HEALTH PHYSICS

2023
LEARNER GUIDE

STUDENT SURNAME &

INTITIALS
FACULTY APPLIED AND COMPUTER
SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT ENVIRON. SCIENCES,
MATHS, NDT & PHYSICS
COURSE HEALTH PHYSICS
CODE APHPH1A
COMPILED BY MR LT MELATO
YEAR & SEMESTER 2023 – SEMESTER 1
NQF LEVEL 5
CREDITS 12
 Content

Word of welcome ……………………………………………………...……….3

Contacts Persons ……………………………………………………………….3

Assessments …………………………………………………………….…...….4

Attendance Rules……………………………………………………….…...….4

Learning Materials ……………………...………………………………...…...6

Teaching Strategy ……………………………………………………………...7

Duty of Students ……………………………………………………………….7

2022 Semester 1 Planning ……………………………………………………...9

Learning Unit 1: ………………………………………………….……....….10

Learning Units 2: ……………………………...……………………………...16

Learning Unit 3: ……………………………………………………...………21

Learning Unit 4: ……………………………………………….…………...…23

Learning Unit 5: ….………………………………………………………......26

Learning Unit 6: …………………………………………………...…...…......31

Learning Unit 7: ………………………………………………….……......….33

Learning Unit 8: ……………………………………………….…...…...…….35

Learning Unit 9: ……………………………………………….……......…….39

Learning Unit 10: ……………………………………………….……….……42

Learning Unit 11: ……………………………………………….…...…..........49

Learning Unit 12: ……………………………………………….……........…52

Examination Formula Sheet …………………………………….……....…...56

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WORD OF WELCOME:
The Department of Environmental Sciences, Mathematics, Non-Destructive Testing and Physics
welcomes you whole heartily to the Faculty of Applied and Computer Sciences at the Vaal University
of Technology.

CONTACT DETAILS

Title and Surname Office number Telephone number E-mail address

Dr Q.I. Sikakana (HoD) F112-B 016-950-9761 [email protected]
Mr L.T. Melato F210-C 016-950-7858 [email protected]

The following scenarios will apply during COVID-19 pandemic regulation depending on the
Level of restriction:

Theory Subjects
% Online offering % Contact offering
Scenario 1 – Alert Level 3: 70 30
Scenario 2 – Alert Level 2: 50 50
Scenario 3 – Alert Level 1: 30 70

HOW TO ACCESS HEALTH PHYSICS MODULE USING

VUTELA
1. On you internet browser type: https://vut.blackboard.com and enter your login details
(student number and password).

2. Click on the Health Physics to gain access to the module, and view learning materials.

3. All the announcement and changes during the course of the semester will be posted on
the blackboard, so visit your VUTELA site all the time.

Figure 1: Opening Blackboard on Internet Figure 2: Login menu

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 Please enter your
User must put this website: student number and
vut.blackboard.com in your password.
internet explorer textbox.
Figure 3: Main Menu

Page | 3 User can click the link to

view Health Physics Home
page
 WAYS OF COMMUNICATION
1. VUTela is the FIRST LINE of communication between the student and the lecturer. It is very
important for all students to regularly log in on VUTela (at least twice in a day) to check for
course updates from their lecturers.
2. Besides VUTela here are the list of other ways of communication:
- WHATSAPP Group communication created by Lecturer.
- Email communication: Check your Lecturer’s email address on the list of staff contacts.

CLASSES/CONSULTATION
Classes and consultation will be conducted FACE-TO-FACE and via VUTela Blackboard Collaborate
Ultra or Microsoft Team platforms. The classes timetable and consultation hours will be communicated
to students by their lecturer for this module; students are thereby requested to adhere to this.
Consultation hours will only be used to clarify concepts in class or further assistance from tutorials and
class exercises, not for the presentation of a lecture.

CLASS ATTENDANCE RULE

It is COMPULSORY for all students to attend all classes/lectures or have a minimum attendance
record of 70% prior to any and all assessments.

Any student with less than 70% attendance for this module will not be allowed to participate in the
assessments.

Student arriving in class after the register has been taken will be marked as absent.

ONLINE TUTORIALS/ASSESSMENTS
Assessment takes place on a continuous basis by means of a variety of methods and may include the
following:
• Three Semester Assessments (A1, A2, and A3) will be written during the course of the semester.
• Tutorial Tests: All tutorials will be posted on the BLACKBOARD LMS for students to complete and
it is COMPULSORY for the student to participate in all tutorials test.
• Experimental Book Mark and Practical Exam will be combined and used as fourth Assessment (A4)

All Assessments will be conducted as an exam and all the modified rules of the CASS exam still apply,
the Final Mark will be calculated as follows:

• FM = A1(15%) + A2(35%) + A3(25) + A4(25%)

To Pass this module, a Pass mark of ≥ 50% (Average of four Assessments)

If the average is less than 50%, then all failed Assessments must be Re-Assessed to replace failed
Assessments.

• Absence from Test or Practical

In case of a student being absent from the Assessment or a Practical class, a valid reason with
proof must be given to your lecturer within the first week of return from absence. (Example:
Proof-doctors letter booking you off for that day. Having doctor appointments in test times is NOT
a valid reason).

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 LEARNING MATERIAL
1. Prescribed textbook
❖ PHYSICS FOR THE LIFE SCIENCES, 3rd Edition by M Zinke-Allming, R. Nejat, E. Galiano-
Rivers and M. Xiaoke Chen, Nelson Education.
❖ Prerequite textbook
John D Cutnell and Kenneth W Johnson, Physics, 7th , 8th 9th and 10th Edition, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.

2. Practical Manual
Practical Notes will be uploaded on the Blackboard, Manuals will be given during laboratory
sessions.

3. Learner guide.
In this learner guide the following words are used extensively in the outcomes: Explain and
Define.
The following meaning has been attributed to these words in this guide:
Explain: Clarify or give reasons for something in your own words. You must prove that you
understand the contents. It may be useful to use examples or illustrations where
possible.
Define: Give the mathematical formula of the law or concept if possible, the meaning of all
variables must be stated clearly. Otherwise, state a definition in words.

4. Additional learning material

Additional material related to this module will be handed out as class notes and or tutorial
questions in due course.

5. Website: BLACKBOARD LMS:

https://vut.blackboard.com/

RATIONALE FOR THE MODULE

On completion of this module you should be able to understand health physics. You should be
competent in solving physics related problems effectively and accurately. This module relates closely
to all the other modules in the programme since it ought to improve your ability to effectively
communicate and exchange ideas within the sphere of health profession, using skills to be acquired
from this module. This module should also help to improve your logical thinking when solving other
related health/analytical problems. Failure to acquire these skills can hamper your success towards
becoming a competent and productive within the working environment.

PREREQUISITES
An outcome must have been achieved on Grade 12 Physical Science to qualify for enrolment on this
module. Good comprehension and usage of English is essential since the medium of instruction and
all learning materials are in English.

This module is divided into two fractions; namely: theory and practical components. It is the
individual’s responsibility to learn and get access to computers as these skills will be required in
compiling experimental reports which forms the practical component of this module.

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 TEACHING STRATEGY
Preamble: The lecturer is both a facilitator and a guide for students to understand physics concepts.
The lecturer facilitates subject engagement of what students already know (prior knowledge) with new
concepts.

The lecturer will:

• make use of active learning where it will be expected from students to work-out problems in class,
at home and in tutorial classes.
• use different imaginative, innovative and creative methods of teaching to keep attention plus
create and maintain interest.
• assist students in areas where difficulty or misunderstanding of concepts and methods is
prominent.
• provide necessary support by making self-available for consultation.

However “spoon-feeding” shall be avoided by all means

DUTY OF THE STUDENT

Students are expected to:
• Constantly review all outcomes to be achieved.
• Review all the principles and calculations necessary for the achievement of the specified
outcomes.
• Constantly refer to the learner guide for clarification on what they are expected to know.
• Use the text book with the learner guide. Do not try to study only with the learner
guide. Do problems in the text book and learner guide!
• Apply the knowledge gained from one learning outcome to the successive learning outcomes.
• Take responsibility for their own learning and monitor their own progress.

PROBLEM SOLVING IN PHYSICS

Solving problems is a big stumbling block for many learners of physics. You only learn to solve
problems by doing them. Even if you think you “understand” how a problem is done, you must do other
similar problems to see if you really understand how to solve a problem.

“Word problems” can most effectively be solved by following the following steps:
Step 1: Review the problem to get an overview of the question. Don’t get bogged down by
details. Don’t worry about numbers of formulas that you must use.

Step 2: Identify what it is you must calculate. Look for words such as “Find…” or “How
many…” or “What is…”. They let you know where you are heading.

Step 3: Look for the information provided in the question. Don’t worry about the numbers
yet. Simply examine the nature of the data. Tabulating the data is useful so that it
is not cluttered with words.

Step 4: Consider the kinds of calculations that must be performed on the data. Still don’t
worry about the numbers. You must now write the necessary formulas to do the
calculation.

Step 5: You have compiled the necessary information and decided how the problem will be
solved. Insert the numbers into the formulas and solve.

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 Step 6: Look whether your answer is reasonable. Are the units correct? If so, you are
finished.
PRACTICALS
The practicals are compulsory for all students.
• In case of a student being absent from the practicals, the same rule applies as in the case of
absence from semester tests. All the practicals must be completed and the practical exam must
be written.
• A practical exam will be written at the end of the semester. The date for this exam will be
communicated to students during the semester. Practical exam is compulsory.

• Student repeating the course may apply for exemption from practicals within the first
two weeks of the semester. An exemption will be done by student previous THEORY
lecture. The student must however do the practicals until written notice of exemption is given. If
exemption is not granted, the student must repeat all the practicals until the exemption is granted.

Exemption may be given only if a student has done the practicals at this University in the
past two semesters and had more than 40% for the practical exam and more than 50% total
for the average of Bookmark and Practical Exam: (PE ≥ 40% and PM ≥ 50%)

TIPS ON HOW TO STUDY THIS MODULE

1. ATTEND ALL YOUR PHYSICS CLASSES. You will not understand tomorrow’s lecture if you do not
attend today! If you miss a lecture (because of sickness, late entry, or any other reason), it is your
responsibility to catch up! Do that before the next class.

2. DO ALL THE GIVEN HOMEWORK. You do not have to get all the homework right, it is more
important that you try all, so that the lecturer knows where to help you. Bring the homework to class
so that the lecturer can discuss the problems in class. If it is not discussed in class, ask the lecturer
during his/her consulting hours.

3. EFFECTIVE STUDY AREA. Designate well-lit area for studying. If you can’t find an effective area
at home or residence, go to the library. It is advisable that you should study while sitting at a table
or desk. Studying in a very comfortable chair or a bed may cause you to feel drowsy.

4. WRITE IT DOWN. When you learn for an upcoming test, event, or anything, you must prepare for
or attend, immediately write it in your planner. Don’t wait for later, or you may forget about it.

5. BREAK UP YOUR STUDY TIME. Determine how many study hours you need, and schedule study
time in your planner. For example, if you need six hours of time to study for a test, you may break
that time up into six sessions, of one hour each. Choose the six days, and make a Study Time
notation in your calendar.

6. SCHEDULE CONSISTENT STUDY TIMES. Set aside time every day for study, and make it
consistent. For example, set your study time for each afternoon from 6:00pm to 8:00pm. Whatever
you do, avoid last minute studying and cramming.

7. EAT YOUR BROCCOLI FIRST. Imagine eating your dessert before your broccoli. What would be
left for you to look forward to? Just the same, do your homework for your most difficult subjects first.
Then, everything else will be a breeze, and therefore, more enjoyable.

8. LEARN THE THEORY FIRST: Before attempting problems make sure that you know all the
background (definitions and laws). Physics is like all professional sports- You have to know the
rules of the game to be good at it.

