AGRI 313 : GIS & Remote Sensing Techniques

UNIT I

Geographical Information System

GIS is a computer based integrated database management system that stores a large
volume of spatial data along with its attribute or non-spatial data which are captured,
stored, retrieved, processed, and analyzed to provide answers to queries of a
geographical nature as and when required.

The fundamental key of GIS is the association of Geographic features present on the
earth’s surface, which can be the geo-referenced one with a database related to it.
The term “Geo-referencing “refers to providing an accurate location of a point or area
in space in terms of true earth coordinate system and “Database” is simply a
collection of raw facts which are stored in a structural manner having a relationship
with each other. In a nutshell, Spatial data can be described as “where things are”
and attribute data are “what things are”.

The GIS history dates back to 1960 when computer based GIS began to be used.
The initial developments originated in North America, where Canada was a pioneer in
the development of GIS. Initially, the Canadian Geographic Information System
(CGIS) in Canada, the US Bureau of Census, the US Geological Survey, the Harvard
Laboratory for computer graphics and Environs, the Natural Experimental Research
Centre (NREC), Department of Environments of the UK were involved in early
developments. In India, the major development happened in the last two decades
where in its earlier phase, the technique was used for Natural Resource management
only, but now India has realized the importance of GIs for many applications like
infrastructure development, facility management, Business/market applications, etc.

GIS technology Integrates common database operations such as query and statistical
analysis with the unique visualization and geographic analysis benefits offered by
maps. These abilities distinguish GIS from other information systems and make it
valuable to a wide range of public and private enterprises for explaining events,
predicting outcomes, and planning strategies.

Definitions of GIS

Different people defined GIS according to the capability and purpose for which it is
applied. A few of the definitions are
“A computer assisted system for the capture, storage retrieval, analysis and display of
spatial data, within a particular Organization" (Clarke, 1986)

“A powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming and
displaying spatial data from the real world" (Burrough, 1987)

“A GIS is a computer-based system that provides the following four sets of

capabilities to handle geo-referenced data, i.e. input, data management (data storage
and retrieval), manipulation and analysis and Output”. (Aronoff, 1989)

“An internally referenced, automated, spatial information system" (Berry, 1986)

“A system for capturing, storing, checking, manipulating, analyzing and displaying

data which are spatially referenced to the Earth” (DOE, 1987:132)

“An institutional entity, reflecting an organizational structure that integrates technology

with a database, expertise and continuing financial support over time” (Carter,
1989:3)

“An information technology which stores, analyses, and displays both spatial and non
spatial data” (Parker, 1988:1547)

“A special case of information systems where the database consists of observations

on spatially distributed features, activities, or events, which are definable in space as
points, lines or areas. A GIS manipulates data about these points, lines, and areas to
retrieve data for ad hoc queries and analyses” (Dueker, 1979:106)

“A database system in which most of the data are spatially indexed, and upon which a
set of procedures operated to answer queries about spatial entities in the database”
(Smith, 1987:13)

“An automated set of functions that provides professionals with advanced capabilities
for the storage, retrieval, manipulation, and display of geographically located data”
(Ozemoy, Smith, and Sicherman, 1981:92)

“A decision support system involving the integration of spatially referenced data in a

problem solving environment” (Cowen, 1988:1554)

“A system with advanced geo modeling capabilities” (Koshkariov, Tikunov, and

Trofimov, 1989:259)
“A form of MIS (Management Information System) that allows map display of the
general information” (Devine and Field, 1986:18)

“A spatial data handling system” (Marble et al, 1983)

“A powerful set of tools for collecting, retrieving at will, transforming and displaying
spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purpose” (Burroughs, 1987)

What is GIS ?
A geographic information system (GIS) integrates hardware, software, and data for
capturing, managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced
information.

GIS allows us to view, understand, question, interpret, and visualize data in many
ways that reveal relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of maps, globes,
reports, and charts.

A GIS helps you answer questions and solve problems by looking at your data in a
way that is quickly understood and easily shared.

GIS technology can be integrated into any enterprise information system framework.

GIS Objectives

The main objectives of the GIS are: to maximize the efficiency of decision making and
planning, provide efficient means for data distribution and handling, eradicate
duplicated data, integration of information from many sources, analysis of queries
involving geographical reference data for the generation of new information, update
data quickly and at the minimum cost.

