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 NINTH EDITION
HISTOLOGY
A TEXT AND ATLAS
With Correlated Cell and
Molecular Biology
Wojciech Pawlina
Walking in freezing winter cold weather (−22°C) on his
driveway in Rochester, Minnesota contemplating on snow-white
histologic structures: white blood cells, white adipocytes,
white pulp of the spleen, white matter of the brain and
spinal cord, white muscle fibers, and perhaps corpus
albicans, and tunica albuginea. (Photograph by Kevin J.
Ness.)
Acquisitions Editor: Crystal Taylor
Development Editor: Andrea Vosburgh/Deborah Bordeaux
Freelance Editor: Kathleen H. Scogna
Production Project Manager: Kirstin Johnson
Marketing Manager: Danielle Klahr
Manager, Graphic Arts & Design: Steve Druding
Art Director: Jennifer Clements
Manufacturing Coordinator: Margie Orzech-Zarenko
Prepress Vendor: S4Carlisle Publishing Services
Top cover image: Courtesy of Drs. Daniel Berger and Jeff W.
Lichtman, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA

Ninth Edition

Copyright © 2024 Wolters Kluwer.

Copyright © 2020, 2016 Wolters Kluwer Health. Copyright © 2011,

2006, 2003 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Copyright © 1995, 1989
Williams & Wilkins. Copyright © 1985 Harper & Row, Publisher, J. B.
Lippincott Company. All rights reserved. This book is protected by
copyright. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in
any form or by any means, including as photocopies or scanned-in or
other electronic copies, or utilized by any information storage and
retrieval system without written permission from the copyright
owner, except for brief quotations embodied in critical articles
and reviews. Materials appearing in this book prepared by
individuals as part of their official duties as U.S. government
employees are not covered by the above-mentioned copyright. To
request permission, please contact Wolters Kluwer at Two Commerce
Square, 2001 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103, via email at
[email protected], or via our website at shop.lww.com (products
and services).

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Printed in Mexico

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN-13: 978-1-975181-51-2
ISBN-10: 1-975181-51-4

Library of Congress Control Number: 2023907331

This work is provided “as is,” and the publisher disclaims any and
all warranties, express or implied, including any warranties as to
accuracy, comprehensiveness, or currency of the content of this
work.

This work is no substitute for individual patient assessment based

upon healthcare professionals’ examination of each patient and
consideration of, among other things, age, weight, gender, current
or prior medical conditions, medication history, laboratory data,
and other factors unique to the patient. The publisher does not
provide medical advice or guidance, and this work is merely a
reference tool. Healthcare professionals, and not the publisher,
are solely responsible for the use of this work including all
medical judgments and for any resulting diagnosis and treatments.

Given continuous, rapid advances in medical science and health

information, independent professional verification of medical
diagnoses, indications, appropriate pharmaceutical selections and
dosages, and treatment options should be made and healthcare
professionals should consult a variety of sources. When prescribing
medication, healthcare professionals are advised to consult the
product information sheet (the manufacturer’s package insert)
accompanying each drug to verify, among other things, conditions of
use, warnings, and side effects and identify any changes in dosage
schedule or contraindications, particularly if the medication to be
administered is new, infrequently used, or has a narrow therapeutic
range. To the maximum extent permitted under applicable law, no
responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or
damage to persons or property, as a matter of products liability,
negligence law or otherwise, or from any reference to or use by any
person of this work.

shop.lww.com
 This edition is dedicated to Teresa Pawlina, my wife,
colleague, and best friend, whose love, patience, and
endurance created a safe haven for working on this textbook
and
to my children Conrad Pawlina and Stephanie Pawlina Fixell,
whose stimulation and excitement are always contagious
and
to my grandchildren Alexander Conrad Fixell and Zofia Marie
Pawlina, whose capability to learn new life skills is simply
breathtaking.
PREFACE
This ninth edition of Histology: A Text and Atlas With
Correlated Cell and Molecular Biology continues its tradition
of introducing Health Professions students to the foremost
world of histology with cell and molecular biology combined.
In addition, to better understand the nature of cells and
tissues, the presented material is immersed in basic anatomy,
embryology, and physiology and is accompanied by relevant
clinical commentaries. As in previous editions, this book is
a combination “text-atlas” in that the standard textbook
descriptions of histologic concepts are supplemented by an
array of schematics, tissue and cell images, and clinical
photographs. The separate atlas sections conclude each
chapter to provide large-format, labeled atlas plates with
detailed legends that highlight and summarize the elements of
microscopic anatomy. Histology: A Text and Atlas is,
therefore, “two books in one.”
This edition of Histology: A Text and Atlas With
Correlated Cell and Molecular Biology is intended to serve as
a reliable resource and clinical viewpoint for those who seek
to understand histology from medical, dental, graduate,
undergraduate, and other health professions perspective.
Inclusion of current and up-to-date information provides a
solid framework on which to build further scientific
exploration and clinical application. As a student resource,
it should not be approached with the goal of memorizing
detailed facts but rather as a guide for learning by
extracting from all explanations key concepts that will serve
future academic pursuits.
The following improvements have been made to this edition:
All figures in this book have been carefully reviewed,
revised, and updated. Several new figures have been added to
show the latest interpretation of important concepts based on
recent discoveries in molecular and cellular research. All
drawings maintain a uniform style throughout the chapters
with a palette of eye-pleasing colors. Several new conceptual
drawings have been aligned with photomicrographs or electron
micrographs, a feature carried over from previous editions
that has received wide acclaim from reviewers, students, and
faculty members. In addition, all atlas plates have been
renumbered to be consistent with chapter numbers.
Cellular and molecular biology content has been updated .
Text material from the eighth edition has been carefully
revised and updated to include the latest advancements in
cellular and molecular biology, stem cell biology, cellular
markers, and cell signaling. The ninth edition focuses on key
concepts to help students comprehend these rapidly increasing
fields. To accommodate reviewers’ suggestions, the ninth
edition integrates new information in cell biology with
clinical correlates, which readers will see as new clinical
information items highlighted in blue text and in clinical
correlations and functional considerations folders. For
example, the last few years of the COVID-19 pandemic has
sparked interest about the changes in normal tissue when
infected by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus
2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus. Several chapters contain descriptions
of these changes with underlying explanations of cellular and
molecular mechanisms and clinical features presented by
patients. Additional changes include the following:

A new discussion on the mononuclear phagocyte system and

the cell biology of resident tissue macrophages has been
added.
The latest research findings in immune cell activation have
been incorporated.
Updated cellular biology topics include beige adipose
tissue, the epithelial–mesenchymal transition,
conjunctiva-associated lymphatic tissue, biogenesis and
function of peroxisomes, and exosomes as the newest
discovered form of cell-to-cell communication.
 New, more detailed information about the histology of the
female and male external genitalia has been included.
The skin chapter has been supplemented and updated with
many new images and discussion on skin color and skin
aging.
With the constant improvement in microscopic methods, a new
basic discussion on three-dimensional (3D) microscopy
methods was incorporated in the methods chapter.

