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Page 1
Class 12th Physics

13 NUCLEI
INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
The nucleus contains an entire positive charge and more than 99.9% of the mass of the atom.
Rutherford demonstrated from his experiments that the radius of a nucleus is smaller than the
radius of an atom by a factor of about 104 and the atomic nucleus is the central core of every atom.

Atomic Mass Unit

The unit in which atomic and nuclear masses are measured is called atomic mass
1
unit (u), defined as th of the mass of an atom of 6C12 isotope.
12

1 12
1u = ×
12 6.02 × 1023
1u = 1.66 × 10−27kg

1amu = 931 MeV

Types of Nuclei

Various types of Nuclei are discussed below:

• Isotopes: These are nuclei of the same element having the same Z but different A.

Ex– 8O16, 8O17, 8O18

• Isotones: These are nuclei of different elements having the same N but different A.

Ex– 6C137 and 7N147

Page 2
Class 12th Physics

13 NUCLEI
INTRODUCTION

• Isobars: These are nuclei of different elements having the same A but different N and Z.

Ex– 6C14 and 7N14

• Mirror Nuclei: These are nuclei with the same A but in which neutron and proton numbers are
interchanged.

Ex– 4Be73(Z = 4, N = 3) and 3Li74(Z = 3, N = 4)

• Isomer Nuclei: These are nuclei with the same A and same Z but differ
in their nuclear energy states. They have different lifetimes and internal
structures. These nuclei have different radioactive properties.

Ex– Co60 and Co60*

Density of Nucleus

The nuclear density is independent of mass number A. The nuclear density is nearly
constant and is equal to

3m 17
ρ = 3 = 2.04 × 10 kg/m3
4πR 0

where m is the mass of a nucleus.

Composition & Size of nucleus

Composition of a nucleus

The nucleus of an atom consists of two types of particles, positively charged particles called protons
and neutrally charged particles called neutrons. Protons + Neutrons in an atom represent the
nucleus of an atom. The nucleus of an atom is represented by ZXA, where X is the nucleus of an
atom, Z is the atomic number and A is the mass number.
Page 3
Class 12th Physics

13 NUCLEI
INTRODUCTION

Terms Related to the Nucleus of an Atom

• Nucleons: Protons and neutrons which are present in the nuclei of atoms are collectively
known as nucleons.
• Atomic Number: The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number of the
element. It is denoted by Z.
• Mass Number: The total number of protons and neutrons (collectively known as nucleons)
present in a nucleus is called the mass number of the element. It is denoted by A.
• Nuclear Mass: The total mass of the protons and neutrons present in a nucleus is called
nuclear mass.

Size of nucleus

The first experimental determination of a size of a nucleus was made from the results of Rutherford
scattering of α particles. Distance of closest approach was found to be read into 3 × 10-14 m for 7.7
MeV energetic α particles. This fact indicated that the size of the nucleus should be less than 3 ×10-
14m. For α particles having a kinetic energy of more than 7.7 MeV, the distance of the closest
approach will be smaller.

At K.E more than 5.5 MeV distance of closest approach will be smaller. At K.E more than 5.5 MeV,
attractive nuclear forces start affecting the Coulomb’s repulsive force between α particles and gold
nucleus. The size of the nucleus can be measured by using fast electrons instead of α particles for
the scattering experiment. The nuclear size was found to vary linearly with the mass number (A).
Since the nucleus is supposed to be spherical, having radius R.
1
R = R 0 A3

where,

R 0 is constant

For electrons R 0 = 1.25 × 10−15 m = 1.25 fermi(fm)

The Radius R of a nucleus is proportional to the cube root of its mass number.
Page 1
Class 12th Physics

13 NUCLEI
RADIOACTIVITY

RADIOACTIVITY
Due to nuclear instability, an atom’s nucleus exhibits the phenomenon of Radioactivity. Energy is
lost due to radiation that is emitted out of the unstable nucleus of an atom. Two forces, namely the
force of repulsion that is electrostatic and the powerful forces of attraction of the
nucleus, keep the nucleus together. These two forces are considered extremely strong
in the natural environment. The chance of encountering instability increases
as the size of the nucleus increases because the mass of the nucleus
becomes a lot when concentrated. That’s the reason why atoms of
Plutonium, Uranium are extremely unstable and undergo the
phenomenon of radioactivity.

Laws of Radioactivity

• Radioactivity is the result of the decay of the nucleus.

• The nucleus’s decay rate is independent of temperature and pressure.
• Radioactivity is dependent on the law of conservation of charge.
• The physical and chemical properties of the daughter nucleus are different from the mother
nucleus.
• The emission of energy from radioactivity is always accompanied by alpha, beta, and gamma
particles.
• The rate of decay of radioactive substances is dependent on the number of atoms that are
present at the time.

Units of Radioactivity
Curie and Rutherford are the units of radioactivity.
1C = 3.7 × 104 Rd is the relationship between Curie and Rutherford.
Uses of Radioactivity
• Americium-241 is an alpha emitter and is used for domestic smoke detectors in the United
States.
Page 2
Class 12th Physics

13 NUCLEI
RADIOACTIVITY

• The alpha particles given out by the Americium sample ionize the air in the chamber of the
smoke detector leading to a small current in the chamber.
• When smoke enters the chamber, it causes a drop in current causing the
alarm to go off. Although Alpha particles have a very short range, they
are devastating when in close contact.
• Alpha emitters, when swallowed, come in close contact with tissue and
are deadly in such circumstances and is therefore used in assassination
attempts by radiation poisoning.

Disadvantages of radioactivity

• High dosage of radioactive radiation on the body might lead to death.

• Radioactive isotopes are expensive.
Page 3
Class 12th Physics

13 NUCLEI
RADIOACTIVITY

α, β & γ particle
Alpha (α) particle
Alpha rays are the positively charged particles. Alpha-particle is highly active and energetic helium
atom that contains two neutrons and protons. These particles have the minimum penetration
power and highest ionization power. They can cause serious damage if get into the body due to their
high ionization power. They are capable of ionizing numerous atoms by a short distance. It is due to
the fact that the radioactive substances that release alpha particles are required to be
handled after wearing rubber gloves.
For Example:
226 222
88 Ra → 86 Rn + 2 He4
238 222
92 U → 90 Th + 2 He4
242 238
94 Pu → 92 U + 2 He4
Properties of alpha decay:
• Alpha particles have charge +2e and mass 4u.
• Alpha particles have a kinetic energy of 5 MeV.
• Nearly 90% of the 2500 known nuclides are radioactive. They are not stable but
decay into other nuclides.
• When unstable nuclides decay into different nuclides, they usually emit alpha or beta
particles.
• Alpha emission occurs principally with nuclei that are too large to be stable.
• Alpha decay is mainly governed by strong nuclear force and electromagnetic force.

Beta (β) particle

Beta particles are extremely energetic electrons that are liberated from the inner nucleus. They bear
negligible mass and carry the negative charge. A neutron in the nucleus splits into a proton and an
electron on the emission of a beta particle. Hence, it is the electron that is emitted by the nucleus
at a rapid pace. Beta particles have a higher penetration power when compared to alpha particles
and can travel through the skin with ease. Beta particles can be dangerous and any contact with the
body must be avoided, though their ionization power is low.

The general reaction for beta decay is given as:

A A 0
ZX → Z+1 Y + −1 e

Beta-decay is mainly of three types: Beta-minus (β–), Beta-plus (β+), and electron capture.
Page 4
Class 12th Physics

13 NUCLEI
RADIOACTIVITY

• Beta-minus (β–): - In beta-minus, the neutron inside the nucleus is converted into a proton
and an electron like a particle.
For Example:
32 32 0
15 P → 16 S + −1 e

• Beta-plus (β+): -In a β+ decay, a proton is converted into a neutron and a

positron (-1e0) is emitted if a nucleus has more protons than neutrons.
The basic process is called beta-plus (β+ ) decay.
p ⇢ n + β+ + v (v=neutrino)
For Example:
22 22 0
11 Ne → 10 Ne + −1 e

• Electron Capture: - Electron capture, nucleus absorbs one of the inner electrons revolving
around it and hence a nuclear proton becomes a neutron, and a neutrino (v) is emitted.
The process is represented as:
1 0
1H + −1 e → 0 n1 + v (v = neutrino)
For Example:
120
54 Xe + −1 e0 → 53 I
120
+v
Properties β Decay:
• In a β decay, the neutron inside the nucleus changes into protons, as a result, the
charge number remains the same, and the atomic number increases by
one.
• In emission of β particle is accompanied by a companion particle having variable
energy.
• The companion particle is massless and chargeless and is called Antineutrino.
• The emission of Antineutrino along with β particle conserves the angular
momentum during β decay.
1 h
• The mass of neutrino and antineutrino is zero. The spin of both is in units of .
2 2π
The charge on both is zero.
• The spin of neutrino is antiparallel to its momentum while that of antineutrino is parallel to
its momentum.
Page 5
Class 12th Physics

