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OSI Model
 OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection
 Created by International Standards Organization
 Was created as a framework and reference model to explain how different networking
technologies work together and interact
 Is not a standard that networking protocols must follow
 Each layer has specific functions it is responsible for
 All layers work together in the correct order to move data around a network

Encapsulation and De Encapsulation

• The process of moving data between layers of the OSI Model

 Definition: The Physical Layer is the base of the OSI model and deals with physical
connections and signals.
 Use: It handles the sending and receiving of data as electrical or optical signals over
cables or wireless.
 Characteristics: Defines hardware standards, including cables, connectors, and
frequency types.
 Device Example: Hubs, cables (Ethernet cables, coaxial).
 Wire/Frequency: Uses wired cables like Ethernet or coaxial cables, or wireless
frequencies.

2. Data Link Layer

 Definition: The Data Link Layer manages data transfer between devices directly
connected to each other.
 Use: It packages data into frames and ensures error-free delivery.
 Characteristics: Responsible for error detection and correction, MAC addressing.
 Device Example: Switches, Network Interface Cards (NICs).
 Wire/Frequency: Works over the same wires and frequencies as the Physical Layer
(Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi frequencies).
 Two sublayers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and the Media Access Control (MAC)
 Logical Link Control (LLC) – Data Link layer addressing, flow control, address notification,
error correction
 Media Access Control (MAC) – Determines which computer has access to the network
media at any given time – Determines where one frame ends and the next one starts, called
frame synchronization

3. Network Layer

 Definition: The Network Layer decides the best path to send data from one device to
another over multiple networks.
 Use: Manages logical addressing (IP addresses) and routing of data.
 Characteristics: Deals with routing and logical addresses, ensuring data reaches the
correct destination.
 Device Example: Routers, Layer 3 switches.
 Wire/Frequency: Uses Ethernet cables, fiber optics, and wireless frequencies for data
transmission.

4. Transport Layer

 Definition: The Transport Layer ensures complete data transfer and manages error
correction between devices.
 Use: Breaks data into segments, manages connections, and resends data if there’s an
error.
 Characteristics: Provides flow control, reliability, and error checking.
 Device Example: Firewalls, gateways.
 Wire/Frequency: Works through existing network connections, Ethernet, Wi-Fi.
5. Session Layer

 Definition: The Session Layer manages communication sessions between applications.

6. Presentation Layer

 Definition: The Presentation Layer translates data between application formats and
network formats.
 Use: Converts data to a readable format for applications (like encryption or compression).
 Characteristics: Handles data translation, encryption, and compression.
 Device Example: Computers, web browsers, file converters.
 Wire/Frequency: Works over network connections (Ethernet or Wi-Fi) without specific
wires.

7. Application Layer

 Definition: The Application Layer is the top layer where users interact with applications.
 Use: Provides network services directly to applications, like email or web browsing.
 Characteristics: Deals with user interfaces, data input, and display.
 Device Example: Computers, smartphones, web browsers.
 Wire/Frequency: Uses the same network as the lower layers, either wired or wireless.

TCP / IP Model
1. Network Access Layer

 Definition: Ye layer device ko network se physically connect karti hai, aur data ko
network pe send aur receive karwati hai.
 Use: Data transmission aur hardware devices ke sath interaction ke liye use hoti hai.
 Characteristics: Physical connections, framing, aur MAC addressing handle karti hai.
 Device Example: Network Interface Card (NIC), switches, cables.

2. Internet Layer

 Definition: Internet Layer data ko different networks ke beech route karti hai aur IP
addressing manage karti hai.
 Use: Data packets ko route karna aur unka logical addressing handle karna.
 Characteristics: IP addresses assign karti hai aur packets ko best route par forward karti
hai.
 Device Example: Routers, Layer 3 switches.
3. Transport Layer

 Definition: Transport Layer data ko reliable aur error-free transfer karne ka kaam karti
hai.
 Use: Data ko segments mein todna aur error checking karna, jisse reliable transfer ho.
 Characteristics: Flow control, connection management, aur error detection.
 Device Example: Firewalls, gateways.

4. Application Layer

 Definition: Ye layer user applications ke network services provide karti hai, jaise email,
web browsing.
 Use: Directly applications ko support aur data presentation ke liye use hoti hai.
 Characteristics: User interfaces, data input aur output ko manage karti hai.
 Device Example: Web browsers, email clients, computers.