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 9. GET ASSISTANCE. If you don’t understand a lesson, ask for help. Be specific on what you need
help with. Try a problem on your own and if you get stuck bring it to the lecturer so that the lecturer
can understand where you went wrong. Please do the problem neatly so that it is possible for the
lecturer to read your attempt.

10. WHOOPS! If you find yourself getting off track, simply take a deep breath and get back on track. It
is better to get slightly off the path, rather than giving up.

2023 SEMESTER 1 PLANNING: HEALTH PHYSICS

(APHPH1A)

WEEK DATE OF FIRST LEARNING TEXT BOOK ASSESSMENT+REASSESSMENT

DAY OF THE UNIT CHAPTERS DATE & TIME
WEEK (8:00-10:00 AM)
1 13/02/2023
2 20/02/2023 Intro & 1 CH. 2
3 27/02/2023 1&2 CH.2, 3 & 4
4 06/03/2023 2&3 CH. 4 & 5
5 13/03/2023 3&4 CH. 5 & 7
6 20/03/2023 ASSESSMENT 1: LU 1 – 4
MONDAY 20 MARCH 2023
7 27/03/2023 5 CH. 14 & 15 REASSESSMENT 1: LU 1 – 4
MONDAY 27 MARCH 2023
8 03/04/2023 5&6 CH. 14, 15&16
9 10/04/2023 APRIL APRIL RECESS
RECESS
10 17/04/2023 6&7 CH. 16&17
11 24/04/2023 7&8 CH. 17&21
12 01/05/2023 ASSESSMENT 2: LU 5 – 8
MONDAY 01 MAY 2023
13 08/05/2023 9 CH. 8 REASSESSMENT 2: LU 5 – 8
MONDAY 08 MAY 2022
14 15/05/2023 9&10 CH. 8&9
15 22/05/2023 10&11 CH. 9&11
16 29/05/2022 11&12 CH. 11&22
17 05/06/2023 ASSESSMENT 3: LU 9 – 12
05 JUNE 2023
18 12/06/2023 REASSESSMENT 3: LU 9 – 12
12 JUNE 2023
19 19/06/2023
20 06/06/2023
*Times and dates might change.

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 LEARNING UNIT 1

CHAPTER 2: KINEMATICS

After the completion of this learning unit, you should be able to:

• Demonstrate knowledge, comprehensive and acquired skills regarding the introduction to the
kinematics in one and two dimensions.
• Define displacement, velocity, both acceleration and centripetal acceleration.
• Explain Projectile Motion
• Explain Uniform circular motion.
• Solve problems of motion in one and two dimension and circular motion.

Study the following sections in the textbook:

2.2. Motion in one Dimension………………………………………………………………………page 23

2.3. Motion in two Dimension………………………………………………………………………page 33

2.4. Uniform circular motion……………………………………………………………...…...…...page 37

Know the following concepts:

▪ Displacement, velocity, acceleration.

▪ Projectile motion, motion in the X and Y directions.
▪ Period, Speed and centripetal acceleration.

1-DIMENTIONAL MOTION

Displacement

Displacement is the shortest distance between the initial and final position, with direction from the
initial to the final position.

Speed Velocity
V = D/t v = speed (m/s) V = S/t v = velocity (m.s-1)
s = distance (m) s = displacement (m)
t =time (s) t = time (s)
Direction: Velocity is in the same direction as displacement.
Acceleration
a = acceleration (m.s-2), v = change in velocity (m.s-1) and t = time (s).
Direction: In the same direction as the resultant force causing the change in velocity.

EQUATIONS OF MOTION

There are five variables of equation of motion, Acceleration (a), Initial velocity (u), Final velocity (v),
Displacement (s), and Time (t). And there are four equations of motion with each equation is made by
four variables as follows:

1 2
(1) v = u + at (3) s = ut + at
2
u +v
(2) v 2 = u 2 + 2as (4) s =  t
 2 

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TIPS:

• If the object is free falling (the only force working on the object is the weight (gravitational force)
of the object), then a=g=down 9.80 m.s-2.
• If the object motion stops at the highest position, then v = 0 m/s.
• If the object returns to the starting position and its motion stops there, s = 0 m
• If two objects are moving simultaneously, write down the given variables in a table. Think what
is the relation between the motion of the one with the motion of the other.

1. When you finish this chapter, you should be able to

2. Define (a) displacement, (b) speed, (c) velocity, (d) acceleration, (e) gravitational acceleration, (f)
free fall.

3. Describe how you measure (a) the average velocity of an objects as it moves from A to B and (b) the
instantaneous velocity at any point.

4. State the four uniform-motion equations, explain the symbols in them, and state the restrictions on
their use.

5. Solve simple problems involving uniformly accelerated motion.

6. Solve problems with different parts and each part has a different acceleration

2-DIMENTIONAL MOTION

Know the following concepts:

✓ Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration

✓ Projectile motion, both X-motion and Y-motion

Use the following hints and information when solving problems:

❖ In two-dimensional kinematics, it is important to realise that the x part of the motion occurs
exactly as it would if the y part did not occur at all, and vice versa.

v = v x2 + v 2y
❖ The velocity of a projectile at any location along its path is: , and direction
vy
tan  =
vx
(because velocity is a vector), Both the horizontal and vertical components
contribute to the speed.

❖ When a projectile reaches maximum height, the vertical component of its velocity is
momentarily zero. The horizontal component of its velocity is not zero.

Summary

The motion of any object moving in two dimensions can be broken into x- and y-components. The most
common problems of this kind involve projectile motion: the motion of an object that is shot, thrown, or
in some other way launched into the air. The type of problems you will get can be divided into 4 types.
Read the problem and decide the type first by looking at the path of the object. The velocity in the x
direction is ALWAYS constant (ignore friction), and the velocity in the y-direction is free falling motion.

Under the influence of gravity alone, an object near the surface of the Earth will accelerate downwards
at 9.80m/s2. &
a y = −9.80 m s 2 ax = 0 vx = vox = constant

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 Type 1 Type 2

x-component y-component x-component y-component

ax = 0 ay=9.8 m/s2 ax = 0 ay=9.8 m/s2

y=0 vy=0

tx = ty = t tx = ty = t

Type 3 Type 4

? Not one of the first 3.

x-component y-component

ax = 0 ay=9.8 m/s2

x-component y-component

ax = 0 ay=9.8 m/s2 tx = ty = t

voy=0

tx = ty = t

Equations of Kinematics In Two Dimension

x – components

vx = vo + axt x = vot + 12 axt 2 x = 12 (vo + vx ) t vx = vo2 + 2ax x

2

y – components

v y = voy + a y t y = voyt + 12 ayt 2 vy2 = voy2 + 2ay y y = 12 (voy + v y ) t

Reasoning Strategy

1. Make a drawing.

2. Decide which directions are to be called positive (+) and negative (−).

3. Write down the values that are given for any of the five kinematic variables associated with each
direction.

4. Verify that the information contains values for at least three of the kinematic variables. Do this for
x and y. Select the appropriate equation.

5. When the motion is divided into segments, remember that the final velocity of one segment is the
initial velocity for the next.

6. Keep
Page | 11 in mind that there may be two possible answers to a kinematics problem.
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

Know the following concepts:

✓ Period, Speed
✓ Centripetal acceleration, Centripetal Force
Use the following hints and information when solving problems:
❖ Centripetal acceleration and Centripetal force are always directed to the centre of the circle.
Summary
Uniform circular motion occurs when a body moves in a circular path with constant speed.

2 r
v=
T
Centripetal acceleration
An object moves in a circle with constant speed. Show the direction of the centripetal acceleration in
each of the five points of the diagram. “Centripetal comes from a Latin word meaning “center-
seeking.”
v2
ac =
r
Total acceleration
An object, can have a tangential acceleration (not moving with constant speed but accelerate in a
circle).
To calculate the magnitude and direction of the total acceleration:
a vertical
atotal = ac 2 + a tan gental2  = arctan
a horizontal

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TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:

1. A landing airplane makes contact with the runway with a speed of 78.0 m/s and moves toward the
south. After 18.5 seconds, the airplane comes to rest. What is the magnitude and direction of
acceleration of the airplane during the landing? Ans: (4.22 m/s2 towards north)

2. A car is moving at a constant velocity when it is involved in a collision. The car comes to rest after
0.450 s with an average acceleration of 65.0 m/s2 in the direction opposite that of the car's velocity.
What was the speed, in km/h, of the car before the collision? Ans: (105.3 km/h)

3. Suppose a car is traveling at constant 20.0 m/s, and the driver sees a traffic light turn red. After 0.530
s has elapsed (the reaction time), the driver applies the brakes, and the car decelerates at 7.00 m/s2.
What is the stopping distance of the car, as measured from the point where the driver first notices the
red light? Ans: (39.2 m)

4. Elijah throws a tennis ball vertically upward. The ball returns to the point of release after 3.5 s. What
is the speed of the ball as it is released? Ans: (17.15 m/s)

5. A ball is shot straight up from the surface of the earth with an initial speed of 19.6 m/s. Neglect any
effects due to air resistance. How much time elapses between the throwing of the ball and its return to
the original launch point? Ans: (4 s)

6. A stone is thrown upward from the top of a building at an angle of 30 o to the horizontal and with an
initial speed of 30 m/s, as shown in figure below. If the height of the building is 45 m, determine:

a. how long is the stone “in flight”? Ans.: 4,93 s

b. what is the speed of the stone just before it strikes the ground? Ans.: 42,25 m/s

c. where does the stone strikes the ground (find x)? Ans.: 128,09 m

d. what is the total displacement of the stone after it strikes the ground? Ans.: 135,76
m;19,36°below +x

Page | 13
7. A shell is fired with a horizontal velocity in the positive x direction from the top of an 80 m high cliff.
The shell strikes the ground 1330 m from the base of the cliff.

a. Determine the initial speed of the shell. Ans.: 329,21 m/s

b. What is the speed of the shell as it hits the ground? Ans.: 331,58 m/s

c. What is the magnitude of the acceleration of the shell just before it strikes the ground?
Ans.: 9,8 m/s2 downwards

8. A rugby player kicks a ball in projectile motion from ground level at an angle of θ = 12.0° above the
horizontal. It returns to ground level. To what value should the launch angle be adjusted, without
changing the launch speed, so that the range doubles? Ans.: 27.2o

9. A major-league pitcher can throw a baseball in excess of 41.0 m/s. If a ball is thrown horizontally at
this speed, how much height will it drop by the time it reaches a catcher who is 17.0 m away from the
point of release? Ans.: 0.844 m

10. The figure below shows a boy throwing a stone at an initial speed of 18 m/s at an angle of 57 o with
horizontal. The rock lands on the roof of a building which is 15 m far away from the boy in the x-direction
as shown in the figure below (ignore air-resistance).

Determine

a. How long the rock is in the air [time of flight]. Ans.: 1.53 s

b. The height (H) of the building. Ans.: 26.63 m

Page | 14
 LEARNING UNIT 2

CHAPTER 3 & 4: FORCES AND NEWTON’S LAWS

After the completion of this learning unit, you should be able to:

• Demonstrate knowledge, comprehensive and acquired skills regarding the introduction to the
kinematics.
• Define displacement, velocity, both acceleration and centripetal acceleration.
• Explain Projectile Motion
• Explain Uniform circular motion.
• Solve problems of motion in two dimension and circular motion.
• State Newton’s first law and give related examples.
• State Newton’s second law in words and in equation form.
• State Newton’s third law and point out the action-reaction pair of forces.
• Draw a free body diagram and unknown forces for equilibrium and non-equilibrium.
• Distinguish between weight and apparent weight.
• Explain and define Centripetal force.