13 NUCLEI
RADIOACTIVITY

Gamma (γ) particle

The waves arising from the high-frequency end of the electromagnetic spectrum that has no mass
are known as gamma rays. They hold the highest power of penetration. They are the most
penetrating but least ionizing and very difficult to resist them from entering the body. The Gamma
rays carry a large amount of energy and can also travel via thick concrete and thin lead.
For Example:
210 210∗ 0
82 Pb 83 Bi + −1 e + Antineutrino
210∗ 210
83 Bi → 83 Bi + γ − ray
Properties Gamma (γ) Decay:
• When the nucleus is placed in an excited state, either by bombardment with high
energy particles or by a radioactive transformation, it can decay to the ground
state by emission of one or more photons called gamma rays.
• The order of energy of Gamma Photon is 100 KeV.
• The rest mass of the Gamma Photon is zero.
Page 1
Class 12th Physics

13 NUCLEI
MASS – ENERGY RELATION

MASS – ENERGY RELATION

According to the special theory of relativity, E = mc2 is the relationship between mass and energy.
The function of mass is energy. The more mass a body has, the more energy it gains or releases.
The term “mass-energy relation” refers to the fact that mass and energy are the same and may be
changed into one another. Einstein proposed this concept. However, he was not the first to do so.
With his theory of relativity, he accurately described the relationship between mass and
energy. The equation is written as E = mC2 and is known as Einstein’s mass-energy
equation.
Where E is the object’s equivalent kinetic energy, m is the object’s mass (Kg),
and c is the speed of light (c = 3 × 108 m/s).
Furthermore, the mass-energy relation indicates that the body’s rest mass will drop if
energy is released from the body due to such a conversion. Ordinary chemical reactions
involve such a transfer of rest energy to other types of energy, while nuclear reactions
involve significantly bigger conversions.

Even though a system’s overall mass changes, its total energy and momentum stay
constant, according to the mass-energy relation. Consider an electron colliding with a proton. Both
particles’ mass is destroyed, but a tremendous amount of energy in photons is generated. The
concept of the mass-energy equation was important in the development of atomic fusion and fission
theories.

Here,

E = Energy
m = mass
c = speed of light (Constant)

Einstein’s mass-energy relation derivation

Consider an object travelling at around the speed of light. A unified force is acting upon it. Energy
and momentum are induced in it due to the applied force. The increase in momentum of the object
= mass × velocity of the body because the force is constant.
Page 2
Class 12th Physics

13 NUCLEI
MASS – ENERGY RELATION
We know,

Energy acquired = Force × Distance through which force acts

E = F × d …..(1)

Also,

the momentum gained = the force × the time it takes for the force to act.

P=F×t

As, momentum = mass × velocity,

The momentum gained P = m × c

m× c
Hence, Force = ⋯ ⋯ (2)
t

When we combine equations (1) and (2), we get E = mc2.

The equation is used to calculate binding energy in an atomic nucleus. Binding energy is calculated
by subtracting the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons from the masses of various nuclei.
The energy released during nuclear reactions is calculated using binding energy measurements.

Derivation II

At whatever point an article is in speed, it appears to get heavier. The accompanying condition gives
the increment in mass because of speed.
m0
m=
1 − v2
[ 2 ]
c
Where,

m - mass of the article at the voyaging speed

m0 - mass of the article at a fixed position

v - speed of the article

c - speed of the light

We know, a moving object has active energy, and it is given by

1
E= (mv 2 )
2
All-out energy moved by the item is roughly equivalent to dynamic energy and expansion in mass
because of speed.
Page 3
Class 12th Physics

13 NUCLEI
MASS – ENERGY RELATION
1
E ≅ (mc²) + (mv 2 )
2
1
E − (mc 2 ) = (mv 2 ), for little v/c
2
E = Relativistic dynamic energy + mc²

The relativistic dynamic energy includes kinetic energy and rest mass energy

E = 0 + mc²

E = mc²

Mass defect
Mass defect is the difference between the actual mass of a nucleus and the total mass of nucleons.
The total mass of nucleons is greater than the actual nuclear mass.

• For a nucleus, the mass defect is the difference between the total mass of its nucleons and its
actual nuclear mass.
• For an atom, the mass defect is the difference between the total mass of nucleons as well as
electrons as its actual atomic mass.

Mass Defect and Binding Energy

Δm = Zmp + (A − Z)mn − mnuc
were,
Z0mp is the total mass of the protons.
(A-Z) mn is the total mass of the neutrons.
Page 4
Class 12th Physics

13 NUCLEI
MASS – ENERGY RELATION
mnuc is the mass of the nucleus.
Mass defect formula
The mass defect (M) is calculated by subtracting the original atomic mass
(MA) from the total mass of protons,
(mp = 1.00728amu) and neutrons (mn = 1.00867 amu) the nucleus.
∆M = (Zmp + Nmn) – MA

Binding Energy
Mass defect is transformed into binding energy of the nucleus or atom.
Binding energy of a nucleus is the energy required to break apart the nucleons. The relationship
between mass defect and binding energy is given by Einstein's energy-mass equivalence equation:
Ebinding = mdefectc2
When a nucleus/atom is formed, its binding energy is released. Conversely, when a nucleus/atom is
broken apart, its binding energy is absorbed.
Binding energy per nucleon equals to the total binding energy of a nucleus divided by the number
of nucleons in the nucleus.

Binding energy per nucleon varies with nuclide - generally increases up to iron (Fe) and decreases
after iron.
Page 5
Class 12th Physics

13 NUCLEI
MASS – ENERGY RELATION
The energy emitted here is expressed mathematically as
E = (Δm)c2
Eb = (Δm)c2
Hence, the difference in the mass is converted into nuclear binding energy.
Binding Energy per Nucleon (BEN)
The binding energy per nucleon (BEN), which is defined by,
Eb
BEN =
A
Mass Defect and Binding Energy Calculation
Units for mass and energy:
• When mass defect is in kg, the calculated binding energy will be in J.
• When mass defect is in atomic mass unit (u), the calculated binding energy will be in MeV (by
multiplying by 931.5).
For example, the binding energy of carbon-12 (nuclide mass = 12.0000u) nucleus can be
calculated:
First, calculate total mass of nucleons (6 protons and 6 neutrons)
mtotal = 6 × 1.673 × 10−27+ 6 × 1.675 × 10−27
mtotal = 2.009 × 10−26kg
Calculate mass defect:
mdefect = 2.009 × 10−26− 12.0000 × 1.661 × 10−27
mdefect = 1.56 × 10−28kg
Apply energy-mass equivalence equation:
E = mc2
E = (1.56 × 10−28) (3 × 108)2
E = 1.4 × 10−11J
Calculating binding energy per nucleon (12 nucleons in C-12):
1.4 × 10−11
E=
12
E = 1.2 × 10−12 J
Page 1
Class 12th Physics

13 NUCLEI
NUCLEAR FISSION & FUSION

NUCLEAR FISSION & FUSION

Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom is
bombarded with low-energy neutrons which splits the nucleus into smaller
nuclei. An abundant amount of energy is released in this process. Nuclear
fission reactions are used in nuclear power reactors since it is easy to
control and produces large amounts of energy.

Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear fusion is a reaction that occurs when two or more atoms combine
together to form to a single heavier nucleus. An enormous amount of
energy is released in this process, much greater than the energy released
during the nuclear fission reaction.
Page 2
Class 12th Physics

13 NUCLEI
NUCLEAR FISSION & FUSION

Nuclear reactor
Nuclear Fission Reactor

A nuclear reactor is the most important part of a nuclear power plant. This is the place where nuclear
chain reactions occur that produce energy by fission. The heat thus produced can be used to produce
electricity.

The main purpose of a reactor is to contain and control energy released.

Uranium is used as the nuclear fuel in the reactors. The uranium is treated
with ceramic pellets, and they are sealed in the form of metal tubes called fuel
rods. Generally, about 200 such rods are assembled together to form a fuel
assembly. When a hundred of such assemblies are assembled together, it is called the
core.

