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Absorbable
and
Biodegradable
Polymers
 ADVANCES IN POLYMERIC BIOMATERIALS SERIES

Absorbable
and
Biodegradable
Polymers
Shalaby W. Shalaby
Karen J.L. Burg

CRC PR E S S
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Absorbable biodegradable polymers / Shalaby W. Shalaby, Karen

J.L. Burg [editors]
p. cm. (Advances in polymeric biomaterials)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8493-1484-4 (alk. paper)
1. Polymers in medicine. 2. Biodegradable plastics. 3. Polymers--Absorption and
adsorption. 4. Polymers--Biodegradation. I. Shalaby, Shalaby W. II. Burg, Karen J.L. III
Series.
R857.P6A276 2003
610¢.28’4—dc21 2003055093

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material
is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable
efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot
assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use.

Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or
retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.

All rights reserved. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the personal or
internal use of specific clients, may be granted by CRC Press LLC, provided that $1.50 per page
photocopied is paid directly to Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923
USA. The fee code for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is ISBN 0-8493-1484-4/04/
$0.00+$1.50. The fee is subject to change without notice. For organizations that have been granted a
photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.

The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for
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Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.

Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com

© 2004 by CRC Press LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number 0-8493-1484-4
Library of Congress Card Number 2003055093

ISBN 0-203-49301-X Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 0-203-58651-4 (Adobe eReader Format)

Preface

For the past two decades, the fast-growing interest in synthetic absorbable
polymers has lured most authors to focus on this family of polymers while
practically ignoring biodegradable materials of natural origin. Revival of
interest in natural polymers by contemporary investigators compelled the
editors of this volume to develop it in a form that provides integrated
accounts of most of the recent developments not only in synthetic absorbable
polymers but also in biodegradable polymers of natural origin. Hence, the
theme of this volume is based on the fact that technology of absorbable/
biodegradable polymers (A/BP) has evolved in two independent areas
which need to be treated in an integrated manner because of their common
end use in clinical applications.
The evolution of natural polymers takes place through chain modification
of existing materials, mostly by using chemical means to impart certain
physical and/or functional properties. Meanwhile, the evolution of synthetic
A/BP has been achieved through modulating their chemical composition
using different polymerization schemes and, to a lesser extent, chemical
modification of presynthesized polymers. In concert with this theme, the
book begins with an introduction (Section A) to prepare the reader for the
three main sections (B, C, and D) comprising 15 chapters which are based
mostly on evolutionary materials developments, processing methods, and
characterization/evaluation methods, as well as clinical and newly sought
applications that have become available over the past decade. Section B deals
with development and applications of new systems. Section C pertains to
development in preparative, processing, and evaluation methods. Section D
addresses growing and newly sought applications.
It is to be emphasized that the diverse topics presented in this book are
integrated in such a fashion as to yield a coherent source of diverse but
interrelated information for use by scientists, engineers, and clinicians who
are interested in the use of A/BP in pharmaceutical and biomedical appli-
cations. The clinical components of the book are prepared by clinicians who
are also well-versed scientists to maximize the effectiveness of integrating
clinical with preclinical information.
The editors express gratitude to all contributors for their highly informa-
tive chapters on cutting-edge technologies and their enthusiastic response
to making contributions to the book. The comprehensive nature of the chap-
ters and their extensive biographies will make this volume a valuable source
well-suited for use by students, industrialists, and educators with interest
in development and/or investigation of A/BP for use in pharmaceutical and
biomedical applications.
Acknowledgment

The editors express their gratitude to Dr. Joanne E. Shalaby of Poly-Med,

Inc., for her guidance and valuable contributions during the compilation and
integration of the diverse segments of the book.
The Editors