“Histology 101” sections have been revised and

updated. These sections contain clear and concise summaries
for a quick review of the material listed in a “sticky
notes” format posted on the notebook pages at the end of
each chapter. The bullet-point format is designed
specifically for students needing a quick review and is
especially useful for quiz and examination preparation. These
reader-friendly sections allow fast information retrieval
with concepts and facts grouped on separate sticky notes. The
colored sticky notes have been designed with ample free space
to allow readers to write their own notes to complement the
bulleted points.
Reader-friendly innovations have been implemented .
Similar to the previous editions of this book, the aim is to
provide ready access to important concepts and essential
information. Changes introduced in previous editions, such as
bolded key terms, clinical information in blue text, pages
with color-coded edges, and a fresh design for clinical
correlation folders, were all enthusiastically approved by
the new generation of textbook users and have been maintained
in this edition. Essential terms within each specific section
are introduced within the text in eye-catching, oversized,
bold, red font. Text containing clinical information and the
latest research findings is presented in blue, with
terminology pertaining to diseases, conditions, symptoms, or
causative mechanisms highlighted in oversized bold blue font.
Each clinical folder contains updated clinical text with even
more illustrations and drawings and is easily found within
each chapter. As in previous editions, all changes have been
made with students in mind. The author–editor team strived
for clarity and concision to aid student comprehension of the
subject matter, familiarity with the latest information, and
application of newfound knowledge.
Wojciech Pawlina
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I remain grateful to the creator of this book, Dr. Michael
H. Ross , my mentor, colleague, and dear friend, for the
ability to carry on his vision for teaching histology. Many
changes in histology education have occurred in the last two
decades. In today’s medical curricula, histology courses
continue to lose their identity as they become integrated
into larger didactic blocks. In the digital world of virtual
histology, often driven by self-directed instructions, there
is a need for a comprehensive textbook from which students
can pick small chunks of knowledge for their specific
learning assignments across many disciplines. The classical
descriptive histology of the past is no longer sufficient for
understanding the structure and function of cells and
tissues. Modern histology is increasingly becoming the study
of cell and molecular biology, a trend we had foreseen in the
early 2000s. From the fifth edition of this textbook (2006),
we increased emphases on topics of cell and molecular biology
that are aligned with histology; as acknowledged by adding
the subtitle “ With Correlated Cell and Molecular Biology ”
to the fifth and subsequent editions of this textbook. Dr.
Ross vision to provide the best quality modern histology text
with superior imaging integrated with the most recent
advances in cell and molecular biology and supporting
clinical facts remained unchanged.
Changes to the ninth edition arise largely from comments
and suggestions of students from around the world who have
taken the time and effort to send me messages about what they
like about the book and, more importantly, how the book might
be improved to help them better learn histology. I have also
received thoughtful comments from my first-year histology
students who often direct me to explore new discoveries and
achievements in the many fields related to histology. I am
grateful to them for their keen sense of sharpening this
work.
Also, many of my colleagues who teach histology, cell
biology, immunology, and physiology courses have helped
improve this new edition. Many have suggested a stronger
emphasis on clinical relevance and new discoveries,
especially in cell and molecular biology, which I strive to
include as new research emerges. Others have provided new
photomicrographs, electron micrographs, access to their
virtual slide collections, proposals for new tables, and have
suggested which existing diagrams and figures need to be
redrawn.
Specifically, I owe my thanks to the following reviewers,
who have spent time to provide me with constructive feedback
that had an impact on this current edition.

Jan Aten, PhD

Amsterdam University Medical Center
Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Stefanie Attardi, PhD

Oakland University William Beaumont School of Medicine
Rochester, Michigan

Barış Baykal, MD
Gülhane Faculty of Medicine
University of Health Sciences
Ankara, Türkiye

Paul B. Bell, Jr., PhD

University of Oklahoma
Norman, Oklahoma

Jalaluddin Bin Mohamed, MBBS, PhD

National Defence University of Malaysia
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

David E. Birk, PhD

University of South Florida, College of Medicine
Tampa, Florida

Christy Bridges, PhD

Mercer University School of Medicine
Macon, Georgia

Craig A. Canby, PhD

Des Moines University
Des Moines, Iowa

Stephen W. Carmichael, PhD

Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science
Rochester, Minnesota

Yasmin Carter, PhD

University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School
Worcester, Massachusetts

Pike See Cheah, PhD

Universiti Putra Malaysia
Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Kevin N. Christensen, MD
Winona Health
Winona, Minnesota

Sookja K. Chung, PhD

Macau University of Science and Technology
Taipa, Macau

John Clancy, Jr., PhD

Loyola University Medical Center
Maywood, Illinois

Rita Colella, PhD

University of Louisville School of Medicine
Louisville, Kentucky
Iris M. Cook, PhD
State University of New York Westchester Community College
Valhalla, New York

Robert D. Cottrell, MHS, PA (ASCP)CM

Quinnipiac University School of Health Sciences
Hamden, Connecticut

Dongmei Cui, MD, PhD

University of Mississippi Medical Center
Jackson, Mississippi

Eduard I. Dedkov, MD, PhD

Cooper Medical School of Rowan University
Camden, New Jersey

Andrea Deyrup, MD, PhD

University of South Carolina School of Medicine Greenville
Greenville, South Carolina

Lori B. Dribin, PhD

Nova Southeastern University
Fort Lauderdale, Florida

Jennifer Eastwood, PhD

Burrell College of Osteopathic Medicine
Las Cruces, New Mexico

Rodrigo Enrique Elizondo-Omaña, MD, PhD

Autonomous University of Nuevo León, School of Medicine
Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico

Tamira Elul, PhD

Touro University College of Osteopathic Medicine
Vallejo, California

Francis A. Fakoya, MBChB, MSc, PhD

St. George’s University School of Medicine
True Blue, Grenada, West Indies

Bruce E. Felgenhauer, PhD

University of Louisiana at Lafayette
Lafayette, Louisiana

G. Ian Gallicano, PhD

Georgetown University School of Medicine
Washington, District of Columbia

Joaquin J. Garcia, MD
Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science
Rochester, Minnesota

Mathangi Gilkes, MBBS, MSc

St. George’s University School of Medicine
True Blue, Grenada, West Indies

Ferdinand Gomez, MS
Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine
Florida International University
Miami, Florida

Amos Gona, PhD

University of Medicine & Dentistry of New Jersey
New Brunswick, New Jersey

Ervin M. Gore, PhD

Middle Tennessee State University
Murfreesboro, Tennessee

Joseph P. Grande, MD, PhD

Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science
Rochester, Minnesota

Joseph A. Grasso, PhD

University of Connecticut Health Center
Farmington, Connecticut
Shannon Haley, MD, PhD
Thomas Jefferson University
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Brian H. Hallas, PhD

New York Institute of Technology
Old Westbury, New York

Arthur R. Hand, DDS

University of Connecticut School of Dental Medicine
Farmington, Connecticut

Robert J. Hillwig, MD
Kentucky College of Osteopathic Medicine
University of Pikeville
Pikeville, Kentucky

Charlene Hoegler, PhD

Pace University—Pleasantville Campus
Pleasantville, New York

Christopher Horst Lillig, PhD

University of Greifswald
Greifswald, Germany

Michael Hortsch, PhD

University of Michigan Medical School
Ann Arbor, Michigan

Jim Hutson, PhD

Texas Tech University
Lubbock, Texas

John-Olov Jansson, MD, PhD

University of Gothenburg
Gothenburg, Sweden

Malsawmzuali (JC) Joute Chawngvawr, MS

Cardiovascular Research, Mayo Clinic
Rochester, Minnesota

Cynthia J. M. Kane, PhD

University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences
Little Rock, Arkansas

Punnose K. Kattil, MBBS, MD

Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science
Rochester, Minnesota

Nazanin Yeganeh Kazemi, MD, PhD

Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science
Rochester, Minnesota

