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Ansgar Zerfass · Betteke van Ruler
Krishnamurthy Sriramesh (Eds.)

Public Relations Research

Ansgar Zerfass
Betteke van Ruler
Krishnamurthy Sriramesh (Eds.)

Public Relations
Research
European and
International Perspectives
and Innovations
Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek
Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data is available in the Internet at <http://dnb.d-nb.de>.

This book has been published as a Festschrift for Prof. Dr. Günter Bentele,
University of Leipzig, on the occasion of his 60th birthday in March 2008.

1st Edition 2008

All rights reserved

© VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften | GWV Fachverlage GmbH, Wiesbaden 2008

Editorial Office: Barbara Emig-Roller

VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften

is part of the specialist publishing group Springer Science+Business Media.
www.vs-verlag.de

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or

transmitted, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise without prior permission of
the copyright holder.

Cover design: KünkelLopka Medienentwicklung, Heidelberg

Layout and proofreading: Kristin Köhler, Leipzig
Printing and binding: Krips b.v., Meppel
Printed on acid-free paper
Printed in the Netherlands

ISBN 978-3-531-15602-6
Content
Content

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………… 9

Part I
Public Relations, Intereffication and Trust....……………………………………... 17

Public Relations Theory: The Reconstructive Approach

(Günter Bentele)………………………………………………………………………. 19

The Intereffication Model: Theoretical Discussions and Empirical Research

(Günter Bentele & Howard Nothhaft)………………………………………………… 33

Trust and Credibility – Prerequisites for Communication Management

(Günter Bentele & René Seidenglanz)……………………………………………….... 49

Part II
Advancements in Communication Management…………………………………... 63

Corporate Communication Revisited:

Integrating Business Strategy and Strategic Communication
(Ansgar Zerfass)………………………………………………………………………. 65

Organization and Communication:

An Integrative Approach to Public Relations and Communication Management
(Peter Szyszka)……………………………………………………………………….... 97

Organizational Communication and Public Relations:

A Conceptual Framework for a Common Ground
(Anna Maria Theis-Berglmair)………………………………………………………... 111

The True, the Good and the Beautiful:

Reputation Management in the Media Society
(Mark Eisenegger & Kurt Imhof)……………………………………………………... 125

Internal Communication and Leadership

(Claudia Mast & Simone Huck)……………………………………………………….. 147
6 Content

Internal Communication as Management of Trust Relations:

A Theoretical Framework
(Ulrike Röttger & Andreas Voss)……………………………………………………... 163

Evaluating Strategic Communication:

Theoretical and Methodological Requirements
(Juliana Raupp)……………………………………………………………………….. 179

Political Public Relations:

Research on its Success and its Influence on German Media Coverage
(Romy Fröhlich)………………………………………………………………………. 193

Public Relations and Public Diplomacy: Some Conceptual Explorations

(Benno Signitzer)……………………………………………………………………… 205

Communication Management, Organizational Communication and Public Relations:

Developments and Future Directions from a German Perspective
(Stefan Wehmeier)…………………………………………………………………….. 219

Part III
European Perspectives in Communication Management…………………………. 233

Reflection: Legitimising Late Modernity

(Susanne Holmström)………………………………………………………………….. 235

Public Relations, Persuasion and Propaganda:

Truth, Knowledge, Spirituality and Mystique
(Jacquie L’Etang)……………………………………………………………………... 251

Public Relations and Power: How Hard is Soft Power?

(Dejan Verþiþ)………………………………………………………………………… 271

Intangible Assets and Communication

(Peggy Simcic Brønn)…………………………………………………………………. 281

Glocalising Public Relations and Crisis Communication:

Bridging Gaps of Trust in Multicultural Societies
(Jesper Falkheimer)…………………………………………………………………... 293

Risks and Crises in Virtual Publicity –

Can Publicity Crises Be Prevented by Public Relations in the Cyberspace?
(Jaakko Lehtonen)…………………………………………………………………….. 305
Content 7

Communication Management in Europe – Challenges and Opportunities

(Betteke van Ruler & Dejan Verþiþ)…………………………………………………... 313

Part IV
International Challenges for Public Relations……………………………………... 325

Excellence Theory in Public Relations: Past, Present, and Future

(James E. Grunig & Larissa A. Grunig)……………………………………………… 327

Rhetorical Perspective and Public Relations: Meaning Matters

(Robert L. Heath & Finn Frandsen)…………………………………………………... . 349

Reconsidering Strategic Corporate Social Responsibility:

Public Relations and Ethical Engagement of Employees in a Global Economy
(Steve May)……………………………………………………………………………. 365

Linking Stakeholder Relationships and Corporate Reputation:

A Public Relations Framework for Corporate Sustainability
(Ronél Rensburg, Estelle de Beer & Elsamari Coetzee)……………………………… 385