Shalaby W. Shalaby is currently president and director of R&D at Poly-Med,

Inc., Anderson, South Carolina. After completing his undergraduate training
in chemistry and botany as well as pharmacy in Egypt at Ain Shams Uni-
versity and Cairo University, he enrolled at the University of Massachusetts
at Lowell to complete his graduate studies toward an M.S. degree in textiles,
a Ph.D. in chemistry, and a second Ph.D. in polymer science. Following the
completion of his graduate training, 2 years of teaching, and a postdoctoral
assignment, Dr. Shalaby spent four years as a senior research chemist at
Allied Signal, Polymer Research Group. Subsequently, he joined Ethicon/
Johnson & Johnson to start an exploratory group on polymers for biomedical
applications, with some focus on new absorbable and radiation-sterilizable
polymers. Before joining Clemson University in the summer of 1990, Dr.
Shalaby headed the Johnson & Johnson Polymer Technology Center. Dr.
Shalaby’s previous research activities pertained to the molecular design of
polymeric systems with a major focus on biomedical and pharmaceutical
applications. At Clemson University, Dr. Shalaby’s research activities
addressed primarily the molecular and engineering design of bioabsorbable
systems, high performance composites, radio-stabilization of polymers, and
new aspects of radiation processing. He has supervised or cosupervised 30
M.S. and Ph.D. thesis projects. After joining United States Surgical Corpo-
ration in 1993 as a corporate research scientist/senior director, Dr. Shalaby
directed his efforts toward the establishment of new R&D programs perti-
nent to surgical and allied products and assessment of new product oppor-
tunities through technology acquisition. In late 1994, Shalaby directed his
industrial efforts, as president of Poly-Med, Inc., toward focused R&D of
polymeric materials for biomedical and pharmaceutical applications. Since
1994, he has been an adjunct or visiting professor at four universities. He
has over 100 patents and 250 publications, including eight books.

Karen J. L. Burg earned a B.S. in chemical engineering with a minor in

biochemical engineering from North Carolina State University in 1990, an
M.S. in bioengineering from Clemson University in 1992, and a Ph.D. in
bioengineering with a minor in experimental statistics from Clemson Uni-
versity in 1996. She completed a tissue engineering postdoctoral research
fellowship in 1998 at Carolinas Medical Center in Charlotte, North Carolina,
and is currently associate professor of bioengineering at Clemson University
and an adjunct research faculty member at Carolinas Medical Center.
Professional affiliations include membership in Sigma Xi, Society for Bio-
materials, Tissue Engineering Society, and American Institute of Chemical
Engineers; she also serves on the ASTM Tissue Engineering Standards Devel-
opment Committee.
Awards include the 2001 National Science Foundation Faculty Early Career
Award, 2001 Clemson University Board of Trustees Award for Faculty Excel-
lence, 2001 Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers, and
2003 Clemson University Outstanding Woman Faculty Award.
Among her research interests are the optimization of absorbable biomate-
rials processing for tissue engineering applications, application of magnetic
resonance imaging in tissue engineering, development of absorbable com-
posites for orthopedic and soft tissue applications, surface modulation of
absorbable implants to enhance biocompatibility, and evaluation of physico-
chemical changes in absorbing systems.
Contributors

Shalaby W. Shalaby, Ph.D. Poly-Med, Inc., Anderson, South Carolina

Karen J. L. Burg, Ph.D. Department of Bioengineering, Clemson Uni-

versity, Clemson, South Carolina

Sasa Andjelic, Ph. D. Ethicon, Inc., Somerville, New Jersey

Griet G. Atkins, M.S. Southern BioSystems, Inc., Birmingham, Alabama

Bruce L. Anneaux, M.S. Poly-Med, Inc., Anderson, South Carolina

Kimberly A. Carpenter, B.S. Poly-Med, Inc., Anderson, South Carolina

John A. DuBose, B.S. Poly-Med, Inc., Anderson, South Carolina

Benjamin D. Fitz, Ph.D. Ethicon, Inc., Somerville, New Jersey

Dennis D. Jamiolkowski, M.S. Ethicon, Inc., Somerville, New Jersey

Marc Shalaby, M.D. Department of Medicine, Lehigh Valley Hospital,

Allentown, Pennsylvania

Waleed S.W. Shalaby, M.D., Ph.D. Division of Gynecologic Oncology,

University of Pennsylvania Medical Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Chuck B. Thomas, B.S. Department of Bioengineering, Clemson Uni-

versity, Clemson, South Carolina
Contents

Section A Introduction Notes

1 Absorbable/Biodegradable Polymers: Technology

Evolution .......................................................................................... 3
Shalaby W. Shalaby and Karen J.L. Burg