A GIS can answer five generic questions for any application. They are

Location: The question seeks to find out about the particular location. The answer to
this question tells us about the location of any particular object in terms of XY
coordinates or latitude/ longitude.

Condition: The answer to this question informs where certain enlisted conditions are
satisfied.
Trends: This question seeks to find out what has changed since. And the answer
finds noticeable differences incurred within a particular period.
Pattern: It is about various spatial patterns, which exist. GIS answer this logical
question by giving information about the distribution of spatial features and the
reasons behind that distribution.

Modeling: It is about hypothetical problems, what if…?

Components of GIS
Computer hardware
Set of application modules
and A proper organization
context.
A working GIS integrates five key components:
Hardware
Software
Data
People
Methods

Hardware
Hardware is a computer system or central processing unit. It is linked to a disk drive
storage unit, which provides space for storing data and programs. A digitizer,
scanner, and other devices are used to convert data from maps and documents into
digital form and send them to the computer. Today, GIS software runs on a wide
range of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop computers
used in stand-alone or networked configurations.

Software
The software part of GIS includes the programs and the user interface for driving the
hardware. GIS software generates, stores, analyses, manipulates, and presents
geographic information or data. It is essential for driving the hardware. The software
includes not just core GIS modules but also various data drawing, manipulation,
statistical, analysis, drawing, visualization, integration, imaging, database, and other
software required for the capture, display, and analysis of data.
Data
Geographic data and related tabular data can be collected in house, compiled to
custom specifications and requirements, or purchased from a commercial data
provider. A GIS can integrate spatial data with other existing data resources, often
stored in a corporate DBMS. The integration of spatial data (often proprietary to the
GIS software), and tabular data stored in a DBMS is a key functionality afforded by
GIS.
People
GIS technology is of limited value without the people who manage the system and
develop plans for applying it to real world problems. People are the core of GIS. Both
technical specialists who develop and manage the system as well as end users who
employ the technology are critical to the success of GIS. The identification of GIS
specialists versus end users is often critical to the proper implementation of GIS
technology. GIS users range from technical specialists who design and maintain the
system to those who use it to help them perform their everyday work.

Method or Procedure
Methods here refer to well-defined, consistent procedures that are required to
produce accurate, reproducible results. A neatly conceived implementation plan and
business rules are the models and operating practices, that are unique to each
organization. There is a need to integrate the sophisticated tools properly by bringing
out well defined procedures in well documented form into the entire business strategy
and operation to make the technology effective. Metadata (data about the data) is the
key to documenting these processes.

Data Representation
GIS Data Type
The ability of GIS to handle and process geographically referenced data, distinguish
GIS from other Information systems. Geographically referenced data describe both the
location and characteristics of a spatial feature on the earth's surface. GIS, therefore,
involves two geographic data components.

Spatial Data : Spatial data describes the absolute and relative location of geographic
features. It relates to the geometry of a spatial feature.

Attribute Data : Attribute data describes characteristics of spatial features. These

characteristics can be quantitative and /or quantities in nature. Attribute data are often
referred to as tabular data. It gives information about the spatial features.

Spatial Data
Spatial data describes the absolute and relative location/position of a geographic
feature. It relates to the geometry of a spatial feature. Geographic position refers to
the fact that each feature has a location that must be specified uniquely. To specify
the position in an absolute way a coordinate system is used. For small areas, the
simplest coordinate system is the regular square grid. For larger areas, certain
approved cartographic projections are commonly used. Internationally there are many
different coordinate systems in use. This location specific information is provided in
maps by using Points, Lines, and Polygons. These geometric descriptions are the
basic data elements of a map. Thus spatial data describes the absolute and relative
location of geographic features.
Attribute Data
The attributes refer to the properties of spatial entities and describe the
characteristics of spatial features being dealt with. They are often referred to as non-
spatial data since they do not in themselves represent location information. These
characteristics can be quantitative and/ or qualitative. The coordinate location of a
forest would be spatial data, while the characteristics of that forest, e.g. cover group,
dominant species, crown closure, height, etc., would be attribute data. Other data
types, in a particular image and multimedia data, have become more prevalent with
changing technology. Depending on the specific content of the data, image data may
be considered either spatial, e.g. photographs, animation, movies, etc., or attribute,
e.g. sound, descriptions, narrations, etc.