Study the following sections in the textbook:

3.1. What is a force?.............................................................................................................page 50

3.5. Categories of forces…………………………………………………………………………..page 55

3.6. Fundamental forces…………………………………………………………………………..page 55

3.7. Non-fundamental forces……………………………………………………………………...page 61

3.8. Free Body Diagram………………………………………………………...………………...page 68

3.9. Equilibrium………………………………………………………………...………………......page 70

4.1. Newton’s Laws of Motion ………………………………………........................................page 86

4.2. Free Body diagram………………………………………………........................................page 87

4.6. Applications of Newton’s Laws, Non-fundamental forces………...................................page 98

4.7. Weight and Apparent Weight……………………………………………………...…………page 106

4.8. Dynamics of Uniform Circular motion and Centripetal force……...................................page 108

Newton’s first law of motion:

An object continues in a state of rest or in a state of constant velocity, unless compelled to change that
state by a net force.

Inertia:
Inertia is the natural tendency of an object to remain at rest or in motion at a constant speed along a
straight line.

Mass (kg):
Mass of a body is a quantitative measure of inertia.

Newton’s second law of motion:

When a net external force F acts on an object the object will accelerate. The acceleration is directly
proportional to the net force and inversely proportional to the mass of the object. The direction of the
acceleration is the same as the direction of the net force. F=ma

Page | 15
Newton’s third law of motion:
Whenever one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body exerts an oppositely directed
force of equal magnitude on the first body.

Newton’s law of universal gravitation

Any two objects exert a force on each other, which is directly proportional to the product of their masses
and indirectly proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Gm1m 2
F = F = Force of attraction between two particles (N)
r2
G = Universal gravitational constant = 6,673 x 10-11 N.m2.kg-2
m = mass (kg)
r = distance between two objects (m)

Weight:
Weight of an object is the gravitational force that the earth (or the planet it is on) exerts on the object.
The direction of the weight is DOWN!
W=mg W = Weight
m = mass
g = gravitational acceleration (9.8 m.s-2)

The normal force

The normal force is the perpendicular component of the force that the supporting surface exerts on the
object being supported.

Static friction force

f s = u s FN fs = the maximum static friction force (N)
us = coefficient of static friction
FN = normal force (N)
The static friction force acts on a stationary object just before it starts moving.
It is always directed parallel to the surface and opposite the direction of
intended motion.

Kinetic friction force

f k = u k FN fk = the maximum static friction force (N)
uk = coefficient of static friction
FN = normal force (N)
The kinetic friction force acts on a moving object and is always directed parallel to the surface and
opposite the motion.

Draw the free body diagram for each of the following cases: (Draw neat with a ruler. Each force should
be presented by an arrow. Write the name of each force next to the arrow. If you could calculate the
value write the value)

State of equilibrium
An object is in equilibrium when it has zero acceleration (in rest or move with constant velocity).

For the problems:

1. Draw a free body diagram (the object and all the forces working on the object). When there are
2 objects, draw a free body diagram for each object. It is best to draw the axis so that the y, or
the x-axis is on the acceleration. Always choose positive direction in the direction of
acceleration.
2. Set up equations to solve for the unknowns:
0
 x − comp =
ma x
0
 y − comp = ma y

Page | 16
 3. If mass or weight is not given, use mg in the equations (not W), the mass might cancel out in
some equations.

Centripetal Force
Wherever you find acceleration, you will also find force. For a body to experience centripetal
acceleration, a centripetal force must be applied to it. The vector for this force is similar to the
acceleration vector: it is of constant magnitude, and always points radially inward to the center of the
circle, perpendicular to the velocity vector.
We can use Newton’s Second Law and the equation for centripetal acceleration to write an equation
for the centripetal force that maintains an object’s circular motion.
v2
Fc = mac = m
r
Example: On an unbanked curve, the static
frictional force provides the centripetal force.

Remember Physics 1 (Mechanics) about forces!

Reasoning Strategy for the problem Solving:

4. Draw a free body diagram. Choose one point on the circular path and draw the forces (weight,
normal force, friction force, Tension in the rope) working on the object at that point on the
circular path. Always choose positive direction in the direction of acceleration – to the center of
the circle if it is centripetal acceleration. Remember: Centripetal force is NOT one of the forces
you should draw in the free body diagram because centripetal force is the resultant force.
5. Set up equations to solve for the unknowns:
6. If the mass or weight is not given, rather use mg in the equations (not W), because the mass
might cancel out in some equations.

For objects moving in a horizontal circle with constant speed:

Case 1:
If a car is moving around an Unbanked horizontal circle

v2
Fx = ma c = m
r
Fy = 0

Page | 17
TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:

1. Mars has a mass of 6.46 x 1023 kg and a radius of 3.39 x 106 m. (a) What is the acceleration
due to gravity on Mars? (b) How much would a 65 kg person weigh on this planet? Ans: (3.74
m/s2, 240 N)

2. A 95.0-kg person stands on a scale in an elevator. What is the apparent weight when the
elevator is (a) accelerating upward with an acceleration of 1.80 m/s 2, (b) moving upward at a
constant speed, and (c) accelerating downward with an acceleration of 1.30 m/s 2? Ans: (1102
N, 931 N, 808 N)

3. In the drawing, the weight of the block on the table is 422 N and that of the hanging block is
185 N. Ignoring all frictional effects and assuming the pulley to be massless, find (a) the
acceleration of the two blocks and, (b) the tension in the cord.
Ans: (2.99 m/s2, 129 N

4. A 20 kg box is pushed up a rough sloping ramp (30 o relative to the incline) with a force of 300
N, parallel to the horizontal with constant speed. Calculate (a) the normal force on the block,
(b) the friction force on the block, and (c) the friction coefficient on the block. Ans: (319.7 N,
161.8 N, 0.51)

5. A 70.0-kg astronaut pushes to the left on a spacecraft with a force F in “gravity-free” space.
The spacecraft has a total mass of 1.0  104 kg. During the push, the astronaut accelerates to
the right with an acceleration of 0.36 m/s 2. Determine the magnitude of the acceleration of the
spacecraft. Ans: (0.00252 m/s2)

6. At a playground, a child slides down a slide that makes a 42° angle with the horizontal direction.
The coefficient of kinetic friction for this motion is 0.20. What is the magnitude of her
acceleration during her sliding?

7. A 5 kg block is pushed up a rough 30 0 incline plane with an applied force F parallel to the
incline. Calculate the amount of an applied force F needed to push a block up with acceleration
of 2.0 m/s2 up the incline, if the coefficient of friction is between surfaces is 0.30? Ans: (47.23
N)

Page | 18
 8. A mountain climber, in the process of crossing between two cliffs by a rope, pauses to rest. She
weighs 535 N. As the drawing shows, she is closer to the left cliff than to the right cliff, with the
result that the tensions in the left and right sides of the rope are not the same. Find the tensions
in the rope to the left and to the right of the mountainclimber. Ans: (TL = 919 N, TR = 845 N)

9. A crate of mass 30 kg is lying on a 30o incline as shown in the sketch. A steel ball of mass 20
kg is attached to the crate with a rope. The rope is going over a frictionless pulley. Calculate:

a. The static friction coefficient so that the block moves up with constant velocity.
Ans: (0.19)
b. The kinetic friction coefficient so that the block moves up with an acceleration of 30 cm.s-2.
Ans: (0.13)

10. A 10-kg block is set moving with an initial speed of 6 m/s on a rough horizontal surface. If the
force of friction is 20 N, approximately how far does the block travel before it stops? Ans: (9 m)

11. A child is swinging a 0,0120 kg ball on a string in a horizontal circle whose radius is 0,100 m.
The ball travels twice around the circle in 1,00 s.
a. Determine the centripetal force acting on the ball. Ans.: 0,19 N
b. If the speed is doubled, does the centripetal force double? If not, show by what factor does
the centripetal force increase? Ans.: No, factor of 4

12. An object of mass m is on a horizontal rotating platform. The mass is located 0.22 m from the
center and makes one revolution every 0.74 s. The friction force needed to keep the mass from
sliding is 13 N. What is the object's mass? Ans.: 40,82 kg

11. A child swings a yo-yo of weight mg in a horizontal circle so that the cord makes an angle of 30,0°
with the vertical, as in the figure. Find the centripetal acceleration of the yo-yo. Ans.: 5,67 m/s2

Page | 19
 LEARNING UNIT 3

CHAPTER 5: CENTRE OF MASS AND LINEAR MOMENTUM

After the completion of this learning unit, you should be able to:

• Demonstrate knowledge, comprehensive and acquired skills regarding the momentum and
centre of mass.

Study the following sections in the textbook:

5.1. Centre of Mass………….……………………………….………….…………page 125

5.2. Linear Momentum and Impulse…………………………………….…………page 131

5.4. Conservation of Linear Momentum…………………………………………...page 134

Centre of Mass Definition

M represents the total mass of the system that consists of n objects of mass mi at respective positions (xi, yi, zi).

rc.m. = ( xc.m. , yc.m. , zxc.m. )= M
1 n
 1 n   mi xi 1 n
rc.m. =  mi ri c.m.
i
yc.m. =  mi yi
M i
, , , M i

NB: The velocity of the center of mass of a system of objects is constant when the sum of the external
forces acting on the system is zero.

Impulse:
Impuls, J = Ft F = force (N)
t = time for which the force acts (s)

Linear momentum:
P = mv p = momentum (kg.m.s-1)
m = mass (kg)
v = velocity (m.s-1)
Direction: The same as velocity

Impulse-momentum theorem:

Impulse = ∆p p = change in momentum (kg.m.s-1)

Principle of conservation of linear momentum:

The total linear momentum of an isolated system remains constant.

One Dimension
 P = P
i f  m1v1i + m2 v2i = m1v1 f + m2 v2 f
1 1 1 1
 KE = KE  m1 v1i + m2 v 2i = m1 v1 f + m2 v 2 f
2 2 2 2
i f
2 2 2 2

Page | 20
TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:

1. The drawing shows two 4.5-kg balls located on the y axis at 1.0 and 9.0 m, respectively; a third
ball with a mass 2.3 kg is located at 6.0 m. What is the location of the center of mass of this
system? Ans: (5.2 m)

2. A juggler demonstrates his abilities by keeping a 2.3-kg pipe wrench, a 1.5-kg hatchet, and a
1.0-kg hammer flying through the air above his head. The white circles on the graph represent
the positions of the center of mass of each of the flying objects at one instant. What are the x
and y coordinates of the center of mass for the system of these three objects? Ans: (0.46 m,
0.47 m)

3. A mother is holding her 4.5-kg baby in her arms while riding in a car moving at 22 m/s. The car
is involved in a head-on collision and stops within 1.5 seconds. What is the magnitude of the
force exerted by the baby on his mother’s arms? Ans: (66 N)

4. A 2.0-kg pistol fires a 1.0-g bullet with a muzzle speed of 1000 m/s. The bullet then strikes a
10-kg wooden block resting on a horizontal frictionless surface. The block and the embedded
bullet then slide across the surface. What is the kinetic energy of the bullet as it travels toward
the block? Ans: (100 J)

5. A golfer, driving a golf ball off the tee, gives the ball a velocity of + 38 m/s. The mass of the ball
is 0.045 kg, and the duration of the impact with the golf club is 0.003 s. (a) What is the change
in momentum of the ball? (b) Determine the average force applied to the ball by the club. Ans:
(1.7 kg m/s, 570 N)

6. A 0.5 kg ball is dropped from rest at a point 1.2 m above the floor. The ball rebounds straight
upward to a height of 0.7 m. What are the magnitude and direction of the impulse of the net
force applied to the ball during the collision with the floor? Ans: (0.578 N.s upward)

7. A 0.5 kg bullet of mass is fired horizontally at a constant speed of 45m/s into a stationary
wooden block of mass M = 10kg. The bullet instantaneously comes to rest in the block.
8. The block with the embedded bullet slides along a horizontal surface with a coefficient of kinetic
friction, µk = 0.125. (a) Determine the take-off speed of the block with embedded bullet. (b)
Determine how far the block with embedded bullet slides before they come to rest? Ans:
(2.14m/s, 1.869 m)

Page | 21
 LEARNING UNIT 4

CHAPTER 7: ENERGY AND IT’S CONSERVATION

After the completion of this learning unit, you should be able to:

• Demonstrate knowledge, comprehensive and acquired skills regarding the energy and work.