Section B Development and Application

of New Systems

2 Segmented Copolyesters with Prolonged Strength

Retention Profiles.......................................................................... 15
Shalaby W. Shalaby

3 Polyaxial Crystalline Fiber-Forming Copolyester..................... 25

Shalaby W. Shalaby

4 Polyethylene Glycol-Based Copolyesters .................................. 39

Shalaby W. Shalaby and Marc Shalaby

5 Cyanoacrylate-Based Systems as Tissue Adhesives ................. 59

Shalaby W. Shalaby and Waleed S. W. Shalaby

6 Chitosan-Based Systems .............................................................. 77

Shalaby W. Shalaby, John A. DuBose, and Marc Shalaby

7 Hyaluronic Acid-Based Systems ................................................. 91

Shalaby W. Shalaby and Waleed S. W. Shalaby

Section C Developments in Preparative, Processing,

and Evaluation Methods

8 New Approaches to the Synthesis of Crystalline

Fiber-Forming Aliphatic Copolyesters ..................................... 103
Shalaby W. Shalaby, Kimberly A. Carpenter, and Bruce L. Anneaux
9 Advances in Morphological Development to Tailor the
Performance of Medical Absorbable Devices ......................... 113
Sasa Andjelic, Benjamin D. Fitz, and Dennis D. Jamiolkowski

10 Polymer Biocompatibility and Toxicity ................................... 143

Karen J.L. Burg, Shalaby W. Shalaby, and Griet G. Atkins

Section D Growing and Newly Sought Applications

11 Tissue Engineering Systems ...................................................... 159

Chuck B. Thomas and Karen J.L. Burg

12 Synthetic Vascular Constructs ................................................... 175

Shalaby W. Shalaby and Waleed S.W. Shalaby

13 Postoperative Adhesion Prevention ......................................... 191

Waleed S.W. Shalaby and Shalaby W. Shalaby

14 Implantable Insulin Controlled Release Systems

for Treating Diabetes Mellitus .................................................. 205
Marc Shalaby and Shalaby W. Shalaby

15 Absorbable Delivery Systems for Cancer Therapy ................ 227

Waleed S.W. Shalaby

16 Tumor Immunotherapeutic Systems ......................................... 257

Waleed S.W. Shalaby and Shalaby W. Shalaby

Index ..................................................................................................... 275

 Section A

Introduction Notes
1
Absorbable/Biodegradable Polymers:
Technology Evolution

Shalaby W. Shalaby and Karen J.L. Burg

CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................3
1.2 Technology Evolution of Absorbable/Biodegradable Polymers
as Materials.....................................................................................................4
1.2.1 Evolution of Natural Absorbable/Biodegradable
Polymers .............................................................................................4
1.2.2 Evolution of Synthetic Absorbable/Biodegradable
Polymers .............................................................................................5
1.2.2.1 Heterochain Ester-Based Absorbable Synthetic
Polymers...............................................................................6
1.2.2.2 Homochain Ester-Based Absorbable Synthetic
Polymers...............................................................................7
1.3 Evolving Applications and Pertinent Processing Methods of
Absorbable/Biodegradable Polymers ........................................................7
1.3.1 Extrudable Gel-Forming Implants .................................................8
1.3.2 Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering ....................................................8
1.3.3 Polyester/Peptide Ionic Conjugates ..............................................8
1.3.4 Enabling New Processing Methods ...............................................9
1.4 Conclusion and Perspective on the Future .............................................10
References ............................................................................................... 10

1.1 Introduction
Egyptians sutured wounds as early as 3500 B.C. using a variety of natural
polymers including treated intestines, which are the early versions of col-
lagen-based surgical gut sutures.1 Synthetic, absorbable polyesters based on


‹E\&5&3UHVV//& 3
4 Absorbable and Biodegradable Polymers

2-hydroxyacetic acids were developed for preparing less tissue reactive alter-
natives to surgical gut sutures in the early 1970s. In addition to collagen-
based polymers, other natural, absorbable polymers, such as albumin, chi-
tosan, and hyaluronic acid and derivatives thereof have been used for many
pharmaceutical and biomedical applications for several decades.2 Of these
polymers, the application of chitosan and hyaluronic acid–based polymers
has received a great deal of attention in the past 15 years for use in controlled
drug delivery systems, tissue repair, tissue engineering, and controlling cer-
tain biological events.

