei are split into smaller fragments, releasing a significant amount of energy. In a nuclear
reactor, uranium or plutonium fuel rods undergo controlled fission reactions, producing heat.
This heat is used to generate steam from water, which drives a steam turbine connected to

16
an electrical generator. Nuclear power plants are known for their high energy output and
efficiency, providing a large amount of base-load power with minimal greenhouse gas
emissions. The technology allows for continuous operation and energy production over long
periods, making it a stable and reliable source of electricity. Despite their benefits, nuclear
power plants pose challenges, including the management of radioactive waste, high
construction costs, and safety concerns. Nonetheless, advancements in reactor technology
and waste management continue to address these issues, making nuclear power a crucial
component of the global energy mix for meeting growing electricity demands while aiming
to reduce carbon emissions.

1.5 Solar power plant

Solar power plants harness energy from the sun to generate electricity through photovoltaic
(PV) cells or solar thermal systems. In photovoltaic solar power plants, sunlight is converted
directly into electricity using semiconductor materials in PV panels. These panels are often
installed in large arrays, either on the ground or on rooftops, to capture as much sunlight as
possible. Alternatively, solar thermal power plants use mirrors or lenses to concentrate
sunlight onto a receiver, which heats a fluid to produce steam. This steam drives a turbine
connected to an electrical generator. Solar power plants are favored for their renewable
nature, reducing reliance on fossil fuels and cutting greenhouse gas emissions. They are
particularly effective in regions with high solar irradiance and can be scaled from small
residential installations to large utility-scale projects.

1.6 Non-conventional power plants

Non-conventional power plants represent a pivotal shift in the global energy landscape,
focusing on sustainable and renewable energy sources that diverge from traditional fossil
fuel-based methods. These power plants harness energy from a variety of unconventional
sources, each with its unique technologies and environmental benefits. As the world grapples
with the challenges of climate change and depleting fossil fuel reserves, non-conventional
power plants offer promising alternatives that contribute to a cleaner and more sustainable
energy system.

1.6.1 Wind Power Plants

Wind power plants harness the kinetic energy of wind to generate electricity. This is
achieved through the use of wind turbines, which convert wind energy into mechanical
power and then into electrical power via a generator. Wind turbines can be situated onshore
or offshore. Onshore wind farms are located on land, while offshore wind farms are installed
in bodies of water, typically in shallow areas of the ocean. Offshore wind farms benefit from

17
more consistent and stronger wind speeds, which can lead to higher energy production
compared to their onshore counterparts.
Wind power is renowned for its low operational costs once the infrastructure is in place. It
does not produce greenhouse gas emissions during operation, making it a significant player
in the fight against climate change. However, wind power faces challenges related to
intermittency—wind speed can vary greatly, leading to fluctuating energy output.
Additionally, there are concerns about noise, visual impact, and the effect on wildlife,
particularly birds and bats.

1.6.2 Solar Power Plants

Solar power plants convert sunlight into electricity through two primary technologies:
photovoltaic (PV) cells and solar thermal systems. PV cells, made from semiconductor
materials like silicon, generate electricity directly from sunlight through the photovoltaic
effect. Solar thermal systems, alternatively, use mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight onto
a receiver, heating a fluid to produce steam that drives a turbine. The flexibility of solar
power plants is notable; they can range from small residential rooftop installations to large
utility-scale solar farms. Solar energy is abundant and renewable, and its potential is highest
in regions with ample sunshine. However, solar power faces challenges related to
intermittency—since sunlight is not available 24/7 and its intensity varies with weather
conditions and geographical location. Effective energy storage solutions or supplementary
power sources are often required to ensure a continuous energy supply.

1.6.3 Geothermal Power Plants

Geothermal power plants utilize the Earth's internal heat to generate electricity. They
typically operate in regions with significant geothermal activity, such as volcanic areas or
geologically active regions. These plants harness steam or hot water from underground
reservoirs to drive turbines connected to generators.
Geothermal energy offers a reliable and continuous power supply, as it is not subject to the
variability seen in wind and solar power. The low environmental impact is another
advantage, with minimal greenhouse gas emissions compared to fossil fuel-based power
plants. However, the initial costs associated with drilling and developing geothermal wells
can be high. Additionally, there are environmental concerns related to the potential for
induced seismicity and the depletion of geothermal resources if not managed sustainably.

1.6.4 Biomass Power Plants

Biomass power plants generate electricity by converting organic materials into energy.
These materials can include agricultural residues, wood, dedicated energy crops, or even

18
municipal solid waste. Biomass can be processed through various methods, including
combustion, gasification, and anaerobic digestion.
In combustion, biomass is burned to produce steam, which drives a turbine to generate
electricity. Gasification involves converting biomass into a combustible gas, which can then
be used in a gas turbine. Anaerobic digestion produces biogas from the decomposition of
organic material, which can be used to generate electricity or heat.
Biomass power plants offer the benefit of utilizing waste materials and can reduce reliance
on fossil fuels. However, they must be managed carefully to avoid competition with food
production and to ensure sustainable sourcing of feedstock. Additionally, while biomass
power is considered renewable, the combustion process does produce some emissions,
which need to be managed to minimize environmental impact.

1.6.5 Ocean Power Plants

Ocean power plants exploit the vast energy potential of the oceans through technologies such
as tidal power, wave power, and ocean thermal energy conversion. Tidal power harnesses
the energy from the rise and fall of tides to generate electricity. Wave power captures the
energy from surface waves, and ocean thermal energy utilizes the temperature gradient
between the ocean's surface and deeper waters to produce electricity. These technologies
offer substantial energy potential due to the vast and predictable nature of ocean forces.
However, they face significant challenges, including high costs, technological maturity, and
potential environmental impacts on marine ecosystems. The development and deployment
of ocean power technologies are still in relatively early stages compared to more established
renewable energy sources.

1.6.6 Integrating Non-Conventional Power Plants

The integration of non-conventional power plants into the global energy grid represents a
strategic shift towards a more sustainable energy future. These technologies offer diverse
options to complement and, in some cases, replace traditional fossil fuel-based power
sources. Each type of non-conventional power plant has its strengths and challenges, and
their effectiveness can vary based on location, resource availability, and technological
advancements.
For example, wind and solar power are highly complementary, as wind speeds and sunlight
availability often peak at different times. Combining these sources can create a more stable
and reliable energy supply. Similarly, geothermal and biomass power plants can provide
continuous base-load power, which is crucial for balancing the intermittency of wind and
solar energy. The transition to non-conventional power plants is also supported by
advancements in energy storage technologies, which help address the intermittency of
renewable sources by storing excess energy for use during periods of low production.

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Improved grid management and smart grid technologies further enhance the ability to
integrate diverse power sources and optimize energy distribution.

1.7 Conventional Energy Resources

1.7.1 Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels, including coal, oil, and natural gas, have long been the dominant sources of
energy worldwide. They are derived from the decomposition of ancient organic matter
buried in the Earth's crust over millions of years.
• Coal: Coal is a sedimentary rock that is burned to produce electricity and heat. It is
abundant and has been a major energy source for power plants, particularly in countries
like China and India. However, coal combustion releases significant amounts of carbon
dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and particulate matter, contributing to air pollution
and climate change.
• Oil: Oil, or petroleum, is used to fuel vehicles, airplanes, and ships, and is also refined
into various products such as gasoline, diesel, and heating oil. The extraction and
combustion of oil have environmental impacts, including greenhouse gas emissions, oil
spills, and habitat destruction.
• Natural Gas: Natural gas is a cleaner-burning fossil fuel compared to coal and oil. It is
primarily composed of methane and is used for electricity generation, heating, and as an
industrial feedstock. Although it emits fewer pollutants than coal, natural gas still
contributes to CO2 emissions and has potential risks associated with methane leaks.

1.8 Non-Conventional Energy Resources

Non-conventional energy resources, also known as renewable or alternative energy sources,

have gained prominence due to their potential to reduce environmental impacts and reliance
on finite resources.
1.8.1 Solar Energy

Solar energy harnesses sunlight to produce electricity or heat. There are two main
technologies for capturing solar energy:

• Photovoltaic (PV) Cells: PV cells convert sunlight directly into electricity using
semiconductor materials like silicon. Solar panels, composed of numerous PV cells, can
be installed on rooftops or in large solar farms.
• Solar Thermal Systems: These systems use mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight
onto a receiver, which heats a fluid to generate steam that drives a turbine. Solar thermal
power plants are typically used in large-scale energy production.

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Solar energy is abundant and renewable, with the potential to provide significant amounts
of electricity. However, its efficiency is dependent on geographic location, weather
conditions, and the availability of sunlight.

1.8.2 Wind Energy

Wind energy converts the kinetic energy of wind into electricity using wind turbines. These
turbines can be located onshore or offshore.
• Onshore Wind Farms: Located on land, onshore wind farms are common and can be
integrated into existing land use.
• Offshore Wind Farms: These farms are situated in bodies of water, usually in shallow
areas of the ocean, where wind speeds are higher and more consistent.
Wind energy is a clean and renewable resource with low operational costs. Its main
challenges include variability in wind speeds and potential impacts on wildlife and local
landscapes.

1.8.3 Hydroelectric Power

Hydroelectric power generates electricity by harnessing the energy of flowing water. This
can be achieved through:
• Dams: Large reservoirs created by dam’s store water that flows through turbines to
generate electricity.
• Run-of-River Systems: These systems divert a portion of a river’s flow to generate
power without significant water storage.

1.8.4 Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy taps into the Earth's internal heat by using steam or hot water from
geothermal reservoirs to drive turbines and generate electricity. Geothermal power plants
are located in geologically active regions where heat is readily accessible. Geothermal
energy is highly reliable and has a small environmental footprint compared to fossil fuels. It
offers continuous power generation, but its feasibility depends on geographic location and
the cost of drilling and plant construction.

1.8.5 Biomass Energy

Biomass energy is derived from organic materials, such as agricultural residues, wood, and
municipal waste. Biomass can be converted into energy through combustion, gasification,
or anaerobic digestion.
• Combustion: Biomass is burned to produce steam that drives a turbine.

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• Gasification: Biomass is converted into a combustible gas for power generation.
• Anaerobic Digestion: Organic waste is decomposed to produce biogas, which can be
used for electricity and heat.
Biomass energy utilizes waste products and reduces reliance on fossil fuels. However, it
must be managed carefully to avoid competition with food production and ensure sustainable
sourcing.

1.8.6 Ocean Energy

Ocean energy includes technologies such as tidal power, wave power, and ocean thermal
energy conversion. These methods harness the energy of ocean tides, waves, and temperature
gradients to generate electricity.
• Tidal Power: Captures energy from the rise and fall of tides.
• Wave Power: Utilizes the energy from surface waves.
• Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion: Exploits the temperature difference between
surface and deep ocean water.
Ocean energy has substantial potential due to the vast and predictable nature of ocean forces.
However, technological and environmental challenges remain, including high costs and
impacts on marine ecosystems.

1.8.7 Comparing Conventional and Non-Conventional Energy Resources

Conventional energy resources are characterized by their large-scale, established

infrastructure and significant contributions to global energy supply. They are often criticized
for their environmental impacts, including greenhouse gas emissions and resource depletion.
In contrast, non-conventional energy resources offer renewable alternatives with reduced
environmental footprints. They contribute to diversifying the energy mix, enhancing energy
security, and addressing climate change. However, non-conventional resources face
challenges related to intermittency, technological maturity, and integration into existing
energy systems.
The transition from conventional to non-conventional energy resources is driven by the need
for sustainable development and environmental stewardship. As technology advances and
market conditions evolve, non-conventional energy sources are expected to play an
increasingly central role in meeting global energy demands while mitigating the impacts of
climate change.

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1.9 Present Status of Power Plants

1.9.1 Market Dynamics and Performance

The power generation sector is experiencing a significant transition towards cleaner and
more sustainable energy sources. The growth of renewable energy technologies, such as
solar and wind, has been remarkable. The global shift towards decarbonization is driven by
climate change concerns, technological advancements, and supportive policies. However,
fossil fuels still dominate the energy mix in many regions, particularly in developing
countries where energy access is a priority.

1.9.2 Technological Advancements

Recent technological advancements have improved the efficiency and environmental

performance of power plants. Innovations include:

• Advanced Turbine Technologies: Improved turbine designs in gas and steam cycles
have enhanced efficiency and reduced emissions.
• Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): CCS technologies capture CO2 emissions from
fossil fuel-based power plants and store them underground. This technology is still in the
early stages of deployment but holds promise for mitigating emissions.
• Energy Storage Systems: Battery storage and other energy storage solutions are crucial
for managing the intermittency of renewable energy sources and ensuring grid stability.
• Smart Grid Technologies: These technologies enhance the efficiency and reliability of
power grids by integrating advanced sensors, communication systems, and automated
controls.

1.10 Future Trends of power plant

1.10.1 Transition to Renewable Energy

The transition to renewable energy sources is a dominant trend in the power sector. Solar
and wind energy are expected to continue their rapid growth due to falling costs,
technological advancements, and supportive policies. Investments in renewable energy
infrastructure and grid integration will be critical to accommodating increasing shares of
variable renewable energy sources.

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1.10.2 Decarbonization and Net-Zero Goals

Countries and companies are setting ambitious net-zero emissions targets, driving the need
for significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions from power plants. This shift will
involve increasing the share of renewable energy, improving energy efficiency, and
implementing carbon offset mechanisms. The development of green hydrogen as a clean fuel
for power generation is also gaining momentum.

1.10.3 Technological Innovation

Future power plants will increasingly incorporate advanced technologies to enhance

efficiency and reduce environmental impacts. Key areas of innovation include:
• Next-Generation Nuclear Reactors: New reactor designs, such as small modular
reactors (SMRs) and advanced reactors, promise improved safety, reduced waste, and
enhanced efficiency.
• Enhanced Energy Storage: Advances in energy storage technologies, including solid-
state batteries and pumped hydro storage, will address the challenges of intermittent
renewable energy and support grid stability.
• Digitalization and Automation: The use of artificial intelligence, machine learning, and
digital twins will optimize plant operations, predictive maintenance, and energy
management.
• Integration of Distributed Energy Resources
The rise of distributed energy resources (DERs), such as rooftop solar panels, home
batteries, and electric vehicles, will transform traditional power plant models. Future
energy systems will need to integrate these decentralized resources into the grid
effectively, leveraging smart grid technologies and innovative market structures.
• Environmental and Social Considerations
The power sector will increasingly focus on minimizing environmental and social
impacts. This includes addressing issues related to land use, water consumption, and
community engagement. Sustainable development practices and corporate social
responsibility will become integral to power plant projects.
• Policy and Regulatory Developments
Policies and regulations will play a crucial role in shaping the future of power plants.
Governments will continue to implement and enforce emissions reduction targets,
renewable energy mandates, and carbon pricing mechanisms. International agreements,
such as the Paris Agreement, will influence national energy policies and drive global
efforts towards a low-carbon future.