Data Models

Representation of Data in GIS

A GIS stores a representation of the world in the form of layers connected by a
common geographical frame of reference. Each of the features on a layer has a
unique identifier that distinguishes it from the rest of the features on the layer and
allows you to relate it to relevant information stored in external databases, etc.
Different views or elements of interest to us about the world e.g., streets, soils, pipes,
cables, vegetation, etc. can be captured and stored in the GIS over time to
accommodate the needs of various users and to reflect changes in the landscape
over time. In this way his simple yet powerful mode of abstraction, a GIS allows us to
capture an abstraction of the real world from a specific viewpoint being studied.

All graphical features on the earth can be represented by only three identities that are
line, point, and polygon. To represent these three types of features, there are 2 basic
spatial data types representing the real world: Vector & Raster. In vector, a feature is
represented as a collection of beginning and end points used to define a set of points,
lines, or polygons that describe the shape and size of the feature. The vector model is
particularly useful for representing highly discrete data types such as roads, buildings,
boundaries, and the like. Vector GIS can store corresponding information of complex
objects more efficiently. In the raster model, a feature is defined as a set of cells on a
grid. All of the cells on the grid are of the same shape and size and each one is
identified by a coordinate location and a value that acts as its identifier, features are
represented by cells or groups of cells that share the same identifier. The raster
model is particularly useful for working with continuous forms of features such as soil
types, vegetation, etc.
The below figure depicts this representation of real world features in a graphical form
in form of raster and vector representations.

The graphics design part of the figure is adapted from http://gis.washington.edu/ ). In

this figure, an abstraction of reality consists of rolling hills, grassland, lake, rivers,
forest stands, and marshy land. The vector and raster representation of the same in
form of points/ lines, polygons, and grid cells is shown in the figure.

Fig. GIS Representation of Real world features

Geographic data can be stored in a vector graphics or a raster graphics format.

Vector
Using a vector format, two-dimensional data is stored in terms of x and y coordinates.
A road or a river can be a series of x, and y coordinate points. Nonlinear features
such as town boundaries can be stored as a closed loop of coordinates. The vector
model is good for describing well-delineated features.

Raster
A raster data format expresses data as a continuously-changing set of grid cells. The
raster model is better for portraying subtle changes such as soil type patterns over an
area.
 Advantages Disadvantages
Raster Good for complex analysis Large datasets
Efficient for overlays Topology hard to represent
Data structure common for imagery Maps less "realistic"
Vector Compact data structure Complex structure
Efficient for encoding topology Overlay operations difficult
True representation of shape Might imply a false sense of accuracy

Examples of Common Raster and Vector Data

Raster Data/ DRG/ Satellite Imagery/ Orthophotos

Digital Raster Graphic
Aerial photos geometrically corrected ‘OrthoRectified’
Topography/ bathymetry / Vector Data/ Soils/ Roads

Cemetery
  A polygon is a sequence of coordinates
 An object is a collection of points, lines, and/or polygons that represent the
same thing (e.g., lines and polygons that are rivers)
 Vector data is good at representing true shapes
 Modeling (overlay) can be cumbersome
 Compact data storage
 Topology easy to represent

Raster and Vector Data Structures

Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN)

UNIT IV
Remote Sensing

Remote Sensing : is the collection of information relating to objects without being in

physical contact with them. Thus our eyes and ears are remote sensors, and the
same is true for cameras and microphones and many instruments used for all kinds of
applications or, said another way:

Remote sensing is the process of acquiring data/ information about objects/

substances not in direct contact with the sensor, by gathering its inputs using
electromagnetic radiation or acoustical waves that emanate from the targets of
interest. An aerial photograph is a common example of a remotely sensed (by camera
and film, or now digital) product.

The sun is a source of energy or radiation, which provides a very convenient source
of energy for remote sensing. The sun's energy is either reflected, as it is for visible
wavelengths, or absorbed and then reemitted, as it is for thermal infrared
wavelengths. There are two main types of remote sensing: 1. Passive remote sensing
and 2. Active remote sensing.