1.2 Technology Evolution of Absorbable/Biodegradable

Polymers as Materials
Technology of absorbable/biodegradable polymers (A/BP) has evolved in
two independent areas. The evolution of natural polymers took place
through chain modification of existing materials using chemical means or
modulating the biosynthetic process for fermentation to impart certain phys-
ical and/or functional properties. On the other hand, the evolution of syn-
thetic A/BP has been achieved through modulating their chemical
composition using several polymerization techniques and, to a lesser extent,
chemical modification of presynthesized polymers.

1.2.1 Evolution of Natural Absorbable/Biodegradable Polymers

Evolution and development of absorbable/biodegradable polysaccharides
was associated mostly with chitosan and hyaluronic acid. Chitosan is among
the most important members of the absorbable/biodegradable polymer fam-
ily. It is a partially deacetylated chitin where 70 to 90% of the monosaccharide
sequences carry free amino groups and the balance is retained with its
original acetamido side groups. Most of the research to develop novel A/
BP products was directed to reaction of the chain amine and/or hydroxyl
groups.2 In an interesting approach to developing absorbable drug delivery
systems, Shalaby and co-workers acylated chitosan with mono- and dicar-
boxylic acids, anhydrides and conjugated the carboxylated products with
bioactive amine-bearing oligopeptides.3,4
Hyaluronic acid is a naturally occurring polysaccharide comprising
monosaccharide sequences with carboxylic or acetamido side groups. Early
production of hyaluronic acid, a biodegradable polymer similar to chitosan,
was achieved through extraction of natural tissues, and the evolution of
hyaluronic acid technology was made possible after its successful production
in sufficient quantities as a fermentation product.2 The key evolution of
Absorbable/Biodegradable Polymers: Technology Evolution 5

hyaluronic acid technology commenced with its chemical modification and

crosslinking.2 These entailed:

• Esterification with monohydric alcohol to improve its film-forming

properties and lower its solubility
• Reaction with basic drugs to control their release profiles
• Crosslinking to produce water-swellable systems as surgical
implants

Evolution in the development of proteins for novel pharmaceutical and

biomedical applications was directed towards the modification of:

• Collagen to decrease its hydrophilicity by acylation with long chain

alkyl-substituted succinic anhydrides
• Insulin to increase its iontophoretic mobility and bioavailability as
part of a transdermal delivery system by acylation with succinic
anhydride, or to improve its enzymatic stability by acylation with
certain fatty acid anhydrides
• Epidermal growth factor (EGF) to improve its enzymatic stability
and hence bioavailability by acylation with fatty acid anhydrides5–11

Bacterial polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) are among the most important bio-

degradable polymers produced via biosynthesis.12 Initial production of the
PHA was focused on poly(2-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB). However, the high
melting temperature and crystallinity of PHB prompted the evolutionary
development of copolymers having about 15 to 20% of the chain sequences
as 2-hydroxyvalerate through controlling the composition of the feed during
the fermentation process. The resulting copolyesters (PHBV) were suggested
to have more suitable properties for conversion by traditional processing
techniques into biomedical devices.

1.2.2 Evolution of Synthetic Absorbable/Biodegradable Polymers

Interest in synthetic absorbable polymers has grown considerably over the
past three decades, principally because of their transient nature when used
as biomedical implants or drug carriers. The genesis of absorbable polymers
was driven by the need to replace the highly tissue-reactive, absorbable,
collagen-based sutures with synthetic polymers, which elicit milder tissue
response. This led to the early development of polyglycolide as an absorbable
polyester suture. In spite of the many polymeric systems investigated as
candidates for absorbable implants and drug carriers, ester-based polymers
maintain an almost absolute dominance among clinically used systems and
others that are under investigation.
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5
 There is a hill beside the silver Thames,
Shady with birch and beech and odorous
pine:
And brilliant underfoot with thousand gems
Steeply the thickets to his floods decline.
Straight trees in every place
Their thick tops interlace,
And pendant branches trail their foliage fine
Upon his watery face.