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1.11 Challenges and Opportunities

• Balancing Reliability and Sustainability

One of the key challenges will be balancing the reliability of power supply with
sustainability goals. Ensuring grid stability while transitioning to a higher share of
renewable energy requires advancements in energy storage, grid management, and
demand response.
• Investment and Financing
Securing investment and financing for new power plant projects, especially those
involving advanced technologies and renewable energy, will be crucial. Innovative
financing models and public-private partnerships may play a significant role in
supporting the energy transition.
• Skills and Workforce Development
The transition to new energy technologies will require a skilled workforce capable of
managing and maintaining advanced power plant systems. Investment in education and
training programs will be essential for developing the necessary skills and expertise.

1.12 Thermal Power Plant

A thermal power plant generates electricity through the conversion of heat energy into
electrical energy, typically by burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, or natural gas. In this
process, the plant burns fuel in a furnace to produce high-temperature steam, which is then
used to drive a turbine connected to an electrical generator. The basic operation involves
several key steps. First, the combustion of fossil fuel in a boiler produces heat, which
converts water into steam. This steam, under high pressure, is directed onto the blades of a
turbine. The turbine's rotation drives a generator that transforms the mechanical energy into
electrical energy. After passing through the turbine, the steam is cooled and condensed back
into water using a condenser, which is then pumped back to the boiler for reheating, thus
completing the cycle. To manage emissions, the plant utilizes various pollution control
technologies to treat exhaust gases, including carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2),
and nitrogen oxides (NOx), before releasing them into the atmosphere.
Thermal power plants are integral to the global energy infrastructure, providing a substantial
share of the world's electricity. They are characterized by their ability to produce a steady
and reliable supply of power, which is crucial for meeting continuous energy demands.
However, these plants are also associated with significant environmental concerns, primarily
due to their emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants, which contribute to climate
change and air quality issues. In response to these challenges, there is a growing emphasis
on enhancing the efficiency of thermal power plants and integrating cleaner technologies.
Innovations such as carbon capture and storage (CCS), advanced combustion techniques,
and improved waste heat recovery systems are being explored to reduce the environmental

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impact. As the world transitions towards more sustainable energy solutions, thermal power
plants are adapting by incorporating these technologies to mitigate their ecological footprint
while continuing to fulfill their role in energy production.

1.12.1 General Layout of thermal power plant

Coal: In a coal based thermal power plant, coal is transported from coal mines to the
generating station. Generally, bituminous coal or brown coal is used as fuel. The coal is
stored in either 'dead storage' or in 'live storage'. Dead storage is generally 40 days backup
coal storage which is used when coal supply is unavailable. Live storage is a raw coal bunker
in boiler house. The coal is cleaned in a magnetic cleaner to filter out if any iron particles
are present which may cause wear and tear in the equipment. The coal from live storage is
first crushed in small particles and then taken into pulverizer to make it in powdered form.
Fine powdered coal undergoes complete combustion, and thus pulverized coal improves
efficiency of the boiler. The ash produced after the combustion of coal is taken out of the
boiler furnace and then properly disposed. Periodic removal of ash from the boiler furnace
is necessary for the proper combustion.

Figure 1: Layout of thermal power plant

Boiler: The mixture of pulverized coal and air (usually preheated air) is taken into boiler and
then burnt in the combustion zone. On ignition of fuel a large fireball is formed at the center
of the boiler and large amount of heat energy is radiated from it. The heat energy is utilized
to convert the water into steam at high temperature and pressure. Steel tubes run along the
boiler walls in which water is converted in steam. The flue gases from the boiler make their

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way through superheater, economizer, air preheater and finally get exhausted to the
atmosphere from the chimney.

▪ Superheater: The superheater tubes are hanged at the hottest part of the boiler. The
saturated steam produced in the boiler tubes is superheated to about 540 °C in
the superheater. The superheated high-pressure steam is then fed to the steam turbine.
▪ Economizer: An economizer is essentially a feed water heater which heats the water
before supplying to the boiler.
▪ Air pre-heater: The primary air fan takes air from the atmosphere and it is then warmed
in the air pre-heater. Pre-heated air is injected with coal in the boiler. The advantage of
pre-heating the air is that it improves the coal combustion.
Steam turbine: High pressure super-heated steam is fed to the steam turbine which causes
turbine blades to rotate. Energy in the steam is converted into mechanical energy in the steam
turbine which acts as the prime mover. The pressure and temperature of the steam falls to a
lower value and it expands in volume as it passes through the turbine. The expanded low-
pressure steam is exhausted in the condenser.
Condenser: The exhausted steam is condensed in the condenser by means of cold-water
circulation. Here, the steam loses its pressure as well as temperature and it is converted back
into water. Condensing is essential because, compressing a fluid which is in gaseous state
requires a huge amount of energy with respect to the energy required in compressing liquid.
Thus, condensing increases efficiency of the cycle.
Alternator: The steam turbine is coupled to an alternator. When the turbine rotates the
alternator, electrical energy is generated. This generated electrical voltage is then stepped up
with the help of a transformer and then transmitted where it is to be utilized.
Feed water pump: The condensed water is again fed to the boiler by a feed water pump.
Some water may be lost during the cycle, which is suitably supplied from an external water
source. This was the basic working principle of a thermal power station and its typical
components. A practical thermal plant possesses more complicated design and multiple
stages of turbine such as High-Pressure Turbine (HPT), Intermediate Pressure Turbine (IPT)
and Low-Pressure Turbine (LPT).

Advantages of a Thermal Power Plant

▪ Less initial cost as compared to other generating stations.

▪ It requires less land as compared to hydro power plant.
▪ The fuel (i.e. coal) is cheaper.
▪ The cost of generation is lesser than that of diesel power plants.

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Disadvantages

▪ It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large amount of smoke. This is one
of the causes of global warming.
▪ The overall efficiency of a thermal power station is low (less than 30%).

1.13 Rankine Cycle

The Rankine cycle is the fundamental thermodynamic cycle used in thermal power plants to
convert heat energy into mechanical work, and subsequently into electrical energy. This
cycle is named after the Scottish engineer William John Macquorn Rankine and is a crucial
concept in power engineering, especially in the context of steam-based power plants such as
coal, nuclear, and biomass plants.The Rankine cycle operates on the principle of phase
change, where water is heated to produce steam, which then drives a turbine to generate
electricity. The cycle consists of four key processes that occur in a closed loop:

Figure 2: Schematic diagram of Rankine cycle

• Isentropic Compression (Pump): Water, in its liquid state, is pressurized by a pump.

This process increases the pressure of the water but keeps its temperature relatively low.
The work input required by the pump is relatively small because water is incompressible.
• Isobaric Heat Addition (Boiler): The high-pressure water is then heated in a boiler,
where it absorbs heat at constant pressure and transforms into high-pressure steam. This
is the primary phase where heat energy from fuel combustion (in fossil-fuel plants) or
nuclear reactions (in nuclear plants) is introduced into the cycle.

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• Isentropic Expansion (Turbine): The high-pressure steam expands through a turbine,
where it performs work by rotating the turbine blades. This mechanical work is used to
drive an electric generator. As the steam expands, its pressure and temperature decrease,
converting thermal energy into mechanical energy.
• Isobaric Heat Rejection (Condenser): After the steam exits the turbine, it enters a
condenser, where it is cooled and condensed back into water. The heat rejected during
this process is typically released to the environment, often through cooling towers or a
body of water. The condensed water is then returned to the pump, completing the cycle.

Figure 3: PV and TS diagram of Rankine cycle

1.13.1 Thermodynamic Processes in the Rankine Cycle

• Process 1-2: Isentropic Compression (Pump)

o The process begins with the liquid water at a low pressure entering the pump.
o The pump increases the pressure of the water to the boiler pressure.
o Since the fluid is nearly incompressible, the temperature rise during this process is
minimal.
• Process 2-3: Isobaric Heat Addition (Boiler)
o The high-pressure water enters the boiler and is heated at constant pressure.
o During heating, water undergoes phase changes: first from liquid to saturated steam
and then to superheated steam.
o This process requires a significant amount of energy, usually provided by burning
fossil fuels, nuclear reactions, or solar heat in concentrated solar power plants.
• Process 3-4: Isentropic Expansion (Turbine)
o The superheated steam is then allowed to expand through a turbine.
o As the steam expands, it performs work by turning the turbine blades, which in turn
drives a generator to produce electricity.

29
 o The steam's pressure and temperature drop significantly during this process, while
its volume increases.
• Process 4-1: Isobaric Heat Rejection (Condenser)
o The low-pressure steam exits the turbine and enters the condenser.
o In the condenser, the steam is cooled and condensed back into liquid water at
constant pressure.
o The heat removed during condensation is typically released to a cooling medium,
such as air or water.

1.14 Modified Rankine Cycle: A Detailed Explanation

The Rankine cycle, which is widely used in thermal power plants, can be enhanced to
improve efficiency and performance through various modifications. These modifications are
collectively referred to as the "Modified Rankine Cycle." These enhancements address some
of the limitations of the basic Rankine cycle, such as low efficiency and high moisture
content in the steam exiting the turbine. The most common modifications include
superheating, reheating, regenerative feedwater heating, and the use of binary cycles..

• Superheating

Superheating is one of the simplest modifications to the Rankine cycle. In this process, the
steam generated in the boiler is heated beyond its saturation temperature before it enters the
turbine. This increases the energy content of the steam, leading to more work being done in
the turbine.
• Process: In the superheater section of the boiler, the saturated steam is heated at
constant pressure until it becomes superheated steam.
• Benefits:
o Increases the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
o Reduces the moisture content of the steam at the turbine exhaust, which decreases the
risk of turbine blade erosion.
o Increases the work output from the turbine.

• Reheating

Reheating involves expanding the steam partially in the turbine, then reheating it to a higher
temperature before further expansion. This modification is especially useful in high-pressure
turbines where the steam can become too wet after expansion, leading to efficiency losses
and mechanical issues.
• Process:
o Steam is first expanded in a high-pressure turbine.

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 o
It is then reheated in the boiler (or a separate reheater) to a higher temperature.
o The reheated steam is then expanded further in a low-pressure turbine.
• Benefits:
o Reduces the moisture content of the steam at the low-pressure turbine exit, protecting
the turbine blades.
o Increases the overall efficiency of the cycle.
o Allows for higher pressure ratios without the risk of excessive moisture in the steam.

• Regenerative Feedwater Heating

Regenerative feedwater heating is a technique where steam extracted from the turbine is
used to preheat the feedwater before it enters the boiler. This reduces the amount of heat
required in the boiler, thus improving the cycle efficiency.
• Process:
o Steam is bled from various stages of the turbine and passed through feedwater
heaters.
o The feedwater heaters transfer heat from the steam to the feedwater, raising its
temperature.
o The preheated feedwater then enters the boiler, requiring less energy to reach the
boiling point and produce steam.

• Benefits:
o Improves the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle by reducing the fuel
consumption needed to heat the water.
o Increases the average temperature at which heat is added, leading to higher
efficiency.
o Reduces thermal stress in the boiler by minimizing temperature differences.

• Binary Cycle
A binary cycle combines two different working fluids with different boiling points to
increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle, especially in low-temperature heat sources like
geothermal power plants.
• Process:
o The primary working fluid (e.g., water) is used in the traditional Rankine
cycle.
o A secondary fluid with a lower boiling point (e.g., an organic fluid like
isobutane) is used in a secondary cycle.
o Heat is transferred from the primary cycle's exhaust to the secondary fluid,
which then expands in a separate turbine to generate additional power.
• Benefits:

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 o Allows the utilization of low-temperature heat sources that would be
inefficient for a traditional Rankine cycle.
o Increases the overall efficiency of the power plant by recovering waste heat
from the primary cycle.
o Ideal for geothermal and solar thermal applications.

• Reheat Rankine Cycle

The reheat Rankine cycle is a combination of the reheating and regenerative feedwater
heating processes. It is specifically designed for large-scale power plants where maximizing
efficiency is critical.
• Process:
o Steam is expanded in the high-pressure turbine, reheated, and then expanded
again in the low-pressure turbine.
o Simultaneously, steam is extracted from intermediate stages of the turbine for
regenerative feedwater heating.
• Benefits:
o Maximizes efficiency by combining the benefits of both reheating and
regenerative heating.
o Reduces the moisture content in the low-pressure turbine.
o Improves the thermal efficiency of the cycle by increasing the average
temperature of heat addition and reducing the amount of heat rejected.

Advantages of the Modified Rankine Cycle

• Higher Efficiency: The primary benefit of modifying the Rankine cycle is the
increase in thermal efficiency. Each modification helps to extract more work from
the steam, reducing the amount of fuel needed to generate a given amount of
electricity.
• Reduced Moisture Content: By reducing the moisture content of the steam as it
exits the turbine, the modifications help to protect the turbine blades from erosion
and extend the life of the equipment.
• Improved Environmental Performance: Higher efficiency means less fuel
consumption and, therefore, fewer emissions of greenhouse gases and other
pollutants.
• Flexibility: The ability to modify the Rankine cycle makes it adaptable to different
heat sources and operational conditions. This flexibility is particularly valuable in
renewable energy applications like geothermal and solar thermal power plants.

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Disadvantages of the Modified Rankine Cycle

• Complexity: Each modification adds complexity to the design, operation, and

maintenance of the power plant. This can increase costs and the potential for
operational issues.
• Higher Initial Costs: The addition of components like reheaters, feedwater heaters,
and binary systems can significantly increase the capital costs of a power plant.
• Operational Challenges: Managing the different components and ensuring optimal
performance under varying loads and conditions can be challenging.