The fuel rods are dipped in water in the reactor, which functions as both a coolant and
moderator. The job of the moderator is to slow down the neutrons produced by fission
to control the chain reaction. Control rods may be immersed in the reactor core to
reduce the reaction rate or pulled out to increase the same. The heat produced by
such reactions converts the water into steam, which is further converted into carbon-free electricity
by the help of turbines. Nuclear Fission Reactor is as below:
Page 3
Class 12th Physics

13 NUCLEI
NUCLEAR FISSION & FUSION

Nuclear Fusion Reactor

Nuclear fusion reactor uses the principle of controlled nuclear fusion reaction. The energy is
generated when two light atomic nuclei are forced to join together. When two nuclei merge, a small
amount of mass (matter) is transformed into a huge amount of energy. This huge conversion can be
explained using the equation:
E = mc2
E = energy
m = mass
c = speed of light in vacuum
Mass (matter) can also be converted into energy by nuclear fission
(splitting of heavy nuclei).
Components of a Nuclear Reactor
The essential components of a nuclear reactor are:
Fuel: A fissile material is used as fuel. The commonly used fuel material is uranium.
Moderator: A moderator is used to slow down the high-energy neutrons to provide slow neutrons.
Graphite and heavy water are commonly used moderators.
Control rod: Control rods are used to control the number of neutrons in order to have a sustained
chain reaction. Mostly boron or cadmium rods are used as control rods. They absorb the neutrons.
Coolant: A coolant is used to remove the heat produced in the reactor core, to produce steam. This
steam is used to run a turbine in order to produce electricity. Water, air, and helium are some of the
coolants.
Protection wall: A thick concrete lead wall is built around the nuclear reactor in order to prevent
harmful radiations from escaping into the environment.
 Nuclei
DPP-01
[Topic: Radioactivity and Decay Law]
1. Define the activity of a given radioactive substance. Write its S.I. units.
2. Why is it found experimentally difficult to detect neutrinos in nuclear 𝛽-decay?
3. Two nuclei have mass numbers in the ratio 1: 2. What is the ratio of their nuclear densities?
4. A radioactive nucleus ' 𝐴 ' undergoes a series of decays according to the following scheme:
𝛼 𝛽− 𝛼 𝛾
𝐴 ⟶ 𝐴1 ⟶ 𝐴2 ⟶ 𝐴3 ⟶ 𝐴4

The mass number and atomic number of 𝐴 are 180 and 72 respectively.

What are these numbers for 𝐴4 ?

Relation between half-life and average life 𝜏 = 1.44 T Relation between average life and decay
1
constant 𝜏 =
𝜆

5. State the law of radioactive decay.

Plot a graph showing the number (𝑁) of undecayed nuclei as a function of time (𝑡) for a given
radioactive sample having half-life.

Depict in the plot the number of undecayed nuclei at (i) 𝑡 = 3𝑇1/2 and (ii) 𝑡 = 5𝑇1/2

6. Show that the density of nucleus over a wide range of nuclei is constant independent of mass
number A.
7. Draw a plot of potential energy between a pair of nucleons as a function of their separation. Mark
the regions where potential energy is (i) positive and (ii) negative
8. (a) In a typical nuclear reaction, e.g.
2
1H + 12 H ⟶ 32 He + 10 n + 3.27MeV, although number of nucleons is conserved, yet energy is
released. How? Explain.

(b) Show that nuclear density in a given nucleus is independent of mass number 𝐴.

9. Identify the nature of the radioactive radiations emitted in each step of the decay process given
below.
𝐴 𝐴−4 𝐴−4
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍−2 𝑌 → 𝑍−1 𝑊

10. (a) Derive the mathematical expression for law of radioactive decay for a sample of a radioactive
nucleus.
(b) How is the mean life of a given radioactive nucleus related to the decay constant?

11. A radioactive isotope has a half-life of 10years. How long will it take for the activity to reduce to
3.125%
12. (i) Define 'activity' of a radioactive material and write its S.I. units.
(ii) Plot a graph showing a variation of activity of a given radioactive sample with time.

(iii) The sequence of stepwise decay of a radioactive nucleus is

𝛼 𝛽−1
𝐷 ⟶ 𝐷1 ⟶ 𝐷2

If the atomic number and mass number of 𝐷2 are 71 and 176 respectively, what are their
corresponding values of 𝐷 ?
 Nuclei
DPP-02
[Topic: Mass Defect and Binding Energy]

1. Four nuclei of an element undergo fusion to form a heavier nucleus, with release of energy.
Which of the two: the parent or the daughter nucleus would have higher binding energy per
nucleon?
2. What characteristic property of nuclear force explains the constancy of binding energy per
𝐵𝐸
nucleon ( 𝐴 ) in the range of mass number ' 𝐴 ' lying 30 < 𝐴 < 170 ?
𝐵𝐸
3. A nucleus with mass number 𝐴 = 240 and = 7.6 MeV breaks into two fragments each of 𝐴 =
𝐴
𝐵𝐸
120 with = 8.5MeV Calculate the released energy.
𝐴

Or, calculate the energy in fusion reaction:

2
1H + 12 H ⟶ 32 He + n, Where 𝐵𝐸 of
2
1 He = 2.23MeV,

And of 32 He = 7.73MeV.,

4. A heavy nucleus 𝑋 of mass number 240 and binding energy per nucleon 7.6MeV is split into two
fragments 𝑌 and 𝑍 of mass numbers 110 and 130 respectively. The binding energy of nucleons in
𝑌 and 𝑍 is 8.5MeV per nucleon. Calculate the energy 𝑄 released per fission in MeV.
5. In a nuclear reaction
3
2H + 32 H ⟶ 42 He + 11 H + 11 H + 12.86MeV,

though the number of nucleons is conserved on both sides of the reaction, yet the energy is
released. Explain.

6. Distinguish between nuclear fission and fusion. Show how in both these processes energy is
released. Calculate the energy release in MeV in the deuterium-tritium fusion reaction:
2
1H + 13 H → 42 He + 10 𝑛

Using the data:

𝑚( 12 𝐻) = 2.014102𝑢

𝑚( 13 𝐻) = 3.016049𝑢

𝑚( 42 He) = 4.002603𝑢

𝑚𝑛 = 1.008665𝑢

𝑙𝑢 = 931.5MeV/c 2
7. The figure shows the plot of binding energy (𝐵𝐸) per nucleon as a function of mass number 𝐴.
The letters 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 and 𝐸 represent the positions of typical nuclei on the curve. Point out, giving
reasons, the two processes (in terms of 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 and 𝐸 ), one of which can occur due to nuclear
fission and the other due to nuclear fusion.

8. Explain the processes of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion by using the plot of binding energy per
𝐵𝐸
nucleon ( 𝐴 ) versus the mass number 𝐴.
 NCERT LINE BY LINE QUESTIONS
Topic 1: Composition and Size of the Nucleus
1. The constituents of nucleus are
(a) electrons and protons (b) protons and neutrons
(c) neutrons and electrons (d) electrons, protons and neutrons
2. The radius of a nucleus is
(a) directly proportional to its mass number
(b) inversely proportional to its atomic weight
(c) directly proportional to the cube root of its mass number
(d) None of these
3. The radius of nucleus is of the order of
(a) 10–10 m (b) 10–6 m (c) 10–15 m (d) 10–13 m
4. The mass number of He is 4 and that for sulphur is 32. The radius of sulphur nuclei is larger than that of
helium by

(a) 8 (b) 4 (c) 2 (d) 8

5. A nucleus splits into two nuclear parts which have their velocity ratio equal to 5 : 1. What will be the ratio
of their nuclear radius?
(a) 51/3 : 1 (b) 1 : 51/3 (c) 31/2 : 1 (d) 1 : 31/2
6. The volume of a nucleus is directly proportional to
(a) A (b) A3 (c) A (d) A1/3
7. The set which represents the isotope, isobar and isotone respectively is
(a) (1H2, 1H3 ), (79Au197, 80Hg198) and (2He3, 1H2)
(b) (2He3, 1H1), (79Au197, 80Hg198) and (1H1, 1H3)
(c) (2He3, 1H3), (1H2, 1H3) and (79Au197, 80Hg198)
(d) (1H2, 1H3), (2He3, 1H3) and (79Au197, 80Hg198)
8. Outside a nucleus
(a) neutron is stable (b) proton and neutron both are stable
Physics Smart Booklet
(c) neutron is unstable (d) neither neutron nor proton is stable
9. The mass of neutron is the same as that of
(a) a proton (b) a meson (c) an epsilon (d) an electron
10. The nuclei of which one of the following pairs of nuclei are isotones?
(a) 34Se74, 31Ga71 (b) 38Sr84, 38Sr86 (c) 42Mo92, 40Zr92 (d) 20Ca40, 16S32
11. If the radius of a nucleus 256X is 8 fermi, then the radius of 4He nucleus will be
(a) 16 fermi (b) 2 fermi (c) 32 fermi (d) 4 fermi
12. The ratio of volumes of nuclei (assumed to be in spherical shape) with respective mass numbers 8 and 64
is
(a) 0.5 (b) 2 (c) 0.125 (d) 0.25
13. Atomic weight of boron is 10.81 and it has two isotopes 5B10 and 5B11. Then ratio of 5B10 : 5B11 in nature
would be
(a) 19 : 81 (b) 10 : 11 (c) 15 : 16 (d) 81 : 19
14. Nucleus of an atom whose atomic mass is 24 consists of
(a) 11 electrons, 11 protons and 13 neutrons
(b) 11 electrons, 13 protons and 11 neutrons
(c) 11 protons and 13 neutrons
(d) 11 protons and 13 electrons
Topic 2: Mass Energy and Nuclear Reaction
2 4
15. The binding energy per nucleon for 1 H and 2 He respectively are 1.1 MeV and 7.1 MeV. The energy
2 4
released in MeV when two 1 H nuclei fuse to form 2 He is

(a) 4.4 (b) 8.2 (c) 24 (d) 28.4

16. In the nuclear fusion reaction
2
1 H +13 H →42 He + n
given that the repulsive potential energy between the two nuclei is ~ 7.7  10-14 J , the temperature at which
the gases must be heated to initiate the reaction is nearly [Boltzmann’s Constant k = 1.38  10-23 J/K]
(a) 107 K (b) 105K (c) 103K (d) 109K
17. Two nucleons are at a separation of 1 fermi. The net force between them is F 1 if both are neutrons, F2 if
both are protons and F3 if one is proton and the other is a neutron. Then
(a) F1 > F2 > F3 (b) F1 = F3 > F2 (c) F2 > F1 > F3 (d) F1 = F2 > F3
18. Nuclear forces are
(a) spin dependent and have no non-central part
(b) spin dependent and have a non-central part
(c) spin independent and have no non-central part
Physics Smart Booklet
(d) spin independent and have a non-central part
19. From the following equations, pick out the possible nuclear reactions.
(a) 6C13 + 1H1 → 6C14 + 4.3 MeV
(b) 6C12 + 1H1 → 9N14 + 2 MeV
(c) 7N14 + 1H1 → 8O15 + 7.3 MeV
(d) 92U235 + 0n1 → 54X140 + 38Si94 + 20n1 +  + 200 MeV
20. Which of the following statements is true?