Swift from the sweltering pasturage he

flows:
His stream, alert to seek the pleasant shade,
Pictures his gentle purpose, as he goes
Straight to the caverned pool his toil has
made.
His winter floods lay bare
The stout roots in the air:
His summer streams are cool, when they
have played
Among their fibrous hair.

A rushy island guards the sacred bower,

And hides it from the meadow, where in
peace
The lazy cows wrench many a scented
flower,
Robbing the golden market of the bees:
And laden barges float
By banks of myosote;
And scented flag and golden flower-de-lys
Delay the loitering boat.

And on this side the island, where the pool

Eddies away, are tangled mass on mass
The water-weeds that net the fishes cool
The water weeds, that net the fishes cool,
And scarce allow a narrow stream to pass;
Where spreading crowfoot mars
The drowning nenuphars,
Waving the tassels of her silken grass
Below her silver stars.

But in the purple pool there nothing grows,

Not the white water-lily spoked with gold;
Though best she loves the hollows, and well
knows
On quiet streams her broad shields to
unfold:
Yet should her roots but try
Within these deeps to lie,
Not her long reaching stalk could ever hold
Her waxen head so high.

Sometimes an angler comes, and drops his

hook
Within its hidden depths, and ’gainst a tree
Leaning his rod, reads in some pleasant
book,
Forgetting soon his pride of fishery;
And dreams, or falls asleep,
While curious fishes peep
About his nibbled bait, or scornfully
Dart off and rise and leap.

And sometimes a slow figure ’neath the

trees,
In ancient-fashioned smock, with tottering
care
Upon a staff propping his weary knees,
May by the pathway of the forest fare:
As from a buried day
Across the mind will stray
Some perishing mute shadow,—and unaware
He passeth on his way.

Else, he that wishes solitude is safe,

Whether he bathe at morning in the stream:
Or lead his love there when the hot hours
chafe
The meadows, busy with a blurring steam;
Or watch, as fades the light,
The gibbous moon grow bright,
Until her magic rays dance in a dream,
And glorify the night.

Where is this bower beside the silver

Thames?
O pool and flowery thickets, hear my vow!
O trees of freshest foliage and straight
stems,
No sharer of my secret I allow:
Lest ere I come the while
Strange feet your shades defile;
Or lest the burly oarsman turn his prow
Within your guardian isle.
 6
A WATER-PARTY
Let us, as by this verdant bank we float,
Search down the marge to find some shady
pool
Where we may rest awhile and moor our
boat,
And bathe our tired limbs in the waters cool.
Beneath the noonday sun,
Swiftly, O river, run!

Here is a mirror for Narcissus, see!

I cannot sound it, plumbing with my oar.
Lay the stern in beneath this bowering tree!
Now, stepping on this stump, we are ashore.
Guard, Hamadryades,
Our clothes laid by your trees!

How the birds warble in the woods! I pick

The waxen lilies, diving to the root.
But swim not far in the stream, the weeds
grow thick,
And hot on the bare head the sunbeams
shoot.
Until our sport be done,
O merry birds, sing on!

If but to-night the sky be clear, the moon

Will serve us well, for she is near the full.
We shall row safely home; only too soon,—
So pleasant ’tis, whether we float or pull.
To guide us through the night,
O summer moon, shine bright!
 7
THE DOWNS
O bold majestic downs, smooth, fair and
lonely;
O still solitude, only matched in the skies:
Perilous in steep places,
Soft in the level races,
Where sweeping in phantom silence the
cloudland flies;
With lovely undulation of fall and rise;
Entrenched with thickets thorned,
By delicate miniature dainty flowers adorned!

I climb your crown, and lo! a sight surprising

Of sea in front uprising, steep and wide:
And scattered ships ascending
To heaven, lost in the blending
Of distant blues, where water and sky divide,
Urging their engines against wind and tide,
And all so small and slow
They seem to be wearily pointing the way
they would go.