Here’s the expanded version, keeping the original format and with a three-line definition for each
section.

Network

 Definition: A network is a system where connected devices (like computers, printers, and
smartphones) share data and resources. This connection allows devices to communicate
and exchange information effectively. Networks vary in size and can be used in homes,
offices, or across large distances.
 Types of Networks:
o LAN (Local Area Network): Small, covers a limited area like an office or home.
o WAN (Wide Area Network): Large, covers vast distances, connecting multiple
locations (like the Internet).
o MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Medium, covers a city or large campus.
 Uses: Data sharing, resource sharing (like printers), and internet access.
 Characteristics: Can be wired (Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi) and vary by range, speed,
and security.

Network Devices

Network devices help connect and manage networks by directing, controlling, or processing
data.

1. Router: A router connects different networks, like a home network to the internet. It
finds the best path for data to travel, helping devices talk to each other across networks.
 Routers are key for linking our devices to the internet, whether at home or in offices.
Without routers, different networks wouldn’t be able to share data. Example: Your home
Wi-Fi router. (Layer: Network)

2. Switch: A switch connects many devices in the same network and sends data only to the
device that needs it. This reduces extra network traffic and makes data sharing faster. It’s
used in offices or homes where many devices are connected. Switches are better than
hubs because they are more efficient. (Layer: Data Link)

3. Hub: A hub connects several devices in one network, but it sends data to all connected
devices, not just the one that needs it. This makes it slower and less efficient than a
switch. Hubs were used more in older networks, but now switches are more common
because they handle data better. (Layer: Physical)

4. Access Point: An access point lets wireless devices, like phones and laptops, connect to a
wired network. It extends network access without needing cables for each device. Access
points are common in homes, offices, and public places where people connect to Wi-Fi.
Example: Home Wi-Fi access point. (Layer: Data Link)

5. Modem: A modem turns digital data into signals that can travel over phone or cable
lines, connecting devices to the internet. It’s needed to access internet services, like a
DSL or cable connection. Modems allow your computer or router to get online through
your internet provider. (Layer: Physical)

6. Firewall: A firewall protects a network by blocking harmful data and allowing only safe
data to pass through. It acts as a shield between trusted networks and outside networks,
helping keep out cyber threats. Firewalls can be software on a computer or hardware for
larger networks.

7. Bridge: A bridge connects two network sections, sending data only where it’s needed to
reduce extra traffic. It’s helpful in larger networks with many smaller network parts
 (LANs) to make them act like one network. Bridges keep data flowing smoothly without
slowing down. (Layer: Data Link)

8. Repeater: A repeater boosts weak network signals so data can travel farther without
losing strength. It’s used to extend Wi-Fi or wired connections over longer distances,
helpful in big homes or offices. Repeaters help keep signals strong where they might
otherwise fade out. (Layer: Physical)

9. Gateway: A gateway connects two different networks that don’t speak the same
language, allowing them to share data. It translates data between formats so each network
can understand it, like connecting a LAN to the internet. Gateways are used by ISPs to
help networks communicate. (Layer: Network/Application)

10. NIC (Network Interface Card): A NIC connects a device to a network, giving it a
unique address (MAC address) and a physical way to access the network. It’s found in
most laptops and desktops, letting them join networks wirelessly or with a cable. (Layer:
Data Link)

Switch Functions (Each in 6–7 Lines)

11. Flooding: Flooding is when a switch sends data to all devices on a network because it
doesn’t know the exact device it’s meant for. This helps locate the destination device
when the address isn’t known yet. Once found, the switch can send data only to that
device.
12. Filtering: Filtering means the switch sends data only to the specific device that needs it,
instead of every device in the network. This reduces unnecessary data flow and keeps the
network running smoothly. It makes data transfers faster and more organized.
13. Forwarding: Forwarding is when a switch knows the destination device and sends data
directly to it. This is more efficient because the data reaches the right place without delay.
Forwarding helps keep the network fast and reduces extra data.
14. Switch Operation: Switch operation includes flooding, filtering, and forwarding to
manage data in the network. It helps keep data flowing to the right devices efficiently. By
combining these methods, the switch improves network performance and reduces traffic.