Applications of the Modified Rankine Cycle

The modified Rankine cycle is widely used in various types of power plants, including:
• Coal-Fired Power Plants: Superheating and reheating are standard practices to
maximize efficiency.
• Nuclear Power Plants: Reheat and regenerative heating are often used to improve
efficiency.
• Geothermal Power Plants: Binary cycles are common to utilize low-temperature
geothermal resources.
• Solar Thermal Power Plants: Superheating and binary cycles help to improve the
efficiency of converting solar energy into electricity.
• Conclusion

1.15 Power Plant Boilers

Boilers are fundamental components of thermal power plants, serving as the backbone for
steam generation. In essence, a boiler is a closed vessel where water is heated and converted
into steam by the application of heat. This steam is then used to drive turbines connected to
generators, ultimately producing electricity. Power plant boilers can operate at various
pressure levels, with advancements in technology giving rise to more efficient and powerful
boilers, such as critical and supercritical boilers. These modern boilers have significantly
enhanced the efficiency of power plants, enabling them to operate at higher pressures and
temperatures, which leads to better fuel utilization and lower emissions.

1.16 Basic Functionality of Power Plant Boilers

In a typical thermal power plant, a boiler operates by burning a fuel source, such as coal,
natural gas, or biomass. The heat generated from combustion is transferred to water
contained in tubes within the boiler. As the water absorbs heat, it undergoes a phase change
from liquid to steam. The steam is then directed to a turbine, where its thermal energy is

33
converted into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy drives an electric generator,
producing electricity.
Boilers are designed to operate under different pressure conditions. The classification of
boilers as subcritical, critical, and supercritical is based on the pressure and temperature at
which they operate.

1.16.1 Subcritical Boilers

Subcritical boilers operate at pressures below the critical point of water, which is 22.1 MPa
(3200 psi) and temperatures around 374°C (705°F). In these boilers, the water undergoes a
clear phase transition from liquid to steam as it is heated. This results in a mixture of water
and steam within the boiler, requiring separation and further heating before the steam can be
used in the turbine.
• Operate at pressures below 22.1 MPa.
• The water-steam phase transition is distinct, creating a mixture of water and steam.
• Requires steam drums and separators to manage the water-steam mixture.
• Lower efficiency compared to critical and supercritical boilers.
• Typically used in older power plants or plants with lower capacity.
1.16.2 Critical Boilers

Critical boilers operate at the critical point of water, where the distinction between the liquid
and gas phases disappears. At this point, water and steam coexist in a homogeneous state
known as supercritical fluid. The critical point represents the highest temperature and
pressure at which water can exist as both a liquid and a gas.
• Operate at pressures around 22.1 MPa and temperatures close to 374°C.
• At the critical point, water and steam become indistinguishable, resulting in a single-
phase fluid.
• Eliminate the need for steam drums and separators.
• Higher thermal efficiency compared to subcritical boilers.
• More complex in design and operation due to the need for precise control of temperature
and pressure.

1.16.3 Supercritical Boilers

Supercritical boilers operate at pressures and temperatures above the critical point of water.
These boilers are designed to achieve even higher efficiency by operating at supercritical
pressures (typically above 25 MPa or 3600 psi) and temperatures (above 565°C or 1050°F).
Supercritical boilers produce superheated steam directly without the intermediate phase of
liquid water.

34
 • Operate at pressures above 22.1 MPa and temperatures above 565°C.
• Water is directly converted into superheated steam, bypassing the liquid phase entirely.
• Eliminate the need for steam separation and drum components, resulting in a simpler
design.
• Higher efficiency due to better thermodynamic performance, leading to reduced fuel
consumption and lower emissions.
• Require advanced materials to withstand the high temperatures and pressures,
increasing the initial cost and complexity.
• Commonly used in modern, large-scale power plants focused on maximizing
efficiency and reducing emissions.

Advantages of Supercritical Boilers

Supercritical boilers offer several advantages over their subcritical counterparts, making
them the preferred choice for new power plant installations:
1. Higher Efficiency: The most significant advantage is the increased thermal
efficiency. By operating at higher pressures and temperatures, supercritical boilers
achieve better heat-to-electricity conversion, reducing fuel consumption.
2. Lower Emissions: Higher efficiency translates into lower carbon dioxide (CO₂)
emissions per unit of electricity generated. Supercritical boilers also produce fewer
other pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ).
3. Reduced Fuel Consumption: The improved efficiency means that less fuel is
needed to produce the same amount of electricity, leading to cost savings and a
smaller environmental footprint.
4. Smaller Footprint: The elimination of steam drums and other components
simplifies the boiler design, resulting in a more compact and space-efficient system.
5. Improved Reliability: With fewer moving parts and components, supercritical
boilers can be more reliable and require less maintenance than subcritical boilers.

1.17 Fluidized Bed Boilers

Fluidized bed boilers represent a significant advancement in combustion technology,

especially for burning solid fuels. They are designed to achieve more efficient combustion
of various fuels, including low-grade and waste fuels, by enhancing the mixing of the fuel
with air. The core concept behind fluidized bed boilers is the use of a fluidized bed, which
is created when air or another gas is forced through a bed of solid particles (typically sand
or limestone) at high enough velocities to suspend the particles, creating a fluid-like state.
There are different types of Fluidized Bed Boilers given below

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1.17.1 Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Combustion (AFBC):

o Working Principle: In AFBC, the combustion process takes place at atmospheric

pressure. The fuel is fed into the bed where it mixes with the bed material (like sand)
and combusts. The bed is kept fluidized by a flow of air, which promotes thorough
mixing and efficient heat transfer.
o Advantages: AFBC boilers are highly versatile, capable of burning a wide variety of
fuels, including those with high moisture or ash content. They also operate at lower
temperatures, reducing nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions.

1.17.2 Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion (PFBC):

o Working Principle: PFBC operates under pressure, which enhances the combustion
process and allows for the integration with gas turbines for combined cycle
operation. This setup improves overall efficiency.
o Advantages: The pressurized environment allows for higher efficiency and reduced
emissions. The integration with a gas turbine enables the generation of additional
electricity from the exhaust gases.
1.17.3 Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion (CFBC):

o Working Principle: CFBC boilers are designed to circulate the bed material
throughout the combustion chamber, ensuring even greater fuel-air mixing and
longer fuel residence times. The unburned fuel particles are recirculated back into
the combustion chamber to maximize efficiency.
o Advantages: CFBC boilers offer even greater flexibility in fuel usage and better
control of emissions. They are particularly effective in reducing sulfur dioxide (SO₂)
emissions through in-bed sulfur capture.

Advantages of Fluidized Bed Boilers

• Fuel Flexibility: Fluidized bed boilers can efficiently burn a wide range of fuels,
including biomass, coal, and waste materials, making them suitable for various
applications.
• Lower Emissions: The ability to control the combustion temperature and incorporate
in-bed desulfurization leads to significantly lower emissions of NOx and SO₂.
• High Efficiency: The enhanced mixing of fuel and air, along with the possibility of
integrating with combined cycle systems, results in higher thermal efficiency.
• Uniform Temperature Distribution: The fluidized bed maintains a consistent
temperature throughout the combustion chamber, reducing the risk of hot spots and
enabling more efficient combustion.

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1.18 Boiler Mountings

Boilers are complex systems that require various mountings and accessories to ensure safe
and efficient operation. Boiler mountings are essential components that are directly mounted
on the boiler to ensure safe operation, while boiler accessories are auxiliary components that
improve the boiler's performance and efficiency.
• Safety Valve: The safety valve is one of the most critical mountings on a boiler. It
automatically releases steam when the pressure inside the boiler exceeds a predefined
limit, preventing possible explosions.
• Water Level Indicator: This device shows the water level inside the boiler, ensuring that
it is within the safe operating range. Maintaining the correct water level is crucial to
prevent overheating and damage to the boiler.
• Pressure Gauge: The pressure gauge measures the steam pressure inside the boiler. It
allows operators to monitor the pressure and ensure it stays within safe limits.
• Steam Stop Valve: The steam stop valve controls the flow of steam from the boiler to
the steam pipe. It can be used to stop steam flow during maintenance or emergencies.
• Blowdown Valve:The blowdown valve is used to remove impurities and sediment from
the bottom of the boiler. Regular blowdown is necessary to prevent scale buildup and
maintain boiler efficiency.
• Feed Check Valve: The feed check valve controls the flow of water into the boiler. It
prevents the backflow of water from the boiler to the feed pump.
• Fusible Plug: The fusible plug is a safety device designed to melt and release steam and
water if the boiler overheats. This prevents the boiler from running dry and averting
potential damage.

1.19 Boiler Accessories

• Economizer: The economizer is a heat exchanger that preheats the feed water using
exhaust gases from the boiler. This increases the overall efficiency of the boiler by
reducing the amount of fuel needed to heat the water to the desired temperature.
• Superheater: The superheater further heats the steam produced by the boiler to increase
its temperature above the saturation point. Superheated steam is more efficient for
driving turbines, leading to improved power plant performance.
• Air Preheater: The air preheater warms the incoming combustion air using waste heat
from the exhaust gases. Preheating the air improves combustion efficiency and reduces
fuel consumption.
• Feed Pump: The feed pump supplies water to the boiler. It must operate at a pressure
higher than the boiler to ensure that water can be fed into the system even when steam
pressure is high.

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• Injector: The injector is an alternative method of feeding water into the boiler. It uses
steam to create a vacuum that draws water into the boiler, and it’s often used as a backup
to the feed pump.
• Deaerator: The deaerator removes dissolved gases (such as oxygen and carbon dioxide)
from the feed water. This is essential to prevent corrosion within the boiler system.

1.20 Feed Water Treatment

Feed water treatment is a crucial process in any boiler system, especially in power plants, to
ensure that the water used for steam generation is free of impurities. The quality of feed
water directly affects the efficiency, longevity, and safety of the boiler. Impurities in water,
such as dissolved gases, minerals, and organic materials, can cause scaling, corrosion, and
fouling in the boiler and associated piping, leading to reduced efficiency and potential
system failures.

1.21 Objectives of Feed Water Treatment

• Oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolved in water can lead to corrosion in the boiler and
steam system. Deaerators and chemical treatments, such as the addition of oxygen
scavengers (e.g., hydrazine or sodium sulfite), are used to remove these gases.
• Scale, formed by minerals like calcium and magnesium, can insulate heat transfer
surfaces, reducing boiler efficiency and causing overheating. Softening processes, like
ion exchange or chemical treatment, are used to remove hardness from the water.
• Maintaining the correct pH level is essential to prevent corrosion and scaling. The pH
is adjusted using alkaline chemicals, such as sodium hydroxide, to keep the water
slightly alkaline.
• Suspended particles can cause deposits and fouling in the boiler. Filtration and
clarification processes are used to remove these solids.
• In cases where seawater or brackish water is used, desalination is required to remove
the high levels of salts and minerals.

1.22 Types of Feed Water Treatment

o Mechanical Treatment: Filtration and clarification are used to remove suspended solids
and some dissolved materials. This is often the first step in feed water treatment.
o Chemical Treatment: Chemicals are added to the water to remove impurities. Common
treatments include:
▪ Phosphate treatment to prevent scale by precipitating hardness ions.
▪ Oxygen scavengers to remove dissolved oxygen and prevent corrosion.
▪ pH adjusters to control the acidity or alkalinity of the water.

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o Thermal Deaeration: Deaerators heat the water to remove dissolved gases, particularly
oxygen and carbon dioxide. This is typically done by heating the water to just below its
boiling point and allowing the gases to escape.

1.23 Condenser

The condenser is a vital component in a thermal power plant, particularly in the Rankine
cycle, where it converts exhaust steam from the turbine back into water so it can be reused
in the boiler. The efficiency of the condenser directly impacts the overall efficiency of the
power plant. The function and Operation are as follow
• The primary function of the condenser is to condense the exhaust steam from the turbine
by cooling it down with a cold-water stream. This process reduces the steam's pressure,
creating a vacuum that enhances the efficiency of the steam turbine by allowing it to
expand more completely.
• The condensed water, known as condensate, is then pumped back to the boiler as feed
water. This cycle is continuous, ensuring a steady supply of steam and minimizing water
consumption.

1.23.1 Types of Condensers

• Surface Condenser: In a surface condenser, steam and cooling water do not mix. The
steam passes over tubes carrying cooling water, and the steam condenses on the outside
of these tubes. Surface condensers are widely used in power plants due to their ability
to handle large volumes of steam.
• Jet Condenser: In a jet condenser, steam and cooling water mix directly, and the steam
condenses as it contacts the cold water. This type of condenser is less common in large
power plants due to the difficulty of maintaining water purity.

1.24 Cooling Towers

Cooling towers are used to remove excess heat from the cooling water that has absorbed heat
from the condenser. The towers allow the heat to dissipate into the atmosphere, and the
cooled water is then recirculated back to the condenser. There are different types of Cooling
Towers which are as given below.
• Natural Draft Cooling Towers: These towers rely on natural air convection to move air
through the tower. The warm water from the condenser is sprayed at the top of the
tower, and as it falls, the air cools the water by evaporating some of it. The warm, moist
air then rises and escapes through the top of the tower.

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 • Mechanical Draft Cooling Towers: Fans are used to force or draw air through the
tower. These towers are more efficient than natural draft towers and can be used in a
wider range of environmental conditions.
• Wet Cooling Towers: In wet cooling towers, water is cooled through direct contact
with air. Some of the water evaporates, which cools the remaining water. These are the
most common type of cooling towers.
• Dry Cooling Towers: Air is passed over a heat exchanger containing the hot water from
the condenser, cooling it without evaporating any water. These towers are used where
water is scarce.

1.25 Cooling Ponds

Cooling ponds are an alternative to cooling towers, often used in areas where there is enough
land and water available. These ponds function by allowing the hot water from the condenser
to cool naturally by spreading out over a large surface area, where heat is dissipated into the
atmosphere. There are some advantages of Cooling Ponds
• Simplicity: Cooling ponds are simple to operate and maintain compared to cooling
towers. They do not require mechanical parts like fans or pumps.
• Environmental Impact: Cooling ponds can create ecosystems, supporting aquatic life.
However, the temperature and chemical composition of the discharged water need to
be carefully managed to avoid adverse effects.
1. Limitations of Cooling Ponds
• Space Requirement: Cooling ponds require large amounts of land, making them
impractical in areas where space is limited.
• Temperature Control: Cooling ponds are less efficient at maintaining consistent
temperatures, particularly in hot or humid climates, where the rate of heat dissipation
is lower.