Michael J. Kern, PhD

Medical University of South Carolina
Charleston, South Carolina

G. M. Kibria, MD
National Defence University of Malaysia
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Thomas S. King, PhD

University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
San Antonio, Texas

Bruce M. Koeppen, MD, PhD

Quinnipiac University
Frank H. Netter MD School of Medicine
North Haven, Connecticut

Andrew Koob, PhD

University of Wisconsin—River Falls
River Falls, Wisconsin

Craig Kuehn, PhD

Western University of Health Sciences
Pomona, California

Ton La, MD, JD, LLM

Baylor College of Medicine
Houston, Texas

Nirusha Lachman, PhD

Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science
Rochester, Minnesota

Gavin R. Lawson, PhD

Western University of Health Sciences
Pomona, California

Susan LeDoux, PhD

University of South Alabama
Mobile, Alabama

Karen Leong, MD
Drexel University College of Medicine
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Kenneth M. Lerea, PhD

New York Medical College
Valhalla, New York

Frank Liuzzi, PhD

Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine
Bradenton, Florida

Donald J. Lowrie, Jr., PhD

University of Cincinnati College of Medicine
Cincinnati, Ohio

Kuo-Shyan Lu, PhD

National Taiwan University College of Medicine
Taipei, Taiwan
Andrew T. Mariassy, PhD
Nova Southeastern University College of Medical Sciences
Fort Lauderdale, Florida

Geoffrey W. McAuliffe, PhD

Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School
Piscataway, New Jersey

Kevin J. McCarthy, PhD

Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center Shreveport
Shreveport, Louisiana

David L. McWhorter, PhD

Georgia Campus—Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine
Suwanee, Georgia

Fabiola Medeiros, MD
Cedars-Sinai Medical Center
Los Angeles, California

William D. Meek, PhD

College of Osteopathic Medicine
Oklahoma State University
Tulsa, Oklahoma

Björn Meister, MD, PhD

Karolinska Institutet
Stockholm, Sweden

Amir A. Mhawi, DVM, PhD

Saba University School of Medicine
Saba, Dutch Caribbean

Siobhan Moyes, PhD

University of Plymouth
Plymouth, United Kingdom

Frank E. Nelson, PhD

Temple University
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Christine E. Niekrash, DMD

Frank H. Netter MD School of Medicine
Quinnipiac University
North Haven, Connecticut

Diego F. Nino, PhD

Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center
Delgado Community College
New Orleans, Louisiana

Sasha N. Noe, DO, PhD

Saint Leo University
Saint Leo, Florida

Mohammad (Reza) Nourbakhsh, PhD

University of North Georgia
Dahlonega, Georgia

Ivón T. C. Novak, PhD

National University of Córdoba
Córdoba, Argentina

Joanne Orth, PhD

Temple University School of Medicine
Downingtown, Pennsylvania

Fauziah Othman, DVM, PhD

Universiti Putra Malaysia
Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Claus Oxvig, PhD

Aarhus University
Aarhus C, Denmark

Scott Paterson, PhD

University of Bristol
Bristol, United Kingdom

Malin Petersson, MD
Karolinska Institutet
Stockholm, Sweden

Thomas E. Phillips, PhD

University of Missouri
Columbia, Missouri

Stephen R. Planck, PhD

Oregon Health & Science University
Portland, Oregon

Harry H. Plymale, PhD

San Diego State University
San Diego, California

Rebecca L. Pratt, PhD

Oakland University William Beaumont School of Medicine
Rochester, Michigan

Margaret Pratten, PhD

Medical School, University of Nottingham
Nottingham, United Kingdom

Rongsun Pu, PhD

Kean University
East Brunswick, New Jersey

Edwin S. Purcell, PhD

University of Medicine and Health Sciences
Basseterre, St. Kitts & Nevis

Romano Regazzi, PhD

Faculty of Biology and Medicine
University of Lausanne
Lausanne, Switzerland

Herman Reid, DVM, MD

Saba University School of Medicine
Saba, Dutch Caribbean

Mary Rheuben, PhD

Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan

Michael S. Risley, PhD

Albert Einstein College of Medicine—Jack and Pearl Resnick
Campus
Bronx, New York

Melvin G. Rosenfeld, PhD

New York University School of Medicine
New York, New York

Jeffrey L. Salisbury, PhD

Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science
Rochester, Minnesota

David K. Saunders, PhD

University of Northern Iowa
Cedar Falls, Iowa

Roger C. Searle, PhD

School of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University
Newcastle, United Kingdom

Lorenzo R. Sewanan, MD, PhD

Yale School of Medicine
New Haven, Connecticut

Allen A. Smith, PhD

Barry University
Miami Shores, Florida
Carles Solsona, PhD
Faculty of Medicine, University of Barcelona
Barcelona, Spain

Jamil Talukder, DVM, PhD

University of Wisconsin—Stout
Menomonie, Wisconsin

Sehime G. Temel, MD, PhD

Uludağ University
Bursa, Türkiye

Barry Timms, PhD

Sanford School of Medicine, University of South Dakota
Vermillion, South Dakota

James J. Tomasek, PhD

University of Oklahoma Health Science Center
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma

John Matthew Velkey, PhD

University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan

Suvi Kristiina Viranta-Kovanen, PhD

University of Helsinki
Helsinki, Finland

Robert Waltzer, PhD

Belhaven University
Jackson, Mississippi

Scott A. Weed, PhD

West Virginia University School of Medicine
Morgantown, West Virginia

Taylor M. Weiskittel, MD, PhD

Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science
Rochester, Minnesota

Brandon A. Wilbanks, PhD

Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science
Rochester, Minnesota

Anne-Marie Williams, PhD

School of Medical Sciences, University of Tasmania
Hobart, Australia

Joan W. Witkin, PhD

College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University
New York, New York