Study the following sections in the textbook:

7.1. Observation about Energy……………………………………….………………..…………page 180

7.2. Defining Work……………….…………………………….………………….….……….…...page 184

7.3. Kinetic and Potential Energy…………….……….…………………………..…….…….….page 189

7.4. Is Mechanical Energy Conserved?................................................................................page 193

When you finish this chapter, you should be able to

1. Define (a) work, (b) joule, (c) power, (e) kinetic energy (f) work-energy theorem, (g) gravitational
potential energy, (h) law of conservation of energy
2. Compute the work done on an object by a specified force when the object is moved through a
given distance.
3. Compute power in simple situations.
4. Compute the change in gravitational potential energy of an object as it is moved from one place
to another.
5. Distinguish between conservative and non-conservative forces
6. Use the work-energy theorem to calculate unknowns.

Work
W=Fs cosθ F = Magnitude of the force (N)
 = Angle between the direction of the force and the direction of the
displacement
s = Magnitude of the displacement (m)

Calculate the work done in each of the following cases:

Force = 10 N Force = 10 N
30o

Displacement = 2 Displacement = 2
m m

Force = 10 N
Displacement = 2
m
Displacement = 2 Force = 10 N
m
Force = 10 N
Force = 10 N
Displacement = 2
30 o m

Displacement = 2
m
Page | 22
Kinetic energy:
Ability to do work because an objects motion.
1
Ek = mv 2 Ek = Kinetic energy (J)
2
m = mass (kg)
v = speed (m.s-1)
Potential energy
Ability to do work because of an objects position in a gravitational field.
E P = mgh Ep = Potential energy
m =mass
g = gravitational acceleration
h = height
The work-done by gravity

W gravity = mg (hi − h f ) = −E P

The work-energy theorem:

When a net external force does work on an object, the kinetic energy of the object changes from its
initial value of Eko to its final value of Ekf. The difference between the two values is equal to the work
done
1 1
Wnet = Ek = mv f − mv i
2 2

2 2
Conservative force
A force is conservative if the work it does on a moving object is independent of the path of motion of
the object.

In the above equation, the work done by weight is included in the left side of the equation. Another form
of the above equation is below when the work done by conservative force, W c (weight) is the change in
the potential energy.

Wnet = Wc + Wnc
 E k = − E P + Wnc
1  1 
 Wnc = E k + E P =  mv f + mgh f  −  mv i − mgh i  = E f − Ei
2 2

2  2 

Principle of conservation of mechanical energy:

The total mechanical energy (E = Ek + Ep) of an object remains constant as the object moves, provided
that the net work done by external nonconservative forces is 0 (W nc = 0)

Principle of conservation of energy:

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can only be converted from one from to another.

E1 = E 2
1 1
mv i + mgh i = mv f + mgh f
2 2

2 2

Power
The rate of doing work.
W
P= P = Power (W)
t
W = Work (J)
t = Time (s)

Page | 23
Tutorial questions:

1. A concrete block is pulled 7.0 m across a frictionless surface by means of a rope. The tension
in the rope is 40 N; and the net work done on the block is 247 J. What angle does the rope
make with the horizontal? Ans: (28°)

2. A 10.0-g bullet traveling horizontally at 755 m/s strikes a stationary target and stops after
penetrating 14.5 cm into the target. What is the average force of the target on the bullet? Ans:
(1.97 x 104 N)

3. A 12-kg crate is pushed up an incline from point A to point B as shown in the figure. What is
the change in the gravitational potential energy of the crate? Ans: (590 J)

4. Larry's gravitational potential energy is 1870 J as he sits 2.20 m above the ground in a sky
diving airplane. What is Larry's gravitational potential energy when he begins to jump from the
airplane at an altitude of 923 m? Ans: (784 550 J)

5. A roller-coaster car is moving at 20 m/s along a straight horizontal track. What will its speed
be after climbing the 15 m hill shown in the figure if friction is ignored? Ans: (10.3 m/s)

6. A physics student shoves a 0.50 kg block from the bottom of a frictionless 30.0° inclined plane.
The student performs 4 J of work and the block slides a distance s along the incline before it
stops as shown in the diagram. Determine the value of s.
Ans: (1.60 m)

7. A 9.0-kg box of oranges slides from rest down a frictionless incline from a height of 5.0 m. A
constant frictional force, introduced at point A, brings the block to rest at point B, 19 m to the
right of point A.

Calculate: (a) The speed of the block just before it reaches point A? (b) The coefficient of kinetic
friction, µk, of the surface from A to B? Ans: (9.9 m/s, 0.263)

Page | 24
 LEARNING UNIT 5

CHAPTER 14 & 15: WAVES AND SOUND

After the completion of this learning unit, you should be able to:

• Demonstrate knowledge, comprehensive and acquired skills regarding waves and sound.

Study the following sections in the textbook:

14.1. What is a Wave?…………………………………………………………………………..page 376

14.2. Physical Properties of Waves……………………………………….…....………….…..page 378

14.4. Superposition………………………………………......................................................page 388

14.6. Standing Waves…………………………………………………………………………...page 393

15.1. Sound Waves……………………………………………………………………………...page 405

15.3. Longitudinal Waves in a Gas……………………………….……………….………......page 408

15.4. Sounds Waves in a Confined Medium…………………………………………….……page 418

The Nature of waves:

A wave is a travelling disturbance that carries energy from place to place

Transversal wave:
A wave in which the disturbance occurs perpendicular to the direction of travel of the wave.
Ex. wave on a string, electromagnetic waves (light waves)

Longitudinal wave:
A wave in which the disturbance occurs parallel to the direction of travel of the wave.
Ex. wave in a slinky spring, sound waves.

Transversal wave: Longitudinal wave:

Periodic waves:
Periodic waves consist of cycles or patterns that are produced over and over again.

Amplitude (of a transversal wave):

The maximum excursion of a particle of the medium from the particle’s undisturbed position.

Pressure amplitude (of a longitudinal wave):

The magnitude of the maximum change in pressure, measured relative to the undisturbed or
atmospheric pressure.

Wavelength (λ):
The horizontal length of one cycle/oscillation of the wave.

Period (T):
The time of one complete cycle/oscillation.

Page | 25
Frequency (f)
The number of cycle/oscillation per second.
1
f =
T
General equation for speed of a wave

v = f =
T
The speed of a wave on a string
F
v = f =
m/L

For sound waves:

Frequency is directly related to musical pitch or tone.

Pressure amplitude is directly related to the loudness of a sound wave.

Waves with same amplitude but different frequencies.

Waves with same frequency but different amplitudes.

The mathematical description of a wave

2x
y = A sin(2ft  ) . (+) if the wave is moving in the negative x-direction, and (–) if the wave is

2x
moving in the positive x-direction. Remember that 2ft  is measured in radians.

The nature of sound:

Sound is a longitudinal wave that is created by a vibrating object. Sound waves are compression
waves in a material medium such as air, water or steel. When the compression and rarefaction strikes
the eardrum, they result in the sensation of sound, provided that the frequency of vibration is between
20 Hz and 20 000 Hz.

Sound intensity:
P
I= I -Sound Intensity (W/m 2), P-Power (Watt), A-Area (m2)
A
P
For spherical radiation I =
4r 2

Page | 26
If a sound source emits sound uniformly in all directions, the intensity depends on the distance from
the source. The same sound power will pass through each area.

P = I1 4 r12 = I 2 4 r22
16.8 Sound Intensity level (Decibels)
 I 
 = 10 dB log   . I = 1.00 x 10-12 W/m2. I0 corresponds roughly to the weakest audible sound.
 I0 
The normal ear can distinguish between intensities that differ by an amount of 1 dB.
I 
 = 10 dB log  2  . I 2 and I 1 are two intensities of which I 1 is the smallest.  - difference
 I1 
between the two sound intensity levels.

When you finish this chapter, you should be able to

1. Define or state (a) Transversal wave, (b) Longitudinal wave, (c) Amplitude, (d) Pressure
Amplitude, (e) frequency, (f) Period, (g) wavelength, (h) Sound intensity, (i) Sound intensity
level in decibels
2. Calculate the speed of a wave on a string, Write down the equation of a wave from the
frequency, amplitude, wavelength and direction of the wave and vice versus.

Standing wave

A standing wave is the pattern of disturbance that results when oppositely travelling waves of the same
frequency and amplitude pass through each other. The standing waves places of minimum and
maximum vibration called, respectively, nodes and anti-nodes.

Natural frequencies

v
f n = n( ) with n=1,2,3… string fixed at both ends, where v – speed of sound in a string, L –
2L
Length of a string

v
f n = n( ) with n=1,2,3… tube open at both ends, where v – speed of sound in air, L – Length of
2L
pipe

v
f n = n( ) with n=1,3,5… tube open at one end, where v – speed of sound in air, L – Length of
4L
pipe

Page | 27
TRANSVERSE STANDING WAVE PATTERS: STRING ATTACHED AT BOTH ENDS

n Harmonics Overtones Shape

Vibrates node to node.
1 1st harmonic fundamental

2 2nd harmonic 1st overtone

3 3rd harmonic 2nd overtone

LONGITUDINAL STANDING WAVE PATTERS:

Pipe (open at one end) Pipe (open at both ends)

Page | 28
 TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:

1. A periodic traveling wave is generated on a string of linear density 8.0 x 10–4 kg/m. Figure
A shows the displacements of the particles in the string as a function of the position x along
the string at t = 0 s. Figure B shows the displacement of the particle at x = 0 m as a function
of time. The particle positions are measured from the left end of the string (x = 0 m) and the
wave pulses move to the right. Make use of the graphs below to answer the following
questions:

a. Amplitude of the wave

b. Wavelength of the wave
c. Period of the wave
d. Frequency of the wave
e. Speed of the wave
f. Tension in rope
g. Mathematical description of the wave
h. y(x;t)= y(2;10)

0.010 0.010

0.005 0.005
y (m)
y (m)

x (m) 0
t (s)
0
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.20 0.40 0.60

−0.005 −0.005

−0.010 −0.010

2. A certain loudspeaker has a circular opening with an area of 30 cm2. Assume that the sound it
emits is uniform and through this entire opening. If the sound intensity at the opening is 2.0 x
10–4 W/m2, how much power is being radiated as sound?
Ans. (6.0 x 10–7 W)

3. A rocket in a fireworks display explodes high in the air. The sound spreads out uniformly in all
directions. The intensity of the sound is 2.0 x 10–6 W/m2 at a distance of 120 m from the
explosion. Find the distance from the source at which the intensity is 8.0 x 10–7 W/m2. Ans.
(190 m)

4. A beam of sound has an intensity of 3.0 x 10–6 W/m2. What is the intensity level in decibels?
Ans. (184.77 dB)

5. What is the sound intensity at a location where the sound level is 23dB?
Ans. (2 x 10–10 W/m2)
6. A recording engineer works in a soundproofed room that is 44.0 dB quieter than the outside. If
the sound intensity in the room is 1.2  10–10 W/m2, what is the intensity outside? Ans. (3.02 x
10–6 W/m2)

7. A person was talking in a small room; and the sound intensity level is 60 dB everywhere within
the room. Now, there are eight people talking in similar manner simultaneously in the room,
what is the sound intensity level? Ans. (69dB)

8. A pipe open at one end and closed at the other is 82 cm long. What are the three lowest
frequencies to which it will resonate? Draw the wave within the tube for each frequency. Repeat
for a pipe open at both ends.
Ans. (104.573 Hz, 313.72 Hz, 522.87 Hz and 209.14 Hz, 418.29 Hz, 627.44 Hz)

Page | 29
 LEARNING UNIT 6

CHAPTER 16: ELECTRIC FORCE AND FIELD

After the completion of this learning unit, you should be able to:

• Demonstrate knowledge, comprehensive and acquired skills regarding electric force and field.