1.26 Turbine auxiliary systems

Turbine auxiliary systems are critical components that support the operation and efficiency
of steam turbines in power plants. These systems ensure the turbine functions smoothly,
safely, and efficiently by managing various processes such as control, heat management, and
sealing. Below is a detailed explanation of key turbine auxiliary systems, including
governing, feed heating, reheating, flange heating, and gland leakage.

1.26.1 Governing System

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The governing system of a turbine is responsible for controlling the speed and power output
of the turbine by regulating the flow of steam into the turbine. The primary purpose is to
maintain the turbine at a desired speed, especially under varying load conditions, to ensure
stable power generation.
• Components and Functioning:
• Speed Governor: The speed governor is a device that senses the rotational speed of
the turbine and adjusts the steam valves accordingly. If the turbine speed increases
above the set point, the governor reduces the steam flow to slow down the turbine.
Conversely, if the speed decreases, it increases the steam flow.
• Hydraulic Actuators: These are used to move the steam valves based on the signals
from the governor. They convert the governor’s control signals into mechanical
motion to adjust the valve positions.
• Control Valves: The control valves regulate the amount of steam entering the
turbine. They are critical for fine-tuning the turbine's speed and power output.
• Overspeed Trip Mechanism: This is a safety feature that automatically shuts off
the steam supply to the turbine if it exceeds a certain speed threshold, preventing
damage or catastrophic failure.

1.26.2 Feed Heating System

The feed heating system is designed to improve the overall efficiency of the steam cycle by
preheating the feed water before it enters the boiler. Preheating the feed water reduces the
amount of fuel required to convert the water into steam, thus improving the thermal
efficiency of the power plant.
• Components and Functioning:
• Feedwater Heaters: These are heat exchangers that transfer heat from steam
extracted from the turbine to the feedwater. There are typically several stages of
feedwater heaters (low-pressure and high-pressure) that progressively increase the
temperature of the feedwater.
• Extraction Steam: Steam is extracted from various stages of the turbine to feed the
feedwater heaters. This steam has already done part of its work in the turbine, so
using it for heating increases the efficiency of the cycle.
• Deaerator: A deaerator is a specific type of feedwater heater that removes dissolved
gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide from the feedwater to prevent corrosion in
the boiler and steam systems.

1.26.3 Reheating System

The reheating system in a turbine is used to reheat steam that has partially expanded in the
turbine to increase its energy content before it returns for further expansion. This process
enhances the overall efficiency and power output of the steam cycle.

41
 • Components and Functioning:
• Reheaters: Reheaters are similar to superheaters but are located between the high-
pressure and intermediate-pressure turbine stages. They increase the temperature of
the partially expanded steam without increasing its pressure.
• Intermediate-Pressure Turbine: After reheating, the steam is sent to the
intermediate-pressure (and sometimes low-pressure) turbine sections for further
expansion. Reheating ensures that the steam remains dry and superheated, which is
essential for maintaining turbine efficiency and preventing blade erosion.
• Steam Path: The steam path is designed to ensure minimal losses and efficient heat
transfer during reheating. Proper reheating also reduces moisture content in the steam
at later stages of expansion, which protects the turbine blades.

1.26.4 Flange Heating System

Flange heating is a system used to prevent thermal stress and leakage at the flange joints in
the turbine. Flanges are the connection points between different sections of the turbine casing
and other components.
• Components and Functioning:
• Heating Elements: Electric or steam-based heating elements are used to maintain a
consistent temperature at the flange joints. This is particularly important during start-
up and shut-down phases when temperature gradients can be steep.
• Thermal Insulation: Insulation is used around the flanges to retain heat and ensure
uniform temperature distribution, minimizing thermal stresses.
• Temperature Control Systems: Sensors and control systems monitor and adjust the
temperature of the heating elements to maintain the desired thermal conditions.

1.26.5 Gland Leakage System

The gland leakage system is designed to manage the leakage of steam or air at the turbine
shaft seals, where the rotating shaft exits the turbine casing. Proper management of gland
leakage is essential to maintain turbine efficiency and prevent the ingress of air or the loss
of steam.
• Components and Functioning:
• Gland Seals: These are typically labyrinth seals that prevent steam from leaking out
of the turbine casing and air from leaking in. These seals create a complex path for
the steam or air to pass through, reducing the leakage.
• Sealing Steam System: In high-pressure turbines, a small amount of steam is
supplied to the gland seals to create a pressure barrier that prevents air from entering
the turbine and contaminating the steam cycle.

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 • Leakage Monitoring: Sensors are used to monitor the amount of leakage and the
pressure at the gland seals. This data is used to adjust the sealing steam flow and
ensure optimal operation.
• Gland Exhaust Condenser: Any leaked steam or air is collected in the gland
exhaust condenser, where the steam is condensed and the air is vented. The
condensed water is usually returned to the feedwater system.

1.27 Site selection of a steam power plant

Selecting an appropriate site for a steam power plant is a critical decision that impacts the
efficiency, cost, environmental impact, and overall feasibility of the plant. Several factors
must be considered to ensure that the location chosen will support the plant's operations
effectively and sustainably over its intended lifespan. Below are the key factors involved in
the site selection of a steam power plant:

1.27.1 Availability of Water

Water is essential for steam generation, cooling, and other auxiliary processes in a steam
power plant. Therefore, proximity to a reliable water source such as a river, lake, or sea is
crucial. The availability of water ensures that the plant can operate continuously without
interruptions due to water shortages. Additionally, the site must allow for the safe and
efficient disposal or treatment of wastewater.

1.27.2 Proximity to Fuel Supply

Steam power plants require large quantities of fuel, typically coal, natural gas, or oil, to
generate electricity. The plant should be located near coal mines, natural gas fields, or oil
refineries to minimize transportation costs. Reducing the distance between the fuel source
and the power plant decreases the logistical costs and potential delays associated with fuel
delivery, making the operation more cost-effective.

1.27.3 Transportation Facilities

Good transportation infrastructure is necessary for the delivery of fuel, machinery, and other
materials to the power plant. The site should be accessible by rail, road, or waterways to
facilitate easy and cost-effective transportation of these materials. Access to transportation
networks also ensures that the electricity generated can be easily transmitted to the grid and
distributed to consumers.

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1.27.4 Availability of Land

The chosen site must have sufficient land area to accommodate the power plant, including
space for future expansion if needed. The land should be relatively flat to reduce construction
costs and make it easier to lay out the plant’s infrastructure. The land should also be free
from flood risk and away from seismic fault lines to minimize the risk of natural disasters.

1.27.5 Environmental Considerations

Environmental regulations and the impact on the local ecosystem are important factors in
site selection. The site should be located in an area where the environmental impact can be
managed, including emissions, effluent disposal, and noise pollution. The power plant
should be sited far from populated areas to reduce the risk of air and water pollution affecting
human health. Additionally, the site should be selected with consideration for the potential
impact on local wildlife and habitats.

1.27.6 Proximity to Load Centers

The power plant should be located near the demand centers or load centers where the
electricity will be consumed. This reduces transmission losses and improves the efficiency
of the power supply. Being close to urban or industrial areas where electricity demand is
high can also reduce the cost and complexity of building long transmission lines.

1.27.7 Topography and Geology

The topography and geology of the site are important factors to consider. A stable geological
foundation is necessary to support the heavy machinery and infrastructure of a steam power
plant. The site should not be prone to landslides, erosion, or other geological hazards.
Additionally, the topography should allow for efficient drainage of water and the layout of
the plant.

1.27.8 Climate Conditions

The climate of the region can influence the efficiency and operation of the power plant.
Extreme temperatures, humidity, and weather conditions can affect the performance of the
plant’s machinery and cooling systems. A site with a moderate climate is generally preferred
to ensure that the plant can operate efficiently throughout the year.

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1.27.9 Availability of Skilled Labor

The availability of skilled labor in the vicinity of the site is important for both the
construction and ongoing operation of the plant. The site should be near areas where skilled
workers, such as engineers, technicians, and operators, are available. Proximity to
educational and training institutions can also be beneficial for recruiting and training the
workforce.

1.27.10Cost of Land and Legal Issues

The cost of acquiring land for the power plant is a significant factor in site selection. The
site should be economically viable, with the cost of land being reasonable in relation to the
overall budget of the project. Additionally, legal issues such as land ownership, zoning
regulations, and compliance with local laws and regulations must be thoroughly assessed to
avoid legal complications that could delay or halt the project.

1.27.11Socio-Economic Factors

The impact of the power plant on the local community, including potential displacement of
residents and changes in the local economy, must be considered. The site should be selected
in a way that maximizes economic benefits to the local community, such as job creation and
infrastructure development, while minimizing any negative social impacts.

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1.28 Important Questions of first unit

Q. No. COx Questions

1 CO-1 What is the general layout of a modern thermal power plant, and how
does it contribute to the overall efficiency of the plant?
2 CO-1 Can you provide a comprehensive review of the Rankine cycle and its
significance in the context of thermal power generation?
3 CO-1 What are the key differences between the Rankine cycle and the
modified Rankine cycle, and how do these modifications enhance power
plant performance?
4 CO-1 Could you elaborate on critical and supercritical boilers used in power
plants, highlighting their design and operational advantages?
5 CO-1 What role do fluidized bed boilers play in modern thermal power plants,
and what are their unique features compared to traditional boilers?
6 CO-1 Discuss the various mountings and accessories used in power plant
boilers, emphasizing their functions and importance in the overall
system.
7 CO-1 How is feedwater treated in a thermal power plant, and why is this
process crucial for the longevity and efficiency of the boiler?
8 CO-1 Provide an overview of condensers and cooling towers in thermal power
plants, detailing their functions and the cooling processes they employ.
9 CO-1 What are the key turbine auxiliary systems, such as governing, feed
heating, reheating, flange heating, and gland leakage, and how do they
contribute to the overall turbine performance?
10 CO-1 In terms of operation and maintenance, what are the key considerations
for ensuring the smooth functioning and longevity of a steam power
plant?

46
 Unit-2

CO-2 Understand the elements of power generation using conventional and non-
conventional energy sources.

Hydroelectric Power Plant Hydro-electric plant, General arrangement of hydroelectric

power plant, Plant layout, Penstock and water hammer, Specific speed and capacity
calculations, Classification of hydro-plant, Low-, medium- and high-head plants, Pumped
storage plant, Run-off River power plant, Surge tanks.
Gas turbine power plant: Layout of gas turbine power plant, Elements of gas turbine power
plants, Gas turbine fuels, cogeneration, auxiliary systems such as fuel, controls and
lubrication, operation and maintenance, combined cycle power plants, Site selection of gas
turbine power plant, Integrated Gas fire based Combined Cycle (IGCC) systems. Controlling
of air fuel ratio (AFR) in power plant.

What why and where of unit 2

What

This unit focuses on two types of power plants: hydroelectric and gas turbine power plants.
It covers the design and operational aspects of hydroelectric plants, including plant layout,
penstocks, water hammer effects, specific speed calculations, and classification into low,
medium, and high-head plants. Additionally, it discusses pumped storage and run-off river
power plants. For gas turbine power plants, the content covers the layout, key elements such
as fuel and auxiliary systems, operation and maintenance, cogeneration, combined cycle
systems, and the specifics of controlling the air-fuel ratio (AFR) and Integrated Gasification
Combined Cycle (IGCC) systems.

Why

Hydroelectric and gas turbine power plants are vital components of global energy
production, offering different advantages based on geography, fuel availability, and energy
demand. Hydroelectric power plants utilize renewable water resources to generate
electricity, contributing to clean energy and reduced carbon emissions. Gas turbine plants,
especially in combined cycle configurations, are essential for flexible and efficient power
generation. Understanding the design, operation, and maintenance of these plants is critical
for engineers, policymakers, and energy managers striving to optimize energy efficiency,
manage resources, and reduce environmental impacts.

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Where

This unit is relevant in educational programs related to mechanical and electrical

engineering, energy systems, and environmental studies. It is also crucial for professionals
working in the design, operation, and management of power plants. Additionally, the
information is applicable in industries where hydroelectric or gas turbine power is utilized,
including public utilities, energy companies, and government bodies focused on sustainable
energy development and infrastructure planning.

2 Introduction of Hydroelectric power plant

Hydroelectric power plants harness the energy of flowing water to generate electricity,
representing one of the most established and renewable methods of power generation. These
plants use the kinetic energy of water moving through a dam or other watercourse to turn
turbines, which then drive generators to produce electrical power. The general arrangement
of a hydroelectric plant includes key components such as the dam, reservoir, penstocks,
turbines, and generators. Water from the reservoir flows through penstocks, which are large
pipes that direct the water to the turbines, causing them to spin. The specific speed and
capacity of a hydroelectric plant depend on factors like water flow rate and the height from
which the water falls. Hydroelectric plants are classified based on the height of the water
head into low, medium, and high-head plants, each suited to different geographic and
hydrological conditions. Additionally, variants such as pumped storage plants and run-off
river plants provide flexibility in energy storage and management. Surge tanks are also used
to manage pressure fluctuations and prevent water hammer effects. Overall, hydroelectric
power plants offer a reliable and clean energy source, contributing significantly to global
electricity supplies while minimizing greenhouse gas emissions.

2.1 Working Principle

The working principle of a hydroelectric power plant is based on converting the potential
energy of water stored at a height into mechanical energy through the movement of water,
which is then transformed into electrical energy using a generator. This process can be
broken down into the following steps:
• Potential Energy of Water: Water stored in a reservoir at a higher elevation possesses
potential energy. The amount of energy is proportional to the height of the water above
the turbines (head) and the volume of water available.
• Conversion to Kinetic Energy: When water is released from the reservoir, it flows
down through large pipes known as penstocks due to gravity. As it flows, the potential
energy of the water is converted into kinetic energy.