Passive Active

1. Passive sensors detect natural radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object
or surrounding area being observed. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of
radiation measured by passive sensors. Examples of passive remote sensors include
film photography, infrared, and radiometers.
2. Active remote sensing, on the other hand, emits energy to scan objects and
areas whereupon a sensor then detects and measures the radiation that is reflected
or backscattered from the target. RADAR is an example of active remote sensing
where the time delay between emission and return is measured, establishing the location,
height, speeds, and direction of an object.
Remote sensing makes it possible to collect data on dangerous or inaccessible areas.
Remote sensing applications include monitoring deforestation in areas such as the
river basin, the effects of climate change on glaciers and the Arctic and Antarctic
regions, and depth sounding of coastal and ocean depths. Military collection during
the cold war made use of stand-off collection of data about dangerous border areas.
Remote sensing also replaces costly and slow data collection on the ground, ensuring
in the process that areas or objects are not disturbed.

Applications of Remote Sensing The applications are :

Meteorology : Study of atmospheric temperature, pressure, water vapour, and wind

velocity.
Oceanography : Measuring sea surface temperature, mapping ocean currents, and
wave energy spectra and depth sounding of coastal and ocean depths
Glaciology : Measuring ice cap volumes, ice stream velocity, and sea ice distribution.
(Glacial)
Geology : Identification of rock type, mapping faults, and structure.
Geodesy : Measuring the figure of the Earth and its gravity field.
Topography and Cartography : Improving digital elevation
models. Agriculture : Monitoring the biomass of land vegetation
Forest : monitoring the health of crops, mapping soil moisture
Botany : forecasting crop yields.
Hydrology : Assessing water resources from snow, rainfall, and underground aquifers.
Disaster warning and assessment : Monitoring floods and landslides, monitoring
volcanic activity, and assessing damage zones from natural disasters.
Planning applications : Mapping ecological zones, monitoring
deforestation, monitoring urban land use.
Oil and mineral exploration: Locating natural oil seeps and slicks, mapping
geological structures, and monitoring oil field subsidence.
Military : developing precise maps for planning, monitoring military infrastructure,
monitoring ship, and troop movements
Urban : determining the status of a growing crop
Climate : the effects of climate change on glaciers and the Arctic and Antarctic regions
Sea : Monitoring the extent of flooding
Rock : Recognizing rock types
Space program : is the backbone of the space program
Seismology : as a premonition.
Principles and Process of Remote Sensing
Remote sensing is done from satellites such as Landsat or airplanes or on the
ground. To repeat the essence of the definition above, remote sensing uses
instruments that house sensors to view the spectral, spatial, and radiometric relations
of observable objects and materials at a distance. Most sensing modes are based on
the sampling of the photon's corresponding frequency in the electromagnetic (EM)
spectrum.

In much of remote sensing, the process involves an interaction between incident

radiation and the targets of interest. This is exemplified by the use of imaging systems
where the following seven elements are involved. Note, however, that remote sensing
also involves the sensing of an emitted energy and the use of non-emitted sensors.

i. Energy Source or Illumination (A) - The first requirement for remote sensing is to
have an energy source that illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the
target of interest.

ii. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) - As the energy travels from its source to the
target, it will come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through.
This interaction may take place a second time as the energy travels from the target to
the sensor.

iii. Interaction with the Target (C) - Once the energy makes its way to the target
through the atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties of
both the target and the radiation.
iv. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - After the energy has been scattered
by or emitted from the target, we require a sensor (remote - not in contact with the
target) to collect and record the electromagnetic radiation.
v. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - The energy recorded by the
sensor has to be transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing
station where the data are processed.

vi. Interpretation and Analysis (F) - The processed image is interpreted, visually
and/ or digitally or electronically, to extract information about the target, which was
illuminated.

vii. Application (G) - The final element of the remote sensing process is achieved
when we apply the information we have been able to extract from the imagery about
the target to better understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a
particular problem.

Types of Remote Sensing Systems

1. A visual remote sensing system

The human visual system is an example of a remote sensing system in the general
sense. The sensors in this example are the two types of photosensitive cells, known as
the cones and the rods, at the retina of the eyes. The cones are responsible for colour
vision. There are three types of cones, each being sensitive to one of the red, green, and
blue regions of the visible spectrum. Thus, it is not coincidental that modern computer
display monitors make use of the same three primary colours to generate a multitude of
colours for displaying colour images. The cones are insensitive under low light
illumination conditions when their jobs are taken over by the rods.