(a) 78Pt192 has 78 neutrons (b) 84Po214 → 82Pb210 +  −

(c) 92U238 → 90Th234 + 2He4 (d) 90Th234 → 91Pa234 + 2He4
21. The mass of an atomic nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of its constituents. This mass defect is
converted into
(a) heat energy (b) light energy
(c) electrical energy (d) energy which binds nucleons together
22. When Uranium is bombarded with neutrons, it undergoes fission. The fission reaction can be written as :

92 U 235 + 0 n1 →56 Ba141 +36 Kr 92 + 3x +Q(energy) where three particles named x are produced and energy Q
is released. What is the name of the particle x ?
(a) electron (b) a-particle (c) neutron (d) neutrino
23. In a fission reaction
236
92 U →117 X +117 Y + n + n , the binding energy per nucleon of X and Y is 8.5 MeV whereas of 236U is 7.6
MeV. The total energy liberated will be about
(a) 2000 MeV (b) 200 MeV (c) 2 MeV (d) 200 keV
24. Complete the equation for the following fission process :

92 U 235 + 0 n1 →38 Sr 90 + ....

(a) 54X143 + 3 0n1 (b) 54X145 + 3 0n1 (c) 57X142 + 3 0n1 (d) 54X142 + 0n1
25. Which of the following statements is true for nuclear forces?
(a) they obey the inverse square law of distance
(b) they obey the inverse third power law of distance
(c) they are short range forces
(d) they are equal in strength to electromagnetic forces.
26. On an average, the number of neutrons and the energy of a neutron released per fission of a uranium atom
are respectively
(a) 2.5 and 2 keV (b) 3 and l keV (c) 2.5 and 2 MeV (d) 2 and 2 keV
27. Boron rods in a nuclear reactor are used to
(a) absorb excess neutrons (b) absorb alpha particle
Physics Smart Booklet
(c) slow down the reaction (d) speed up the reaction
28. The rest energy of an electron is
(a) 510 KeV (b) 931 KeV (c) 510 MeV (d) 931 MeV
29. If MO is the mass of an oxygen isotope 8O17, MP and MN are the masses of a proton and a neutron
respectively, the nuclear binding energy of the isotope is
(a) (MO –17MN)c2 (b) (MO – 8MP)c2 (c) (MO– 8MP –9MN)c2 (d) MOc2
235 235
30. Energy released in the fission of a single 92 U nucleus is 200 MeV. The fission rate of a 92 U filled reactor

operating at a power level of 5 W is

(a) 1.56 × 10–10 s–1 (b) 1.56 × 1011 s–1 (c) 1.56 × 10–16 s–1 (d) 1.56 × 10–17 s–1
4
31. The binding energy of deuteron is 2.2 MeV and that of 2 He is 28 MeV. If two deuterons are fused to form
4
one 2 He , then the energy released is

(a) 23.6 MeV (b) 19.2 MeV (c) 30.2 MeV (d) 25.8 MeV
A
32. If M (A; Z), Mp and Mn denote the masses of the nucleus Z X , proton and neutron respectively in units of

u ( 1u =931.5 MeV/c2) and BE represents its bonding energy in MeV, then

(a) M (A, Z) = ZMp + (A – Z) Mn –BE/c2
(b) M (A, Z) = ZMp+ ( A–Z) Mn + BE
(c) M (A, Z) = ZMp + (A – Z) Mn – BE
(d) M (A, Z) = ZMp + (A – Z)Mn + BE/c2
33. The power obtained in a reactor using U235 disintegration is 1000 kW. The mass decay of U235 per hour is
(a) 10 microgram (b) 20 microgram (c) 40 microgram (d) 1 microgram
34. A reaction between a proton and 8O18 that produces 9F18 must also liberate
(a) 0n1 (b) 1e0 (c) 1n0 (d) 0e1
35. The energy released in a typical nuclear fusion reaction is approximately
(a) 25 MeV (b) 200 MeV (c) 800 MeV (d) 1050 MeV
36. Imagine that a reactor converts all given mass into energy and that it operates at a power level of 109 watt.
The mass of the fuel consumed per hour in the reactor will be: (velocity of light, c is 3 × 108 m/s)
(a) 0.96 gm (b) 0.8 gm (c) 4 × 10–2 gm (d) 6.6 × 10–5 gm
37. When the number of nucleons in nuclei increases, the binding energy per nucleon
(a) increases continuously with mass number
(b) de creases continuously with mass number
(c) remains constant with mass number
(d) first increases and then decreases with increase of mass number
38. The curve of binding energy per nucleon as a function of atomic mass number has a sharp peak for helium
nucleus. This implies that helium
Physics Smart Booklet
(a) can easily be broken up (b) is very stable
(c) can be used as fissionable material (d) is radioactive
39. The mass defect per nucleon is called
(a) binding energy (b) packing fraction (c) ionisation energy (d) excitation energy
12
40. A proton and a neutron are both shot at 100 ms–1 towards a 6 C nucleus. Which particle, if either, is more

likely to be absorbed by the nucleus?

(a) The proton
(b) The neutron
(c) Both particles are about equally likely to be absorbed
(d) Neither particle will be absorbed
41. Calculate the binding energy of a deuteron atom, which consist of a proton and a neutron, given that the
atomic mass of the deutron is 2.014102 u.
(a) 0.002388 MeV (b) 2.014102 MeV (c) 2.16490 MeV (d) 2.224 MeV
Topic 3: Radioactivity
42. Half life of radioactive element depends upon
(a) amount of element present (b) temperature
(c) pressure (d) nature of element
43. Beta rays emitted by a radioactive material are
(a) electromagnetic radiations
(b) the electrons orbiting around the nucleus
(c) charged particles emitted by nucleus
(d) neutral particles
44. A radioactive substance has a half-life of four months. Three fourth of the substance will decay in
(a) three months (b) four months (c) eight months (d) twelve months
45. Neutron decay in free space is given as follows

0 n1 →1 H1 +−1 e0 +  
Then the parenthesis [ ] represents a
(a) neutrino (b) photon (c) antineutrino (d) graviton
46. A radioactive element X converts into another stable element Y. Half-life of X is 2 hrs. Initially only X is
present. After time t, the ratio of atoms of X and Y is found to be 1 : 4, then t in hours is
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) between 4 and 6 (d) 6
47. A radioactive sample contains 10–3 kg each of two nuclear species A and B with half-life 4 days and 8 days
respectively. The ratio of the amounts of A and B after a period of 16 days is
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 4 : 1 (c) 1 : 4 (d) 2 : 1
Physics Smart Booklet
48. Two radioactive materials X1 and X2 have decay constants 10  and  respectively. If initially they have the
same number of nuclei, then the ratio of the number of nuclei of X1 to that of X2 will be 1/e after a time
(a) 1/10  (b) 1/11  (c) 11/10  (d) 1/9 
49. If N0 is the original mass of the substance of half-life period t1/2 = 5 years, then the amount of substance
left after 15 years is
(a) N0/8 (b) N0/16 (c) N0/2 (d) N0/4
50. A radioactive sample at any instant has its disintegration rate 5000 disintegrations per minute. After 5
minutes, the rate is 1250 disintegrations per minute. Then, the decay constant (per minute) is
(a) 0.4 ln 2 (b) 0.2 ln 2 (c) 0.1 ln 2 (d) 0.8 ln 2
51. The energy spectrum of  -particles [number N(E) as a function of  -energy E] emitted from a radioactive
source is

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

A nuclear transformation is denoted by X (n,  ) 3 Li .Which of the following is the nucleus of element X?
7
52.
10 12 11 9
(a) 5 B (b) C 6 (c) 4 Be (d) 5 B