Robert W. Zajdel, PhD

State University of New York Upstate Medical University
Syracuse, New York

As in every new edition, several colleagues have made

especially notable contributions to this textbook. I am
extremely grateful to Dr. Ivón T. C. Novak from the National
University of Córdoba in Argentina for providing a detailed
review of the immune system with many helpful suggestions for
improvements; to Dr. Nazanin Yeganeh Kazemi for editing and
adding helpful comments to the chapter on lymphatic system;
to Dr. Michael Hortsch from the University of Michigan
Medical School for providing guidance in obtaining permission
to use their outstanding virtual microscopy slide collection;
to Dr.Kevin N. Christensen from Winona Health for providing
original histologic images of skin specimens and for
interesting discussions on dermatopathology; to Dr. Nirusha
Lachman from the Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science
who provided me with many ideas and feedback for
improvements; to Dr. Bar Baykal
ış , a Turkish translation
editor from the University of Health Sciences, Gülhane
Faculty of Medicine in Ankara, Türkiye, for providing a list
of improvements he compiled while translating the eighth
edition; and to the many other clinicians, researchers, and
educators who gave me permission to use their original,
unique digital images; electron micrographs;
photomicrographs; and 3D reconstruction images in this
edition. They are all acknowledged in the appropriate figure
legends.
When Wolters Kluwer initiated this ninth edition in early
2020, we had no idea that this revision would take longer
than expected. The unforeseen factor, the COVID-19 pandemic,
impacted our schedule as new demands on developing emergency
online virtual resources took precedence over the scheduled
activities of many histology educators. With pandemic
restrictions, the limited access to our medical school
laboratories, specimens and specimen processing facilities,
and imaging equipment delayed many scheduled material
developments for this edition.
Despite these challenges, there have been many bright
spots in the development of this edition. Crystal Taylor ,
senior acquisitions editor, is acknowledged for her long-
lasting (more than 20 years) support and encouragement
throughout the development and improvement of this book.
Kathleen H. Scogna , freelance editor, as in all previous
editions since the fourth edition (2003), edited the
manuscript and provided comments and suggestions with honest
feedback and constructive advice. For any author, a
relationship built on mutual respect with a trusted editor is
essential for a successful textbook. I am fortunate to
experience such a relationship while working with Kathleen.
I was once again privileged that Rob Duckwall from the
Dragonfly Media Group (Baltimore, Maryland), one of the most
talented medical illustrators working today, whom I have
referred to in previous edition as the “Michelangelo of
Histology’s Sistine Chapel,” agreed to work on this ninth
edition. Rob added several new illustrations and improved
many old illustrations in this edition. His commitment and
willingness to work as an artist–author team provided an
unprecedented creative dynamic that has made all the
difference. Rob has made each and every drawing an
unparalleled work of fine art.
I also wish to extend my appreciation to Jennifer
Clements, the art director, for relabeling and replacing
images in the text and atlas sections of this book. Finally,
special thanks go to Deborah Bordeaux , development editor,
who joined the team for this ninth edition, for managing all
revised chapters and figures.
CONTENTS
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 Methods
OVERVIEW OF METHODS USED IN HISTOLOGY
TISSUE PREPARATION
HISTOCHEMISTRY AND CYTOCHEMISTRY
MICROSCOPY
Folder 1.1 Clinical Correlation: Frozen Sections
Folder 1.2 Clinical Correlation: Frozen Sections
Folder 1.3 Functional Considerations: Feulgen
Microspectrophotometry
Folder 1.4 Functional Considerations: Proper Use of the
Light Microscope
HISTOLOGY
2 Cell Cytoplasm
OVERVIEW OF THE CELL AND CYTOPLASM
MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES
NONMEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES
INCLUSIONS
CYTOPLASMIC MATRIX
Folder 2.1 Clinical Correlation: Lysosomal Storage Diseases
Folder 2.2 Clinical Correlation: Abnormalities in
Microtubules and Filaments
Folder 2.3 Clinical Correlation: Abnormal Duplication of
Centrioles and Cancer
HISTOLOGY
3 The Cell Nucleus
OVERVIEW OF THE NUCLEUS
NUCLEAR COMPONENTS
CELL RENEWAL
CELL CYCLE
CELL DEATH
Folder 3.1 Clinical Correlation: Cytogenetic Testing
Folder 3.2 Clinical Correlation: Regulation of Cell Cycle
and Cancer Treatment
HISTOLOGY
4 Tissues: Concept and Classification
OVERVIEW OF TISSUES
EPITHELIUM
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
MUSCLE TISSUE
NERVE TISSUE
HISTOGENESIS OF TISSUES
IDENTIFYING TISSUES
Folder 4.1 Clinical Correlation: Ovarian Teratomas
HISTOLOGY
 5 Epithelial Tissue
OVERVIEW OF EPITHELIAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIUM
CELL POLARITY
THE APICAL DOMAIN AND ITS MODIFICATIONS
THE LATERAL DOMAIN AND ITS SPECIALIZATIONS IN CELL-TO-CELL
ADHESION
THE BASAL DOMAIN AND ITS SPECIALIZATIONS IN CELL-TO-
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX ADHESION
GLANDS
EPITHELIAL–MESENCHYMAL TRANSITION
EPITHELIAL CELL RENEWAL
Folder 5.1 Clinical Correlation: Epithelial Metaplasia
Folder 5.2 Clinical Correlation: Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia
(Immotile Cilia Syndrome)
Folder 5.3 Clinical Correlation: Junctional Complexes as a
Target of Pathogenic Agents
Folder 5.4 Functional Considerations: Basement Membrane and
Basal Lamina Terminology
Folder 5.5 Functional Considerations: Mucous and Serous
Membranes
HISTOLOGY
Atlas Plates
PLATE 5.1 Simple Squamous and Simple Cuboidal Epithelia
PLATE 5.2 Simple and Stratified Epithelia
PLATE 5.3 Stratified Epithelia and Epithelioid Tissues

6 Connective Tissue
OVERVIEW OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
EMBRYONIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE
CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER
CONNECTIVE TISSUE FIBERS
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
CONNECTIVE TISSUE CELLS
Folder 6.1 Clinical Correlation: Collagenopathies
Folder 6.2 Clinical Correlation: Sun Exposure and Molecular
Changes in Photoaged Skin
Folder 6.3 Clinical Correlation: Role of Myofibroblasts in
Wound Repair
Folder 6.4 Functional Considerations: The Mononuclear
Phagocyte System
Folder 6.5 Clinical Correlation: The Role of Mast Cells and
Basophils in Allergic Reactions
HISTOLOGY
Atlas Plates
PLATE 6.1 Loose and Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
PLATE 6.2 Dense Regular Connective Tissue, Tendons, and
Ligaments
PLATE 6.3 Elastic Fibers and Elastic Lamellae

7 Cartilage
OVERVIEW OF CARTILAGE
HYALINE CARTILAGE
ELASTIC CARTILAGE
FIBROCARTILAGE
CHONDROGENESIS AND CARTILAGE GROWTH
REPAIR OF HYALINE CARTILAGE
Folder 7.1 Clinical Correlation: Osteoarthritis
Folder 7.2 Clinical Correlation: Malignant Tumors of the
Cartilage: Chondrosarcomas
HISTOLOGY
Atlas Plates
PLATE 7.1 Hyaline Cartilage
PLATE 7.2 Hyaline Cartilage and the Developing Skeleton
PLATE 7.3 Elastic Cartilage
PLATE 7.4 Fibrocartilage

8 Bone
OVERVIEW OF BONE
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF BONES
TYPES OF BONE TISSUE
CELLS OF BONE TISSUE
BONE FORMATION
BIOLOGIC MINERALIZATION AND MATRIX VESICLES
BONE AS A TARGET OF ENDOCRINE HORMONES AND AS AN ENDOCRINE
ORGAN
BIOLOGY OF BONE REPAIR
Folder 8.1 Clinical Correlation: Joint Diseases
Folder 8.2 Clinical Correlation: Osteoporosis
Folder 8.3 Clinical Correlation: Nutritional Factors in Bone
Formation
Folder 8.4 Functional Considerations: Hormonal Regulation of
Bone Growth
HISTOLOGY
Atlas Plates
PLATE 8.1 Bone, Ground Section
PLATE 8.2 Bone and Bone Tissue
 PLATE 8.3 Endochondral Bone Formation I
PLATE 8.4 Endochondral Bone Formation II
PLATE 8.5 Intramembranous Bone Formation
9 Adipose Tissue
OVERVIEW OF ADIPOSE TISSUE
WHITE ADIPOSE TISSUE
BROWN ADIPOSE TISSUE
BEIGE ADIPOSE TISSUE
TRANSDIFFERENTIATION OF ADIPOSE TISSUE
Folder 9.1 Clinical Correlation: Obesity
Folder 9.2 Clinical Correlation: Adipose Tissue Tumors
Folder 9.3 Clinical Correlation: PET Scanning and Brown
Adipose Tissue Interference
HISTOLOGY
Atlas Plates
PLATE 9.1 Adipose Tissue