The rods are sensitive only to the total light intensity. Hence, everything appears in
shades of grey when there is insufficient light. As the objects/ events being observed are
located far away from the eyes, the information needs a carrier to travel from the object to
the eyes. In this case, the information carrier is visible light, a part of the electromagnetic
spectrum. The objects reflect/ scatter the ambient light falling on them.
Part of the scattered light is intercepted by the eyes, forming an image on the retina
after passing through the optical system of the eyes. The signals generated at the
retina are carried via the nerve fibers to the brain, the central processing unit (CPU) of
the visual system.

These signals are processed and interpreted by the brain, with the aid of previous
experiences. The visual system is an example of a "Passive Remote Sensing" system
that depends on an external source of energy to operate. We all know that this
system won't work in darkness.

2. Optical Remote Sensing

In Optical Remote Sensing, optical sensors detect solar radiation reflected or
scattered from the earth, forming images resembling photographs taken by a camera
high up in space. The wavelength region usually extends from the visible and near
infrared VNIR to the short-wave infrared SWIR. Different materials such as water, soil,
vegetation, buildings, and roads reflect visible and infrared light in different ways.
They have different colours and brightness when seen under the sun. The
interpretation of optical images requires the knowledge of the spectral reflectance
signatures of the various materials (natural or man-made) covering the surface of the
earth.

3. Infrared Remote Sensing

Infrared remote sensing makes use of infrared sensors to detect infrared radiation
emitted from the Earth's surface. The middle-wave infrared (MWIR) and long-wave
infrared (LWIR) are within the thermal infrared region. These radiations are emitted
from warm objects such as the Earth's surface. They are used in satellite remote
sensing for measurements of the earth's land and sea surface temperature. Thermal
infrared remote sensing is also often used for the detection of forest fires, volcanoes,
and oil fires.
4. Microwave Remote Sensing
Some remote sensing satellites carry passive or active microwave sensors. The
active sensors emit pulses of microwave radiation to illuminate the areas to be
imaged. Images of the earth's surface are formed by measuring the microwave
energy scattered by the ground or sea back to the sensors. These satellites carry
their own "flashlights" emitting microwaves to illuminate their targets. The images can
thus be acquired day and night. Microwaves have an additional advantage as they
can penetrate clouds.

Images can be acquired even when clouds are covering the earth's surface. A
microwave imaging system that can produce high resolution images of the Earth is
the synthetic aperture radar (SAR). Electromagnetic radiation in the microwave
wavelength region is used in remote sensing to provide useful information about the
Earth's atmosphere, land, and ocean. When microwaves strike a surface, the
proportion of energy scattered back to the sensor depends on many factors :
 Physical factors such as the dielectric constant of the surface materials which
also depends strongly on the moisture content;
 Geometric factors such as surface roughness, slopes, and orientation of the
objects relative to the radar beam direction;
 The types of land cover (soil, vegetation, or man-made objects).
 Microwave frequency, polarization, and incident angle.

Microwave polarization refers to the orientation of the electric field vector of the
transmitted beam concerning the horizontal direction. If the electric field vector
oscillates along a direction parallel to the horizontal direction, the beam is said to
be "H" polarized.

5. Radar Remote Sensing

Using radar, geographers can effectively map out the terrain of a territory. Radar
works by sending out radio signals, and then waiting for them to bounce off the
ground and return. By measuring the amount of time it takes for the signals to return,
it is possible to create a very accurate topographic map.

An important advantage to using radar is that it can enter thick clouds and
moisture. This allows scientists to accurately map areas such as rain forests, which
are otherwise too obscured by clouds and rain. Imaging radar systems are versatile
sources of remotely sensed images, providing day night, all-weather imaging
capability. Radar images are used to map landforms and geologic structures, soil
types, vegetation and crops, and ice and oil slicks on the ocean surface.
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
In synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imaging, microwave pulses are transmitted by an
antenna toward the earth's surface. The microwave energy scattered back to the
spacecraft is measured. The SAR makes use of the radar principle to form an image
by utilizing the time delay of the backscattered signals. In real aperture radar imaging,
the ground resolution is limited by the size of the microwave beam sent out from the
antenna.