53. The counting rate observed from a radioactive source at t = 0 was 1600 counts s–1, and t = 8 s, it was 100
counts s–1. The counting rate observed as counts s–1 at t = 6 s will be
(a) 250 (b) 400 (c) 300 (d) 200
54. In a sample of rock, the ratio of 206 Pb to 238U nuclei is found to be 0.5. The age of the rock is (given half
– life of U238 is 4.5 × 109 years)
(a) 2.25 × 109 year (b) 4.5× 109 ln 3 year
3
ln  
2 3
(c) 4.5 10 (d) 2.25 10 ln   year
9 9
year
ln 2 2
55. A radioactive sample with a half-life of 1 month has the label: ‘Activity = 2 micro curies on 1–8–1991.
What would be its activity two months earlier?
(a) 1.0 micro curie (b) 0.5 micro curie (c) 4 micro curie (d) 8 micro curie
Physics Smart Booklet
56. The count rate of a Geiger Muller counter for the radiation of a radioactive material of half-life 30 minutes
decreases to 5 sec–1 after 2 hours. The initial count rate was
(a) 20 sec–1 (b) 25 sec–1 (c) 80 sec–1 (d) 625 sec–1
57. The half - life of At is 100 μs. The time taken for the radioactivity of a sample of At to decay to 1/16th of
its initial value is
(a) 400 μs (b) 6.3 μs (c) 40 μs (d) 300 μs
58. There are n number of radioactive nuclei in a sample that undergoes beta decay. If from the sample, n'
number of  -particles are emitted every 2 s, then half - life of nuclei is
(a) n'/2 (b) 0.693 × (2n/n') (c) 0.693 1n (2n/n') (d) 0.693 × n/n'
59. The half life of a radio isotope is 5 years. The fraction which will decay in 15 years, will be
(a) 1/16 (b) 3/4 (c) 7/8 (d) 5/8
60. In a given reaction

z A A →z +1 Y A →z −1 K A −4 →z −1 K A −4
Radioactive radiations are emitted in the sequence of
(a) , ,  (b)  , ,  (c) , ,  (d)  , , 
61. In gamma ray emission from a nucleus
(a) only the proton number changes
(b) both the neutron number and the proton number change
(c) there is no change in the proton number and the neutron number
(d) only the neutron number changes
TA 
62. The ratio of half-life times of two elements A and B is . The ratio of respective decay constant A is
TB B
TA + TB TA − TB
(a) TB / TA (b) TA / TB (c) (d)
TA TA
63. Consider a radioactive material of half-life 1.0 minute. If one of the nuclei decays now, the next one will
decay
1
(a) after 1 minute (b) after minute
log e 2
1
(c) after minute, where N is the number of nuclei present at that moment
N
(d) after any time

64. One curie is equal to

(a) 3.7 × 1010 disintegration/sec (b) 3.2 × 108 disintegration/sec
(c) 2.8 × 1010 disintegration/sec (d) None of these
Physics Smart Booklet
65. The half-life of the radioactive substance is 40 days. The substance will disintegrate completely in
(a) 40 days (b) 400 days (c) 4000 days (d) infinite time
 PYQ

Nuclei

1. ATOMIC NUCLEI

Objective Qs
1. The curve of binding energy per nucleon as a function of atomic mass number has a sharp peak
for helium nucleus. The implies that helium nucleus is:
(a) radioactive

(b) unstable

(c) easily fissionable

(d) more stable nucleus than it neighbours

[CBSE 2023]

2. Which of the following statement about nuclear forces is not true?

(a) The nuclear force between two nucleons falls rapidly to zero as their distance is more than a
few femtometres.

(b) The nuclear force is much weaker than the Coulomb force.

(c) The force is attractive for distances larger than 0.8fm and repulsive if they are separated by
distances less than 0.8fm.

(d) The nuclear force between neutron-neutron, proton-neutron and proton-proton is

approximately the same.

[CBSE SQP 2022]

3. When two nuclei (𝐴 ≤ 10) fuse together to form a heavier nucleus, the:
(a) binding energy per nucleon increases.

(b) binding energy per nucleon decreases.

(c) binding energy per nucleon does not change.

(d) total binding energy decreases.

[CBSE 2020]

Very Short & Short Qs (1-3 marks)

4. How is the size of a nucleus found experimentally? Write the relation between the radius and
mass number of a nucleus.
[CBSE 2023]

5. (A) James Chadwick, in 1932, studied the emission of neutral radiations when Beryllium nuclei
were bombarded with alpha particles. He concluded that emitted radiations were neutrons and not
photons. Explain.
(B) Two nuclei may have the same radius, even though they contain different number of protons
and neutrons. Explain.

[CBSE Term-2 2022]

6. (A) Give two differences between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion?
(B) Two nuclei have mass numbers in the ratio 2:5. What is the ratio of their nuclear densities?

[Delhi Gov. SQP Term-2 2022]

125 27
7. What is the nuclear radius of Fe, if that of Al is 3.6 fermi?
[CBSE SQP 2022]
13 29
8. The nuclear radius of Al27 is 3.6 fermi. Find the nuclear radius of Cu64 .
[CBSE 2020]

9. Which physical quantity in a nuclear reaction is considered equivalent to the Q-value of the
reaction?
[CBSE 2020]

10. (A) State two distinguishing features of nuclear force.

(B) Draw a plot showing the variation of potential energy of a pair of nucleons as
a function of their separation. Mark the regions on the graph where the force is:

(i) attractive, and

(ii) repulsive.

[CBSE 2019]

11. Show that density of nucleus is independent of its mass number A. [CBSE Delhi 2019]

12. Four nuclei of an element undergo fusion to form a heavier nucleus, with release of energy.
Which of the two parent or the daughter nucleus would have higher binding energy per nucleon?

[CBSE 2018]

13. Explain the processes of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion by using the plot of binding energy per
𝐵𝐸
nucleon ( 𝐴 ) versus the mass number 𝐴.
[CBSE 2018]
14. Plot a graph showing the variation of binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass number.
Which property of nuclear force explains the approximate constancy of binding energy in the
range 30 < A < 170 ? How does one explain the release of energy in both the processes of
nuclear fission and fusion from the graph?
[CBSE 2017]

15. Define ionization energy. How would the ionization energy change when electron in hydrogen
atom is replaced by a particle of mass 200 times that of the electron but having the same charge?
[CBSE 2016]

16. If both the number of protons and neutrons in a nuclear reaction is conserved, in what way is mass
converted into energy (or vice versa)? Explain giving one example.
[CBSE 2015]

17. Complete the following nuclear reactions:

(A) 5 B10 + 0 n1 → 2 He4 +
94
(B) 42 Mo + 1 H2 → 43 Te
95
+

[CBSE 2015]

18. Distinguish between nuclear fission and fusion. Show how in both these processes energy is
released. Calculate the energy released in MeV in the deuterium-tritium fusion reaction:
2 3 4 1
1 H + 1 H → 2 He + 0 𝑛
𝑚( 12 H) = 2.014102u
𝑚( 13 H) = 3.016049u
𝑚( 42 He) = 4.002603u
𝑚𝑛 = 1.008665u
1u = 931.5MeV/c 2

[CBSE 2015]

Long Qs 4-5 marks

19. Asha's mother read an article in the newspaper about a disaster that took place at Chernobyl. She
could not understand much from the article and asked a few questions from Asha regarding the
article. Asha tried to answer her mother's questions based on what she learnt in Class XII Physics.
(A) What was the installation at Chernobyl where the disaster took place? What, according to you,
was the cause of this disaster?

(B) Explain the process of release of energy in the installation at Chernobyl.

(C) What, according to you, were the values displayed by Asha and her mother?

[CBSE 2017]
 Numerical Qs (1-5 marks)
B.E.
20. A nucleus with mass number 𝐴 = 240 and = 7.6MeV breaks into two fragments each of 𝐴 =
𝐴
B.E.
120 with = 8.5MeV. Calculate the released energy. [CBSE 2016]
𝐴
Page 1
Class 12th Physics

13 NUCLEI
INTRODUCTION

(Practice Sheet)
1 Which of the following particles has the smallest mass?
A. Proton B. Neutron
C. Electron D. Alpha particle
2 The radioactive decay of a nucleus results in the emission of:
A. Electrons B. Alpha particles
C. Beta particles D. Gamma rays
3 Which of the following forces is responsible for holding the nucleus together?
A. Gravitational force B. Electromagnetic force
C. Weak nuclear force D. Strong nuclear force
4 The binding energy of a nucleus is:
A. The energy required to remove a neutron B. The energy released when a nucleus is
from the nucleus formed from its individual nucleons
C. The energy required to separate the D. The energy released when a nucleus
protons and neutrons in a nucleus undergoes radioactive decay
5 The nuclear reaction in which a heavy nucleus splits into two or more lighter nuclei is
called:
A. Nuclear fission B. Nuclear fusion
C. Radioactive decay D. Beta decay
6 The atomic masses of two isotopes X and Y are 16u and 18u, respectively. If the isotopes
have an equal number of neutrons, find the atomic number of X and Y.
7 The half-life of a radioactive substance is 10 days. How long will it take for the sample to
decay to one-eighth of its original amount?
8 B0
The average binding energy per nucleon for a nucleus is given by B = , where B0 is the
A
binding energy and A is the mass number. Calculate the binding energy of a nucleus with
mass number A = 20, given that the average binding energy per nucleon is 8.5 MeV.
9 The radioactive decay of a substance is described by the equation N(t) = N0 × e−λt , where
N(t) is the number of radioactive nuclei at time t, N0 is the initial number of radioactive nuclei,
and λ is the decay constant. If the half-life of the substance is 3 days, calculate the value of
the decay constant.
10 The activity of a radioactive sample is 1000 disintegrations per second. If the half-life of the
substance is 10 seconds, calculate the initial number of radioactive nuclei in the sample.
Page 1
Class 12th Physics