Situating Science: Public Relations, Status, and Theoretical Trends

(David McKie)………………………………………………………………………… 397

Globalization and Public Relations

(Krishnamurthy Sriramesh)…………………………………………………………… 409

Annex…………………………………………………………………………………. 427

Günter Bentele – Curriculum Vitae………………………………………………….... 429

Publications by Günter Bentele……………………………………………………….. 431

About the Editors……...………………………………………………………………. 449

About the Contributors………………………………………………………………... 451

Introduction 9

Introduction
Sriramesh, Van Ruler & Zerfass

Krishnamurthy Sriramesh, Betteke van Ruler & Ansgar Zerfass

One could make a reasonable argument that public relations is an ancient practice (going
back millennia) although it has been popularly perceived as a 20th century phenomenon.
Scholarship in public relations, however, is more recent in origin with a history of less than
four decades. During these formative years, the body of knowledge has expanded signifi-
cantly, which is laudable. However, there is potential for growth and improvement in many
areas of the public relations literature. Over the decades, among other things, public rela-
tions scholarship has largely remained parochial to specific regions such as the United
States, the United Kingdom, Latin America, German speaking Europe, etc. as evidenced in
the bibliographic references of many essays in this volume itself where authors predomi-
nantly cite work from their own regions. This is often necessitated by linguistic differences
with only English serving as the “universal” language that helps permeate knowledge
through most regions. Pedagogical and methodological factors also have played a role in
the “regionalization” of the body of knowledge. However, we believe that knowledge flour-
ishes most when it is shared across different kinds of barriers. Globalization has made it
essential for us to recognize this reality more than ever. This volume tries to bridge the gap
and presents theories and concepts from researchers around the world.

1 Stimulating the Debate on Public Relations Theory

Although there has been an increase in cross-national and cross-cultural knowledge sharing
especially in the past decade, we deem this only as a good beginning that has great potential
for exponential growth. It is with this broad goal in mind that we envisaged this book pool-
ing the wisdom and perspectives of fertile minds from different parts of the world on vari-
ous aspects of public relations and communication management. Whereas knowledge shar-
ing itself might have been a laudable reason to launch such a worthy project, we had an-
other happier reason to envisage this volume – dedicating the book to celebrate a milestone
in the life of a valued and renowned colleague. As a result, we have brought together schol-
ars from around the world to share their perspectives in this compilation to mark the 60th
birthday of Günter Bentele, the most renowned German-speaking scholar and researcher in
public relations.
Unlike a traditional Festschrift, we refrained from asking the most important fellows
of Günter Bentele’s career to contribute to this volume preferring instead to also foster
research in public relations by gathering concepts advocated by those who are shaping the
future of the field. This mirrors Bentele’s aspiration to bridge the gap between research
traditions in different cultures and disciplines, and to support fresh thinking by younger
scholars. Bentele, whose curriculum vitae and impressive list of publications is presented in
the appendix, has published almost 40 books and more than 200 articles or book chapters.
He also has conducted numerous empirical studies and delivered speeches at conferences in
many countries. He has served as president of the European Public Relations Education and
Research Association (EUPRERA) and president of the German Association of Communi-
10 Sriramesh, Van Ruler & Zerfass

cation Science (DGPuK). He also has been member of international committees (such as
the Program Committee of the annual BledCom research symposium), and has served as
visiting professor at many universities both in Europe and overseas. In Germany, he has
been awarded the titles “Professor of the year” recognizing his contributions to public rela-
tions education, and “Public Relations head of the year” in honour of his efforts to bridge
the chasm between theory and practice.
Readers will notice that we have divided the book into four sections each with a broad
theme although diversity of perspectives is evident within the totality of the volume. We
offer three essays from Bentele (and his co-authors) in the first part offering readers a
glimpse into his thoughts on a few topics dear to his heart. The second section highlights
the work of scholars of public relations and communication management from German
speaking countries. As mentioned earlier, language has been one of the primary impedi-
ments to seamless cross-national exchange of knowledge in our field. So, by providing the
work of the current generation of German-speaking scholars in English here, we wish to
offer their wisdom to a wider audience. The third part offers perspectives from scholars
from non-German speaking European countries. The final section offers essays from inter-
national scholars hailing from the US, Africa, Asia, and Australasia. We believe that this
may be a unique compilation because of its diversity in perspectives and authorship, which,
in our humble view, is a significant contribution to the body of knowledge.

2 The Relevance of Epistemology and Trust

Part I „Public Relations, Intereffication and Trust“ introduces the work of Günter Bentele.
It brings together three concepts that are widely recognized as landmarks of communication
management research in Germany. Inspired by the intense discussion about the philosophy
of science and paradigmatic approaches to communication research, Günter Bentele ex-
plains the process of developing theories and models in the field of public relations. His
reconstructive approach argues that natural and social reality is communicatively recon-
structed in processes of public communication that emerge through public relations as well
as advertising and journalistic activities. Within those processes, the principles of perspec-
tivity, selectivity and constructivity are most relevant. Reflecting the structures of commu-
nication management enables him to build a generic model of information and relationships
that guides public relations research and practice. The next chapter, authored by Günter
Bentele and Howard Nothhaft, introduces the intereffication model for explaining the rela-
tionship between media relations and journalism. Empirical results drawn from research
projects conducted in Leipzig and elsewhere demonstrate the relevance of the model for
theory and practice. Relating to both the reconstructive approach and the rules of the media
system applied by journalists and PR professionals, phenomena like trust and credibility
gain a vast importance in modern societies. Consequently, Günter Bentele and René Sei-
denglanz dedicate their chapter to a theory of public trust. Public trust is defined as the
process and result of attributing trust to publicly observable actors (individuals, organisa-
tions) and systems by the means of public communication. This theory, which has been
developed by Bentele in his habilitation thesis, is of outstanding significance for the prac-
tice of communication management. It identifies various factors of trust and mistrust that
Introduction 11

can be used to monitor the media environment and to manage public relations and risk
communication.
The concept of trust can be seen as the pivotal point within Bentele’s research. Trust is
indispendable when describing the reconstruction of reality by relying on organisational as
well as media communication and the realties they produce. It also shapes the relations
between press agents and journalists and has implications for communication management
on the level of individuals, organisations and society. Without both trust and credibility,
professional communication is not possible.

