ONTOLOGY, EPISTEMOLOGY, METHODOLOGY
(BASIC/UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH
The philosophy of research is the underlying set of beliefs and assumptions that guide
how a researcher approaches their study. It provides a framework for understanding the
nature of knowledge, the methods used to acquire it, and the ethical considerations
involved
1. Ontology: This refers to the study of being and existence. It is the study of
reality(that something exists
In research, ontology plays a vital role in shaping the conceptual framework,
guiding how data is structured, understood, and analyzed. In research, it involves
the assumptions about what constitutes reality.
It addresses questions like:
Does reality exist independently of our perception, or is it socially constructed?
What is the nature of reality? Are there multiple realities, or is there one objective
reality?
2. Epistemology: This is the study of knowledge—how we know what we know.
Construction and verification knowledge. It examines the nature, sources, and limits
of knowledge.
Key questions include:
What is knowledge? How do we acquire it? What justifies belief? Is knowledge
objective and verifiable, or subjective and interpretive?
3. Methodology: This refers to the systematic approach to research, including the
methods and techniques used to collect and analyze data. It encompasses the
overall strategy and the rationale behind choosing specific research methods,
whether qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods.
Are quantitative methods (e.g., surveys, experiments) or qualitative methods (e.g.,
interviews, observations) more appropriate?
These concepts help researchers clarify their approach and ensure coherence in their
studies.
RESEARCH:
Research is a systematic process of inquiry aimed at discovering new information,
validating existing knowledge, or solving specific problems. It involves formulating
questions, collecting data, analyzing results, and drawing conclusions. Research can be
conducted in various fields, including science, social sciences, humanities, and more, and
it often follows established methodologies to ensure accuracy and reliability.
Definition; It is systematic way of analysing, processing and interpreting information in
order to get the desired or objective goals or knowledge, or in order to derive the
objective utility of human being.
TYPES OF RESEARCH:
1. Basic Research :
Built new knowledge, principles or theories.
Is aimed at gaining a deeper understanding of fundamental principles and theories
without a specific application in mind. It focuses on expanding knowledge and exploring
new areas, often leading to discoveries that may have practical implications later.
2. Applied Research:
Have practicle utility
For solving real world of practicle problems.
Is conducted with the goal of addressing specific, real-world problems or questions. It
takes theories and principles from basic research and applies them to develop solutions,
products, or practices.
In summary, basic research seeks knowledge for its own sake, while applied research
focuses on practical applications of that knowledge.
PHILOSOPHY OF RESEARCH:
A: Positivism (page)
Positivism is grounded in the belief that knowledge should be based on observable and
measurable facts. It emphasizes the use of the scientific method, focusing on quantifiable
data and objective analysis
. In research, positivist approaches aim to identify patterns and establish causal
relationships, often utilizing experiments and surveys.
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**Example : A social scientist studying crime rates in a city collects quantitative data from
police reports, conducts surveys, and uses statistical analysis to identify correlations
between crime and various factors like poverty, education, or unemployment. The aim is
to uncover objective laws governing human behavior, much like the natural sciences.
- **Key Idea**: Positivism holds that knowledge should be derived from observable,
measurable facts. It focuses on the scientific method, objectivity, and generalizable laws
B: Interpretivism
Interpretivism is a philosophical approach in the social sciences that emphasizes
understanding the subjective meanings and experiences of individuals. It contrasts with
positivism, which focuses on objective observation and measurable facts. Interpretivism
holds that reality is socially constructed, and human behavior cannot be fully understood
by merely applying scientific methods used in the natural sciences.
Key principles of interpretivism include:
• Subjectivity: Interpretivism recognizes that reality is not objective but is shaped by
individuals' perceptions, beliefs, and interpretations.
Researchers aim to understand how individuals or groups perceive and interpret their
social world.
• Social Construction: The social world is created and maintained through human
interactions and interpretations, rather than existing independently of human
consciousness.
• **Qualitative Methods**: Interpretivist research often relies on qualitative methods like
interviews, participant observation, and case studies to explore social phenomena
from the perspectives of those involved.
• **Meaning-Making**: It focuses on how individuals create, negotiate, and interpret
meanings within their social interactions.
Overall, interpretivism is concerned with exploring how people make sense of their
experiences, rather than assuming there is a single, objective truth about social reality.
Researchers adopting this approach aim to understand the context and perspectives of
participants rather than generalizing findings.
Example : A social scientist studying crime rates in a city collects quantitative data from
police reports, conducts surveys, and uses statistical analysis to identify correlations
between crime and various factors like poverty, education, or unemployment. The aim is
to uncover objective laws governing human behavior, much like the natural sciences.
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- **Key Idea**: Positivism holds that knowledge should be derived from observable,
measurable facts. It focuses on the scientific method, objectivity, and generalizable laws
C: Pragmatism
Pragmatism advocates for a practical approach to research, prioritizing the usefulness of
knowledge in addressing real-world problems. It supports the use of both quantitative
and qualitative methods, allowing researchers to draw on various data sources and
perspectives. Pragmatists believe that the truth of ideas is determined by their practical
consequences and effectiveness in solving issues.