Study the following sections in the textbook:

16.1. Electric charge and force…………………………………………….………..page 437

16.2. Newton’s laws and charged objects………………………………..………...page 441

16.4. Electric field………………………………………..........................................page 444

When you finish this chapter, you should be able to

1. Define (a) Coulomb’s law, (b) electric field lines, (c) electric field strength.
2. Explain how object can be charged by induction.
3. Use Coulomb’s law to find the force on a charged due to nearby point charges.
4. Calculate the electric field strength at a point due to several specified point charges.
5. Sketch the electric field lines in the vicinity of simple charged objects.
6. Determine where, in the vicinity of 2 point charges will the resultant electric field (force) be 0.

Law of conservation of electric charge:

During any process the net electric charge of an isolated system remains constant.

Like charges repel each other

Unlike charges attract each other

Coulomb’s law
k q1 q 2
F= F = Electrostatic force (N)
r2
k = Proportionality constant (9 x 109 N.m2.C-2)
q = Charge (C)
r = Distance between the charges (m)
Direction: The direction of the force will be repelling if the charges are like
and attracting if the charges are unlike.

Electric field:
F
E= E = Electric field (N.C-1)
q
F = Electrostatic force (N)
q = Charge experiencing the force (C)
Direction: The direction of the electric field is the same as the direction of the
electrostatic force experienced by a positive charge.

Derived equation for electric field (NOT THE DEFINITION)

kq
E= E = Electric field (N.C-1)
r2
k = Proportionality constant (9 x 109 N.m2.C-2)
q = Charge creating the electric field (C)
r = Distance from the charge (m)

Page | 30
TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:

1. A rod made from insulating material carries a net charge, while a small copper sphere is
neutral. The rod and the sphere do not touch. Is it possible for the rod and the sphere to
attract or repel each other? Explain.

2. In a vacuum, two particles have charges q1 and q2, where q1 = –4 C. A distance of 0.26 m
separates them, and q1 experiences an attractive force of 6 N. What is the magnitude and
polarity of q2? Ans: (11.2 C, positive)

3. A charge Q exerts a 12 N force on another charge q. If the distance between the charges is
doubled, what is the magnitude of the force exerted on Q by q?. Ans: ( 3N )

4. A plate carries a charge of 3.0 μC, while a rod carries a charge of + 2.0 μC. How many
electrons must be transferred from the plate to the rod, so that both objects have the same
charge? Ans: (1.6 x 1013 )

5. Three charges are fixed to an x, y coordinate system. A charge of +18μC is on the y axis at
y = + 3.0 m. A charge of 12μC is at the origin. Last, a charge of +45μC is on the x axis at
x = + 3.0 m. Determine the magnitude and direction of the net electrostatic force on the charge
at x = + 3.0 m. Specify the direction relative to the – x axis.
Ans: (0.38 N, 49 o below – x axis)

6. Two charges, –16 μC and +4.0 μC, are fixed in place and separated by 3.0 m. (a) At what
spot along a line through the charges is the net electric field zero? Locate this spot relative to
the positive charge. (Hint: The spot does not necessarily lie between the two charges.) (b)
What would be the force on a charge of 5.0 μC placed at this spot? Ans: (3 m, 0 N)

7. Diagram below shows a small spherical insulator of mass 0.08 kg and charge +0.600 μC is
hung by a thin wire of negligible mass. A charge of – 0.900 μC is held 0.150 m away from the
sphere and directly to the right of it, so the wire makes an angle θ with the vertical. Find (a)
the angle θ and (b) the tension in the wire. Ans: (15.4o, 0.813 N)

8. Three charges are positioned as indicated in the figure. What are the horizontal and vertical
components of the net force exerted on the +15 µC charge by the +11 µC and +13 µC charges?
Ans: ( 76 N, 370 N)

9. One mole of a substance contains 6.02 x 1023 protons and an equal number of electrons. If the
protons could somehow be separated from the electrons and placed in very small, individual
containers separated by 1.00 x 103 m, what would be the magnitude of the electrostatic force
exerted by one box on the other? Ans: (8.3  1013 N)

Page | 31
 LEARNING UNIT 7

CHAPTER 17: ELECTRIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL

After the completion of this learning unit, you should be able to:
• Demonstrate knowledge, comprehensive and acquired skills regarding electric potential
energy and electric potential.
Study the following sections in the textbook:
17.1. The Electric Energy…………………………………………………………......…………. page 460
17.2. The Electric Potential.……………………………………………………...…………….... page 467
17.3. Conservation of Energy.……………………………………….......................………..... page 470

When you finish this chapter, you should be able to

1. Define (a) Absolute potential (b) potential (c) electron volt.
2. Find the potential difference between two points when the work required to carry a charge q
from one point to the other is given (or vice versa).
3. Calculate the absolute potential at a point due to several specific point charges near the point.

Electric potential:

or W = (V A − V B )q
EPE W
V A − VB = =
q q
VA = Electric potential at initial point A (V)
VB = Electric potential at final point B (V)
EPE = Electric potential energy or work done on/by charge (J)
q = Charge (C)

W
V = VB − V A = −
and
q ∆V = Electric potential difference between two points (V)

Absolute electric potential:

EPE W
VP = =
q q V = Absolute electric potential at a point (V)
EPE = Electric potential energy or work done on/by charge between infinity and point P. (J)
q = Charge (C)

MeV to J
1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19J

( The work done to move 1 e through 1 V ⇒W=qV, 1.602 x 10-19J=1.602 x 10-19C x 1 V)

∴1 MeV = 1.602 x 10-13J

Potential created by a point charge (NOT THE DEFINITION)

kq
V=
r V = Potential created by a point charge (V)

k = Proportionality constant (9 x 109 N.m2.C-2)

q = Charge (C)

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r = Distance from the charge (m)

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:

1. Two identical point charges are fixed to diagonally opposite corners of a square with sides 50 cm.
Each charge is 3 x 10-6 C. Calculate the amount of work done by the electric force as one of the
charges is moved to any empty corner. Ans: (– 0.048 J)

2. Identical +1.8 μC charges are fixed to adjacent corners of a square. What charge (magnitude and
algebraic sign) should be fixed to one of the empty corners, so that the total electric potential at the
remaining empty corner is 0 V?
Ans: (– 3.1 x 10 –6 C)

3. Four identical charges (+2.0 μC each) are brought from infinity and fixed to a straight line. The
charges are located 0.40 m apart. Determine the electric potential energy of this group. Ans: (0.38
J)

4. Two identical point charges are fixed to diagonally opposite corners of a square that is 0.500 m on
a side. Each charge is + 3.0 x 10 –6 C. How much work is done by the electric force as one of the
charges moves to an empty corner? Ans: (– 4.7 x 10 –2 J)

5. Two charges are lying next to each other 1 m apart, 2 C left and –5 C on the right. (a) Calculate
the absolute potential 20 cm to the right of the negative charge. (b) Calculate the work done to
move a 4 C from infinity to the point in (a). Ans: (– 0.84 J)

6. Two point charges are located at two of the vertices of a right triangle, as shown in the figure. If a
third charge –2q is brought from infinity and placed at the third vertex, what will its electric potential
energy be? Use the following values: a = 0.15 m; b = 0.45 m, and q = 2.0 x 10-5 C. Ans: ( 17 J)

7. Two point charges are arranged along the x axis as shown in the figure. At which of the following
values of x is the electric potential equal to zero?. Ans: ( 0.29 m )

8. The drawing shows six point charges arranged in a rectangle. The value of q is , and the
distance d is 0.13 m. Find the total electric potential at location P, which is at the center of the
rectangle. Ans: (+7.8 x 106 V)

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 LEARNING UNIT 8

CHAPTER 21: GEOMETRIC OPTICS

After the completion of this learning unit, you should be able to:

• Demonstrate knowledge, comprehensive and acquired skills regarding reflection and refraction
of light.

• Demonstrate knowledge, comprehensive and acquired skills regarding refraction and Snell’s
laws.

Study the following sections in the textbook:

21.1. What is Optics…………………………………………...………………….…………...page 569

21.2. Reflection.…………………………………………………………………..…...……….page 571

21.3. Refraction.………………………………………........................................................page 577

Law of reflection:
1. The incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray all lies in the same plane.
2. The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection

Real and virtual images

Properties of images formed by plane mirrors:

Same size
Upright
Behind the mirror
Virtual

THE FORMATION OF IMAGES BY SPHERICAL MIRRORS

Concave Mirrror Convex Mirror

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FOCAL LENGTH:

R
f = f = Focal length (m), R= Radius of curvature (m)
2
MIRROR EQUATION:

1 1 1
= + f = Focal length (m), do = Object distance (m), di = Image distance (m)
f do di
MAGNIFICATION EQUATION:

d i hi
m=− = m = Magnification, ho = Object height (m), hi = Image height (m)
d o ho

Refraction

The index of refraction

c
n= n = Index of refraction
v
c = Speed of light in vacuum 3 x 108 m.s-1
v = Speed of light in the medium (m.s-1)

Snell’s law of refraction:

n1 sin 1 = n2 sin  2 n1 = The refractive index of the medium from which the light is coming
1 = Angle of incidence
n2 = The refractive index of the medium into which the light travels.
2 = The angle of refraction

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Apparent depth
n
d' = d( 2 ) d’ = Apparent depth (m)
n1
d = Real depth (m)
n1 = Refractive index of the material in which the object is.
n2 = Refractive index of the material in which the observer is

The critical angle

When light travels from an optical denser medium to an optical less dense medium and the angle of
refraction equals 90 then the angle of incidence is called the critical angle.
n1 sin  c = n 2 sin 90 , with n1 > n2

Total internal reflection

When the angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle, the light is reflected back into the
medium. This is called total internal reflection.

The dispersion of light

The spreading of light into its colour components.

Excercise
1. Complete the following table:
Sign convention for lenses
SIGN
Object distance
Image distance (real image)
Image distance (virtual image)
Focal distance (concave lens)
Focal distance (convex lens)

Page | 36
Tutorial questions:

1. A ray of light is reflected from two plane mirror surfaces as shown in the figure. What are the
correct values of  and ? Ans: (26° and 64°)

26 o



o
90

2. An object is placed 1 m in front of a plane mirror. An observer stands 3 m behind the object.
For what distance must the observer focus his eyes in order to see the image of the object?
Ans: (5 m)

3. A convex mirror has a radius of curvature of 0.50 m. Where must an object be placed in front
of the mirror such that the image is formed 0.15 m behind the mirror? Ans: (0.38 m)

4. The image behind a convex mirror (radius of curvature = 68 cm) is located 22 cm from the
mirror. (a) Where is the object located and (b) what is the magnification of the mirror?
Determine whether the image is (c) upright or inverted and (d) larger or smaller than the
object. Ans: (62 cm, 0.35, upright, smaller)

5. A spherical concave mirror has a radius of curvature of 6.0 cm. At what distance from the
mirror should a 6.0-cm object be placed to obtain an image that is 48 cm tall? Ans:(3.375 cm
or 2.625 cm from the mirror)

Refraction

6. The refractive indices of materials A and B have a ratio of nA/nB = 1.33. The speed of light in
material A is 1.25 x 108 m/s. What is the speed of light in material B? Ans: (1.66 x 108 m/s)

7. grizzly bear is sitting on a rock in the middle of a calm river when she observes a fish directly
below. If the apparent depth of the fish is 0.60 m, what is the actual depth at which the fish is
swimming? The index of refraction of water is 1.33. Ans: (0.798 m)

8. A converging lens has a focal length of 88.00 cm. An object 13.0 cm tall is located 155.0 cm in
front of this lens. (a) What is the image distance? (b) Is the image real or virtual? (c) What is
the magnitude of the image height? Ans: (204 cm, Real, -17.10 cm)

9. A spotlight on a boat is 2.5 m above the water, and the light strikes the water at a point that is
8.0 m horizontally displaced from the spotlight (see the drawing). The depth of the water is 4.0
m. Determine the distance d, which locates the point where the light strikes the bottom. Ans:
(12.1 m)

10. A ray of light is traveling in glass and strikes a glass–liquid interface. The angle of incidence is
58.0°, and the index of refraction of glass is n = 1.50. (a) What must be the index of refraction
of the liquid such that the direction of the light entering the liquid is not changed? (b) What is
the largest index of refraction that the liquid can have, such that none of the light is transmitted
into the liquid and all of it is reflected back into the glass? Ans: (1.50, 1.27)

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 LEARNING UNIT 9

CHAPTER 8: GASES

After the completion of this learning unit, you should be able to:

• Demonstrate knowledge, comprehensive and acquired skills regarding Ideal gases and Kinetic
theory.