10 Blood
OVERVIEW OF BLOOD
PLASMA
ERYTHROCYTES
LEUKOCYTES
THROMBOCYTES
COMPLETE BLOOD COUNT
FORMATION OF BLOOD CELLS (HEMOPOIESIS)
BONE MARROW
Folder 10.1 Clinical Correlation: ABO and Rh Blood Group
Systems
Folder 10.2 Clinical Correlation: Hemoglobin in Patients
With Diabetes
Folder 10.3 Clinical Correlation: Hemoglobin Disorders
Folder 10.4 Clinical Correlation: Inherited Disorders of
Neutrophils; Chronic Granulomatous Disease
Folder 10.5 Clinical Correlation: Hemoglobin Breakdown and
Jaundice
Folder 10.6 Clinical Correlation: Cellularity of the Bone
Marrow
HISTOLOGY
Atlas Plates
PLATE 10.1 Erythrocytes and Granulocytes
PLATE 10.2 Agranulocytes and Red Marrow
PLATE 10.3 Erythropoiesis
PLATE 10.4 Granulopoiesis

11 Muscle Tissue
OVERVIEW AND CLASSIFICATION OF MUSCLE
SKELETAL MUSCLE
CARDIAC MUSCLE
SMOOTH MUSCLE
Folder 11.1 Functional Considerations: Muscle Metabolism and
Ischemia
Folder 11.2 Clinical Correlation: Muscular Dystrophies—
Dystrophin and Dystrophin-Associated Proteins
Folder 11.3 Clinical Correlation: Myasthenia Gravis
Folder 11.4 Functional Considerations: Comparison of the
Three Muscle Types
HISTOLOGY
Atlas Plates
PLATE 11.1 Skeletal Muscle I
PLATE 11.2 Skeletal Muscle II and Electron Microscopy
PLATE 11.3 Myotendinous Junction
PLATE 11.4 Cardiac Muscle
PLATE 11.5 Cardiac Muscle, Purkinje Fibers
PLATE 11.6 Smooth Muscle
12 Nerve Tissue
OVERVIEW OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
COMPOSITION OF NERVE TISSUE
THE NEURON
SUPPORTING CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: THE NEUROGLIA
ORIGIN OF NERVE TISSUE CELLS
ORGANIZATION OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
ORGANIZATION OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
ORGANIZATION OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
RESPONSE OF NEURONS TO INJURY
Folder 12.1 Clinical Correlation: Parkinson Disease
Folder 12.2 Clinical Correlation: Demyelinating Diseases /
406
Folder 12.3 Clinical Correlation: Reactive Gliosis: Scar
Formation in the Central Nervous System
Folder 12.4 Clinical Correlation: Cognitive Impairments
After COVID-19 Infections
HISTOLOGY
Atlas Plates
PLATE 12.1 Sympathetic and Dorsal Root Ganglia
 PLATE 12.2 Peripheral Nerve
PLATE 12.3 Cerebrum
PLATE 12.4 Cerebellum
PLATE 12.5 Spinal Cord

13 Cardiovascular System
OVERVIEW OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
HEART
GENERAL FEATURES OF ARTERIES AND VEINS
ARTERIES
CAPILLARIES
ARTERIOVENOUS SHUNTS
VEINS
ATYPICAL BLOOD VESSELS
LYMPHATIC VESSELS
Folder 13.1 Clinical Correlation: Atherosclerosis
Folder 13.2 Clinical Correlation: Hypertension
Folder 13.3 Clinical Correlation: Coronary Heart Disease
HISTOLOGY
Atlas Plates
PLATE 13.1 Heart
PLATE 13.2 Aorta
PLATE 13.3 Muscular Arteries and Medium Veins
PLATE 13.4 Arterioles, Venules, and Lymphatic Vessels

Immune System and Lymphatic Tissues and

14
Organs
Exploring the Variety of Random
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Studies in the
South and West, with Comments on Canada
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Title: Studies in the South and West, with Comments on Canada

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES IN THE

SOUTH AND WEST, WITH COMMENTS ON CANADA ***
STUDIES IN THE SOUTH AND
WEST WITH COMMENTS ON
CANADA
 By Charles Dudley Warner
New York: Harper & Brothers

1889

CONTENTS
PREFATORY NOTE.
STUDIES IN THE SOUTH AND WEST
I.—IMPRESSIONS OF THE SOUTH IN 1885.
II.—SOCIETY IN THE NEW SOUTH.
III.—NEW ORLEANS.
IV.—A VOUDOO DANCE.
V.—THE ACADIAN LAND.
VI.—THE SOUTH REVISITED, IN 1887.
VII.—A FAR AND FAIR COUNTRY.
VIII.—ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL TOPICS. MINNESOTA AND
WISCONSIN.
IX.—CHICAGO. [First Paper.]
 X.—CHICAGO [Second Paper.]
XI.—THREE CAPITALS—SPRINGFIELD, INDIANAPOLIS,
COLUMBUS.
XII.—CINCINNATI AND LOUISVILLE.
XIII.—MEMPHIS AND LITTLE ROCK.
XIV.—ST. LOUIS AND KANSAS CITY.
XV.—KENTUCKY.

COMMENTS ON CANADA.
I.
II.
III.
 PREFATORY NOTE.
To Henry M. Alden, Esq., Editor of Harper’s
Monthly:
My dear Mr. Alden,—It was at your suggestion that these Studies
were undertaken; all of them passed under your eye, except
“Society in the New South,” which appeared in the New Princeton
Review. The object was not to present a comprehensive account of
the country South and West—which would have been impossible in
the time and space given—but to note certain representative
developments, tendencies, and dispositions, the communication of
which would lead to a better understanding between different
sections. The subjects chosen embrace by no means all that is
important and interesting, but it is believed that they are fairly
representative. The strongest impression produced upon the writer
in making these Studies was that the prosperous life of the Union
depends upon the life and dignity of the individual States.