3 From Interdisciplinary Frameworks to Applications in Business and Politics

During the last two decades, public relations, communication management and organisa-
tional communication has grown to a most lively discipline in the German-speaking coun-
tries. A broad range of original concepts and empirical surveys has been published and
discussed, most of them in intense interaction with the field of practice. Regarding the
number of dissertations and newly established academic positions, most other regions have
been outperformed during the last years. However, the relatively large community with a
qualified number of book series, conferences and business networks seldom stimulates
authors from Germany, Austria and Switzerland to publish in other languages. Part II of
this book “Advancements in Communication Management” tries to close this gap. The
selection of articles resembles the tradition on focussing both the macro level of social
theory and interdisciplinary approaches, and the meso level of communication management
within organisations.
Ansgar Zerfass outlines a theory of corporate communication that builds upon an
elaborated theory of the firm and depicts the tension between economic goals and social
responsibility. He shows how communication blends into the overall framework of strategic
management, identifies four ways of creating value, explains the scope of communication
controlling and expands the notion of integrated communication by applying social theory
to internal communication, marketing communication and public relations. Peter Szyszka
argues on a similar level. He gives a broad definition of organizational communication by
considering organizations as social systems. He refers to Bentele’s reconstructive approach
and specifies the reconstructive processes taking place when organisations act in society
and make decisions which effect society. Trust and credibility are identified as most impor-
tant principles in this context. Anna Maria Theis-Berglmair tries to close the gap between
organizational communication and public relations. She develops a conceptual framework
based on systems theory that describes communication as the core element of any organiza-
tion and communication management as the management of contingency.
Mark Eisenegger and Kurt Imhof take a broader look at the concept of reputation that
is conceptualized as core asset in most organisational-centered approaches. They argue that
public relations is essentially oriented to controlling this parameter and can thus be under-
stood as reputation management. They outline a general theory of reputation as a three-
dimensional construct comprising the types of functional, social and expressive reputation.
Key regularities of media reputation are described on the basis of empirical research.
Claudia Mast and Simone Huck add to the body of knowledge by structuring the field
of leadership communication. They link leadership communication to internal communica-
12 Sriramesh, Van Ruler & Zerfass

tion and indicate implications for managerial practice. Whereas their chapter already
stresses the importance of trust, Ulrike Röttger and Andreas Voss go even further by con-
ceptualizing internal communication as management of trust relations. The authors argue
that internal communication needs to address all aspects of trust – its requirements, reasons
and dimensions – to establish and maintain mutual beneficial relations. They demonstrate
how trust created through communication can be seen as a value driver and make the point
that this is important in times where concepts of communication controlling are on the rise.
Juliana Raupp elaborates on this discussion. She reflects the theory and practice of public
relations evaluation and argues that the focus has shifted from social science approaches
towards more management- and economic-based evaluation systems. According to the
author, a comprehensive approach to link both traditions is still missing.
Public relations is relevant not only in the economic sphere, but also in the political
system. Romy Fröhlich provides a critical synopsis on the interplay between media rela-
tions and press coverage in this field. Referring to and at the same time expanding the inter-
effication model by Bentele, the author gives additional insights through empirical research
into interaction processes and variables affecting the relationship between political actors
and journalists. More specific, Benno Signitzer concentrates on the field of public diplo-
macy within political public relations. He elaborates on the applicability of different theo-
retical concepts and identifies political information and cultural communication as the two
basic principles of public diplomacy.
Last but not least, Stefan Wehmeier outlines the current disciplinary status of public re-
lations from a German perspective. By taking the terms communication management, or-
ganizational communication and public relations as starting points, the author shows over-
laps in theories, methodologies and epistemological questions. The chapter points out a
number of similarities and concludes that the focus should be on interdisciplinary ap-
proaches.

4 Contributing to Legitimisation, Crisis Avoidance and Reputation Management

Part III “European Perspectives in Communication Management” gives an overview of

well renowned thinking in the non-German speaking part of Europe. Although there is a
large community of professors in public relations all over Europe, original theory building
is concentrated in the northern and western parts of Europe. It is striking that most Euro-
pean public relations scholars construct their theories out of a mix of sociological, political,
organization and communication theories, and have a macro, sociological view on public
relations.
Susanne Holmström from Denmark pleads for a reflective paradigm to analyse the in-
terrelation between society’s constitution and organisational legitimisation. She demon-
strates first how expectations to organisational legitimacy have changed in co-evolution
with society’s basic ideas, constitution and regulation; second, that we may understand
ideals of organisational legitimacy as a result of modernisation having reached a stage
where the problems created as side-effects to the blind reflexivity of solid modernity and
full functional differentiation reach a critical mass; third, that we can parallel contemporary
ideals of legitimacy with the analytical concept of reflection as opposed to reflexivity;
fourth, that we may relate contemporary inherent conflicts of legitimacy experienced by
Introduction 13