Example : A public policy analyst combines both quantitative and qualitative methods to
assess the effectiveness of a new education program. They use statistical data to measure
outcomes but also gather feedback from teachers and students to understand how the
program is working on the ground. The focus is on what works best in practice rather
than adhering strictly to one method or theory.
- **Key Idea**: Pragmatism values practical solutions and the use of multiple methods to
address problems. It rejects rigid adherence to either positivist or interpretivist
philosophies, focusing instead on results and usefulness.
Differences between positivism and pragmatism
Positivism:
- Focus : What can be scientifically observed and measured.
- Truth : Truth is based on facts, data, and observable reality. If something can't be
measured or scientifically proven, it doesn't count as knowledge.
- Knowledge : Comes from empirical evidence (things that can be observed, tested, and
verified), mainly through the scientific method.
- Strictness : Sticks to what can be scientifically proven. Positivists avoid subjective or
abstract ideas like beliefs or emotions.
Pragmatism:
- Focus: What works in practice.
- Truth : Something is "true" if it produces useful results or helps solve problems.
- Knowledge : Gained through experience and actions. The value of an idea depends on
its practical impact.
- Flexibility : Open to change. If a better idea comes along that works more effectively, a
pragmatist would adopt it.
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In simple terms, **pragmatism** cares about what works in real life, while **positivism**
cares about what can be scientifically proven.
TAXONOMY OF RESEARCH:
**Quantitative** and **qualitative** research are two primary approaches to conducting
research, especially in the social sciences. They differ in their objectives, methods, data
collection, and the nature of the conclusions they aim to draw.
**Quantitative Research**
Quantitative research focuses on collecting and analyzing numerical data.
Key Characteristics:
1. **Objective Approach**: Seeks to measure and quantify variables to test hypotheses
and predict outcomes.
2. **Data Collection**: Methods include surveys, experiments, and structured observations,
where data is collected in numerical form (e.g., questionnaires with scaled responses,
statistical tests).
3. **Large Sample Sizes**: It often uses large samples to ensure that the results are
statistically significant and can be generalized to a wider population.
4. **Statistical Analysis**: Data is analyzed using mathematical and statistical techniques
to identify trends, relationships, or causality (e.g., regression analysis, correlations).
5. **Generalizability**: The goal is to provide results that can be generalized to a broader
context or population.
Example:
A study measuring the correlation between the number of hours studied and exam
performance using a sample of 500 students and calculating an average score.
**Qualitative Research**
Qualitative research is focused on understanding the subjective experiences, behaviors,
and meanings that people attach to their social world. It’s more concerned with depth
rather than breadth.
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Key Characteristics:
1. **Subjective Understanding**: It emphasizes exploring individuals' or groups'
perceptions, experiences, and emotions.
2. **Data Collection**: Methods include interviews, focus groups, case studies,
ethnography, and participant observation. The data is typically in textual, audio, or visual
form.
3. **Small Sample Sizes**: Qualitative research often involves smaller, more focused
groups of participants, allowing for deep exploration of specific contexts or phenomena.
4. **Thematic or Content Analysis**: Data is analyzed through coding and interpreting
patterns or themes to uncover insights about people's thoughts and behaviors.
5. **Context-Specific**: Results are often specific to the participants or setting, and less
concerned with generalizing findings to a larger population.
Example:
A study exploring the experiences of a group of 20 teachers dealing with online
education during the pandemic by conducting in-depth interviews and analyzing their
responses for recurring themes.
### **Key Differences:**
1. **Data Type**: Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative
research focuses on words, meanings, and narratives.
2. **Objective vs. Subjective**: Quantitative research seeks objective measurements,
whereas qualitative research aims for a deeper understanding of subjective experiences.
3. **Methodology**: Quantitative research is often structured and formal, with predefined
variables and hypotheses. Qualitative research is more flexible and open-ended, allowing
for exploration of unexpected findings.
4. **Results**: Quantitative research results in numerical data that can be generalized,
whereas qualitative research provides detailed, rich descriptions that are specific to the
context studied.
### **Mixed-Methods Approach**:
Some research combines both quantitative and qualitative methods (mixed-methods) to
get the benefits of both—gathering broad numerical data while also exploring individual
experiences in depth.
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TYPES OF REASONING:
1: Deductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning starts with general principles or theories and applies them to specific
cases to draw conclusions. It follows a top-down approach, where if the premises are true,
the conclusion must also be true. For example:
1. All humans are mortal.
2. Socrates is a human.
3. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Example:
A researcher in psychology starts with the general theory that stress reduces cognitive
performance. Based on this theory, they develop a specific hypothesis: "Students who
experience high levels of stress will perform worse on math tests compared to those with
lower stress levels."
• The researcher designs an experiment where they measure stress levels and test
scores of two groups of students. The data is then analyzed to determine whether
the results support or refute the hypothesis.
Process: Deductive reasoning moves from a general theory to a specific conclusion. It
starts with a premise (or theory) and tests whether the theory holds true in particular
instances.
Structure:
1. Theory →
2. Hypothesis →
3. Observation (data collection) →
4. Conclusion
Key Feature: It is a "top-down" approach, where the researcher tests an existing theory or
general idea.