C. D. W,
STUDIES IN THE SOUTH AND WEST
I.—IMPRESSIONS OF THE SOUTH IN
1885.

I
t is borne in upon me, as the Friends would say, that I ought to
bear my testimony of certain impressions made by a recent visit
to the Gulf States. In doing this I am aware that I shall be under
the suspicion of having received kindness and hospitality, and of
forming opinions upon a brief sojourn. Both these facts must be
confessed, and allowed their due weight in discrediting what I have
to say. A month of my short visit was given to New Orleans in the
spring, during the Exposition, and these impressions are mainly of
Louisiana.
The first general impression made was that the war is over in
spirit as well as in deed. The thoughts of the people are not upon
the war, not much upon the past at all, except as their losses remind
them of it, but upon the future, upon business, a revival of trade,
upon education, and adjustment to the new state of things. The
thoughts are not much upon politics either, or upon offices; certainly
they are not turned more in this direction than the thoughts of
people at the North are. When we read a despatch which declares
that there is immense dissatisfaction throughout Arkansas because
offices are not dealt out more liberally to it, we may know that the
case is exactly what it is in, say, Wisconsin—that a few political
managers are grumbling, and that the great body of the people are
indifferent, perhaps too indifferent, to the distribution of offices.
Undoubtedly immense satisfaction was felt at the election of Mr.
Cleveland, and elation of triumph in the belief that now the party
which had been largely a non-participant in Federal affairs would
have a large share and weight in the administration. With this went,
however, a new feeling of responsibility, of a stake in the country,
that manifested itself at once in attachment to the Union as the
common possession of all sections. I feel sure that Louisiana, for
instance, was never in its whole history, from the day of the
Jefferson purchase, so consciously loyal to the United States as it is
to-day. I have believed that for the past ten years there has been
growing in this country a stronger feeling of nationality—a distinct
American historic consciousness—and nowhere else has it developed
so rapidly of late as at the South. I am convinced that this is a
genuine development of attachment to the Union and of pride in the
nation, and not in any respect a political movement for unworthy
purposes. I am sorry that it is necessary, for the sake of any
lingering prejudice at the North, to say this. But it is time that sober,
thoughtful, patriotic people at the North should quit representing the
desire for office at the South as a desire to get into the Government
saddle and ride again with a “rebel” impulse. It would be, indeed, a
discouraging fact if any considerable portion of the South held aloof
in sullenness from Federal affairs. Nor is it any just cause either of
reproach or of uneasiness that men who were prominent in the war
of the rebellion should be prominent now in official positions, for
with a few exceptions the worth and weight of the South went into
the war. It would be idle to discuss the question whether the masses
of the South were not dragooned into the war by the politicians; it is
sufficient to recognize the fact that it became practically, by one
means or another, a unanimous revolt.
One of the strongest impressions made upon a Northerner who
visits the extreme South now, having been familiar with it only by
report, is the extent to which it suffered in the war. Of course there
was extravagance and there were impending bankruptcies before
the war, debt, and methods of business inherently vicious, and no
doubt the war is charged with many losses which would have come
without it, just as in every crisis half the failures wrongfully accuse
the crisis. Yet, with all allowance for these things, the fact remains
that the war practically wiped out personal property and the means
of livelihood. The completeness of this loss and disaster never came
home to me before. In some cases the picture of the ante bellum
civilization is more roseate in the minds of those who lost everything
than cool observation of it would justify. But conceding this, the
actual disaster needs no embellishment of the imagination. It seems
to me, in the reverse, that the Southern people do not appreciate
the sacrifices the North made for the Union. They do not, I think,
realize the fact that the North put into the war its best blood, that
every battle brought mourning into our households, and filled our
churches day by day and year by year with the black garments of
bereavement; nor did they ever understand the tearful enthusiasm
for the Union and the flag, and the unselfish devotion that underlay
all the self-sacrifice. Some time the Southern people will know that it
was love for the Union, and not hatred of the South, that made
heroes of the men and angels of renunciation of the women.
Yes, say our Southern friends, we can believe that you lost dear
ones and were in mourning; but, after all, the North was
prosperous; you grew rich; and when the war ended, life went on in
the fulness of material prosperity. We lost not only our friends and
relatives, fathers, sons, brothers, till there was scarcely a household
that was not broken up, we lost not only the cause on which we had
set our hearts, and for which we had suffered privation and
hardship, were fugitives and wanderers, and endured the bitterness
of defeat at the end, but our property was gone, we were stripped,
with scarcely a home, and the whole of life had to be begun over
again, under all the disadvantage of a sudden social revolution.
It is not necessary to dwell upon this or to heighten it, but it must
be borne in mind when we observe the temper of the South, and
especially when we are looking for remaining bitterness, and the
wonder to me is that after so short a space of time there is
remaining so little of resentment or of bitter feeling over loss and
discomfiture. I believe there is not in history any parallel to it. Every
American must take pride in the fact that Americans have so risen
superior to circumstances, and come out of trials that thoroughly
threshed and winnowed soul and body in a temper so gentle and a
spirit so noble. It is good stuff that can endure a test of this kind.
A lady, whose family sustained all the losses that were possible in
the war, said to me—and she said only what several others said in
substance—“We are going to get more out of this war than you at
the North, because we suffered more. We were drawn out of
ourselves in sacrifices, and were drawn together in a tenderer
feeling of humanity; I do believe we were chastened into a higher
and purer spirit.”
Let me not be misunderstood. The people who thus recognize the
moral training of adversity and its effects upon character, and who
are glad that slavery is gone, and believe that a new and better era
for the South is at hand, would not for a moment put themselves in
an attitude of apology for the part they took in the war, nor confess
that they were wrong, nor join in any denunciation of the leaders
they followed to their sorrow. They simply put the past behind them,
so far as the conduct of the present life is concerned. They do not
propose to stamp upon memories that are tender and sacred, and
they cherish certain sentiments whieh are to them loyalty to their
past and to the great passionate experiences of their lives. When a
woman, who enlisted by the consent of Jeff Davis, whose name
appeared for four years upon the rolls, and who endured all the
perils and hardships of the conflict as a field-nurse, speaks of
“President” Davis, what does it mean? It is only a sentiment. This
heroine of the war on the wrong side had in the Exposition a tent,
where the veterans of the Confederacy recorded their names. On
one side, at the back of the tent, was a table piled with touching
relics of the war, and above it a portrait of Robert E. Lee, wreathed
in immortelles. It was surely a harmless shrine.
On the other side was also a table, piled with fruit and cereals—
not relics, but signs of prosperity and peace—and above it a portrait
of Ulysses S. Grant. Here was the sentiment, cherished with an
aching heart maybe, and here was the fact of the Union and the
future.
Another strong impression made upon the visitor is, as I said, that
the South has entirely put the past behind it, and is devoting itself to
the work of rebuilding on new foundations. There is no reluctance to
talk about the war, or to discuss its conduct and what might have
been. But all this is historic. It engenders no heat. The mind of the
South to-day is on the development of its resources, upon the
rehabilitation of its affairs. I think it is rather more concerned about
national prosperity than it is about the great problem of the negro—
but I will refer to this further on. There goes with this interest in
material development the same interest in the general prosperity of
the country that exists at the North—the anxiety that the country
should prosper, acquit itself well, and stand well with the other
nations. There is, of course, a sectional feeling—as to tariff, as to
internal improvements—but I do not think the Southern States are
any more anxious to get things for themselves out of the Federal
Government than the Northern States are. That the most extreme of
Southern politicians have any sinister purpose (any more than any of
the Northern “rings” on either side have) in wanting to “rule” the
country, is, in my humble opinion, only a chimera evoked to make
political capital.
As to the absolute subsidence of hostile intention (this phrase I
know will sound queer in the South), and the laying aside of
bitterness for the past, are not necessary in the presence of a strong
general impression, but they might be given in great number. I note
one that was significant from its origin, remembering, what is well
known, that women and clergymen are always the last to experience
subsidence of hostile feeling after a civil war. On the Confederate
Decoration Day in New Orleans I was standing near the Confederate
monument in one of the cemeteries when the veterans marched in
to decorate it. First came the veterans of the Army of Virginia, last
those of the Army of Tennessee, and between them the veterans of
the Grand Army of the Republic, Union soldiers now living in
Louisiana. I stood beside a lady whose name, if I mentioned it,
would be recognized as representative of a family which was as
conspicuous, and did as much and lost as much, as any other in the
war—a family that would be popularly supposed to cherish
unrelenting feelings. As the veterans, some of them on crutches,
many of them with empty sleeves, grouped themselves about the
monument, we remarked upon the sight as a touching one, and I
said: “I see you have no address on Decoration Day. At the North we
still keep up the custom.”
“No,” she replied; “we have given it up. So many imprudent things
were said that we thought best to discontinue the address.” And
then, after a pause, she added, thoughtfully: “Each side did the best
it could; it is all over and done with, and let’s have an end of it.” In
the mouth of the lady who uttered it, the remark was very
significant, but it expresses, I am firmly convinced, the feeling of the
South.
Of course the South will build monuments to its heroes, and weep
over their graves, and live upon the memory of their devotion and
genius. In Heaven’s name, why shouldn’t it? Is human nature itself
to be changed in twenty years?
A long chapter might be written upon the dis-likeness of North
and South, the difference in education, in training, in mental
inheritances, the misapprehensions, radical and very singular to us,
of the civilization of the North. We must recognize certain historic
facts, not only the effect of the institution of slavery, but other facts
in Southern development. Suppose we say that an unreasonable