globalising organisations to the different ways in which societies are constituted today.
Jacquie L’Etang from Britain reflects upon the definitional and methodological issues that
concern the relationship between public relations and propaganda. Links are made between
the history of public relations and propaganda, and between these two concepts and notions
of spirituality, mysticism, religion and ethics. She argues that these concepts may also help
explain the fear and loathing often expressed in relation to the public relations function and
she has the challenging notion that in considering the themes of religion and spirituality we
come perhaps closer to addressing the role of persuasion in public relations and its relation-
ship to propaganda.
Dejan Verþiþ from Slovenia poses the intriguing question: How hard is soft power? He
argues that public relations is about soft power that operates through influence and attrac-
tion. As different social domains inter-penetrate, media of communication are partly ex-
changeable: power induces money, influences and/or attraction; money buys power, influ-
ence and/or attraction; influence impacts power, money and/or attraction; and attraction
draws power, money and/or influence. Public relations is therefore at least theoretically on
an equal footing with politics and economics as one of the three fundamental social con-
cepts. Along this line, Peggy Simcic Brønn discusses the need of a greater focus by organi-
zations on intangible assets and their application to communication and the communication
function. She explicitly explores the proposition that communication itself can be an intan-
gible asset. Intangible assets or intellectual capital is used in financial accounting to denote
those production factors a firm can claim ownership for but are not physical properties. She
proposes a model for communication capital that can be used to measure communication
return on investment.
Bridging gaps of trust in multicultural societies is the focus of Jesper Falkheimer from
Sweden. The main question he poses is in what way globalisation and the development of
multicultural publics in national social systems may affect one of the main fields of public
relations theory and practice: crisis communication. After an introduction into theories of
globalisation, ethnicity, crisis communication and public relations, he discusses a case
study of a local micro-public with five Arabic women making their voice heard in a Swed-
ish neighbourhood. His conclusion is that ethnicity is relational and develops as a reaction
to social pressure. It is not some kind of cultural origin that explains the differences be-
tween these women and other citizens: it is the lack of communication with mainstream
society and the local social network that constitutes this micro-public. Jaakko Lehtonen
from Finland also focuses on risks and crisis, but in a virtual publicity context. Adverse
publicity in the Internet is a new challenge for public relations. It may threaten an organiza-
tion’s good reputation, and for many, the initial enthusiasm about the opportunities of the
Internet for corporate communication, has turned into desperation. He discusses how an
organization can fight against attacks in cyberspace and what the organization ca do if
threatened by potentially damaging rumours on the blog. There are hardly any answers yet,
but all the more questions.
Finally, Betteke van Ruler and Dejan Verþiþ give an overview of several research pro-
jects they conducted to show that what internationally is known as public relations but in
Europe more and more as communication management, is a multi-dimensional concept.
These different dimensions show that communication management is not just a professional
function of managers and technicians, but also or preferably a view on how to manage an
organization. They elaborate what typifies European communication management in
14 Sriramesh, Van Ruler & Zerfass

practice, education and research and propose to view it as Reflective Communication Man-
agement as a unifying concept to develop practice, education and research with the Euro-
pean cultures.

5 Beyond Excellence and Rhetoric: Global Developments in Theory Development

The essays presented in part IV “International Challenges for Public Relations” offer per-
spectives from authors based in four continents. We would have wished to have many more
contributions but various constraints limited us to just these six chapters. James and Larissa
Grunig from the United States discuss one of the most popular theoretical paradigms in
public relations pedagogy – the “Excellence Theory” – and place it in context with other
theoretical constructs of the field. They first respond to some of the critiques leveled against
the theory over the years and then provide an overview of the key elements of this “general
theory that incorporates a number of middle-range theories.” In doing so, they have col-
lapsed what were originally offered as a number of characteristics of excellent public rela-
tions into four categories each of which consists of “several characteristics that can be au-
dited.” Gazing into the future, they hope that researchers will help “convert public relations
from a buffering role into the bridging role.”
Referring to public relations as a “social influence” that can help individuals and or-
ganizations “achieve good and bad ends,” Robert Heath and Finn Frandsen discuss how
meanings are created in the social context and how “rhetorical heritage” can contribute to
our understanding of this phenomenon. They argue that there are many “rhetorical implica-
tions” to many of the concepts that public relations scholars have advocated especially
since mid-20th century. Arguing that “the collective management of risk is the singular and
compelling rationale for society,” the authors link rhetorical communication with public
relations by linking rhetoric with the rise of democracy where the public sphere is accorded
primacy. They conclude that “[R]hetoric and public relations are inseperable… and that
[R]hetoric is the central requirement for collective choice.”
Among other things, the recent increase in attention to environmentalism and respon-
sible corporate governance has put corporate social responsibility (CSR) high on the agenda
of discussion around the world. Stating that “sustainability is a multi-disciplinary concept,
requiring organisations to ponder over their operations and actions across many aspects of
business,” Ronel Rensburg, Elsamari Coetzee and Estelle de Beer from South Africa dis-
cuss the crucial nexus between sustainable development, corporate reputation, and public
relations. They argue that good strategic communication, the domain of public relations,
helps organizations build better reputations and quality relationships with stakeholders.
Therefore, it should have a voice in the strategic management of organizations. Corporate
social responsibility has become a popular term particularly in the past decade or so for
many reasons. Steve May links CSR to public relations positing that CSR “repositions pub-
lic relations practitioners within the ethics/economics bind that has been so common and
problematic [to the profession] in the past.” After presenting a brief historical account of
the nexus between CSR and public relations in the United States, the author states that
because of the overemphasis on the fiduciary goals of corporations, “[P]ublic relations,
which had emerged as a core competency within the ranks of corporate leaders, was re-
duced to a secondary, staff function” after the 1970s. He therefore suggests that rather than
Introduction 15