Study the following sections in the textbook:

8.3. The Empirical Gas Laws …………………………………………………….………....…page 212

8.4. Mechanical Model of the Ideal Gas…………………………………………….…...……page 220

8.5. Energy Contained in an Ideal Gas………………………………….….………………...page 223

8.6. Implications of the Kinetic Gas Theory…………………………….…..…………….…..page 224

Use the following hints and information when solving problems:

❖ The pressure in the Ideal Gas Law is the absolute pressure and not the gauge pressure.
❖ The temperature used in the Ideal Gas Law must be in Kelvin.
❖ Guy-Lussa’c Law is not in the textbook. It can also be derived from the Ideal Gas Law, like
P1 P2
=
Boyle’s Law. For Guy-Lussac’s Law, n and V must be constant then:
T1 V2 .

The Ideal Gas Law

The absolute pressure of an ideal gas is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature and the
number of moles of the gas and is inversely proportional to the volume of the gas.

PV = nRT R = 8.31J (mol  K ) - Universal gas constant

 R 
PV = nRT = N 
N T = NkT
 A

R 8.31J (mol  K )
Boltzman _ cons tan t , k = = = 1.38  10−23 J K
N A 6.022  10 mol
23 −1

In the equation everything MUST be in SI units

Universal gas law

P1V1 P2V2
=
T1 T2

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In the above equation Temperature must be in the SI unit (Kelvin). Pressure and volume can be in
any unit though pressure must be absolute pressure and not gauge pressure.

Boyle’law Gay lussac’s law Charle’s law

Pressure is indirectly proportional to Pressure is directly proportional to Volume is directly proportional to

volume if temperature and mass is kept temperature if volume and mass is temperature if pressure and mass is
constant. kept constant. kept constant.

P1 P2 V1 V2
= =
P1V1 = P2V2 T1 T2 T1 T2

Kinetic theory of gases

Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy of the molecules in a material. Because individual
molecules are so small, and because there are so many molecules in most substances, it would be
impossible to study their behaviour individually. However, if we know the basic rules that govern the
behaviour of individual molecules, we can make statistical calculations that tell us roughly how a
collection of millions of molecules would behave. This, essentially, is what thermal physics is: the study
of the macroscopic effects (temp. ,volume and pressure) of the microscopic molecules that make up
the world of everyday things.

The distribution of particle speeds in an ideal gas at constant temperature is the Maxwell speed
distribution. The kinetic theory of gases indicates that the Kelvin temperature T of an ideal gas is related
to the average translational kinetic energy of a particle.

PV =
2
( ) 2 1 2 
N E k = N  mvrms
3 2

3 .

The average particle speed squared. The kinetic energy in the equation is the average kinetic energy
of the gas as a whole, a property of the gas and not a property of a single gas particle individually.

2 1 2 1 2 3
PV = NkT  NkT = N ( mvrms )  mvrms = kT
3 2 2 2

KE = 12 mvrms
2
= 32 kT
vrms – root-mean square speed

Internal energy of a monatomic gas

1 2 3 3 3
U = N ( mvrms )  U = N ( kT ) = NkT  U = nRT
2 2 2 2

Page | 39
TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

11.1 Atmosphere is composed primarily of Nitrogen N2 (78%, M = 28 g/mol) and Oxygen O 2 (21%,
M = 32 g/mol)
a. Is the kinetic energy of Nitrogen greater than, less than, or the same as the kinetic
energy of Oxygen? Explain your answer with the aid of equations.
b. Is the rms speed of Nitrogen greater than, less than, or the same as the rms speed of
Oxygen. Explain your answer with the aid of equations.
11.2 What is the root-mean-square speed of a hydrogen molecule (H2) at 300 K? Ans.:1,92 x 103
m/s

11.3 If the translational rms speed of the water vapor molecules (H 2O) in air is 648 m/s, what is the
translational rms speed of the carbon dioxide molecules (CO 2) in the same air? Both gases are
at the same temperature. Ans.: 414 m/s
11.4 Very fine smoke particles are suspended in air. The translational rms speed of a smoke particle
is 2.8 x 10 – 3 m/s, and the temperature is 301 K. Find the mass of a particle. Ans.: 1,6 x 10-15
kg

11.5 An oxygen molecule is moving near the earth’s surface. Another oxygen molecule is moving in
the ionosphere (the uppermost part of the earth’s atmosphere) where the Kelvin temperature is
three times greater. Determine the ratio of the translational rms speed in the ionosphere to that
near the earth’s surface. Ans.: 1,73

11.6 Near the surface of Venus, the rms speed of carbon dioxide molecules (CO2) is 650 m/s. What
is the temperature (in kelvins) of the atmosphere at that point? Ans.: 750 K

11.7 Suppose that a tank contains 680 m 3 of neon at an absolute pressure of 1,01 x 10 5 Pa. The
temperature is changed from 293,2 to 294,3 K. What is the increase in the internal energy of
the neon? Ans.: 3,9 x 105 J

11.8 Consider two ideal gases, A and B, at the same temperature. The rms speed of the molecules
of gas A is twice that of gas B. How does the molecular mass of A compare to that of B? Ans.:
4

11.9 An ideal gas at 0 °C is contained within a rigid vessel. The temperature of the gas is increased
by 1 C°. What is Pf/Pi the ratio of the final to initial pressure? Ans.: 1,004

Page | 40
 LEARNING UNIT 10

CHAPTER 9: THERMAL PHYSICS

After the completion of this learning unit, you should be able to:

• Demonstrate knowledge, comprehensive and acquired skills regarding heat and first law of
thermodynamics.
• Demonstrate knowledge and skills regarding basic thermodynamics processes.
• Demonstrate knowledge, comprehensive and acquired skills regarding reversibility and second
of thermodynamics.

Study the following sections in the textbook:

9.4. Heat and the 1st Law of Thermodynamic………………………………………….….……page 240

9.5. Basic Thermodynamics Processes…………………………………….……………..........page 243

9.6. Cyclic Process………………………………….……………….......………………………..page 249

9.7. Reversibility……………………………………………………………...………………...….page 252

9.8. The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics……………………………………………...……...…….page 253

Use the following hints and information when solving problems:

❖ Heat is positive when the system gains heat, and negative if the system loses heat.
❖ Work is positive when the system is doing the work, and it is negative if the work is done on
the system.

❖ The area under a pressure-volume graph is the work for any kind of process.
❖ When determining the efficiency of a Carnot Engine, be sure that the temperature of the cold
an hot reservoirs are in Kelvin.

❖ No heat engine (even a perfect heat engine) can have an efficiency of 100%.
❖ An air conditioner and a heat pump are the reverse of each other.
Summary

Dynamics is the study of why things move the way they do. The prefix thermo denotes heat, so
thermodynamics is the study of what compels heat to move in the way that it does. The laws of
thermodynamics are a bit strange. There are four of them, but they are ordered zero to three, and not
one to four. They weren’t discovered in the order in which they’re numbered, and some—particularly
the Second Law—have many different formulations, which seem to have nothing to do with one
another.

Page | 41
Zeroth Law

If system A is at thermal equilibrium with system C, and B is at

thermal equilibrium with system C, then A is at thermal
equilibrium with B.

Two systems are at thermal equilibrium if they have the same

A C B
temperature. If A and C have the same temperature, and B and C
have the same temperature, then A and C have the same
temperature. The significant consequence of the Zeroth Law is that, when a hotter object and a colder
object are placed in contact with one another, heat will flow from the hotter object to the colder object
until they are in thermal equilibrium.

First Law

U = U f − U i = Q − W

Heat (Q) is positive when the system gains heat and negative when the system loses heat.

Work (W) is positive when it is done by the system and negative when it is done on the system.

The First Law is just another way of stating the law of conservation of energy. Both heat and work are
forms of energy, so any heat or work that goes into or out of a system must affect the internal energy
of that system.

Thermal processes

Quasi-static process

A thermal process that occurs so slowly, that uniform pressure and temperature exist throughout the
system at all times.

ISOBARIC PROCESS

A process taking place at constant pressure. Ex: process in container with movable lid/piston.

W = PV = nRΔT

5
Q = U + W = 2 nRT

V1 V2
=
T1 T2

Page | 42
ISOCHORIC PROCESS

A process taking place at constant VOLUME. No work done!

W = PV = 0

3
Q = U = 2 nRT

Pi Pf
=
Ti T f

ISOTHERMAL PROCESS

Heat bath

No temperature change

3
U = 2 nRT = 0
Vf Vf
1
 PdV nRT  dV
V
Q = W = PV = Vi = Vi
=
Vf 
nRT ln  
 Vi 
PiVi = Pf V f

ADIABATIC PROCESS

Insulator

No heat transfer (Q=0)

3
W = –U = – 2 nRT

3
W = – 2 nR(Tf – Ti)

3
W = 2 nR(Ti – Tf)
 
PiVi = Pf V f

Page | 43
Derive equation for the relations to show relation between P and T, and the relation between V
and T in an adiabatic process from the equation P1V1 = P2V2

Thermal processes Gas law relation Change in internal Work done by the Heat added to the
(∆U = Q - W) energy system system

Isobaric (∆P = Vi V f 3 W = P∆V, W= Q = ∆U + W

0: Pi = Pf) = ∆U = 2 nR∆T
nR∆T 5
Ti T f
Q = 2 nR∆T

Isochoric (∆V = Pi Pf 3 W=0J 3

0: Vi = Vf) = ∆U = 2 nR∆T Q = ∆U = 2 nR∆T
Ti T f
Isothermal (∆T = PiVi = Pf V f ∆U = 0 J W= P ʃ dV W Q = W=
0: Ti = Tf) Vf  Vf 
nRT ln   nRT ln  
=  Vi   Vi 
  W = – ∆U,
Adiabatic (Q =
PiVi = Pf V f 3 Q=0J
0J ) 3
γ = C P / CV ∆U = 2 nR∆T
W = – 2 nR∆T

Specific heat capacities

m
Q = mc T = cMT = nCT
M


Qconstantpressure = U + W = 32 nR(T f − Ti ) + nR(T f − Ti ) = 52 nRT
   


Qconstant volume = U + W = 32 nR(T f − Ti ) + 0 = 32 nRT
  

For a monatomic gas

3
Q P = nC P T =nRT
2
5
QV = nCV T = nRT
2

5 C 5
CP = R CV =
3
R = P=
2 and 2 , with CV 3 and C P − CV = R

Page | 44
Second Law

The Second Law in Terms of Heat Flow

Heat flows spontaneously from a hotter object to a colder one, but not spontaneously in the
opposite direction.

Entropy

The word entropy was coined in the 19th century as a technical term for talking about disorder.

Q
S =
T Q – Heat transfer TO the system. T – Temperature in Kelvin.

The Second Law in Order-disorder statement

System goes from order to disorder spontaneously, but it can never go from disorder to order
spontaneously.