13 NUCLEI
RADIOACTIVITY

(Practice Sheet)
1 Which of the following particles is emitted during alpha decay?
A. Electron B. Proton
C. Neutron D. Helium nucleus
2 The half-life of a radioactive substance is 10 days. If initially, there are 100 grams of the
substance, how much will remain after 30 days?
A. 10 grams B. 12.5 grams
C. 25 grams D. 50 grams
3 Which of the following types of radiation has the greatest penetration power?
A. Alpha particles B. Beta particles
C. Gamma rays D. Neutrons
4 The radioactive isotope, iodine-131, is commonly used in medical imaging. It undergoes
beta decay. What is the product of this decay?
A. Iodine-130 B. Xenon-131
C. Tellurium-131 D. None of the above
5 The process of nuclear fission involves:
A. Combining two atomic nuclei to form a B. Splitting a heavy atomic nucleus into two
heavier nucleus or more lighter nuclei
C. Conversion of a proton into a neutron D. Conversion of a neutron into a proton
6 The half-life of a radioactive substance is 10 days. If the initial mass of the substance is 200
grams, what will be its mass after 30 days?
7 A sample of radioactive material has an initial activity of 1000 disintegrations per second. If
its half-life is 5 minutes, what will be its activity after 20 minutes?
8 The half-life of a radioactive substance is 3 hours. If the initial activity is 8000 disintegrations
per minute, what will be its activity after 12 hours?
9 The half-life of a radioactive substance is 20 seconds. If the initial number of nuclei is 1.6 ×
106, what will be the number of nuclei left after 80 seconds?
10 The half-life of a radioactive substance is 2 hours. If the initial number of nuclei is 1.6 × 106,
what will be the activity of the substance after 8 hours?
Page 1
Class 12th Physics

13 NUCLEI
MASS – ENERGY RELATION

(Practice Sheet)
1 The mass defect of a nucleus is given by:
A. Mass of the nucleus B. Mass of the nucleons
D. Difference between the mass of the
C. Mass of the protons nucleus and the sum of the masses of its
individual nucleons
2 Which equation represents the mass-energy relation?
A. E = mc2 B. E = mc
m
C. E = m + c2 D. E =
c2
3 The mass defect is converted into:
A. Binding energy B. Nuclear potential energy
C. Kinetic energy D. All the above
4 Which process releases energy from the nucleus?
A. Fission B. Fusion
C. Both fission and fusion D. None of the above
5 Which of the following is responsible for the stability of the nucleus?
A. Strong nuclear force B. Electromagnetic force
C. Weak nuclear force D. Gravitational force
6 Calculate the energy released when 1kg of mass is completely converted into energy.
7 The binding energy of a nucleus is 100MeV. Calculate the mass defect of the nucleus.
8 The mass of a helium nucleus (He-4) is 4.00151 atomic mass units (u). Calculate its binding
energy.
9 Calculate the energy released when 1g of mass is converted into energy.
10 The binding energy of a nucleus is 200MeV. Calculate the mass defect in atomic mass units
(u).
Page 1
Class 12th Physics

13 NUCLEI
NUCLEAR FISSION & FUSION

(Practice Sheet)
1 Which of the following statements is true regarding nuclear fission?
A. It involves the merging of two atomic B. It releases energy when a heavy nucleus
nuclei to form a heavier nucleus. splits into smaller fragments.
C. It occurs naturally in stars through the D. It does not require any external source of
fusion of hydrogen nuclei. energy.
2 Which of the following is the correct equation representing a nuclear fission reaction?
4 1 3 2 92 0 56 36 0
A. He + n → H + H B. U + n → Ba + Kr + 3 ( n)
2 0 1 1 235 1 140 93 1
2 2 4 1 1 1 2
C. H + H → He + n D. n + n → H
1 1 2 0 0 0 1
3 Which of the following elements is commonly used as a fuel in nuclear reactors for
fission?
A. Uranium B. Helium
C. Hydrogen D. Carbon
4 Which of the following is not a product of a nuclear fission reaction?
A. Neutrons B. Protons
C. Helium nuclei D. Gamma rays
5 Which of the following statements is true regarding nuclear fusion?
A. It involves the splitting of a heavy nucleus B. It releases energy when two light nuclei
into smaller fragments. combine to form a heavier nucleus.
C. It occurs naturally in radioactive decay D. It can only occur at extremely high
processes. temperatures.
6 In a nuclear fission reaction, a nucleus of uranium-235 (235U) absorbs a neutron and splits
into two smaller nuclei, along with the emission of three neutrons. Calculate the energy
released in this reaction. Given that the masses of 235U, neutron, and smaller nuclei are
235.043924u, 1.008665u, and 140.914411u, respectively.
7 The energy released during the fusion of two deuterium nuclei (2H) is 5.5MeV. Calculate the
change in mass during this fusion reaction.
8 A nuclear reactor operates with a power output of 500MW. If the energy released per
fission event in the reactor is 200MeV, calculate the number of fission events occurring per
second.
9 A deuteron (2H) undergoes a fusion reaction with a triton (3H) to form a helium-4 nucleus
(4He). Calculate the energy released in this fusion reaction. Given that the masses of 2H, 3H,
and 4He are 2.014102u, 3.01604 u, and 4.001506u, respectively.
Page 2
Class 12th Physics

13 NUCLEI
NUCLEAR FISSION & FUSION

10 A nuclear reactor produces a power output of 1000MW. If the energy released per fission
event is 200MeV, calculate the number of fission events occurring in one hour.
EXEMPLAR SOLUTION Chapter 13-
Nuclei
Multiple Choice Questions I

13.1. Suppose we consider a large number of containers each containing initially 10000 atoms of a
radioactive material with a half life of 1 year. After 1 year
(a) all the containers will have 5000 atoms of the material
(b) all the containers will contain the same number of atoms of the material but that number will only be
approximately 5000
(c) the containers will in general have different numbers of the atoms of the material but their average will
be close to 5000
(d) none of the containers can have more than 5000 atoms
Answer:
(c) the containers will in general have different numbers of the atoms of the material but their average will
be close to 5000

13.2. The gravitational force between a H-atom and another particle of mass m will be given by Newton’s
law: F = G M.m/r2 , where r is in km and
(a) M = mproton + m electron
(b) M = mproton + melectron - B/c2 (B = 13.6 eV)
(c) M is not related to the mass of the hydrogen atom
(d) M = mproton + m electron |V |/c2 - (|V | = magnitude of the potential energy of electron in the H-atom)
Answer:
(b) M = mproton + melectron - B/c2 (B = 13.6 eV)

13.3. When a nucleus in an atom undergoes a radioactive decay, the electronic energy levels of the atom
(a) do not change for any type of radioactivity
(b) change for α and β radioactivity but not for γ-radioactivity
(c) change for α-radioactivity but not for others
(d) change for β-radioactivity but not for others
Answer:
(b) change for α and β radioactivity but not for γ-radioactivity

13.4. Mx and My denote the atomic masses of the parent and the daughter nuclei respectively in a
radioactive decay. The Q-value for a β– decay is Q1 and that for a β + decay is Q2. If me denotes the mass
of an electron, then which of the following statements is correct?
(a) Q1 = (Mx – My) c2 and Q2 = (Mx – My – 2me )c2
(b) Q1 = (Mx – My ) c2 and Q2 = (Mx – My )c2
(c) Q1 = (Mx – My – 2me ) c2 and Q2 = (Mx – My +2 me )c2
(d) Q1 = (Mx – My + 2me ) c2 and Q2 = (Mx – My +2 me )c2
Answer:
(a) Q1 = (Mx – My) c2 and Q2 = (Mx – My – 2me )c2

13.5 Tritium is an isotope of hydrogen whose nucleus Triton contains 2 neutrons and 1 proton. Free

neutrons decay into . If one of the neutrons in Triton decays, it would transform into He3
nucleus. This does not happen. This is because
(a) Triton energy is less than that of a He3 nucleus
(b) the electron created in the beta decay process cannot remain in the nucleus
(c) both the neutrons in triton have to decay simultaneously resulting in a nucleus with 3 protons, which is
not a He3 nucleus
(d) because free neutrons decay due to external perturbations which is absent in a triton nucleus
Answer:
(a) Triton energy is less than that of a He3 nucleus

13.6. Heavy stable nuclei have more neutrons than protons. This is because of the fact that
(a) neutrons are heavier than protons
(b) electrostatic force between protons are repulsive
(c) neutrons decay into protons through beta decay
(d) nuclear forces between neutrons are weaker than that between protons
Answer:
(b) electrostatic force between protons are repulsive