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• Turbine Rotation: The high-speed flowing water strikes the blades of a turbine,
causing it to rotate. The turbine is coupled to a generator, and as the turbine spins, it
converts the kinetic energy of the water into mechanical energy.
• Electricity Generation: The mechanical energy from the turbine is then transferred to
a generator. The generator consists of a rotor that spins within a magnetic field, inducing
an electrical current. This process converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy.
• Transmission of Electricity: The generated electricity is then stepped up to a higher
voltage using transformers and transmitted via power lines to homes, industries, and
other consumers.
• Water Discharge: After passing through the turbine, the water is discharged back into
the river or downstream body of water with minimal environmental impact, completing
the cycle.

2.2 Components or plant Layout of a Hydroelectric Power Plant

• Dam: The dam is a critical structure that stores a large quantity of water in a reservoir.
By controlling the flow of water, the dam ensures a steady supply of water to the
turbines and regulates the generation of electricity.
• Reservoir: The reservoir is the storage area where water is accumulated. It provides
the necessary head or height that contributes to the potential energy of the stored water.
• Penstock: Penstocks are large pipes that carry water from the reservoir to the turbines.
They are designed to withstand high pressure and are often equipped with control gates
to regulate the flow of water.
• Turbine: The turbine is a mechanical device with blades that rotate when struck by
the moving water. Common types of turbines used in hydroelectric plants include
Francis, Kaplan, and Pelton turbines, each suited to different head and flow conditions.
• Generator: The generator is connected to the turbine and converts mechanical energy
into electrical energy. It consists of a rotor and a stator, where the movement of the
rotor within the magnetic field of the stator generates electricity.
• Transformer: The transformer steps up the voltage of the generated electricity for
efficient transmission over long distances.
• Control Room: The control room houses the monitoring and control equipment for
the power plant. Operators can adjust the flow of water, control the output of
electricity, and monitor the overall performance of the plant from here.

2.2.1 Types of Hydroelectric Power Plants

Hydroelectric power plants are categorized based on their size, the type of water flow, and
the head available:

49
• Run-of-River Plants: These plants have little or no reservoir storage and rely on the
natural flow of the river. They are suitable for locations with consistent water flow and
minimal seasonal variation.
• Reservoir Plants: These plants have large reservoirs that store water and release it as
needed. They provide more control over electricity generation, especially during peak
demand periods.
• Pumped Storage Plants: These plants store energy by pumping water to an elevated
reservoir during low demand periods and releasing it to generate electricity during peak
demand. This system acts as a large-scale energy storage solution.
• Tidal Power Plants: These plants utilize the energy from tidal movements to generate
electricity. While similar in concept to traditional hydroelectric plants, they are
dependent on tidal patterns and locations near the sea.

2.2.2 Advantages of Hydroelectric Power Plants

• Renewable Energy Source: Hydropower is a clean and renewable source of energy

that relies on the natural water cycle.
• Low Operating Costs: Once constructed, hydroelectric plants have low operating and
maintenance costs.
• Reliable Power Supply: Hydropower plants can provide a stable and continuous power
supply, especially when they have large reservoirs.
• Flexible Operation: Hydropower plants can quickly adjust their output to meet
changing electricity demands, making them an important part of the power grid.

2.2.3 Challenges and Environmental Considerations

• Environmental Impact: The construction of large dams and reservoirs can disrupt
local ecosystems, fish migration, and sediment flow in rivers.
• High Initial Costs: The construction of dams, reservoirs, and other infrastructure
requires significant investment.
• Dependence on Water Availability: Droughts and changes in water availability due to
climate change can impact the efficiency and output of hydroelectric plants.

2.3 Penstock

In hydroelectric power plants, the penstock is a vital conduit that channels water from the
reservoir or dam to the turbine. Typically constructed from robust materials such as steel or
reinforced concrete, the penstock must handle high pressures and substantial flow rates. Its
primary function is to direct the water flow with minimal energy loss, ensuring efficient
transmission of the water's potential energy to the turbines. The design of the penstock

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includes a variety of features to optimize performance and safety. This includes control
valves for regulating the flow and pressure relief valves to manage potential pressure surges.
The penstock's layout must account for factors such as the gradient, length, and material of
the pipe, as well as the water's velocity and pressure, to prevent issues such as erosion,
cavitation, and fatigue. In addition, the penstock is often equipped with a trash rack to
prevent debris from entering and potentially damaging the turbine. Proper maintenance and
regular inspection are crucial to ensure the penstock remains in optimal condition, as failures
or blockages can lead to reduced efficiency or operational downtime. The effectiveness of
the penstock is critical for the overall performance of the hydroelectric power plant, directly
impacting the generation capacity and reliability of the power supply.

2.4 Water hammer

Water hammer, also known as hydraulic shock, is a phenomenon that occurs in hydroelectric
power plants when there is a sudden change in the velocity of water within the penstock or
other piping systems. This rapid change, often caused by abrupt valve closures or turbine
shut-downs, creates a pressure surge that can lead to significant and potentially damaging
effects. When water flow is suddenly stopped, the kinetic energy of the moving water is
transferred to the surrounding pipe walls, generating a high-pressure wave that travels back
through the system. This pressure surge can result in a series of pressure fluctuations, or
"hammering" effects, which may cause severe vibrations, noise, and even structural damage
to the penstock and associated components. The magnitude of water hammer is influenced
by factors such as the speed of the pressure change, the pipe material, the water column
length, and the system's overall design. To mitigate the risks associated with water hammer,
hydroelectric power plants employ various strategies, including installing surge tanks or air
chambers to absorb pressure surges, using gradually closing valves to minimize sudden
changes in flow.

2.5 Classification of hydro-plant,

Hydroelectric power plants can be classified based on the height of the water head, which
refers to the vertical distance that water falls before being harnessed for power generation.
This classification influences the design and operation of the plant. The three primary
categories are low-head, medium-head, and high-head plants. Here’s a detailed explanation
of each:

2.5.1 Low-Head Plants

Definition and Characteristics: Low-head hydroelectric plants are typically designed for
sites where the available water head is relatively small, usually less than 20 meters (66 feet).

51
In these plants, the flow of water is directed through large turbines or hydraulic machinery,
which can handle high volumes of water with relatively low pressure.
Design Considerations:
• Turbine Type: Kaplan turbines or propeller-type turbines are commonly used because
they are efficient at low heads and high flow rates.
• Penstock Design: The penstocks (pipes that carry water to the turbines) are generally
wide and short to accommodate the high flow rate but low pressure.
• Plant Layout: These plants often have a more straightforward design with fewer
components, which can reduce construction and operational costs.
Applications: Low-head plants are often located in areas with abundant river flow but
limited vertical drop. They are suitable for irrigation canals, rivers with minimal gradient,
and small-scale power generation where large-scale hydroelectric dams are not feasible.

2.5.2 Medium-Head Plants

Definition and Characteristics: Medium-head hydroelectric plants are situated at locations

where the water head ranges between 20 to 100 meters (66 to 328 feet). These plants require
a balance between the water flow and pressure, which affects the choice of turbines and other
design elements.
Design Considerations:
• Turbine Type: Francis turbines are commonly used in medium-head plants. These
turbines are designed to handle a moderate amount of water pressure and flow
efficiently.
• Penstock Design: Penstocks in medium-head plants are longer and narrower compared
to those in low-head plants, to manage the increased pressure and velocity of water.
• Plant Layout: The design is more complex than that of low-head plants, with
considerations for managing increased pressure and maintaining efficiency.
Applications: Medium-head plants are often used in hilly or mountainous regions where
natural gradients provide moderate head height. They can be found in rivers with moderate
flow and gradient, offering a balance between energy generation capacity and construction
complexity.

2.5.3 High-Head Plants

Definition and Characteristics: High-head hydroelectric plants are designed for locations
with significant vertical drops, typically exceeding 100 meters (328 feet). The high head
results in substantial pressure and power generation potential from a relatively small volume
of water.

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Design Considerations:
• Turbine Type: Pelton wheels or Turgo turbines are preferred for high-head plants.
These turbines are designed to handle high pressures and convert the kinetic energy of
the falling water into mechanical energy efficiently.
• Penstock Design: Penstocks are long and robust, constructed to withstand high
pressure. They are often made from high-strength materials and require careful design
to minimize friction losses.
• Plant Layout: High-head plants are complex and include features such as high-altitude
reservoirs, long penstocks, and advanced turbine systems. The infrastructure needs to
support high pressure and manage significant energy output.
Applications: High-head plants are typically found in mountainous regions where natural
topography provides the required vertical drop. They are highly efficient and can generate
substantial amounts of electricity from relatively small flow rates. High-head hydroelectric
plants are often used for large-scale power generation, especially in regions with significant
elevation changes.

2.6 Pumped Storage Plant

Definition and Purpose: A pumped storage plant is a type of hydroelectric power plant that
stores energy by using two reservoirs at different elevations. It functions as a large-scale
energy storage system, capable of balancing supply and demand for electricity. During
periods of low energy demand, excess electricity is used to pump water from a lower
reservoir to an upper reservoir. During periods of high demand, the stored water is released
back down to generate electricity. The operations are as follow:
• Pumping Phase: When electricity demand is low, surplus electrical energy is used to
power pumps, which move water from the lower reservoir to the higher reservoir. This
process converts electrical energy into potential energy stored in the elevated water.
• Generation Phase: During peak demand periods, water from the upper reservoir is
allowed to flow back down to the lower reservoir. As it descends, it drives turbines
connected to generators, converting the potential energy back into electrical energy.
Benefits:
• Energy Storage: Provides a solution for balancing intermittent renewable energy
sources, such as wind and solar.
• Grid Stability: Helps stabilize the grid by providing a rapid response to changes in
electricity demand.
• Flexibility: Can be ramped up or down quickly compared to other power generation
methods.
Applications: Pumped storage plants are used in regions with fluctuating electricity demand
and where large elevation differences are available. They are valuable for enhancing the
reliability and efficiency of the power grid.

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2.7 Run-off River Power Plant

Definition and Characteristics: A run-off river power plant, also known as a run-of-river
hydroelectric plant, generates electricity by utilizing the natural flow of a river without
significantly altering its flow or creating a large reservoir. This type of plant is more
environmentally friendly compared to traditional hydroelectric plants with large dams. The
operations are as follow:
• Water Diversion: A portion of the river’s flow is diverted through a canal or pipe
(penstock) to the power plant.
• Turbine Operation: The flowing water drives turbines, which are connected to
generators that produce electricity.
• Return Flow: After passing through the turbines, the water is returned to the river
downstream.
Benefits:
• Environmental Impact: Has a lower environmental impact than large-scale hydro
plants, as it doesn’t require extensive damming or large reservoirs.
• Cost-Effectiveness: Generally less expensive to construct and maintain.
• Ecological Balance: Maintains the river’s natural flow, which is better for aquatic
ecosystems.
Applications: Run-off river power plants are suitable for rivers with consistent flow and
where environmental considerations are important. They are often used in regions with small
to medium-sized rivers where large dams are not feasible or desirable.

2.8 Surge Tanks

Definition and Function: A surge tank is a cylindrical or conical structure located at the
head of a penstock in hydroelectric power plants. It is designed to absorb and mitigate the
pressure surges or water hammer effects caused by sudden changes in water flow, such as
rapid valve closures or load fluctuations. The operations are as follow:
• Pressure Regulation: When water flow through the penstock is suddenly reduced (e.g.,
due to a valve closure), the surge tank absorbs the pressure surge. This prevents damage
to the penstock and associated equipment.
• Stabilization: By allowing excess water to enter and exit the tank, it stabilizes the
pressure and prevents potential cavitation or water hammer, which can cause structural
damage and operational issues.
Design Considerations:
• Size and Shape: The design of a surge tank depends on factors such as the height of
the penstock, water flow rate, and pressure changes.

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• Location: Surge tanks are typically placed at strategic points along the penstock to
effectively manage pressure surges.
Benefits:
• Protective Function: Reduces the risk of damage to the penstock and turbines due to
pressure fluctuations.
• Operational Stability: Helps maintain stable and reliable operation of the hydroelectric
power plant.
Applications: Surge tanks are commonly used in both conventional and pumped storage
hydroelectric power plants where high-pressure variations are expected. They are crucial for
ensuring the longevity and efficiency of the plant’s infrastructure.

2.9 Gas Turbine Power Plant

A gas turbine power plant, often referred to as a gas-fired power plant, operates on the
principle of the Brayton cycle to generate electricity. The plant uses a gas turbine engine,
which consists of an air compressor, a combustion chamber, and a turbine. The process
begins with the compressor drawing in ambient air and compressing it to a high pressure.
This compressed air is then mixed with fuel (typically natural gas) in the combustion
chamber, where it is ignited. The combustion process produces high-temperature, high-
pressure gas that expands rapidly and passes through the turbine. As the gas flows through
the turbine blades, it causes the turbine to spin, converting thermal energy into mechanical
energy. This mechanical energy is used to drive a generator, which produces electricity. Gas
turbine power plants are known for their high efficiency, especially in combined cycle
configurations where the waste heat from the gas turbine is used to generate steam for a
steam turbine, further increasing overall efficiency.

2.9.1 Layout of gas turbine power plant

The plant layout of a gas turbine power plant is carefully designed to ensure efficient
operation, maintenance, and integration with other systems. Here’s a detailed description of
the typical layout components and their arrangement:

2.9.1.1 Fuel Supply System

• Fuel Storage Tanks: Located near the plant to store the primary fuel, which could be
natural gas, diesel, or other hydrocarbons.
• Fuel Handling Facilities: Include pumps, pipelines, and filtration systems. This area is
responsible for transporting fuel from storage tanks to the gas turbines. The system also
includes controls for fuel quality and pressure.

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2.9.1.2 Air Intake System

• Air Intake Ducts: These ducts channel ambient air into the gas turbine. They are often
equipped with air filters to remove particulates and contaminants.
• Air Filters: Positioned at the entrance of the air intake system to ensure clean air enters
the turbine. They may be located in a separate building or integrated with the intake
ductwork.

2.9.1.3 Compressor Section

• Compressor Units: Positioned adjacent to the combustion chamber. The compressor

increases the pressure of the incoming air before it enters the combustion chamber. This
section may have multiple stages, each with rotating and stationary blades.