The Second Law in entropy statement

Suniverse>0 for a irreversible process.

Suniverse=0 for a reversible process.

Page | 45
TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:

1. A quantity of carbon monoxide gas is slowly adiabatically compressed in an insulated container to

one-half of its initial volume. The ratio of the specific heat capacities at constant pressure and constant
volume, cP/cV, for carbon dioxide is approximately 1,3. Determine the final pressure of the gas if the
initial pressure is 2.0 x 105 Pa. Ans.: 4,93 x 105 Pa

2.The pressure of a monatomic ideal gas (γ = 1,67) doubles during an adiabatic compression. What is
the ratio of the final volume to the initial volume? Ans.: 0,66

3.A monatomic ideal gas (γ = 1,67) is contained within a perfectly insulated cylinder that is fitted with a
movable piston. The initial pressure of the gas is 1,5 x 105 Pa. The piston is pushed so as to compress
the gas, with the result that the Kelvin temperature doubles. What is the final pressure of the gas? Ans.:
8,49 x 105 Pa

5.The work done by one mole of a monatomic ideal gas (γ = 1,67) in expanding adiabatically is 825 J.
The initial temperature and volume of the gas are 393 K and 0,100 m 3. Obtain (a) the final temperature
and (b) the final volume of the gas. Ans.: 327 K; 0,132 m3

6.An engine is run in reverse as a heat pump. An identical engine (with the same values of Q H, QC and
W as the first engine) is run in reverse as a refrigerator. The coefficient of performance of the heat
pump is three times greater than the coefficient of performance of the refrigerator. Obtain the coefficient
of performance of the refrigerator, coefficient of performance of the heat pump, and the efficiency of the
engine. Ans.: 0,5; 1,5; 66%

7.Engine 1 has an efficiency of 0,18 and requires 5500 J of input heat to perform a certain amount of
work. Engine 2 has an efficiency of 0,26 and performs the same amount of work. How much input
heat does the second engine require? Ans.: 3800 J

8. Engine A receives three times more input heat, produces five times more work, and rejects two
times more heat than engine B. Find the efficiency of (a) engine A and (b) engine B. Ans.: 0,55; 0,33

9.On a cold day, 24 500 J of heat leaks out of a house. The inside temperature is 21 °C, and the outside
temperature is –15 °C. What is the increase in the entropy of the universe that this heat loss produces?

10.In an isothermal process 2,33 moles of an ideal gas is compressed to one-fifth of its initial volume
at 285 K. What quantity of heat is added to, or removed from, the system during this process? (State
also whether this heat is removed or added.) Ans.: –8,89 x 103 J, removed

11.The compression ratio of a certain diesel engine is 15. This means that air in the cylinders is
compressed to 1/15 of its initial volume. The initial pressure is 1,0 x 105 Pa and the initial temperature
is 300 K. The final temperature is 886 K. Air is mostly a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen, and  = 1,40.
a. Find the final pressure after compression. Ans.: 4,43 x 106 Pa
b. How much work does the gas do during the compression if the initial volume of the cylinder is 1,0 x
10–3 m3? Ans.: –292,3 J
c. Is this work done on the system or by the system? Give a reason for your answer. Ans.: Negative;
gas is compressed, then work is done on the system

12.The engine of a Ferrari F1 sports car takes air in at 20 oC and 1 atm, and then compresses it
adiabatically to 0,09 times its original volume. The air may be treated as an ideal gas with  = 1,4.
Calculate the final temperature and pressure of the air in the engine. Ans.: 767,66 K; 2,95 x 106 Pa

Page | 46
13.An ideal monatomic gas expands isothermally from state A to state B. It then cools at constant
volume to state C. The gas is then compressed isobarically to D where it is then heated until it
returns to state A.

a. What is the internal energy of the gas at point B? Ans.: 3,03 x 103 J

b. What is the pressure of the gas when it is in state B? Ans.: 5,05 x 105 Pa

c. What is the temperature of the gas when it is in state C (in °C)? Ans.: –33,04°C

d. What is the ratio of the internal energy of the gas in state C to that in state A?

Ans.: 0,4

e. How much work is done on the gas as it is compressed isobarically from state C to D? Ans.: –404
J

f. What is the net amount of work done after one complete cycle? Ans.: 996,37 J

14.A cylinder with a piston contains 0,25 mole of ideal oxygen at pressure 2,4 x 10 5 Pa and
temperature 355 K. The gas first expands isobarically to twice its original volume. It is then
compressed isothermally back to its original volume and finally it is cooled isochorically to its original
pressure.

a. Show the series of the process on a PV diagram.

b. Calculate the initial volume of the gas. Ans.: 3,07 x 10–3 m3

c. Calculate the temperature during the isothermal process. Ans.: 708,9 K

d. Calculate the maximum pressure. Ans.: 4,8 x 105 Pa

e. Calculate each of the following:

Work done by Change in internal Heat transfer to

oxygen energy oxygen

Initial isobaric (i). (ii). (iii).

expansion

Isothermal (iv). (v). (vi).

compression

Isochoric cooling (vii). (viii). (ix).

Page | 47
 LEARNING UNIT 11

CHAPTER 11: STATIC FLUIDS

After the completion of this learning unit, you should be able to:

• Demonstrate knowledge, comprehensive and acquired skills regarding pressure and buoyancy
in static fluids.

Study the following sections in the textbook:

11.1. Model System: The Ideal Stationery Fluid…………………………..………page 290

11.2. Pressure in an Ideal Stationery Fluid……………………………...…………page 291

11.3. Buoyancy……………………………………………...……............................page 29

When you finish this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Define or state (a) density, (b) relative density (specific gravity), (c) Pascal’s principle and
Archimedes principle.
2. Find force from pressure, and vice versa.
3. Given appropriate data, compute the absolute and gauge pressure at a given depth in a fluid

m
=  = Mass density (kg.m -3)
V
m = mass (kg)
V = Volume (m3)

 substance
r = r = Relative density
 water
s = Density of substance
w = Density of water

F
P= P = Pressure (Pa)
A
F = Force perpendicular to the surface (N)
A = Surface area on which the force acts (m 2)

Pressure and depth in a static fluid

Pbottom = Ptop + hg Pbottom = Pressure at the lowest point in the sketch (Pa)
Ptop = Pressure at the highest point in the sketch (Pa)
 = Density of the material (kg.m -3)
h = Height difference m)
g = Gravitational acceleration (m.s-2)
Pascal’s principle:
Any change in pressure applied to a completely enclosed fluid is transmitted unchanged to all parts of
the fluid and the enclosing walls.

Archimedes principle
Any fluid applies a buoyant force to an object that is partially or completely immersed in it; the
magnitude of the buoyant force equals the weight of the fluid that the object displaces:
F = Wfluid
B 
Magnitudeof Weightof
buoyantforce displacedfluid

Page | 48
If the object is floating (partially or completely) then the magnitude of the buoyant force is equal to the
magnitude of its weight.

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:

1. As you climb a mountain, your ears “pop” because of the changes in atmospheric pressure. In
which direction does your eardrum move (a) as you climb up and (b) as you climb down? Give
your reasoning.

2. Complete the following table:

m V (kg/m3) (g/cm3) relative density
15 g 1.3
0.01 kg 1.86 cm3
4 kg 5000
Ans: (11.54 cm3, 1300, 1.3; 333.33, 0.33, 0.33; 0.0008 m 3, 5.0, 5.0)

3. A storm approaches, and the air outside suddenly drops to 0.96 x 10 5 Pa from 1.013 x 105 Pa.
Before the pressure inside had time to change, what is the magnitude of the net force on a
window that measures 2.0 m x 3.1 m? Ans: (32 860 N)

4. Consider the diagram below, cylinder on the left has a mass of 600 kg and a cross-sectional
area of 800 cm2. The cylinder on the right has a cross-sectional area of 25 cm2 and a negligible
weight. If the apparatus is filled with oil with relative density 0.8, calculate the force F that will
hold the system in equilibrium as shown. Ans: (26,95 N)
F

600 kg 8m

5. The pipe shown in the following diagram has a diameter of 16 cm at point 1 and of 10 cm at
point 2. At point 1 the pressure is 200 kPa, and oil of density 800 kg.m -3 flows through the pipe
at a rate of 0.03 m3.s-1. Calculate the pressure at point 2 if viscous effects can be ignored. Ans:
(148 011 Pa)

6m

6. Hydraulic stamping machines exert tremendous forces on a sheet of metal to form into the
desired shape. Suppose the input force is 800 N on a piston that has a diameter of 1.4 cm. The

Page | 49
 output force is exerted on a piston that has a diameter of 35 cm. How large a force does the
press exert on the sheet being formed?

7. The hydraulic oil in a car lift has a density of 830 kg/m 3. The weight of the input piston is
negligible. The radii of the input piston and output plunger are 0.0077 m and 0.125 m,
respectively. What input force F is needed to support the 24 500 N combined weight of a car
and the output plunger, when (a) the bottom surfaces of the piston and plunger are at the same
level, and (b) the bottom surface of the output plunger is 1.30 m above that of the input piston?
Ans: (93.0 N, 94.9 N)

8. The blood (ρ = 1060 kg/m 3) speed in a normal segment of a horizontal artery is 0.11 m/s. An
abnormal segment of the artery is narrowed down by an arteriosclerotic plaque to one-fourth
the normal cross-sectional area. What is the difference in blood pressures between the normal
and constricted segments of the artery? Ans: (96 Pa)

9. A liquid is flowing through a horizontal pipe whose radius is 0.0200 m. The pipe bends straight
upward through a height of 10.0 m and joins another horizontal pipe whose radius is 0.0400 m.
What volume flow rate will keep the pressures in the two horizontal pipes the same? Ans:
(0.0181 m3/s)

10. A 2-kg block displaces 10 kg of water when it is held fully immersed. The object is then tied
down as shown in the figure; and it displaces 5 kg of water. What is the tension in the string?
Ans.: 29.4 N

11. 2.An object is solid throughout. When the object is completely submerged in ethyl alcohol, its
apparent weight is 15.2 N. When completely submerged in water, its apparent weight is 13.7
N. What is the volume of the object? Ans.: 7.9 x 10-4 m3

12. A balloon inflated with helium gas (density = 0.2 kg/m 3) has a volume of 6 x 10−3 m3. If the
density of air is 1.3 kg/m 3, what is the buoyant force exerted on the balloon? Ans.:0.08 N

13. A piece of steel wire, which is 3 m long, and of 1mm diameter hangs vertically from the ceiling.
A 5 kg mass, made from iron, (density = 7,9 x 10 3 kg.m-3) is attached to the free end. What is
the tension in the cord if the mass is totally immersed in water? Ans.: 42.8 N

14. A piece of wood (=600 kg.m-3) is 0.6 m long, 0.25 m wide, and 0.08 m thick. What volume of
lead (=11 300 kg/m3) must be fastened underneath it to sink the wood in calm water so that
its top is just even with the water level? Ans.: 4.66 x 10-4 m3.

15. When a block of volume 1,00 x 10-3 m3 is hung from a spring scale as shown in Figure A, the

Page | 50
 LEARNING UNIT 12

CHAPTER 22: THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS

After the completion of this learning unit, you should be able to:

• Demonstrate knowledge, comprehensive and acquired skills regarding the nucleus of an atom
and its radioactive decays.

Study the following sections in the textbook:

22.1. Stable Atomic Nuclei………………………………………………………....page 603

22.2. Nuclear Force and Energy……………………………...……………………page 605

22.3. Radioactive Decay……………………………………...……………............page 607

Nuclear structure

A
Mass number: Number of
protons and neutrons Z
X
Atomic number: Number of protons
The radius (in meter) of the nucleus depends on the mass number A according to experiments.
1

r  1.2 x10−15 A 3
Strong nuclear force

Two positive charges close together as they are in the nucleus repel each other. What keep the protons
inside the nucleus together? The strongest force in nature is the strong nuclear force.
The strong nuclear force is:
Independent on electrical charge (the same magnitude force exist between a proton and proton,
neutron and neutron, proton and neutron).
Short range of action. (Unlike the electrostatic force that has a long range of action).