13.7. In a nuclear reactor, moderators slow down the neutrons which come out in a fission process. The
moderator used have light nuclei. Heavy nuclei will not serve the purpose because
(a) they will break up
(b) elastic collision of neutrons with heavy nuclei will not slow them down
(c) the net weight of the reactor would be unbearably high
(d) substances with heavy nuclei do not occur in liquid or gaseous state at room temperature
Answer:
(b) elastic collision of neutrons with heavy nuclei will not slow them down

Multiple Choice Questions II

13.8. Fusion processes, like combining two deuterons to form a He nucleus are impossible at ordinary
temperatures and pressure. The reasons for this can be traced to the fact:
(a) nuclear forces have short range
(b) nuclei are positively charged
(c) the original nuclei must be completely ionized before fusion can take place
(d) the original nuclei must first break up before combining with each other
Answer:
(a) nuclear forces have short range
(b) nuclei are positively charged

13.9. Samples of two radioactive nuclides A and B are taken. λA and λB are the disintegration constants of
A and B respectively. In which of the following cases, the two samples can simultaneously have the same
decay rate at any time?
(a) Initial rate of decay of A is twice the initial rate of decay of B and λA = λB
(b) Initial rate of decay of A is twice the initial rate of decay of B and λA > λB
(c) Initial rate of decay of B is twice the initial rate of decay of A and λA > λB
(d) Initial rate of decay of B is same as the rate of decay of A at t = 2h and λB < λA
Answer:
(b) Initial rate of decay of A is twice the initial rate of decay of B and λA > λB
(d) Initial rate of decay of B is same as the rate of decay of A at t = 2h and λB < λA

13.10. The variation of decay rate of two radioactive samples A and B with time is shown in the figure.
Which of the following statements are true?
 dN/dt P

(a) Decay constant of A is greater than that of B, hence A always decays faster than B
(b) Decay constant of B is greater than that of A but its decay rate is always smaller than that of A
(c) Decay constant of A is greater than that of B but it does not always decay faster than B
(d) Decay constant of B is smaller than that of A but still its decay rate becomes equal to that of A at a later
instant
Answer:
(c) Decay constant of A is greater than that of B but it does not always decay faster than B
(d) Decay constant of B is smaller than that of A but still its decay rate becomes equal to that of A at a later
instant

Very Short Answers

13.11. and nuclei have the same mass number. Do they have the same binding energy?
Answer:
He23 and He13 have the same mass number but the binding energy of these two nuclei is different. The binding
energy of the He13 is greater than the He23 because the number of protons and neutrons present in both the nuclei
are different. He13 has one proton and two neutrons while He23 has two protons and one neutron.

13.12. Draw a graph showing the variation of decay rate with number of active nuclei.

dN/dt
N

According to Rutherford and Soddy law, the radioactive decay is given as –dN/dt = λN.

13.13. Which sample, A or B shown in the figure has shorter mean-life?

dN/dt

A
B

T
Answer:
At t= 0, (dN/dt)A = (dN/dt)B
dN/dt = -λN
(No)A = (No)B
λANA = λBNB
Na > NB
λB > λA

13.14. Which one of the following cannot emit radiation and why? Excited nucleus, excited electron.
Answer:
Excited electron cannot emit radiation because the energy of the electronic energy level is in the range of eV and
not in MeV.

13.15. In pair annihilation, an electron and a positron destroy each other to produce gamma radiation.
How is the momentum conserved?
Answer:
In pair annihilation, an electron and a positron destroy each other to produce gamma radiation and their
momentum is conserved as they move in opposite directions to conserve the momentum.

Short Answers
13.16. Why do stable nuclei never have more protons than neutrons?
Answer:
A stable nuclei never have more protons than neutrons because protons are charged particles and they repel each
other. The repulsion is so much that excess neutrons only produce attractive forces and this is sufficient enough to
build stability.

13.17. Consider a radioactive nucleus A which decays to a stable nucleus C through the following sequence:
A → B → C Here B is an intermediate nuclei which is also radioactive. Considering that there are N0 atoms
of A initially, plot the graph showing the variation of number of atoms of A and B versus time.
Answer:
 A
No.of
atoms

Time

13.18. A piece of wood from the ruins of an ancient building was found to have a C14 activity of 12
disintegrations per minute per gram of its carbon content. The 14C activity of the living wood is 16
disintegrations per minute per gram. How long ago did the tree, from which the wooden sample came, die?
Given half-life of C14 is 5760 years.
Answer:
C14 activity of a piece of wood from the ruins is R = 12 dis/min per gram
C14 activity of a living wood = Ro = 16 dis/min per gram
Half life of C14 = 5760 years
Using radioactive law,
R = Roe-λt
t = 2391.20 year

13.19. Are the nucleons fundamental particles, or do they consist of still smaller parts? One way to find out
is to probe a nucleon just as Rutherford probed an atom. What should be the kinetic energy of an electron
for it to be able to probe a nucleon? Assume the diameter of a nucleon to be approximately 10–15 m.
Answer:
λ = h/p and kinetic energy = potential energy
E = hc/ λ
Kinetic energy of an electron
KE = PE = hc/ λ = 109 eV

13.20. A nuclide 1 is said to be the mirror isobar of nuclide 2 if Z1 =N2 and Z2 =N1.

(a) What nuclide is a mirror isobar of ?

(b) Which nuclide out of the two mirror isobars have greater binding energy and why?
Answer:
a) From question, we know that a nuclide 1 is to be the mirror isobar of nuclide 2
if
Z1 = N2 and Z2 = N1
Therefore, mirror isobar is Z2 = 12 – N1 and N2 = 23 -12 = 11 = Z1

b) Mg has greater binding energy than Na.

Long Answers

13.21. Sometimes a radioactive nucleus decays into a nucleus which itself is radioactive. An example is
 Assume that we start with 1000 38S nuclei at time t = 0. The number of 38Cl is of count zero at t = 0 and
will again be zero at t = ∞ . At what value of t, would the number of counts be a maximum?
Answer:
Let λ1 and λ2 be the disintegration constants for S38 and Cl38
dN1/dt = - λN1
dN2/dt = rate of decay of Cl38 + rate of formation of Gl38
dN2/dt = -λ2N2 + λ1N1
e λ2tdN2 + λ2N2e λ2t dt = λ1Noe(λ2 – λ1)dt
Integrating the above equation we get,
t = 1.65 h

13.22. Deuteron is a bound state of a neutron and a proton with a binding energy B = 2.2 MeV. A γ -ray of
energy E is aimed at a deuteron nucleus to try to break it into a (neutron + proton) such that the n and p
move in the direction of the incident γ-ray. If E = B, show that this cannot happen. Hence calculate how
much bigger than B must E be for such a process to happen.
Answer:
The binding energy of a deuteron = B = 2.2 MeV
Kn, Kp are the kinetic energies of neutron and proton
pn and pp are the momentum of neutron and proton
E – B = Kn + Kp
B must be B2/4mc2 for B to be much bigger than E.

13.23. The deuteron is bound by nuclear forces just as H-atom is made up of p and e bound by electrostatic
forces. If we consider the force between neutron and proton in deuteron as given in the form of a Coulomb

potential but with an effective charge e′: estimate the value of (e’/e) given that the
binding energy of a deuteron is 2.2 MeV.
Answer:
The binding energy of H atom = E = 13.6 eV
The reduced m’ = 918 m
The mass of a neutron or a proton is given as mp
The binding energy of the deutreron is 2.2 MeV
Therefore, the e’/e = 3.64

13.24. Before the neutrino hypothesis, the beta decay process was throught to be the transition,
If this was true, show that if the neutron was at rest, the proton and electron would
emerge with fixed energies and calculate them. Experimentally, the electron energy was found to have a
large range.
Answer:
Let us consider cases before and after β-decay
Before β-decay, En = mnc2 and pn = 0
After β-decay, pn = pp + pe
pc = mnc2 – mpc2 = 938 MeV – 936 MeV = 2 MeV
Ep = 936 MeV
Ee = 2.06 MeV

13.25. The activity R of an unknown radioactive nuclide is measured at hourly intervals. The results found
are tabulated as follows:
t(h) 0 1 2 3 4
R(MBq) 100 35.36 12.51 4.42 1.56

(i) Plot the graph of R versus t and calculate half-life from the graph.
(ii) Plot the graph of ln(R/R0) versus t and obtain the value of half-life from the graph.
Answer:
i)

R(MBq)

t(h)
From graph we can say that the activity of R has reduced by 50%. Therefore, the half-life is 40 mins.

ii) ln(R/Ro)

n(h)

Slope of the graph = - λ

λ = 1.05 h-1
Half-time = 0.693/ λ = 0.66 h = 39.6 min = 40 min

13.26. Nuclei with magic no. of proton Z = 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 52 and magic no. of neutrons N = 2, 8, 20, 28, 50,
82 and 126 are found to be very stable
(i) Verify this by calculating the proton separation energy Sp for Sn120 (Z = 50) and Sb121 = (Z = 51). The
proton separation energy for a nuclide is the minimum energy required to separate the least tightly bound
proton from a nucleus of that nuclide. It is given by Sp = (MZ–1, N + MH – MZ,N) c2. Given In119 = 118.9058u,
Sn120 = 119.902199u, Sb121 = 120.903824u, H1 = 1.0078252u
(ii) What does the existence of magic number indicate?
Answer:
i) The proton separation energy is SpSn = (M119.70 + Mh – M120.70)c2 = 0.0114362 c2
Similarly SpSp = (M120.70 + Mh – M121.70)c2 = 0.0059912 c2
Sinec SpSn > SpSp, Sn nucleus is more stable than Sb nucleus.
ii) The magic numbers indicate that the shell structure of the nucleus is similar to the shell structure of the atom.
This explains the peaks in the binding energy.
 NCERT TEXTBOOK SOLUTION

Chapter 13
Nuclei

Exercises
Question 13.1:

Obtain the binding energy (in MeV) of a nitrogen nucleus , given =14.00307 u

Answer:

Atomic mass of nitrogen , m = 14.00307 u

A nucleus of nitrogen contains 7 protons and 7 neutrons.