6. Satellite Remote Sensing

In this, you will see many remote sensing images acquired by earth observation
satellites. These remote sensing satellites are equipped with sensors looking down at
the earth. They are the "eyes in the sky" constantly observing the earth as they go
around in predictable orbits. Orbital platforms collect and transmit data from different
parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, which in conjunction with larger scale aerial or
ground-based sensing and analysis provides researchers with enough information to
monitor trends. Other uses include different areas of the earth sciences such as
natural resource management, agricultural fields such as land usage and
conservation, and national security and overhead, ground-based and stand-off
collection on border areas.
How Satellites Acquire Images
Satellite sensors record the intensity of electromagnetic radiation (sunlight) reflected
from the earth at different wavelengths. The energy that is not reflected by an object
is absorbed. Each object has its own unique 'spectrum', some of which are shown in
the diagram below.

Remote sensing relies on the fact that particular features of the landscape such as
bush, crop, salt-affected land, and water reflect light differently in different
wavelengths. The grass looks green, for example, because it reflects green light and
absorbs other visible wavelengths. This can be seen as a peak in the green band in
the reflectance spectrum for green grass above. The spectrum also shows that grass
reflects even more strongly in the infrared part of the spectrum. While this can't be
detected by the human eye, it can be detected by an infrared sensor. Instruments
mounted on satellites detect and record the energy that has been reflected. The
detectors are sensitive to particular ranges of wavelengths, called 'bands'. The
satellite systems are characterized by the bands at which they measure the reflected
energy. The Landsat TM satellite, which provides the data used in this project, has
bands at the blue, green, and red wavelengths in the visible part of the spectrum and
three bands in the near and mid infrared part of the spectrum, and one band in the
thermal infrared part of the spectrum. The satellite detectors measure the intensity of
the reflected energy and record it.

7. Airborne Remote Sensing

In airborne remote sensing, downward or sideward looking sensors are mounted on
an aircraft to obtain images of the earth's surface. An advantage of airborne remote
sensing, compared to satellite remote sensing, is the capability of offering very high
spatial resolution images (20 cm or less). The disadvantages are low coverage
area and high cost per unit area of ground coverage. It is not cost-effective to
map a large area using an airborne remote sensing system. Airborne remote sensing
missions are often carried out as one-time operations, whereas earth observation
satellites offer the possibility of continuous monitoring of the earth.

8. Acoustic and near-acoustic remote sensing

 Sonar: passive sonar, listening for the sound made by another object (a vessel, a
whale, etc); active sonar, emitting pulses of sounds and listening for echoes, used
for detecting, ranging, and measurements of underwater objects and terrain.
 Seismograms taken at different locations can locate and measure earthquakes
(after they occur) by comparing the relative intensity and precise timing.

Electromagnetic Waves
 Electromagnetic waves are energy transported through space in the form of periodic
disturbances of electric and magnetic fields. All electromagnetic waves travel through
space at the same speed, c = 2.99792458 x 108 m/s, commonly known as the speed
of light. An electromagnetic wave is characterized by a frequency and a wavelength.

Photons
According to quantum physics, the energy of an electromagnetic wave is quantized,
i.e. it can only exist in discrete amounts. The basic unit of energy for an
electromagnetic wave is called a photon. The energy E of a photon is proportional to
the wave frequency,
E = h · ƒ = h · c / λ.
Where, the constant h is Planck's Constant, h = 6.626 x 10-34 J s.

The frequency (and hence, the wavelength) of an electromagnetic wave depends on

its source. There is a wide range of frequencies encountered in our physical world,
ranging from the low frequency of the electric waves generated by the power
transmission lines to the very high frequency of the gamma rays originating from the
atomic nuclei. These wide frequency ranges of electromagnetic waves constitute the
Electromagnetic Spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum can be divided into several
wavelength (frequency) regions, among which only a narrow band from about 400 to
700 nm is visible to the human eyes. Note that there is no sharp boundary between
these regions. The boundaries shown in the figures are approximate and there are
overlaps between two adjacent regions. Wavelength units: 1mm = 1000 µm;
1µm=1000 nm.