prejudice exists, or did exist, about the people of the North. That
prejudice is a historic fact, of which the statesman must take
account. It enters into the question of the time needed to effect the
revolution now in progress. There are prejudices in the North about
the South as well. We admit their existence. But what impresses me
is the rapidity with which they are disappearing in the South.
Knowing what human nature is, it seems incredible that they could
have subsided so rapidly. Enough remain for national variety, and
enough will remain for purposes of social badinage, but common
interests in the country and in making money are melting them away
very fast. So far as loyalty to the Government is concerned, I am not
authorized to say that it is as deeply rooted in the South as in the
North, but it is expressed as vividly, and felt with a good deal of
fresh enthusiasm. The “American” sentiment, pride in this as the
most glorious of all lands, is genuine, and amounts to enthusiasm
with many who would in an argument glory in their rebellion. “We
had more loyalty to our States than you had,” said one lady, “and we
have transferred it to the whole country.”
But the negro? Granting that the South is loyal enough, wishes
never another rebellion, and is satisfied to be rid of slavery, do not
the people intend to keep the negroes practically a servile class,
slaves in all but the name, and to defeat by chicanery or by force the
legitimate results of the war and of enfranchisement?
This is a very large question, and cannot be discussed in my limits.
If I were to say what my impression is, it would be about this: the
South is quite as much perplexed by the negro problem as the North
is, and is very much disposed to await developments, and to let time
solve it. One thing, however, must be admitted in all this discussion.
The Southerners will not permit such Legislatures as those
assembled once in Louisiana and South Carolina to rule them again.
“Will you disfranchise the blacks by management or by force?”
“Well, what would you do in Ohio or in Connecticut? Would you be
ruled by a lot of ignorant field-hands allied with a gang of
plunderers?”
In looking at this question from a Northern point of view we have
to keep in mind two things: first, the Federal Government imposed
colored suffrage without any educational qualification—a hazardous
experiment; in the second place, it has handed over the control of
the colored people in each State to the State, under the
Constitution, as completely in Louisiana as in New York. The
responsibility is on Louisiana. The North cannot relieve her of it, and
it cannot interfere, except by ways provided in the Constitution. In
the South, where fear of a legislative domination has gone, the
feeling between the two races is that of amity and mutual help. This
is, I think, especially true in Louisiana. The Southerners never have
forgotten the loyalty of the slaves during the war, the security with
which the white families dwelt in the midst of a black population
while all the white men were absent in the field; they often refer to
this. It touches with tenderness the new relation of the races. I think
there is generally in the South a feeling of good-will towards the
negroes, a desire that they should develop into true manhood and
womanhood. Undeniably there are indifference and neglect and
some remaining suspicion about the schools that Northern charity
has organized for the negroes. As to this neglect of the negro, two
things are to be said: the whole subject of education (as we have
understood it in the North) is comparatively new in the South; and
the necessity of earning a living since the war has distracted
attention from it. But the general development of education is quite
as advanced as could be expected. The thoughtful and the leaders
of opinion are fully awake to the fact that the mass of the people
must be educated, and that the only settlement of the negro
problem is in the education of the negro, intellectually and morally.
They go further than this. They say that for the South to hold its
own—since the negro is there and will stay there, and is the majority
of the laboring class—it is necessary that the great agricultural mass
of unskilled labor should be transformed, to a great extent, into a
class of skilled labor, skilled on the farm, in shops, in factories, and
that the South must have a highly diversified industry. To this end
they want industrial as well as ordinary schools for the colored
people.
It is believed that, with this education and with diversified
industry, the social question will settle itself, as it does the world
over. Society cannot be made or unmade by legislation. In New
Orleans the street-ears are free to all colors; at the Exposition white
and colored people mingled freely, talking and looking at what was
of common interest.
We who live in States where hotel-keepers exclude Hebrews
cannot say much about the exclusion of negroes from Southern
hotels. There are prejudices remaining. There are cases of hardship
on the railways, where for the same charge perfectly respectable
and nearly white women are shut out of cars while there is no
discrimination against dirty and disagreeable white people. In time
all this will doubtless rest upon the basis it rests on at the North, and
social life will take care of itself. It is my impression that the negroes
are no more desirous to mingle socially with the whites than the
whites are with the negroes. Among the negroes there are social
grades as distinctly marked as in white society. What will be the final
outcome of the juxtaposition nobody can tell; meantime it must be
recorded that good-will exists between the races.
I had one day at the Exposition an interesting talk with the colored
woman in charge of the Alabama section of the exhibit of the
colored people. This exhibit, made by States, was suggested and
promoted by Major Burke in order to show the whites what the
colored people could do, and as a stimulus to the latter. There was
not much time—only two or three months—in which to prepare the
exhibit, and it was hardly a fair showing of the capacity of the
colored people. The work was mainly women’s work—embroidery,
sewing, household stuffs, with a little of the handiwork of artisans,
and an exhibit of the progress in education; but small as it was, it
was wonderful as the result of only a few years of freedom. The
Alabama exhibit was largely from Mobile, and was due to the energy,
executive ability, and taste of the commissioner in charge. She was a
quadroon, a widow, a woman of character and uncommon mental
and moral quality. She talked exceedingly well, and with a practical
good-sense which would be notable in anybody. In the course of our
conversation the whole social and political question was gone over.
Herself a person of light color, and with a confirmed social prejudice
against black people, she thoroughly identified herself with the
colored race, and it was evident that her sympathies were with
them. She confirmed what I had heard of the social grades among
colored people, but her whole soul was in the elevation of her race
as a race, inclining always to their side, but with no trace of hostility
to the whites. Many of her best friends were whites, and perhaps
the most valuable part of her education was acquired in families of
social distinction. “I can illustrate,” she said, “the state of feeling
between the two races in Mobile by an incident last summer. There
was an election coming off in the City Government, and I knew that
the reformers wanted and needed the colored vote. I went,
therefore, to some of the chief men, who knew me and had
confidence in me, for I had had business relations with many of
them [she had kept a fashionable boarding-house], and told them
that I wanted the Opera-house for the colored people to give an
entertainment and exhibition in. The request was extraordinary.
Nobody but white people had ever been admitted to the Opera-
house. But, after some hesitation and consultation, the request was
granted. We gave the exhibition, and the white people all attended.
It was really a beautiful affair, lovely tableaux, with gorgeous
dresses, recitations, etc., and everybody was astonished that the
colored people had so much taste and talent, and had got on so far
in education. They said they were delighted and surprised, and they
liked it so well that they wanted the entertainment repeated—it was
given for one of our charities—but I was too wise for that. I didn’t
want to run the chance of destroying the impression by repeating,
and I said we would wait a while, and then show them something
better. Well, the election came off in August, and everything went all
right, and now the colored people in Mobile can have anything they
want. There is the best feeling between the races. I tell you we
should get on beautifully if the politicians would let us alone. It is
politics that has made all the trouble in Alabama and in Mobile.” And
I learned that in Mobile, as in many other places, the negroes were
put in minor official positions, the duties of which they were capable
of discharging, and had places in the police.
On “Louisiana Day” in the Exposition the colored citizens took their
full share of the parade and the honors. Their societies marched with
the others, and the races mingled on the grounds in unconscious
equality of privileges. Speeches were made, glorifying the State and
its history, by able speakers, the Governor among them; but it was
the testimony of Democrats of undoubted Southern orthodoxy that
the honors of the day were carried off by a colored clergyman, an
educated man, who united eloquence with excellent good-sense,
and who spoke as a citizen of Louisiana, proud of his native State,
dwelling with richness of allusion upon its history. It was a perfectly
manly speech in the assertion of the rights and the position of his
race, and it breathed throughout the same spirit of good-will and
amity in a common hope of progress that characterized the talk of
the colored woman commissioner of Mobile. It was warmly
applauded, and accepted, so far as I heard, as a matter of course.
No one, however, can see the mass of colored people in the cities
and on the plantations, the ignorant mass, slowly coming to moral
consciousness, without a recognition of the magnitude of the negro
problem. I am glad that my State has not the practical settlement of
it, and I cannot do less than express profound sympathy with the
people who have. They inherit the most difficult task now anywhere
visible in human progress. They will make mistakes, and they will do
injustice now and then; but one feels like turning away from these,
and thanking God for what they do well.
There are many encouraging things in the condition of the negro.
Good-will, generally, among the people where he lives is one thing;
their tolerance of his weaknesses and failings is another. He is
himself, here and there, making heroic sacrifices to obtain an
education. There are negro mothers earning money at the wash-tub
to keep their boys at school and in college. In the South-west there
is such a call for colored teachers that the Straight University in New
Orleans, which has about five hundred pupils, cannot begin to
supply the demand, although the teachers, male and female, are
paid from thirty-five to fifty dollars a month. A colored graduate of
this school a year ago is now superintendent of the colored schools
in Memphis, at a salary of $1200 a year.
Are these exceptional cases? Well, I suppose it is also exceptional
to see a colored clergyman in his surplice seated in the chancel of
the most important white Episcopal church in New Orleans, assisting
in the service; but it is significant. There are many good auguries to
be drawn from the improved condition of the negroes on the
plantations, the more rational and less emotional character of their
religious services, and the hold of the temperance movement on all
classes in the country places.
 II.—SOCIETY IN THE NEW SOUTH.