Hence, the mass defect of this nucleus, Δm = 7mH + 7mn − m

Where,

Mass of a proton, mH = 1.007825 u

Mass of a neutron, mn= 1.008665 u

∴Δm = 7 × 1.007825 + 7 × 1.008665 − 14.00307

= 7.054775 + 7.06055 − 14.00307

= 0.11236 u

But 1 u = 931.5 MeV/c2

∴Δm = 0.11236 × 931.5 MeV/c2

Hence, the binding energy of the nucleus is given as:

Eb = Δmc2

Where,

c = Speed of light

∴Eb = 0.11236 × 931.5

= 104.66334 MeV
Hence, the binding energy of a nitrogen nucleus is 104.66334 MeV.

Question 13.2:

Obtain the binding energy of the nuclei and in units of MeV from the following data:

= 55.934939 u = 208.980388 u

Answer:

Atomic mass of , m1 = 55.934939 u

nucleus has 26 protons and (56 − 26) = 30 neutrons

Hence, the mass defect of the nucleus, Δm = 26 × mH + 30 × mn − m1

Where,

Mass of a proton, mH = 1.007825 u

Mass of a neutron, mn = 1.008665 u

∴Δm = 26 × 1.007825 + 30 × 1.008665 − 55.934939

= 26.20345 + 30.25995 − 55.934939

= 0.528461 u

But 1 u = 931.5 MeV/c2

∴Δm = 0.528461 × 931.5 MeV/c2

The binding energy of this nucleus is given as:

Eb1 = Δmc2

Where,

c = Speed of light

∴Eb1 = 0.528461 × 931.5

= 492.26 MeV

Average binding energy per nucleon

Atomic mass of , m2 = 208.980388 u

nucleus has 83 protons and (209 − 83) 126 neutrons.

Hence, the mass defect of this nucleus is given as:

Δm‘ = 83 × mH + 126 × mn − m2

Where,

Mass of a proton, mH = 1.007825 u

Mass of a neutron, mn = 1.008665 u

∴Δm‘ = 83 × 1.007825 + 126 × 1.008665 − 208.980388

= 83.649475 + 127.091790 − 208.980388

= 1.760877 u

But 1 u = 931.5 MeV/c2

∴Δm‘ = 1.760877 × 931.5 MeV/c2

Hence, the binding energy of this nucleus is given as:

Eb2 = Δm‘c2

= 1.760877 × 931.5

= 1640.26 MeV

Average binding energy per nucleon =

Question 13.3:

A given coin has a mass of 3.0 g. Calculate the nuclear energy that would be required to
separate all the neutrons and protons from each other. For simplicity assume that the coin is
entirely made of atoms (of mass 62.92960 u).

Answer:

Mass of a copper coin, m’ = 3 g

Atomic mass of atom, m = 62.92960 u

The total number of atoms in the coin

Where,

NA = Avogadro’s number = 6.023 × 1023 atoms /g

Mass number = 63 g

nucleus has 29 protons and (63 − 29) 34 neutrons.

∴Mass defect of this nucleus, Δm‘ = 29 × mH + 34 × mn − m

Where,

Mass of a proton, mH = 1.007825 u

Mass of a neutron, mn = 1.008665 u

∴Δm‘ = 29 × 1.007825 + 34 × 1.008665 − 62.9296

= 0.591935 u

Mass defect of all the atoms present in the coin, Δm = 0.591935 × 2.868 × 1022

= 1.69766958 × 1022 u

But 1 u = 931.5 MeV/c2

∴Δm = 1.69766958 × 1022 × 931.5 MeV/c2

Hence, the binding energy of the nuclei of the coin is given as:

Eb= Δmc2

= 1.69766958 × 1022 × 931.5

= 1.581 × 1025 MeV

But 1 MeV = 1.6 × 10−13 J

Eb = 1.581 × 1025 × 1.6 × 10−13

= 2.5296 × 1012 J
This much energy is required to separate all the neutrons and protons from the given coin.

Question 13.4:

Obtain approximately the ratio of the nuclear radii of the gold isotope and the silver
isotope .

Answer:

Nuclear radius of the gold isotope = RAu

Nuclear radius of the silver isotope = RAg

Mass number of gold, AAu = 197

Mass number of silver, AAg = 107

The ratio of the radii of the two nuclei is related with their mass numbers as:

Hence, the ratio of the nuclear radii of the gold and silver isotopes is about 1.23.

Question 13.5:

The Q value of a nuclear reaction A + b → C + d is defined by.

Q = [ mA+ mb− mC− md]c2 where the masses refer to the respective nuclei. Determine from
the given data the Q-value of the following reactions and state whether the reactions are
exothermic or endothermic.

(i)

(ii)

Atomic masses are given to be.

Answer:

(i) The given nuclear reaction is:

It is given that:

Atomic mass

Atomic mass

Atomic mass

According to the Question, the Q-value of the reaction can be written as:

The negative Q-value of the reaction shows that the reaction is endothermic.

(ii) The given nuclear reaction is:

It is given that:

Atomic mass of
Atomic mass of

Atomic mass of

The Q-value of this reaction is given as:

The positive Q-value of the reaction shows that the reaction is exothermic.

Question 13.6:

Suppose we think of fission of a nucleus into two equal fragments, . Is the fission

energetically possible? Argue by working out Q of the process. Given

and .

Answer:

The fission of can be given as:

It is given that:

Atomic mass of = 55.93494 u

Atomic mass of

The Q-value of this nuclear reaction is given as:

The Q-value of the fission is negative. Therefore, the fission is not possible energetically. For
an energetically possible fission reaction, the Q-value must be positive.

Question 13.7:

The fission properties of are very similar to those of .

The average energy released per fission is 180 MeV. How much energy, in MeV, is released if
all the atoms in 1 kg of pure undergo fission?

Answer:

Average energy released per fission of ,

Amount of pure , m = 1 kg = 1000 g

NA= Avogadro number = 6.023 × 1023

Mass number of = 239 g

1 mole of contains NA atoms.

∴m g of contains

∴Total energy released during the fission of 1 kg of is calculated as:

Hence, is released if all the atoms in 1 kg of pure undergo fission.

Question 13.8:

How long can an electric lamp of 100W be kept glowing by fusion of 2.0 kg of deuterium? Take
the fusion reaction as

Answer:
The given fusion reaction is:

Amount of deuterium, m = 2 kg

1 mole, i.e., 2 g of deuterium contains 6.023 × 1023 atoms.

∴2.0 kg of deuterium contains

It can be inferred from the given reaction that when two atoms of deuterium fuse, 3.27 MeV
energy is released.

∴Total energy per nucleus released in the fusion reaction:

Power of the electric lamp, P = 100 W = 100 J/s

Hence, the energy consumed by the lamp per second = 100 J

The total time for which the electric lamp will glow is calculated as:

Question 13.9:

Calculate the height of the potential barrier for a head on collision of two deuterons. (Hint: The
height of the potential barrier is given by the Coulomb repulsion between the two deuterons
when they just touch each other. Assume that they can be taken as hard spheres of radius 2.0
fm.)

Answer:

When two deuterons collide head-on, the distance between their centres, d is given as:
Radius of 1st deuteron + Radius of 2nd deuteron

Radius of a deuteron nucleus = 2 fm = 2 × 10−15 m

∴d = 2 × 10−15 + 2 × 10−15 = 4 × 10−15 m

Charge on a deuteron nucleus = Charge on an electron = e = 1.6 × 10−19 C

Potential energy of the two-deuteron system:

Where,

= Permittivity of free space

Hence, the height of the potential barrier of the two-deuteron system is.

360 keV.

Question 13.10:

From the relation R = R0A1/3, where R0 is a constant and A is the mass number of a nucleus,
show that the nuclear matter density is nearly constant (i.e., independent of A).

Answer:

We have the expression for nuclear radius as:

R = R0A1/3

Where,
R0 = Constant.

A = Mass number of the nucleus

Nuclear matter density,

Let m be the average mass of the nucleus.

Hence, mass of the nucleus = mA

Hence, the nuclear matter density is independent of A. It is nearly constant.

 NUCLEI
13
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