2.9.1.4 Combustion System

• Combustion Chamber: Located immediately after the compressor. This chamber

mixes the compressed air with fuel and ignites the mixture. It is designed to withstand
high temperatures and pressures.
• Fuel Injectors: Installed in the combustion chamber to inject and atomize the fuel for
efficient burning. These are positioned around the chamber to ensure uniform fuel
distribution.

2.9.1.5 Turbine Section

• Gas Turbine: Positioned directly downstream of the combustion chamber. The turbine
converts the high-energy, high-temperature gases from the combustion chamber into
mechanical energy, which drives the turbine’s rotor.
• Generator: Coupled with the turbine, the generator converts the mechanical energy
from the turbine into electrical energy. This is usually located in the same or adjacent
room as the turbine.

2.9.1.6 Exhaust System

• Exhaust Ducts: These ducts carry the spent gases from the turbine to the atmosphere
or to the heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) in combined cycle plants.
• Exhaust Stack: A tall structure that discharges the exhaust gases into the atmosphere.
It is designed to handle high temperatures and volumes of exhaust gas.

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2.9.1.7 Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) (for Combined Cycle Plants)

• HRSG Unit: Positioned to receive exhaust gases from the gas turbine. It extracts heat
from the exhaust gases to produce steam, which is used to drive a steam turbine for
additional electricity generation.

2.9.1.8 Cooling System

• Condenser: Located at the end of the cooling cycle, this unit removes heat from the
steam or other fluids used in the power generation process. It can be air-cooled or
water-cooled.
• Cooling Towers: For plants using water cooling, cooling towers dissipate excess heat
into the atmosphere. They are typically situated outside the main plant building.

2.9.1.9 Control and Instrumentation

• Control Room: Centralized location for monitoring and controlling the entire plant
operation. It houses the main control systems, computer interfaces, and
instrumentation panels.
• Instrumentation and Sensors: Distributed throughout the plant to measure
parameters such as temperature, pressure, and flow rates. Data from these sensors is
used for real-time monitoring and control.

2.9.1.10 Auxiliary Systems

• Lubrication System: Provides oil to the turbine and generator bearings to ensure
smooth operation. This system includes reservoirs, pumps, and filters.
• Starting System: May include auxiliary turbines or electric motors to bring the gas
turbine up to operational speed before it can generate power.

2.9.1.11 Safety and Maintenance

• Safety Systems: Include fire suppression systems, emergency shutdown mechanisms,

and alarms to protect the plant and personnel.
• Maintenance Areas: Designed for ease of access to turbine, generator, and other
critical components for routine maintenance and repairs.

2.9.1.12 Electrical Systems

• Transformers: Located near the generator, these devices step up or step down the
voltage of the generated electricity to match the grid requirements.

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 • Switchgear: Manages the distribution of electrical power, ensuring that electricity is
routed correctly and safely within the plant and to the external grid.

2.10 Elements of gas turbine power plants

Gas turbine power plants are designed to convert the energy stored in fuel into electrical
energy efficiently and reliably. The fundamental elements of a gas turbine power plant
include:
• Compressor: The compressor is responsible for compressing ambient air to a high
pressure before it enters the combustion chamber. It typically consists of multiple stages
of rotating and stationary blades that increase the air pressure and temperature.
• Combustion Chamber: In the combustion chamber, the high-pressure air from the
compressor is mixed with fuel (such as natural gas or diesel) and ignited. The
combustion process produces high-temperature, high-pressure gases.
• Turbine: The turbine is where the high-energy gases from the combustion chamber
expand and do work. The expanding gases drive the turbine blades, which are connected
to the shaft that turns the generator.
• Electrical Generator: The generator converts the mechanical energy from the turbine
into electrical energy. It is connected directly to the turbine shaft and consists of a rotor
and stator. The rotational energy of the turbine is converted into electrical energy
through electromagnetic induction.
• Fuel Storage and Handling: This system includes storage tanks for the fuel, pumps,
and pipelines. It ensures a steady supply of fuel to the combustion chamber and includes
systems for filtering and regulating fuel flow.
• Fuel Control System: This system regulates the amount of fuel entering the
combustion chamber to control the turbine's output and efficiency.
• Air Filters: Positioned at the air intake, filters remove particulates and contaminants
from the ambient air before it enters the compressor. This ensures that only clean air
reaches the turbine, which is critical for efficient operation and longevity.
• Intake Ducts: These ducts channel air from the environment to the compressor. They
are designed to minimize resistance and ensure a steady flow of air.
• Exhaust Ducts: These ducts carry the exhaust gases from the turbine to the atmosphere
or to a heat recovery system (if applicable). They are designed to handle high
temperatures and large volumes of exhaust gases.
• Exhaust Stack: The stack is a tall structure that releases exhaust gases into the
atmosphere. It is equipped to ensure safe and efficient dispersion of gases and often
includes emissions control systems.
• Coolers: Gas turbines often require cooling systems to manage the heat generated
during operation. These coolers may include air-cooled or water-cooled systems.

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• Condenser: In combined cycle plants, the condenser removes heat from the steam used
in the heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). It converts the steam back into water,
which is then recirculated.
• HRSG Unit: In combined cycle power plants, the HRSG captures waste heat from the
gas turbine’s exhaust to produce steam. This steam is then used to drive a steam turbine,
which generates additional electricity.
• Control Room: Centralized location where operators monitor and control the gas
turbine power plant. It includes displays, controls, and alarms for real-time operation
management.
• Lubrication Pumps and Reservoirs: Provide oil to the bearings and other moving
parts of the turbine and generator to reduce friction and wear. This system includes
filters to ensure clean oil is supplied.

2.11 Gas turbine Fuel

2.11.1 Natural Gas

Natural gas, primarily composed of methane (CH4), is the most commonly used fuel in
modern gas turbines due to its high efficiency and clean burning properties. It offers low
emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter, which
makes it an environmentally friendly choice compared to other fossil fuels. Natural gas also
enables high thermal efficiency and is well-suited for combined cycle power plants, where
its energy is used both for electricity generation and for producing steam that drives a steam
turbine. However, the use of natural gas requires extensive infrastructure for its
transportation and storage, including pipelines and storage facilities.

2.11.2 Diesel Fuel

Diesel fuel, derived from crude oil, is a heavier hydrocarbon used in gas turbines primarily
for backup power and in remote or off-grid locations where natural gas infrastructure is not
available. Diesel is known for its reliability and ease of storage, making it a practical choice
for emergency power applications. Despite its advantages, diesel fuel has higher emissions
of NOx, carbon dioxide (CO2), and particulate matter compared to natural gas, contributing
to its environmental impact. The cost of diesel can also fluctuate based on the global price
of crude oil, making it a less stable option in terms of fuel costs.

2.11.3 Kerosene

Kerosene is a refined liquid hydrocarbon often used in aviation and as a fuel for gas turbines.
It has a high energy density, meaning it can provide substantial energy output per volume,

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which is beneficial for applications requiring high power density. Kerosene is widely
available, especially in aviation, where it is a standard fuel. However, its environmental
impact is similar to that of diesel, with notable emissions of CO2 and other pollutants.
Additionally, kerosene is generally more expensive than natural gas and diesel, which can
limit its use in cost-sensitive applications.

2.11.4 Biofuels

Biofuels are derived from organic materials such as plant oils and animal fats. They include
biodiesel and bioethanol and are considered renewable energy sources that reduce
dependence on fossil fuels. One of the main advantages of biofuels is their potential to lower
net carbon emissions, as the carbon dioxide released during combustion is offset by the CO2
absorbed by the plants used to produce the fuel. Despite these benefits, biofuels generally
have a lower energy density compared to conventional fuels, which can affect overall
efficiency.

2.11.5 Hydrogen

Hydrogen is a clean fuel that can be used in its pure form or as part of other fuel mixtures.
When combusted, hydrogen produces only water vapor, making it an environmentally
friendly option with zero direct emissions of pollutants. Hydrogen can contribute to high
efficiency in gas turbines and combined cycle power plants. However, its use requires
specialized storage and handling due to its low density and high flammability. Currently, the
production of hydrogen is costly, primarily due to the energy-intensive processes involved.

2.11.6 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is a mixture of propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10) that
can be used as a fuel for gas turbines. LPG burns cleaner than diesel and coal, emitting fewer
pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and particulate matter. It is a suitable alternative in areas
where natural gas is not available, and it can be stored in pressurized tanks, making it
adaptable for various applications. However, LPG requires special storage and transport
infrastructure due to its pressurized state, and it is typically more expensive than natural gas,
which can be a drawback for cost-sensitive applications.

2.11.7 Coal-Derived Gaseous Fuels

Coal-derived gaseous fuels, such as synthetic gas (syngas), are produced through the
gasification of coal. This process converts solid coal into a gaseous form that can be used in
gas turbines. The primary advantage of using coal-derived gases is the ability to utilize

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abundant coal resources, which can be integrated into existing coal infrastructure with some
modifications. Although syngas combustion is cleaner than direct coal burning, it still
produces CO2 and other emissions. The complexity and cost of gasification technology are
significant, and managing emissions remains a challenge, even with the cleaner combustion
process.

2.11.8 Controls of Gas Turbines

2.11.9 Speed Control

• Governors: Modern gas turbines use electronic governors to regulate turbine speed.
These systems adjust the fuel flow to maintain the desired rotational speed and ensure
stable operation. The governor responds to changes in load and adjusts the fuel supply
accordingly to prevent overspeed conditions and optimize performance.
• Variable Nozzle Guide Vanes (VNGV): In some gas turbines, variable nozzle guide
vanes control the flow of air entering the turbine, which affects the turbine’s speed and
power output. By adjusting the angle of these vanes, the turbine can maintain optimal
performance across a range of operating conditions.

2.11.10Temperature Control

• Exhaust Temperature Control: Gas turbines have sensors that monitor the
temperature of the exhaust gases. These sensors provide data to the control system,
which adjusts the fuel flow or cooling mechanisms to prevent overheating and maintain
safe operating temperatures.
• Inlet Air Cooling: Inlet air temperature can be controlled using cooling systems such
as evaporative coolers or air-to-air heat exchangers to improve efficiency and
performance, especially in hot climates.

2.11.11Load Control

• Load Sharing: In combined cycle power plants with multiple gas turbines, load sharing
systems ensure that each turbine contributes proportionally to the overall power output.
The control system balances the load among turbines to prevent overloading and ensure
efficient operation.
• Automatic Load Adjustment: Gas turbines can automatically adjust their output in
response to changes in electrical demand or grid frequency. This dynamic response
capability helps maintain grid stability and meet fluctuating power requirements.

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2.11.12Protection Systems

• Overspeed Protection: Gas turbines are equipped with overspeed protection systems
that automatically shut down the turbine if it exceeds a critical speed threshold,
preventing potential damage.
• Vibration Monitoring: Vibration sensors detect abnormal vibrations that could
indicate mechanical issues. The control system alerts operators to take corrective
actions before any damage occurs.

2.11.13Remote Monitoring and Diagnostics

• SCADA Systems: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems

provide real-time monitoring and control of gas turbines from a central location. These
systems collect data on performance, efficiency, and health, enabling remote
troubleshooting and optimization.
• Predictive Maintenance: Advanced diagnostics and predictive maintenance tools
analyze data trends to predict potential failures before they occur. This proactive
approach helps reduce downtime and maintenance costs.

2.12 Lubrication of Gas Turbines

2.12.1 Lubrication System Components

• Oil Pumps: Oil pumps circulate lubricating oil throughout the turbine’s components.
They maintain appropriate pressure and flow rates to ensure effective lubrication.
• Oil Filters: Oil filters remove contaminants and debris from the lubricating oil to
prevent damage to the turbine's moving parts and ensure smooth operation.
• Oil Coolers: Oil coolers dissipate excess heat from the lubricating oil to prevent
overheating and maintain optimal oil viscosity.

2.12.2 Types of Lubricating Oils

• Mineral Oils: Traditional gas turbines use mineral-based oils, which are derived from
refining crude oil. These oils provide adequate lubrication but may have limitations in
high-temperature environments.
• Synthetic Oils: Modern gas turbines often use synthetic oils, which offer superior
performance in extreme temperatures and high-pressure conditions. Synthetic oils have
better thermal stability, oxidation resistance, and longer service life compared to
mineral oils.

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2.12.3 Lubrication Practices

• Pre-Lubrication: Pre-lubrication ensures that oil is circulated through the turbine

before starting, reducing wear during initial operation. This practice is crucial for cold
starts, where the oil may be thick and less effective.
• Routine Oil Changes: Regular oil changes are essential to remove contaminants and
degraded oil. Maintenance schedules are based on operating hours and manufacturer
recommendations to ensure the turbine's longevity and performance.
• Condition Monitoring: Lubricating oil condition is monitored using sensors and
analysis techniques such as oil sampling and laboratory testing. This monitoring helps
detect contamination, viscosity changes, and oil degradation, enabling timely
maintenance actions.

2.12.4 Cooling and Ventilation

• Oil Ventilation: Adequate ventilation is necessary to prevent the accumulation of heat

and pressure within the lubrication system. Proper ventilation helps maintain the
efficiency of the lubrication system and prevents potential issues such as oil foaming.
• Heat Management: Effective heat management is crucial for maintaining the
lubrication system’s performance. Cooling systems and heat exchangers help manage
the temperature of the lubricating oil, ensuring it remains within the optimal range for
effective lubrication.

2.12.5 Emergency Lubrication

• Backup Systems: In case of primary lubrication system failure, gas turbines are
equipped with backup lubrication systems to provide emergency lubrication and prevent
damage. These systems activate automatically when needed, ensuring continuous
protection of critical components.

2.13 Site selection of gas turbine power plant,

Site selection for a gas turbine power plant involves a comprehensive analysis of various
factors to ensure efficient, safe, and economical operation. Here are key considerations for
selecting an appropriate site:
• Natural Gas Supply: Gas turbine power plants typically rely on natural gas, so the site
should be close to a reliable and economical source of natural gas. This minimizes
transportation costs and ensures a stable supply of fuel.
• Alternative Fuels: If the plant uses alternative fuels, such as diesel or biogas, the site
should be accessible to the relevant fuel sources.