T
he American Revolution made less social change in the South
than in the North. Under conservative influences the South
developed her social life with little alteration in form and spirit
—allowing for the decay that always attends conservatism—down to
the Civil War. The social revolution which was in fact accomplished
contemporaneously with the political severance from Great Britain, in
the North, was not effected in the South until Lee offered his sword
to Grant, and Grant told him to keep it and beat it into a
ploughshare. The change had indeed been inevitable, and ripening
for four years, but it was at that moment universally recognized.
Impossible, of course, except by the removal of slavery, it is not
wholly accounted for by the removal of slavery; it results also from
an economical and political revolution, and from a total alteration of
the relations of the South to the rest of the world. The story of this
social change will be one of the most marvellous the historian has to
deal with.
Provincial is a comparative term. All England is provincial to the
Londoner, all America to the Englishman. Perhaps New York looks
upon Philadelphia as provincial; and if Chicago is forced to admit
that Boston resembles ancient Athens, then Athens, by the Chicago
standard, must have been a very provincial city. The root of
provincialism is localism, or a condition of being on one side and
apart from the general movement of contemporary life. In this
sense, and compared with the North in its absolute openness to
every wind from all parts of the globe, the South was provincial.
Provincialism may have its decided advantages, and it may nurture
many superior virtues and produce a social state that is as charming
as it is interesting, but along with it goes a certain self-appreciation,
which ultracosmopolitan critics would call Concord-like, that seems
exaggerated to outsiders.
 The South, and notably Virginia and South Carolina, cherished
English traditions long after the political relation was severed. But it
kept the traditions of the time of the separation, and did not share
the literary and political evolution of England. Slavery divided it from
the North in sympathy, and slavery, by excluding European
emigration, shut out the South from the influence of the new ideas
germinating in Europe. It was not exactly true to say that the library
of the Southern gentleman stopped with the publications current in
the reign of George the Third, but, well stocked as it was with the
classics and with the English literature become classic, it was not
likely to contain much of later date than the Reform Bill in England
and the beginning of the abolition movement in the North. The
pages of De Bow’s Review attest the ambition and direction of
Southern scholarship—a scholarship not much troubled by the new
problems that were at the time rending England and the North. The
young men who still went abroad to be educated brought back with
them the traditions and flavor of the old England and not the spirit
of the new, the traditions of the universities and not the new life of
research and doubt in them. The conservatism of the Southern life
was so strong that the students at Northern colleges returned
unchanged by contact with a different civilization. The South met the
North in business and in politics, and in a limited social intercourse,
but from one cause and another for three-quarters of a century it
was practically isolated, and consequently developed a peculiar
social life.
One result of this isolation was that the South was more
homogeneous than the North, and perhaps more distinctly American
in its characteristics. This was to be expected, since it had one
common and overmastering interest in slavery, had little foreign
admixture, and was removed from the currents of commerce and
the disturbing ideas of Reform. The South, so far as society was
concerned, was an agricultural aristocracy, based upon a perfectly
defined lowest class in the slaves, and holding all trade, commerce,
and industrial and mechanical pursuits in true mediæval contempt.
Its literature was monarchical, tempered by some Jeffersonian,
doctrinaire notions of the rights of man, which were satisfied,
however, by an insistence upon the sovereignty of the States, and by
equal privileges to a certain social order in each State. Looked at,
then, from the outside, the South appeared to be homogeneous, but
from its own point of view, socially, it was not at all so. Social life in
these jealously independent States developed almost as freely and
variously as it did in the Middle Ages in the free cities of Italy.
Virginia was not at all like South Carolina (except in one common
interest), and Louisiana—especially in its centre, New Orleans—more
cosmopolitan than any other part of the South by reason of its
foreign elements, more closely always in sympathy with Paris than
with New York or Boston, was widely, in its social life, separated
from its sisters. Indeed, in early days, before the slavery agitation,
there was, owing to the heritage of English traditions, more in
common between Boston and Charleston than between New Orleans
and Charleston. And later, there was a marked social difference
between towns and cities near together—as, for instance, between
agricultural Lexington and commercial Louisville, in Kentucky.
The historian who writes the social life of the Southern States will
be embarrassed with romantic and picturesque material. Nowhere
else in this levelling age will he find a community developing so
much of the dramatic, so much splendor and such pathetic contrasts
in the highest social cultivation, as in the plantation and city life of
South Carolina. Already, in regarding it, it assumes an air of
unreality, and vanishes in its strong lights and heavy shades like a
dream of the chivalric age. An allusion to its character is sufficient
for the purposes of this paper. Persons are still alive who saw the
prodigal style of living and the reckless hospitality of the planters in
those days, when in the Charleston and Sea Island mansions the
guests constantly entertained were only outnumbered by the
swarms of servants; when it was not incongruous and scarcely
ostentatious that the courtly company, which had the fine and free
manner of another age, should dine off gold and silver plate; and
when all that wealth and luxury could suggest was lavished in a
princely magnificence that was almost barbaric in its profusion. The