2: Inductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning, on the other hand, begins with specific observations or data and
seeks to formulate general conclusions or theories. It follows a bottom-up approach and
is probabilistic rather than certain. For example:
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1. The sun has risen in the east every day observed.
2. Therefore, the sun will rise in the east tomorrow.
Example: A sociologist conducts fieldwork in a rural community, observing interactions
among community members and collecting interviews about their social behaviors. Over
time, the researcher notices patterns that suggest social trust is built through informal
networks like local gatherings or community events. From these specific observations, the
researcher develops a new theory about the role of social networks in fostering trust in
small communities.
Process: Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to a general theory.
Researchers collect data and look for patterns, forming a theory as a result of the
findings.
Structure:
1. Observation →
2. Pattern identification →
3. Hypothesis formation →
4. Theory development
Key Feature: It is a "bottom-up" approach, where the researcher builds a theory based on
the patterns or regularities observed in the data.
Key Differences
- **Direction**: Deductive is top-down; inductive is bottom-up.
- **Certainty**: Deductive provides certainty if premises are true; inductive offers probable
conclusions based on evidence.
- **Application**: Deductive reasoning is often used in hypothesis testing; inductive
reasoning is common in exploratory research and theory development.
Both methods are essential in research and critical thinking, serving different purposes in
the process of inquiry.
Theoretical Framework in Research;
A theoretical framework in research is a structured set of concepts, models, and theories
that guides the study and provides a lens through which the research problem is
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examined and understood. It serves as a foundation for organizing the research process,
helps formulate hypotheses, and guides the analysis of data. Essentially, it connects the
research topic to existing knowledge in the field.
Key Aspects of a Theoretical Framework:
1. Foundation for the Research: It gives the study a grounding in established theories,
helping the researcher build on or challenge existing knowledge.
2. Conceptualization of Key Terms: The theoretical framework defines and clarifies
important concepts used in the research, ensuring consistency in their
interpretation.
3. Guiding Hypotheses: The framework helps in developing research questions and
hypotheses by linking concepts logically.
4. Data Analysis: It provides a guide for interpreting results by offering a theoretical
context.
A theoretical framework provides a conceptual foundation for a research study. It's a set
of interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that explain how variables in a
study are related. It serves as a roadmap, guiding the research process and helping to
interpret the findings.
Key Functions of a Theoretical Framework:
* Provides a Focus: It helps researchers identify the key variables and relationships to be
studied.
* Guides Research Design: The framework influences the choice of research methods,
data collection techniques, and analysis procedures.
* Helps Interpret Findings: It provides a lens through which to understand and explain
the research results.
* Contributes to Knowledge: A well-developed theoretical framework can contribute to
the advancement of knowledge in a particular field.
Steps in Developing a Theoretical Framework:
* Review the Literature: Examine existing research and theories related to your topic.
* Identify Key Concepts: Extract the most important concepts and variables from the
literature.
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* Define Terms: Clearly define the terms and concepts you'll be using.
* Develop Propositions: Formulate statements about how the variables are related.
* Visualize the Framework: Create a diagram or model to illustrate the relationships
between the concepts.
Types of Theoretical Frameworks:
* Grounded Theory: A framework developed inductively from data collected during the
research process.
* Existing Theory: A framework based on established theories from other fields.
* Combination: A framework that combines elements of existing theories and grounded
theory.
Example:
If you're researching the impact of social media on adolescent mental health, your
theoretical framework might draw from theories of social comparison, self-esteem, and
the effects of screen time. Your propositions could include:
* Hypothesis 1: Adolescents who frequently compare themselves to others on social
media are more likely to experience low self-esteem.
* Hypothesis 2: Increased screen time is associated with higher levels of anxiety and
depression in adolescents.
Would you like to discuss a specific research topic and explore how to develop a
theoretical framework for it?
Example of a Theoretical Framework in Research
Research Topic: The impact of social media usage on academic performance.
1. Theory:
• The Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura, 1977) can serve as the foundation for
understanding how students learn behaviors and attitudes through observation of
others, including via social media.
• Cognitive Load Theory (John Sweller, 1988) may also be relevant, suggesting that
excessive multitasking (e.g., switching between social media and academic tasks)
overloads working memory, thus reducing learning efficiency.
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2. Key Concepts:
• Social learning: Students may adopt behaviors (both positive and negative) based
on what they observe from peers on social media.
• Cognitive load: Excessive media consumption may interfere with students’ ability to
concentrate on academic tasks due to cognitive overload.
• Academic performance: This will be the measurable outcome (e.g., GPA, test scores)
to determine the effect of social media usage.
3. Relationships:
• The theoretical framework posits that social media usage influences students’
academic performance through two key mechanisms:
o Observational learning: Students may learn behaviors that affect their study
habits (positive if educational content, negative if time-wasting distractions).
o Cognitive overload: Excessive use of social media while studying may reduce
the efficiency and effectiveness of learning.
4. Hypothesis:
• Students who spend more time on social media are likely to experience lower
academic performance due to cognitive overload and the distraction from non-
educational content they observe.
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