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• Electric Grid Connectivity: The site should be near existing or planned transmission
lines to efficiently deliver the generated electricity to the grid. Proximity to high-voltage
transmission networks reduces the need for extensive and costly infrastructure.
• Grid Capacity: Ensure that the local grid can accommodate the additional power
generated by the plant without requiring major upgrades.
• Air Quality: Evaluate the potential impact on local air quality. Sites should be selected
to minimize the impact of emissions on populated areas and sensitive environments.
Compliance with environmental regulations and standards is essential.
• Noise and Heat: Gas turbines generate noise and heat, so the site should be situated
away from residential areas and other sensitive locations to minimize disturbance.
Considerations for noise abatement and heat dissipation should be included in the site
selection process.
• Cooling Requirements: Many gas turbine power plants use water for cooling purposes.
Access to a reliable water source is crucial for cooling systems, such as cooling towers
or heat exchangers. The site should have adequate water availability or alternative
cooling solutions if water is scarce.
• Water Discharge: Ensure that the site has a suitable location for the discharge of
cooling water, taking into account environmental regulations to avoid negatively
impacting local water bodies.
• Site Area: Gas turbine power plants require a significant amount of space for the turbine
units, auxiliary equipment, fuel storage, and access roads. The selected site should have
sufficient land to accommodate all plant facilities and future expansions if needed.
• Land Ownership and Use: Assess land ownership issues and ensure that the site is
available for industrial use. Considerations should include zoning regulations and
potential land-use conflicts.
• Transportation: The site should be accessible by road, rail, or other transportation
means for the delivery of equipment, fuel, and maintenance services. Proximity to major
transportation routes facilitates the efficient movement of materials and personnel.
• Construction and Maintenance: Evaluate the ease of construction and ongoing
maintenance access. A site with favorable topography and minimal obstructions reduces
construction costs and operational challenges.
• Ground Stability: Assess the geological conditions of the site to ensure that the ground
is stable and suitable for the construction of heavy equipment. Soil investigations and
geotechnical studies help determine the need for any special foundation work.
• Seismic Risk: Evaluate the seismic risk of the area. Sites in regions with high seismic
activity may require additional engineering measures to ensure the structural integrity
of the plant during earthquakes.
• Permits and Approvals: The site must comply with local, regional, and national
regulations and obtain necessary permits for construction and operation. This includes
environmental impact assessments, building permits, and operating licenses.

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• Community Engagement: Engage with local communities to address any concerns and
gain support for the project. Effective communication can help mitigate opposition and
facilitate smoother project implementation.
• Cost of Land and Infrastructure: Consider the cost of land acquisition and
infrastructure development. The site should offer a balance between initial investment
and long-term operational costs.

2.14 The Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC)

The Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) power plant operates with a focus on
efficiency and environmental sustainability by integrating both gasification and combined
cycle technologies. Here’s a detailed explanation of the working process:
• Selection and Pre-Treatment: The feedstock, typically coal, biomass, or other carbon-
rich materials, is selected based on availability and energy content. The feedstock is
then pre-treated to remove impurities and is crushed or ground to a fine powder to
enhance its reactivity during gasification.
• Storage and Handling: The prepared feedstock is stored in silos or bunkers, where it
is handled using conveyor systems to feed the gasifier.
• Gasifier Operation: The pre-treated feedstock is introduced into the gasifier, where it
undergoes a partial oxidation process. This is done in a high-temperature, high-pressure
environment with a controlled amount of oxygen or air. The process converts the solid
feedstock into a synthetic gas (syngas) composed mainly of hydrogen (H₂), carbon
monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and small amounts of methane (CH₄) and other
hydrocarbons.
• Syngas Cleanup: The raw syngas from the gasifier contains impurities such as sulfur
compounds, particulates, and trace metals. It is cleaned and conditioned in a series of
processes, including:
o Cooling: Syngas is cooled to manageable temperatures.
o Filtering: Particulates are removed using filters.
o Desulfurization: Sulfur compounds are removed using chemical scrubbers or
catalytic processes.
o Carbon Dioxide Removal: CO₂ is separated from the syngas if carbon capture is
integrated into the plant.
• Combustion: The cleaned syngas is mixed with air and combusted in the gas turbine's
combustion chamber. The high-pressure, high-temperature exhaust gases are produced
during this process.
• Power Generation: The exhaust gases drive the gas turbine blades, converting thermal
energy into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy drives a generator to produce
electricity.

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• Heat Recovery: The exhaust gases from the gas turbine are still at high temperatures
and contain significant thermal energy. This heat is transferred to water in the Heat
Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG), producing steam.
• Steam Generation: The HRSG consists of multiple heat exchangers and economizers
that capture the residual heat from the gas turbine exhaust to convert water into high-
pressure steam.
• Steam Expansion: The high-pressure steam generated in the HRSG is directed to a
steam turbine. As the steam expands through the turbine, it converts thermal energy into
mechanical energy.
• Power Generation: The steam turbine drives a second generator to produce additional
electricity.
• Combined Cycle: The combined cycle configuration of the IGCC plant means that
electricity is generated by both the gas turbine and the steam turbine. This results in
higher overall efficiency compared to simple cycle plants, as the waste heat from the
gas turbine is utilized to produce additional power.
• Efficiency Gains: The efficiency of IGCC systems can exceed 40-45%, and when
combined with carbon capture technology, they can achieve even higher efficiencies
while reducing emissions.
• CO₂ Capture: If integrated, the IGCC plant includes technologies for capturing CO₂
from the syngas or from the flue gases. The captured CO₂ can be compressed and
transported for storage in geological formations or used in enhanced oil recovery.
• Environmental Benefits: This step significantly reduces the carbon footprint of the
power plant, making it more environmentally friendly.

2.15 Controlling the Air-Fuel Ratio (AFR)

Controlling the Air-Fuel Ratio (AFR) in a power plant is crucial for optimizing combustion
efficiency, ensuring equipment performance, and minimizing emissions. The AFR is the
ratio of air to fuel supplied to the combustion process, and its regulation directly impacts the
efficiency and environmental impact of power generation systems. Here’s a detailed
explanation of how AFR is controlled in power plants:

2.15.1 Importance of AFR Control

• Combustion Efficiency: The AFR affects how completely the fuel burns. An
optimal AFR ensures that all the fuel is burned efficiently, producing maximum
energy output with minimal waste.
• Emission Control: Proper AFR control helps in managing emissions of pollutants
such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), and unburned hydrocarbons.
An incorrect AFR can lead to incomplete combustion and higher emissions.

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 • Equipment Protection: Maintaining the correct AFR prevents issues like
overheating, slagging, and fouling in the combustion system, which can damage
equipment and reduce operational lifespan.

2.15.2 Components of AFR Control System

• Sensors: Various sensors measure parameters such as the concentration of oxygen

(O₂), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and carbon monoxide (CO) in the flue gas, as well as the
temperature and pressure of the combustion air and fuel. These sensors provide real-
time data to the control system.
• Flow Meters: Flow meters measure the amount of fuel and air entering the
combustion chamber. Accurate measurement is essential for calculating and
adjusting the AFR.
• Controllers: Controllers process data from sensors and flow meters. They use
algorithms to determine the necessary adjustments to maintain the desired AFR.
Common types of controllers include proportional-integral-derivative (PID)
controllers.
• Actuators: Actuators adjust the fuel and air flow rates based on commands from the
controller. They can be valves or dampers that regulate the flow of air and fuel into
the combustion chamber.

2.15.3 Methods of AFR Control

• Manual Control: In simpler systems, operators manually adjust the air and fuel flow
based on observations and calculations. This method is less precise and can be less
efficient compared to automated systems.
• Automated Control: Modern power plants use automated control systems to
regulate AFR. These systems continuously monitor combustion parameters and
adjust the air and fuel flows in real-time. Automated control improves efficiency,
reduces emissions, and enhances operational safety.

2.15.4 Techniques for AFR Optimization

• Optimizing Combustion: The AFR is adjusted to achieve the best possible

combustion conditions. This involves balancing the air and fuel to maximize energy
output while minimizing pollutants.
• Seasonal Adjustments: AFR may need to be adjusted based on seasonal variations
in ambient air temperature and pressure, which can affect combustion efficiency.

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 • Fuel Quality Considerations: Variations in fuel quality, such as changes in calorific
value or moisture content, require adjustments to the AFR to maintain efficient
combustion.

2.15.5 Challenges in AFR Control

• Fuel Variability: Variations in fuel composition and quality can affect the AFR and
require frequent adjustments.
• Sensor Accuracy: The accuracy and reliability of sensors are crucial for effective
AFR control. Sensor drift or failure can lead to incorrect AFR adjustments.
• Load Variations: Changes in power demand affect the required AFR. The control
system must quickly adapt to these changes to maintain efficiency and emissions
standards.

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 Important Question of Unit 2

Q.N COx Questions

o
1 CO-2 Explain the general arrangement of a hydroelectric power plant and how it
contributes to efficient power generation.
2 CO-2 What factors are considered in the layout of a hydroelectric power plant,
and how does it impact the overall plant design?
3 CO-2 Discuss the significance of penstock in a hydroelectric power plant and the
challenges associated with water hammer in the penstock.
4 CO-2 How are specific speed and capacity calculated in hydroelectric power
plants, and why are these calculations important in plant design?
5 CO-2 Classify hydroelectric plants based on head, distinguishing between low-,
medium-, and high-head plants. What factors determine their
classification?
6 CO-2 Explain the concept of a pumped storage plant and its role in balancing
power demand and supply.
7 CO-2 What distinguishes a run-of-river power plant from other types of
hydroelectric plants, and what are its advantages and limitations?
8 CO-2 Describe the purpose and function of surge tanks in hydroelectric power
plants, and how do they contribute to system stability?
9 CO-2 Outline the layout of a gas turbine power plant and highlight the key
elements involved in its operation.
10 CO-2 Discuss the various auxiliary systems in gas turbine power plants, including
fuel, controls, and lubrication, and explain their importance.
11 CO-2 What are the different fuels used in gas turbine power plants, and how does
the choice of fuel impact the plant's performance?
12 CO-2 Explore the concept of cogeneration in gas turbine power plants,
emphasizing its advantages and applications.

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 Unit 3

CO-3 Understand the concepts of electrical systems used in power plants.

Nuclear Power Plants Classification of nuclear reactors, Thermal fission reactors and
power plant and their location, Pressurized water reactor, Boiling water reactor, CANDU
heavy water reactor, Gas-cooled reactor, Fast breeder reactors, Organic substance cooled
reactor, Reactor control, Radiation hazards, Radioactive waste disposal, Nuclear power
generation in India.
Solar Power Plant Solar energy collectors, Photovoltaic power system, Solar central
receiver system, Solar thermal energy, types of solar thermal plant, typical layout and
components, solar parabolic trough plants, solar tower power plants, and solar dish power
plants. Working principle of concentrating solar thermal power plant and their applications.

What, why, and where of unit 3

What

This unit covers the fundamentals and technical aspects of nuclear and solar power plants.
For nuclear power plants, it includes the classification of different reactor types such as
thermal fission reactors, pressurized water reactors (PWR), boiling water reactors (BWR),
CANDU heavy water reactors, gas-cooled reactors, fast breeder reactors, and organic
substance-cooled reactors. Key topics include reactor control, radiation hazards, radioactive
waste disposal, and the role of nuclear power generation in India. For solar power plants, the
unit explores solar energy collectors, photovoltaic systems, solar central receiver systems,
and solar thermal energy. It details various types of solar thermal plants, including parabolic
troughs, solar towers, and solar dish power plants, along with their working principles and
applications.

Why

Understanding both nuclear and solar power plants is essential for addressing global energy
needs and environmental concerns. Nuclear power provides a substantial and consistent
energy source with low greenhouse gas emissions, while solar power harnesses renewable
energy from the sun, reducing reliance on fossil fuels and mitigating climate change.
Knowledge of these technologies helps in designing, operating, and managing energy
systems effectively, ensuring sustainable and safe energy production while addressing issues
like waste management and radiation safety.

70
Where

This unit is applicable in academic settings for courses on energy systems, nuclear
engineering, and renewable energy technologies. It is also relevant for professionals in the
energy sector, including engineers, operators, and policymakers involved in the design,
implementation, and regulation of nuclear and solar power plants. Additionally, the
information is valuable for government agencies, research institutions, and organizations
focused on energy policy, sustainability, and environmental impact.
4o mini

3 Introduction of Nuclear reactors

Nuclear reactors are sophisticated systems designed to manage and control nuclear fission
reactions to produce energy. At their core, nuclear reactors facilitate a controlled chain
reaction where the nuclei of heavy atoms, such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239, are split
into smaller fragments when bombarded by neutrons. This fission process releases a
significant amount of heat, which is harnessed to generate steam. The steam then drives
turbines connected to generators, producing electricity. To ensure safety and stability,
reactors are equipped with various control systems, including control rods that absorb
neutrons and regulate the reaction rate. Additionally, reactors use moderators, like water or
heavy water, to slow down neutrons and sustain the chain reaction at a manageable pace.
The reactor's design also includes robust shielding and cooling systems to manage heat and
prevent radiation leaks. Overall, nuclear reactors are pivotal in providing a substantial and
steady source of low-carbon energy, playing a critical role in the global energy mix.

3.1 Classification of Nuclear reactors

3.1.1 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

Utilizes water under high pressure to prevent boiling, which circulates through the reactor core to
absorb heat from the nuclear reactions. This hot water is then used to generate steam in a secondary
loop that drives turbines. The high pressure allows the water to remain liquid at temperatures that
are high enough to produce steam effectively.
• Boiling Water Reactor (BWR): In this reactor type, the coolant water boils directly in the
reactor core, producing steam that drives the turbines. The steam is then condensed back into
water and returned to the core. BWRs operate at lower pressures compared to PWRs, which
simplifies the design and reduces costs.
• CANDU Reactor (Canada Deuterium Uranium): Uses heavy water (deuterium oxide, D₂O)
as both the coolant and neutron moderator. Heavy water is effective at slowing neutrons without
capturing them, allowing the reactor to use natural uranium fuel. CANDU reactors are known
for their ability to use a variety of fuels and for their high efficiency in neutron economy.