focusing so heavily on “external” stakeholders in order to improve reputation and economic

performance, proponents of CSR initiatives should focus on “ethics inside corporations…”
Is public relations science or art or both? In his thoughtful essay, David McKie from
New Zealand places the “ascent of science” to the 17th century when physics gained recog-
nition as the dominant scientific discipline. Since then, the author comments, various other
disciplines including public relations have struggled to obtain recognition as science. The
author also highlights how even during this struggle, public relations has been trying to find
its own identity as a discipline as illustrated in the exchange between Stuart Ewen and Ed-
ward Bernays on whether public relations deals with “reality” or “images.” McKie notes
that the increasing number of students who wish to study public relations behooves us to
assess “the academic construction of public relations as brand.” In doing so, one would
have to keep in mind that the current trend to position public relations as “a brand selling
reputation management has a low image intellectually as a discipline and a scandalous
reputation as a practice.”
The final essay of this volume looks to the future by highlighting the potential for
growth both in public relations practice and scholarship brought about by globalization.
Krishnamurthy Sriramesh argues that whereas globalization has increased in the impor-
tance of public relations around the world, it also has highlighted the many gaps in existing
body of knowledge much of which is ethnocentric. “Ethnocentricity has definitely contrib-
uted to limiting the efficacy of most public relations strategies and tactics especially as the
profession expands to newer societies and markets,” the author contends. The author
strongly urges that diversity – typified by differences in the socio-political, media, and
economic environment – needs to be addressed by the body of knowledge if public rela-
tions scholarship is to become useful to practitioners and students who are increasingly
operating in a global environment. The author contends that the very success of public
relations practice and education depends on how well both can adapt to the demands of
globalization. This chapter sets the research agenda by offering several questions that need
to be addressed by future research endeavours especially since these questions are relevant
fro researchers around the world.

6 The Future and Thanksgiving

We offer this volume primarily in appreciation of the contributions of Günter Bentele. In

doing so, we also intend for this Festschrift to help us look to the future of the body of
knowledge and scholarship in public relations and communication management. Therefore,
quite fittingly, the final chapter of the volume addresses the latest trend – globalization –
and poses some questions that scholars of public relations need to address as we progress
into the 21st century. Because of the dire need to develop the body of knowledge to prepare
it for the challenges of the 21st century and globalization, we see this volume not only as an
offering but also a challenge to students, scholars, and practitioners in the field of public
relations and communication management. We thus see a much broader spectrum of goals
for this volume. The resulting cross-pollination of ideas and perspectives is bound to take
public relations scholarship to the next level, a vital need in a globalizing world. Therefore,
it is our fond hope that this humble Festschrift will be the harbinger of increased cross-
regional dialogue in the future.
16 Sriramesh, Van Ruler & Zerfass

A good concept is only as good as its execution. This project would not have been
possible without the able and willing help of many friends and colleagues. At the outset, we
offer sincere thanks to the 32 contributors (not including Günter Bentele) hailing from at
least a dozen countries for enthusiastically agreeing to participate in this Festschrift and
delivering thoughtful manuscripts on time even though we had forced them to work to a
tight schedule. We believe readers will join us in offering our gratitude to the many leading
minds of public relations scholarship included in this volume for sharing their perspectives
here but more importantly for helping build the body of knowledge to its current form.
Once the manuscripts came in, we needed a lot of administrative help, which came from
several members of the staff and graduate assistants at the University of Leipzig. In particu-
lar, we would like to recognize the diligence of Kristin Köhler who was most efficient in
bringing all manuscripts to a uniform and publishable format in a very short span of time.
Without a sponsor, the final manuscript could not have been published and for that we next
offer our sincere gratitude to the Erich Dorp-Foundation. Finally, we thank the publishers,
especially Barbara Emig-Roller, for bringing out this volume in a most professional format
and on time.
Introduction 17

Part I

Public Relations, Intereffication and Trust

Public Relations Theory: The Reconstructive Approach 19

Public Relations Theory: The Reconstructive Approach

Günter Bentele

Reflecting the structures of communication management, Günter Bentele developed his

reconstructive approach as a theory of public relations. Reconstruction processes take place
in processes of public communication that emerge through public relations as well as ad-
vertising and journalistic activities. In the process of communicative description of reality,
natural and social reality is communicatively reconstructed. Within those processes, the
principles of perspectivity, selectivity and constructivity are most relevant. Thus, the recon-
structive approach combines social information and communication relationships in an
overall model based on different theoretical approaches and lines of thought.