1. Gamma Rays <0.30 nm : This range is completely absorbed by the upper

atmosphere and not available for remote sensing.
2. X-Rays 0.03—30.0 nm: This range is completely absorbed by the atmosphere and
not employed in remote sensing.
3. Ultraviolet : 0.03—0.40 µm
i. Hard UV 0.03—0.3 µm: This range is completely absorbed by the atmosphere
and not employed in remote sensing.
ii. Photographic UV 0.30—0.40 µm: This range is not absorbed by the
atmosphere and is detectable with film and photodetectors but with severe
atmospheric scattering.
4. Visible Light : This narrow band of electromagnetic radiation extends from about
400 nm (violet) to about 700 nm (red). It‘s Available for remote sensing the
Earth can be imaged with photographic film.
Violet : 400 - 430 nm
Indigo: 430 - 450 nm

Blue : 450 - 500 nm : Because water increasingly absorbs electromagnetic (EM)

radiation at longer wavelengths, band 1 provides the best data for mapping the depth
detail of water-covered areas. It is also used for soil-vegetation discrimination, forest
mapping, and distinguishing cultural features

Green : 500 - 570 nm: The blue-green region of the spectrum corresponds to the
chlorophyll absorption of healthy vegetation and is useful for mapping detail such as
depth or sediment in water bodies. Cultural features such as roads and buildings also
show up well in this band.
Yellow : 570 - 590 nm
Orange : 590 - 610 nm
Red: 610 - 700 nm: Chlorophyll absorbs these wavelengths in healthy vegetation.
Hence, this band is useful for distinguishing plant species, as well as soil and
geologic boundaries
5. Infrared: 0.7 to 300 µm wavelength. This region is sensitive to plant water content,
which is a useful measure in studies of vegetation health. This band is also used for
distinguishing clouds, snow, and ice, and mapping geologic formations and soil
boundaries. It is also responsive to plant and soil moisture content. This region is
further divided into the following bands:
a. Near Infrared (NIR): 0.7 to 1.5 µm.
b. Short Wavelength Infrared (SWIR): 1.5 to 3 µm.
d. Mid Wavelength Infrared (MWIR): 3 to 8 µm.
e. Long Wavelength Infrared (LWIR): 8 to 15 µm.
f. Far Infrared (FIR): longer than 15 µm.
The NIR and SWIR are also known as the Reflected Infrared, referring to the main
infrared component of the solar radiation reflected from the earth's surface. The
MWIR and LWIR are the Thermal Infrared.
 6. Microwaves (Radar) 1 mm to 1 m wavelength. Microwaves can penetrate
clouds, fog, and rain. Images can be acquired in the active or passive mode. Radar is
the active form of microwave remote sensing. Radar images are acquired at various
wavelength bands

7. Radio and TV Waves: 10 cm to 10 km wavelength. The longest-wavelength

portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Properties of Light

Light can be thought of as “particles” of electromagnetic energy called photons.

Photons exhibit many properties that we are familiar with as particles. But light also
exhibits wavelike properties (which property – wave or particle - will manifest depending
on how the light is being observed). It is frequently convenient to express the properties
of the light in wave terminology.

Components of a Wave

For light, the relationship between wavelength (λ) and frequency (ƒ) is straightforward,
their product is equal to the speed of the wave, which for light is (c ≈ 3.00 × 108 m/s).
That is c = λ · ƒ
Another relationship that was instrumental in the formation of quantum mechanics was
the relationship between the energy of a photon at a certain frequency.

It is E = h · ƒ
where h = 6.626 × 10-34 J·s is called Planck's constant. Since the energy goes up as the
frequency increases, the energy is directly proportional to the frequency.
Because frequency and wavelength are related by a constant (c) the energy can also be
written in terms of wavelength:

E = h · c / λ.
When the energy increases the wavelength decreases and vice versa. That is energy is
inversely proportional to wavelength.
In short, a photon can be described by either its energy, frequency or wavelength. All
three methods are frequently used.
Electromagnetic Spectrum

Light can have a large range of values of energy/ wavelength/ frequency covering what
is called the Electromagnetic Spectrum. We often split the full spectrum into smaller
regions and talk about the different “kinds” of light. Radio waves are the least energetic
kind of photons while gamma rays are the most energetic kind of photons. The figure
shows the electromagnetic spectrum. Note how small of a region the visible light we see
with the human eye covers.

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