71
• Magnox Reactor: A type of gas-cooled reactor that uses natural uranium fuel and magnesium
alloy cladding. Carbon dioxide is used as the coolant and graphite as the moderator. It was
among the first reactors used for electricity generation but has largely been replaced by more
advanced designs.
• Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor (AGR): An evolution of the Magnox reactor, AGRs use
enriched uranium fuel and higher temperatures for increased efficiency. They also employ
carbon dioxide as the coolant and graphite as the moderator, with improvements in thermal
efficiency and fuel use.
• Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR): Operates with fast neutrons and uses liquid metal (such as
sodium or lead) as a coolant. Unlike thermal reactors, FBRs do not use a neutron moderator.
They are designed to generate more fissile material (such as plutonium) than they consume,
making them a key technology for long-term sustainability of nuclear fuel.
• Thermal Reactors: Utilize slow (thermal) neutrons for fission. This category includes most
commercial reactors, such as PWRs, BWRs, and CANDU reactors. Thermal reactors are
efficient in using fuels that are more abundant and easier to handle.
• Fast Reactors: Utilize fast neutrons for fission. They are designed to breed more fuel than they
consume, helping to extend the life of nuclear fuel resources. Fast reactors do not use a neutron
moderator and typically employ liquid metal coolants, such as sodium.
• Open Fuel Cycle: Spent fuel is removed from the reactor and either stored as waste or disposed
of without reprocessing. This method is used in many commercial reactors where the focus is
on immediate power generation and the disposal of waste.
• Closed Fuel Cycle: Spent fuel is reprocessed to extract usable materials (such as plutonium and
uranium) and recycle them back into the reactor. This approach aims to make better use of
nuclear fuel and reduce the volume of radioactive waste. Fast breeder reactors typically use a
closed fuel cycle.
o Generation I Reactors: The earliest reactors, designed in the 1950s and 1960s, with basic
safety features and control systems. These include the first commercial reactors and are largely
obsolete.
o Generation II Reactors: Developed from the 1970s, incorporating significant improvements
in safety, efficiency, and environmental impact. Most of the reactors in operation today are
Generation II, including PWRs and BWRs.
o Generation III Reactors: Advanced reactors with enhanced safety features, longer operational
lifetimes, and improved fuel efficiency. They include passive safety systems that can operate
without active controls or external power, offering increased safety margins.
o Generation IV Reactors: Future reactors designed to be sustainable, with a focus on reducing
nuclear waste, improving safety, and increasing efficiency. Concepts include high-temperature
gas-cooled reactors and sodium-cooled fast reactors. These reactors are still under development
and aim to address long-term sustainability challenges.
o Uranium Reactors: Use uranium fuel, which can be natural or enriched. Most LWRs and some
HWRs use uranium as fuel, with variations in enrichment levels and fuel processing.
o Thorium Reactors: Use thorium as a primary fuel, often in combination with uranium or
plutonium. Thorium reactors are explored for their potential to produce less nuclear waste and
utilize a more abundant and less hazardous fuel source.

72
3.2 A thermal fission reactor

A thermal fission reactor is a nuclear reactor that generates energy by harnessing the power
of nuclear fission, where heavy atomic nuclei such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239 are
split into smaller nuclei, releasing a significant amount of energy. In these reactors, the
fission process is sustained by slowing down neutrons to thermal energies using a moderator,
which can be materials like water, heavy water, or graphite. This slowing down of neutrons
increases the likelihood of them causing further fission events when they collide with other
fissile nuclei, thereby sustaining the chain reaction. The core of a thermal fission reactor
consists of fuel rods that contain the fissile material. Surrounding these rods are control rods
made of materials like cadmium or boron, which can absorb neutrons. By adjusting the
position of the control rods, operators can control the rate of the nuclear reaction, ensuring
it remains steady or can be safely shut down when necessary.
A coolant, often water, circulates through the reactor core to absorb the heat generated by
the fission reactions. This heat is used to convert water into steam in a secondary circuit,
which then drives turbines connected to generators, producing electricity. Thermal fission
reactors are the most common type of nuclear reactors in use today due to their efficiency
and ability to produce large amounts of energy with relatively low carbon emissions.
However, these reactors come with challenges, including the management of radioactive
waste, which remains hazardous for thousands of years, and the need for stringent safety
measures to prevent accidents. Despite these challenges, thermal fission reactors play a
crucial role in the global energy mix, providing a stable and substantial source of low-carbon
electricity.

3.3 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) is one of the most common types of nuclear reactors used
for electricity generation. It operates based on the principle of nuclear fission, where atomic
nuclei of fissile materials like uranium-235 are split, releasing a large amount of energy in
the form of heat. This heat is then used to produce electricity in a safe and controlled
environment.
1. Key Components of a Pressurized Water Reactor
2. Reactor Core: The heart of the PWR, containing fuel assemblies made up of fuel rods
filled with uranium dioxide pellets. These fuel rods are where the fission reaction
occurs, generating heat.
3. Moderator: In a PWR, the same water that acts as a coolant also serves as a moderator.
The moderator's role is to slow down the fast-moving neutrons produced during fission
so that they can cause more fission events, sustaining the chain reaction.
4. Coolant: The primary coolant in a PWR is water, which is kept under high pressure
(hence the name Pressurized Water Reactor) to prevent it from boiling even at high

73
 temperatures. The coolant circulates through the reactor core, absorbing the heat
generated by the nuclear fission.
5. Pressure Vessel: This is a robust steel container that houses the reactor core and
maintains the water under high pressure. The pressure vessel is designed to withstand
the extreme conditions inside the reactor.
6. Steam Generator: In a PWR, the primary coolant, after absorbing heat from the reactor
core, passes through a heat exchanger known as a steam generator. Here, the heat is
transferred to a secondary loop of water, which is kept at a lower pressure. This
secondary water turns into steam due to the heat transfer.
7. Turbine and Generator: The steam produced in the steam generator is used to drive a
turbine connected to an electrical generator. As the turbine blades spin, they turn the
generator, producing electricity.
8. Control Rods: Made of materials that absorb neutrons, such as boron or cadmium,
control rods are inserted or withdrawn from the reactor core to regulate the fission
reaction. Inserting the rods slows down the reaction, while withdrawing them speeds it
up.
9. Containment Structure: Surrounding the reactor is a robust containment structure,
typically made of steel-reinforced concrete. This structure is designed to prevent the
escape of radiation in the event of an accident.

3.3.1 Working Principle of a Pressurized Water Reactor

1. Fission Reaction: The PWR operates by sustaining a controlled nuclear chain reaction
within the reactor core. The uranium fuel undergoes fission, releasing neutrons and a
large amount of heat.
2. Heat Transfer: The heat generated from fission is absorbed by the pressurized water
circulating through the core. This water, under high pressure, does not boil but instead
becomes very hot.
3. Steam Generation: The hot, pressurized water is then passed through the steam
generator, where it transfers its heat to a secondary loop of water. This secondary loop
is at a lower pressure, allowing the water to boil and produce steam.
4. Electricity Production: The steam generated drives a turbine, which in turn rotates a
generator, producing electricity. After passing through the turbine, the steam is
condensed back into water and returned to the steam generator to be heated again,
forming a closed loop.
5. Cooling and Containment: The primary coolant, after transferring its heat in the steam
generator, is pumped back into the reactor core to absorb more heat. The entire process
is contained within a robust containment structure to ensure safety.

74
Advantages of Pressurized Water Reactors

1. Safety: PWRs are known for their safety features. The high-pressure coolant system
and the containment structure significantly reduce the risk of accidents and radiation
release.
2. Stable Operation: The use of water as both a coolant and moderator simplify the
reactor design, making it stable and easier to control. The reactor can be quickly shut
down by inserting control rods, which is crucial in emergency situations.
3. Proven Technology: PWRs are the most widely used type of nuclear reactors
worldwide. Their design has been refined over decades, making them reliable and well-
understood by the industry.
4. Less Radioactive Waste: Compared to some other reactor designs, PWRs generate
relatively lower amounts of high-level radioactive waste, which is easier to manage.

3.4 A Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

A Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) is another type of light water nuclear reactor used for
generating electricity. Unlike the Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR), the BWR allows water
to boil directly in the reactor core, producing steam that is used to drive a turbine and
generate electricity. The BWR is the second most common type of nuclear reactor in the
world, following the PWR.
1. Key Components of a Boiling Water Reactor
2. Reactor Core: The core contains fuel assemblies made up of fuel rods, which are filled
with uranium dioxide pellets. This is where the nuclear fission reaction takes place,
generating heat.
3. Moderator and Coolant: In a BWR, ordinary water acts as both the coolant and the
neutron moderator. The water absorbs the heat produced by the fission reaction and also
slows down the neutrons to sustain the chain reaction.
4. Pressure Vessel: The reactor core is housed within a large, robust steel pressure
vessel. Unlike in a PWR, the pressure inside a BWR is lower, allowing the water to
boil.
5. Steam Separator and Dryer: As water boils in the reactor, a mixture of water and
steam rises to the top of the pressure vessel. Steam separators and dryers are installed
here to remove water droplets from the steam, ensuring that only dry steam is sent to
the turbine.
6. Turbine and Generator: The dry steam produced in the reactor is directly used to
drive a turbine. The turbine is connected to an electrical generator, which produces
electricity as the turbine spins.

75
 7. Control Rods: Control rods made of materials like boron or hafnium are inserted
into the reactor core to absorb neutrons and regulate the fission reaction. The control
rods can be inserted or withdrawn to control the reactor's power output.
8. Containment Structure: Surrounding the reactor is a containment structure made
of steel-reinforced concrete. This structure is designed to prevent the release of
radiation in case of an accident.
9. Working Process of a Boiling Water Reactor
1. Fission Reaction: The BWR operates on the principle of nuclear fission, where
uranium-235 atoms are split by neutrons in the reactor core. This splitting process
releases a significant amount of heat.
2. Boiling of Water: The water inside the reactor vessel acts as both the coolant and
the moderator. As the water flows through the reactor core, it absorbs the heat
generated by the fission reaction. The water is heated to its boiling point and begins
to turn into steam directly within the reactor vessel.
3. Steam Formation: The steam produced rises through the reactor, carrying a mixture
of water and steam to the top of the pressure vessel. Steam separators and dryers at
the top of the vessel separate the steam from the water. The dry steam is then directed
to the turbine.
4. Electricity Generation: The dry steam flows from the reactor to the turbine, where
it expands and turns the turbine blades. This mechanical energy is converted into
electrical energy by the generator connected to the turbine.
5. Condensation and Recirculation: After passing through the turbine, the steam is
condensed back into water in a condenser, which is typically cooled by a secondary
water source like a river or cooling tower. The condensed water is then pumped back
into the reactor vessel to be heated again, completing the cycle.
6. Control and Safety: The power output of the BWR is controlled by adjusting the
position of the control rods within the reactor core. By inserting the control rods, the
reaction is slowed down, reducing the power output. Conversely, withdrawing the
control rods increases the reaction rate and power output. Additionally, the BWR
design includes multiple safety systems to shut down the reactor quickly in the event
of an emergency, ensuring the reactor can be safely controlled and cooled.

3.4.1 Advantages of Boiling Water Reactors

1. Simpler Design: BWRs have a simpler design compared to PWRs because they do
not require a separate steam generator. This reduces the complexity and cost of the
reactor.
2. Efficiency: BWRs can achieve slightly higher thermal efficiencies than PWRs due
to the direct use of steam from the reactor to drive the turbine, reducing energy losses.

76
 3. Lower Pressure: The operating pressure of a BWR is lower than that of a PWR,
which can reduce the mechanical stress on the reactor components and improve
safety.
4. Proven Technology: BWRs have been in operation for decades, and their design and
operation are well understood. They have a solid track record of safe and reliable
performance.

3.4.2 Challenges and Considerations

1. Radioactive Steam: Since the steam produced in the reactor core is directly used to
drive the turbine, the turbine and associated components become radioactive over
time. This necessitates additional shielding and safety precautions.
2. Complex Safety Systems: Although BWRs have a simpler design, they require
complex safety systems to manage the risk of a steam release in case of an accident.
3. Larger Containment Structures: The containment structures for BWRs are
typically larger than those for PWRs because they need to accommodate the steam
produced directly in the reactor vessel.
4. Water Chemistry: Maintaining the correct water chemistry is crucial in a BWR to
prevent corrosion and the buildup of radioactive materials in the reactor and turbine
systems.

3.5 CANDU heavy water reactor

The CANDU (CANada Deuterium Uranium) reactor is a type of nuclear reactor developed
in Canada that uses heavy water (deuterium oxide, D2O) as both a coolant and a neutron
moderator, and natural uranium as its fuel. This reactor's design is distinct from other
common reactor types like Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs) and Boiling Water Reactors
(BWRs) due to its use of natural uranium, which does not require enrichment, making it
more cost-effective in terms of fuel preparation. Heavy water is an effective neutron
moderator, allowing the reactor to maintain a sustained chain reaction even with the lower
concentration of fissile material in natural uranium.
A unique feature of the CANDU reactor is its use of pressure tubes instead of a large pressure
vessel. These tubes contain the fuel and allow the reactor to be refueled while in operation,
enhancing its efficiency and availability. The separation of the coolant and moderator
circuits in the CANDU design further optimizes the reactor's performance. The ability to
refuel on-load, coupled with the flexibility to use various fuel types, makes CANDU reactors
a versatile option in the nuclear power sector. Despite their higher initial costs and
complexity, CANDU reactors offer significant operational advantages, including a high-
capacity factor and efficient fuel use, making them a key player in nuclear energy
production.

77
 Important question of Unit 3

Ques COx Questions

. No.
1 CO-3 What is a chain reaction? How it is controlled?
2 CO-3 What is a nuclear reactor? Describe the various parts of a nuclear reactor.
3 CO-3 What is Boiling water reactor (B.W.R.)
4 CO-3 What is Pressurized water reactor (P.W.R.)
5 CO-3 What is Photovoltaic power system.
6 CO-3 Explain CANDU heavy water reactor.
7 CO-3 Briefly explain solar dish power plants
8 CO-3 Explain the working of a typical fast breeder nuclear reactor power plant, with
neat diagram.
9 CO-3 What are the different components of a nuclear power plant? Explain the
working of a nuclear power plant. What are the different fuels used in such a
power plant?
10 CO-3 Discuss the various factors to be considered while selecting the site for nuclear
power station. Discuss its advantages and disadvantages.
11 CO-3 Explain different types of collectors used in a solar power plant.
12 CO-3 Explain the working principle of concentrating solar thermal power plant and their
applications.

78