1 Reconstructive Approach and Social Theory

The approach introduced here was initially developed by considering communication norms
for public communication, for instance, by focusing on journalistic norms of truth and ob-
jectivity (Bentele, 1982, 1988b). By reflecting on such key reporting standards within an
epistemological, historical and theory of science framework, the analysis put forward in my
Habilitation thesis was epistemologically grounded in order to take account of a central
aspect of media reception, the perceived credibility of the media. Subsequently, this also
incorporated a reflection of ethical norms in PR (Bentele, 1992b), of references to reality
made by television (Bentele, 1992a) and public relations (Bentele, 1994b) as well as the
development of a theory of public trust (Bentele, 1994a). In this regard, since the 1980s,
theoretical considerations were based on biologically founded evolutionary epistemology
(EE), which cannot be described within the limited confines of this analysis. There are
certainly similarities with biologically argued concepts of “radical constructivism,” al-
though the crucial difference lies in the epistemological position: EE1 advocates and argues
for a realistic position, that is, a hypothetical-realistic position (Lorenz, 1975; Vollmer,
1975). Such positions can indeed be compatible with approaches of systems theory, as
made clear by the assertion put forward by systems theorist, Helmut Willke, who regards
“reflective reconstructivism” as more appropriate than “radical constructivism.”2

1
In place of the many contributions such as Campbell (1974), Irrgang (2001), Lorenz (1975), Vollmer (1975,
1985, 1986, 2002), cf. also Popper (1984). In Bentele (1988a, 1992a), EE is introduced as a basic theory for
communication science.
2
“Note that this does not mean adopting “radical constructivism” […] as epistemology. Rather, a reflected
reconstructivism seems appropriate (author’s emphasis, G.B.), thus a process of gaining recognition,
whereby the cognitive system may be exclusively linked to one’s own means of observation and understand-
ing and can therefore find grounds for the object of its recognition, not as “objective” or “real”, nor in fact as
“reality”. However, on the other hand, this does not mean that the cognitive system simply invents some ar-
bitrary products of fantasy and can define these as the correct recognition. Evidently, a plausible relation is
required between explanation and the explained, an alignment, “a goodness of the fit” […], a kind of key-
lock relationship …” (Willke, 1996, 167ff.). Willke represented a “functionally genetic” approach in sys-
20 Günter Bentele

The term “reconstructive approach” refers to a concept of reconstruction, which de-

fines a process of cognitive (and communicative) model formation, in other words, the
process, whereby a structural, isomorphic model is created that is “suited” to the focus of
observation. The concept and process of reconstruction therefore refers – in relation to the
perceptive and cognitive process – to relations existing between the observer and observed,
or (in traditional terms) between subject and object. In terms of the communication process,
the concept refers to relations between the characterization and the signified, the descrip-
tion and what is described as well as between media reality and reality as such. This proc-
ess is cognitively reconstructed in the observation of reality. In the process of the commu-
nicative description of reality (by signs, words, texts and topics), natural and social reality
is communicatively reconstructed. Other observers do this in exactly the same way. More-
over, if they also reconstruct observed reality in communicative forms (texts), this recon-
structive character of texts ensures that different communication partners have the impres-
sion that they are communicatively referring to the same reality. Communication that is to
facilitate understanding requires the same referential realities.
This approach is epistemologically founded and was developed in the discussion of
constructivist approaches (Bentele, 1993). Moreover, Giddens (1995) can link it with sys-
tems theories that are “recoupled” with theories of society based on action, such as repre-
sented by, for example, Schimank (2000), or in the theory of structuration suggested. This
connection cannot be demonstrated here. Nevertheless, a basic assumption here is the exis-
tence of a functionally structured society and therefore also the existence of functional
subsystems, such as the economy, law, politics, education and science. However, these
aspects include social systems with a capacity for action as, for instance, companies, politi-
cal parties, ministries, associations, research communities, social movements, religious
sects or political protest movements. Their action generally occurs within pre-existing
structures that are set by the systems, while simultaneously producing the action of organi-
zations and the structure of the defining system. In this sense, it is possible to speak of a
duality of action and structure (Giddens, 1995, pp. 77-81). The social systems with the
capacity to act – generally collective actors (Willke, 1996, p. 178ff.) – are structural ele-
ments of the functioning systems and mutually define each other as strategically calculat-
ing. Specific actor constellations and dynamic (action-based) developments emerge from
mutual observation, the collection of information about each other and interpretation of
such information. Social dynamics result from the interplay between these levels.
Based on this outline, it seems reasonable to differentiate between three levels of
analysis3 for the purposes of PR theory, which meanwhile have largely become a com-
monly accepted part of discourse. At the first level of microanalysis, observation and analy-
sis are focused on the action taken by individual actors, their motives, objectives, the rules
that they use and create the effects of their actions etc. On the second – organizational –
level, the description focuses on the communication process within the organization and
between organizations and their social environments (“publics,” “stakeholders”). Organiza-
tion is understood as the level that mediates between social functional systems, society as a
social system in its entirety and the individual actor. In this case, the analysis centres par-
ticularly on the tasks, functions, actions or – to adopt the terms of systems theory – decision

tems theory. This also appears to be ideally compatible with the author’s central thoughts, e.g. on genetic
semiotics (Bentele, 1984) or the functionally-integrative layer approach (Bentele, 1997).
3
Cf. also Ronneberger & Rühl for a slightly different definition of the three dimensions (1992, p. 249ff.).
Public Relations Theory: The Reconstructive Approach 21

and action programmes of the PR organization in connection with the supra-status of the
“parent organization” or client. The third level of analysis refers to the macro analytical
level, on which the question is posed of the connection to society, for instance, the question
as to whether or to what extent public relations itself can reasonably be outlined as a social
functional system or part of a social functional system (e.g. publicist activity, public
sphere), or what kind of social system it otherwise portrays. In this essay, the focus of at-
tention is on the first two aforementioned levels.