A proton in the nucleus will attract is closest neighbors because of the strong nuclear force but will repel
all other protons because of the electrostatic force. As the number of protons inside the nucleus of
increase more and more neutrons are necessary to balance the electrostatic force. Eventually the
limited range of action of the strong nuclear force cannot balance the long-range electric repulsion of
the extra protons and the nucleus become unstable. This is why all elements with more than 83 protons
209
are radioactive. The stable nucleus with the largest number of protons (Z=83) is Bismuth, 83 Bi.

Particle Relative Electric Charge Relative Mass (u) Mass (kg)

Charge (C)
Electron -1 -1.60 x 10-19 5.485779 x 10-4 9.109390 x 10-31
Proton +1 +1.60 x 10-19 1.007276 1.672623 x 10-27
Neutron 0 0 1.008665 1.674929 x 10-27

1u = 1.6605 x 10-27 kg
1eV = 1.60 x 10-19 Joules

Page | 51
 The equivalence shortcut
1u= 931.5 MeV

Binding energy
BE (J) = ∆mc2 BE = Binding energy (J)
∆m = mass defect (kg)
c = speed of light (3 x 108 m/s)

BE(MeV) = 931.5 ∆m ∆m = Mass defect in atomic mass units

Mass Deffecs
∆m = mass of the protons +  mass of the neutrons – mass of the nucleus

The above equations can also be used to calculate the energy released in a nuclear reaction.
∆m = Mass of the particles before the reaction – Mass of the particles after nuclear reaction

Transmutation
A process called transmutation, took place if the parent and the daughter nuclei are different.

Radiation
Radiation is energy traveling in the form of particles or waves in bundles of energy called photons.
Some everyday examples are microwaves used to cook food, radio waves for radio and television, light,
and x-rays used in medicine. Radioactive materials emit (gave out) radiation as they decay. There are
several different types of radiation. Two of the most common ways in which radioactive elements decay
are by emitting alpha or beta particles (also known as alpha and beta decay). Sometimes, a third form
of radiation, known as gamma rays, may also be produced.

Radioactivity is a natural and spontaneous process by which the unstable atoms of an element emit or
radiate excess energy in the form of particles or waves. These emissions are collectively called ionizing
radiation. Depending on how the nucleus loses this excess energy either a lower energy atom of the
same form will result, or a completely different nucleus and atom can be formed.

Alpha decay
4
An alpha particle is the Helium nucleus ( 2 He ) . It consists of two neutrons and two protons. It carries a
positive charge of +2e. Alpha particles are emitted at high speed, but they are easily absorbed
(stopped), even by one or two sheets of paper. Consistent with conservation of electric charge and
nucleon number, the general form of -decay is:
A
Z P→ZA−−24D + 24He
238
The -decay of 92 U is as follows:
238
92 U →234
90Th + 2 He
4

Transmutation takes place in -decay. Alpha decay can be blocked by paper or 0.01 mm lead.

Beta decay
A beta-negative (-) particle is an electron moving at very high speed. In some radioactive elements, it
is an ordinary negatively charged electron. This happens when a neutron inside the nucleus of the atom
changes into a proton.
n0 → p + + e−
In beta-positive (+) decay, a proton change into a positron and a neutron, and the beta particle is a
positively charged electron, called a positron (e+).
p + → n0 + e+

Page | 52
 −
A neutrino ( v ) is also produced in beta decay.

Consistent with conservation of electric charge and nucleon number, the general form of
−
--decay is: Z P →Z +1 D+ −1 e + v
A A 0

+-decay is:
A
Z P→Z −A1 D+ 10 e + v
−
The --decay of
234
Th is as follows:
90
234
90
Th→ 234
91
Pa+ −1 e + v
18
The +-decay of 9 F is as follows:
18
9 F →188 O+ +1 e + v

Transmutation takes place in -decay. Beta particles are not as easily absorbed as alpha decay. Some
can pass through more than 10 mm of wood, but can be blocked by a thin sheet of metal or 0.1 mm
lead.

Gamma decay

When a nucleus changes from an excited energy state to a lower energy state a photon (gamma-ray)
is emitted. A photon does not have a charge. Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves, similar to light,
but at a much higher energy. Gamma rays are much more penetrating than alpha or beta particles.
High-energy gamma rays can pass through several inches of metal but can be blocked by 100 mm
lead.

The general equation for -decay is as follows:

ZP →
A *
P+
In gamma decay transmutation does not take place. Gamma decay usually takes place simultaneously
with - and -decay.

Decay constant
N N
Activity (Bq) = = −N = rate of decay (activity in Becquerel)
t t
N = Number of particles present
λ = decay constant
Half-life
The time required for one-half of the nuclei present to decay.
ln 2
=
T1
2

Radioactive decay equation

m = m0 e −t , A = A0 e −t , V = V0 e −t , etc
N
Percentage, % = 100e −t , and , fraction, = e − t
N = N 0 e −t No

Page | 53
TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:

1. What fraction of a radioactive sample decays in 80 yr if the half-life of the material is 140 yr? Ans:
(0.672)

2. Measurements show that only 18 percent of a radioactive material remains after 12.0 h. What is
the half-life of this material? Ans: (4.8505 h)

208
3. For 82
Pb find (a) the net electrical charge of the nucleus, (b) the number of neutrons, (c) the
-17
number of nucleons, and (d) the approximate radius of the nucleus. Ans: (+1.31 x 10 C, 126,
208, 7.1 x 10 -15 m)

4. In the form 𝐴𝑍𝑋, identify the daughter nucleus that results when (a) plutonium 242
94𝑃𝑢 undergoes a
decay, (b) sodium 2411 𝑁𝑎 undergoes b – decay, and (c) nitrogen 13𝑁 undergoes b + decay. Ans: (
7
238 24 13
92
U , 12
Mg , 6
C )

5. To make the dial of a watch glow in the dark, 1.00 × 10 – 9 kg of radium 226
88𝑅𝑎 is used. The half-life
of this isotope has a value of 1600 years. How many kilograms of radium disappear while the watch
is in use for fifty years? Ans:(2.11 x 10 -11 kg)

6. To see why one curie of activity was chosen to be 3.7 × 1010 Bq, determine the activity (in
disintegrations per second) of one gram of radium 226 10
88𝑅𝑎 (𝑇1 = 1600 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠). Ans: (3.7 x 10 Bq)
2

7. Iodine-131, M=130,906114, is used to treat thyroid disorder because, when ingested, it localizes
in the thyroid gland. Its half-life is 8.1 days. What is the activity of 0.85 g of Iodine? Ans: (4.24 x
1015 Bq)

8. The 208
82𝑃𝑏 isotope of lead has an atomic mass of 207.976 627 u. Calculate: (a) The mass defect in
atomic mass units, and (b) The binding energy in joules. Ans: (2.635 x 10-16 J)

9. Write the -decay process for 239

94 Pu .

10. The half-life of 226

88 Ra is 1600 years. This isotope is used to make the dial of a watch glow in the
dark. What mass of radium will disappear if the watch is in use for fifty years if initially 1 x 10 -9 kg is
used? Ans: (2.14 x 10-11 kg)

11. A device used in radiation therapy for cancer contains 0.50 g of cobalt 60 27𝐶𝑜 (59.933 819 u). The
half-life of 60 13
27𝐶𝑜 is 5.27 yr. Determine the activity of the radioactive material. Ans: (2.1 x 10 Bq)

12. A sample that contains 4.2 x 1011 atoms has a half-life of 0.8 yr. (a) What is its decay constant (in
per second)? (b) How many nuclei in it undergo decay in 30 s? (c) How many disintegrations occur
each second (Activity)? (d) How long will it take to disintegrate to a ½ of its original number? (e)
How long will it take to disintegrate to a ¼ of its original number? (2.7474441 x 10-8 s-1, 346177.814,
11539.265 Bq, 0.8 year, 1.6 year)
13. Complete the following table.
234 Transmutation
Specific equation (Use 90Th as
parent)

-decay

--decay

+-decay
-decay

Page | 54
 INFORMATION SHEET
Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.80 m.s-2
Universal Gravitational con G = 6.672 x 10-11 N.m2/kg2
Density of water ρ = 1000 kg.m-3
Weakest audible sound Io = 1.00 x 10-12 W/m2
Proportionality constant k = 9.00 x 109 N.m2.C-2
Speed of light c = 3.00 x 108 m.s-1
Avogadro’s number NA = 6.022x1023
Mass of Hydrogen atom 1.007825 u = 1.673 534 x 10-27 kg
Mass of neutron 1.008665 u = 1.674 927 x 10-27 kg
Conversion factor 1 u = 931,5 MeV
Area of circle r2
Volume of a sphere V = 43 r 3

FORMULA SHEET

2x kq
y = A sin(2ft  ) E=
 r2
 kq
sin  = m V =
W r
1  L = L0 T
sin  = (m + )
2 W Q = mcT ;

sin  = 1.22 Q = mL....
D
 v  Pb = Pt + gh
f n = n ; n = 1,2,3,...
 2L  1 1
P1 + 1v12 + 1gh1 = P2 +  2v22 +  2 gh2
 v  2 2
f n = n ; n = 1,3,5,...
 4L  1
=
1
+
1
+ ......;
R p R1 R2
ni sinθi = nr sinθr
Rs = R1 + R2 + ..........
f =1R
2 1 1 1
= +
T o F = T o C + 273 f do di
9 di
T o C = (T o F − 32 ) m=−
5 do
m n
n= d'= d( 2 )
n1
M
N = N 0 e − t
v = u + at ln 2
T1 =
v = u + 2as
2 2
2


( )
1
1 r = 1.20 10−15 A 3
s = ut + at 2
2
u + v Wnc = KE + PE
s= t
 2  Q = Av

Page | 55
PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS

1A 0

1 1 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 2
H He
1,00 4,0
8 03
KEY / SLEUTEL

2 3 4 17 Atomic number 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be Cl Symbol B C N O F Ne
6,94 9,01 35,4 Atomic mass 10, 12, 14, 16, 19, 20,
1 2 5 81 01 01 00 00 18
3 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22,9 24,3 26, 28, 30, 32, 35, 39,
9 1 98 09 97 06 45 95
4 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39,1 40,0 44,9 47,9 50,9 52,0 54,9 55,8 58, 58, 63, 65, 69, 72, 74, 78, 79, 83,
0 8 6 0 4 0 4 5 93 70 55 38 72 59 59 96 90 80
5 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85,4 87,6 88,9 91,2 92,9 95,9 98,9 101, 102 106 107 112 114 118 121 127 126 131
7 2 1 2 1 4 1 1 ,9 ,4 ,9 ,4 ,8 ,7 ,8 ,6 ,9 ,3
6 55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132, 137, 138, 178, 180, 183, 186, 190, 192 195 197 200 204 207 209 209 210 222
9 3 9 5 9 9 2 2 ,2 ,1 ,0 ,6 ,4 ,2 ,0 ,0 ,0 ,0
7 87 88 89 104 105 106 107
Fr Ra Ac Unq Unp Unh Uns
223, 226, 227, 261, 262, 263, 262,
0 0 0 1 1 1 1

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
LANTHANIDE 140, 140, 144, 144, 150 152 157 158 162 164 187 168 173 175
S/ 1 9 2 9 ,4 ,0 ,3 ,9 ,5 ,9 ,3 ,9 ,0 ,0
LANTANIEDE
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
ACTINIDES / Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
AKTINIEDE 232, 231, 238, 237, 244 243 247 247 242 252 257 258 259 260
0 0 0 0 ,1 ,1 ,1 ,1 ,1 ,1 ,1 ,1 ,1 ,1

Page | 56