2 Structures and Processes of PR or Communication Management

On the first two levels of analysis, public relations is initially viewed as a structured, com-
municative action on the part of individual actors in organizational contexts, that is, either
within social organizations or in systematic relations with organizations. The organizational
forms, within which PR occurs, as action by actors, are firstly communication departments
within organizations; and secondly, special service organizations such as communication,
PR or also advertising agencies, consultancy firms etc. In addition, individual actors that
contribute consultancy and communications services for their clients never exclusively
work in isolation (for instance, writing press releases and compiling information brochures,
organization of a press conference, and advice on redesigning the company logo). They
cooperate with individual actors (for instance with freelancers), although their service al-
ways represents an interaction between client and the commissioned party. Therefore, the
organizational context is a constituent part of delivery of the communications service, even
if individual actors accomplish this service. Within organizational contexts, the actors per-
form in specific positions and roles, that is, a package of behavioural expectations. Verti-
cally, positions within management, completion (operational) and support positions (e.g.
secretaries) can be distinguished. The first two positions are referred to within empirical PR
role research, for instance, as “communication manager” and “communication technician”
(cf. in summary Grunig & Grunig, 2002, p. 196ff.). Positions or roles are organized within
different organizational forms (Kieser & Kubicek, 1992) such as lines, divisional structure
or matrix organization etc. Horizontally, a structure is differentiated according to object or
communication areas: sub-departments or parallel communication departments such as
press and media relations, visitor sponsoring, public affairs, investor relations, location
communication etc., to mention a few examples. They are organized according to the re-
spective target groups or instrumental orientation.
As with all social systems, organizations only endure by means of communication
(Luhmann 2000, p. 62). Communication occurs within organizations and they communicate
– as collective actors – with their external world (Theis, 1994). Internal communication
processes can be distinguished into those that:
a) proceed relatively uncontrolled (informal communication such as conversations at the
lunch table, at the coffee machine, creating rumours) and those
b) are consciously controlled by the organization, that is, internal communication proc-
esses.
22 Günter Bentele

In one sense, this includes the processes that are accomplished by means of (internal) media
and communication instruments (e.g. notice board, employee magazines, intranet etc.).
However, it also includes the procedures, which occur in preparation of the actual (internal
and external) communication processes, particularly in the communication departments
themselves. These are oriented towards planning, implementation and production of com-
munication and organization-specific media. Communicative products are generated as
results (texts, images, topics, PR media, and events).
Depending on how structured, differentiated and specialized the process is repre-
sented, we can refer to unordered, routine or strategically planned PR. Insofar as the pro-
cess approaches the ideal model of strategically planned and implemented PR, the concept
of “communication management” is appropriate. Here, the division of work and hierarchi-
cally organized process of control is to be described as communication management (CM)
which incorporates the complex process of (environment) observation, analysis, strategy
development, organization, implementation and evaluation of organization-related commu-
nication processes. In the extreme case, this process occurs as an unstructured or only
slightly structured chain of action of an individual (within the organization management).4
In a large company, in terms of the division of labour, this process is organized vertically
and horizontally and entire departments are responsible for the individual phases and areas.
In this process, communication instruments (e.g. press releases, employee magazines),
methods (e.g. media resonance analysis) and communication technologies are implemented,
which can involve complex procedures (e.g. issues management or campaigns). The input
of these kinds of instruments, media and procedures ideally relies on strategies.
Strategies are plans of chains of action, which involve conditions and show objective
and temporal dimensions. These are also known as programmes (Luhmann, 1987, p. 432).
All internal and external communication programmes depend on available personal and
financial resources. The chief executive levels within the organization generally take the
decision about the magnitude and orientation of organizations’ internal communication
resources, although resource allocation is also dependent on external conditions for the
organization (e.g. the level of economic activity).

3 Connections to Reality and Reconstructing Reality

3.1 Construction or Reconstruction?

In the same way as it is possible to criticize a lack of connection to the actor in some ver-
sions of systems theory (Schimank, 1985), I note a missing connection to reality in many
approaches adopted by systems theory and constructivism with respect to the theory of
communication and PR. Merten and Westerbarkey (1994, p. 219), for example, define pub-
lic relations as the “process of intentional and contingent construction of desirable realities
by production and anchoring images in public.” Setting aside the fact that in this definition,
the idea of “desirable reality” remains unclear, as Merten (2000, p. 251) himself acknowl-
edges, this definition leaves open whether and, as applicable, which constraints exist to

4
The new sole trader company observes the organizational environment, decides after brief reflection (analy-
sis) to provide the press with information (strategy development), also acts upon this decision (implementa-
tion) and two days later reads the newspaper article (evaluation) that published its information.
Public Relations Theory: The Reconstructive Approach 23

define what is meant by “desirable” and how these desirable realities behave in relation to
the empirically determined organizational realities. Press releases or business reports, as
constructed “desirable” PR realities by the media, are not Christmas wish lists – neither are
journalistic news or reports. On the contrary, they have to be “constructed” according to
guidelines and within the context of observed reality. To that extent, therefore, they repre-
sent “reconstructed entities.” The reasons for discussing this relation to the reality of com-
munication processes and products as a whole and, in particular, to the PR process in a
theoretical sense lie, firstly, in the fact that the connections to reality occur and are reflected
in concepts such as truth, objectivity, precision, accuracy, credibility and trust. These quali-
ties are just as important in professional practice as in scientific reflection. Secondly, if an
attempt is made to avoid the discussion, significant theoretical problems emerge and ques-
tions remain unanswered.5

3.2 The Reconstructive Model of Observation and Communication

3.2.1 Perception, observation and reconstruction

In my reconstructive model (cf. for example Bentele, 1988, 1994a) I argue on the basis of
“hypothetical realism.” Every construction of cognitive and communicative reality can only
be adequately described and understood if its connection to reality is appreciated, in other
words, if these processes are regarded as reconstructive processes. In this sense, recon-
struction can be defined as the information, perception and observation process, whereby at
different levels they process (perception, thought/cognition, and communication) reality
that exists independently of living beings by virtue of their faculties of perception and cog-
nition. This occurs in such a way that isomorphic (structurally similar) constructs, or more
precisely, reconstructs emerge. Cognitive reconstruction occurs in human perception and
thought processes, communicative reconstruction within human communication processes.
This is to say that they also occur during the production and comprehension of communica-
tive realities. Thus, reconstruction processes also take place in processes of public commu-
nication that emerge through PR activities, advertising and journalistic activities.
Reality as such, which is understood as everything that ever did, does or will exist, is
defined in terms of information theory. In this case, the assumption is that reality poten-
tially “contains” an endless array of many different pieces of information. Reality cannot be
grasped in its entirety or as a whole entity by human perception or cognitive activity, at a

5
Cf. further Bentele (1993). Some representatives of radical constructivism set this connection to reality to
one side by way of the construction metaphor (media reality is not reproduction, but construction). How-
ever, this does not solve the theoretical problem. Von Glasersfeld (1987, 1992) attempts to approach the
problem via the viability concept. Viability, that is, cognitive representations’ fitness for survival, is cor-
rectly introduced as a concept in contradistinction to a naive concept of reproduction. However, it is no solu-
tion to the basic problem of the production of correct or true statements, because it cannot be explained why
some ideas are viable while others are not. In addition, the constructivist von Glasersfeld argues realisti-
cally: “In order to survive, the organism only has to “cope with” the restricting conditions in his environ-
ment. Expressed metaphorically: it has to force itself through the bars of the cage of these conditions.” (von
Glasersfeld, 1987, p. 137ff.) This is (involuntarily) a key argument for realistic epistemological theory: for
the observing system, the point is to recognize these “cage bars” as something that exists and to have the ca-
pacity to distinguish the situation from a state in which the bars are not present. This is possible in a much
more convincing way with a suitability concept of evolutionary epistemology (Vollmer, 2002).
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TABLE DES MATIÈRES DU SECOND
VOLUME.

DEUXIÈME PARTIE.

Pages
Droit et Devoir; objections contre
le Droit des Femmes, la Femme
devant les mœurs et le Code
civil 5
CHAPITRE Ier. Bases et formules
des Droits et Devoirs 7
CHAPITRE II. Objections contre
l'émancipation des Femmes 33

CHAPITRE III. État de la Femme

dans les mœurs et la législation.

I. Dialogue entre une jeune

femme et l'auteur 48
II. Emploi de l'autorité 51
III. Charité de la Femme 53
IV. Droit politique 61
V. Fonctions publiques 65
VI. La Femme dans le mariage 67
 CHAPITRE IV. Suite du précédent.
VII. Contrat de mariage 71
VIII. La Femme mère et tutrice 81
IX. Rupture de l'association
conjugale 85
X. Résumé et conseils 93

TROISIÈME PARTIE.

Nature et fonctions de la Femme,

amour et mariage; Réformes
légales 99
CHAPITRE Ier. Nature et fonctions
de la Femme 101
CHAPITRE II. L'amour, sa fonction
dans l'humanité 127
CHAPITRE III. Mariage (dialogue) 151
CHAPITRE IV. Résumé, Réformes
proposées 177

QUATRIÈME PARTIE.

Œuvres de l'époque transitoire;

Apostolat de la Femme;
Profession de foi, Éducation
rationnelle 199
CHAPITRE Ier. Appel aux Femmes,
Apostolat, Profession de foi, etc.
 I. Appel aux Femmes 201
II. Profession de foi 204
III. Comité encyclopédique 210
IV. Institut 215
V. Journal 217
VI. Ateliers 219
CHAPITRE II. Éducation rationnelle,
Lettres à une institutrice 223
CHAPITRE III. Éducation rationnelle
(suite) 245
CHAPITRE IV. Résumé et
Conclusion 271
 ERRATA.
Page 30, ligne 5, au lieu de: à se soumettre, lisez: de se soumettre.
Page 48, au lieu de: état de la femme française dans, lisez: devant.
Page 58, ligne 20, au lieu de: n'y a, lisez: n'y ait.
Page 89, ligne 13, au lieu de: le désole, lisez: la désole.
Page 119, ligne 21, au lieu de: nominaliste, lisez: nominalisme.
Page 134, ligne 16, au lieu de: et l'idéal, lisez: es l'idéal.
Page 145, ligne 23, au lieu de: l'honneur des autres les, lisez:
l'honneur des autres; s'.
Page 167, ligne 18, au lieu de: ils deviennes, lisez: ils deviennent.
Page 204, ligne 2, au lieu de: numaines, lisez: humaines.
Page 218, ligne 27, au lieu de: ses camps, lisez: ses coups.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LA FEMME
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