The accumulated murmur of soft plashing,

Of waves on rocks dashing and searching
the sands,
Takes my ear, in the veering
Baffled wind, as rearing
Upright at the cliff, to the gullies and rifts he
stands;
And his conquering surges scour out over
the lands;
While again at the foot of the downs
He masses his strength to recover the
topmost crowns.
 8
SPRING
ODE I
INVITATION TO THE COUNTRY
 Again with pleasant green
Has Spring renewed the wood,
And where the bare trunks stood
Are leafy arbours seen;
And back on budding boughs
Come birds, to court and pair,
Whose rival amorous vows
Amaze the scented air.

The freshets are unbound,

And leaping from the hill,
Their mossy banks refill
With streams of light and sound:
And scattered down the meads,
From hour to hour unfold
A thousand buds and beads
In stars and cups of gold.

Now hear, and see, and note,

The farms are all astir,
And every labourer
Has doffed his winter coat;
And how with specks of white
They dot the brown hillside,
Or jaunt and sing outright
As by their teams they stride.

They sing to feel the Sun

Regain his wanton strength;
To know the year at length
Rewards their labour done;
To see the rootless stake
They set bare in the ground,
Burst into leaf, and shake
Its grateful scent around.
 Ah now an evil lot
Is his, who toils for gain,
Where crowded chimneys stain
The heavens his choice forgot;
’Tis on the blighted trees
That deck his garden dim,
And in the tainted breeze,
That sweet spring comes to him.

Far sooner I would choose

The life of brutes that bask,
Than set myself a task,
Which inborn powers refuse:
And rather far enjoy
The body, than invent
A duty, to destroy
The ease which nature sent;

And country life I praise,

And lead, because I find
The philosophic mind
Can take no middle ways;
She will not leave her love
To mix with men, her art
Is all to strive above
The crowd, or stand apart.

Thrice happy he, the rare

Prometheus, who can play
With hidden things, and lay
New realms of nature bare;
Whose venturous step has trod
Hell underfoot, and won
A crown from man and God
For all that he has done.—

That highest gift of all

 That highest gift of all,
Since crabbèd fate did flood
My heart with sluggish blood,
I look not mine to call;
But, like a truant freed,
Fly to the woods, and claim
A pleasure for the deed
Of my inglorious name:

And am content, denied

The best, in choosing right;
For Nature can delight
Fancies unoccupied
With ecstasies so sweet
As none can even guess,
Who walk not with the feet
Of joy in idleness.

Then leave your joyless ways,

My friend, my joys to see.
The day you come shall be
The choice of chosen days:
You shall be lost, and learn
New being, and forget
The world, till your return
Shall bring your first regret.
 9
SPRING
ODE II
REPLY
 Behold! the radiant Spring,
In splendour decked anew,
Down from her heaven of blue
Returns on sunlit wing:
The zephyrs of her train
In fleecy clouds disport,
And birds to greet her reign
Summon their silvan court.

And here in street and square

The prisoned trees contest
Her favour with the best,
To robe themselves full fair:
And forth their buds provoke,
Forgetting winter brown,
And all the mire and smoke
That wrapped the dingy town.

Now he that loves indeed

His pleasure must awake,
Lest any pleasure take
Its flight, and he not heed;
For of his few short years
Another now invites
His hungry soul, and cheers
His life with new delights.

And who loves Nature more

Than he, whose painful art
Has taught and skilled his heart
To read her skill and lore?
Whose spirit leaps more high,
Plucking the pale primrose,
Than his whose feet must fly
The pasture where it grows?
 One long in city pent
Forgets, or must complain:
But think not I can stain
My heaven with discontent;
Nor wallow with that sad,
Backsliding herd, who cry
That Truth must make man bad,
And pleasure is a lie.

Rather while Reason lives

To mark me from the beast,
I’ll teach her serve at least
To heal the wound she gives:
Nor need she strain her powers
Beyond a common flight,
To make the passing hours
Happy from morn till night.

Since health our toil rewards,

And strength is labour’s prize,
I hate not, nor despise
The work my lot accords;
Nor fret with fears unkind
The tender joys, that bless
My hard-won peace of mind,
In hours of idleness.

Then what charm company

Can give, know I,—if wine
Go round, or throats combine
To set dumb music free.
Or deep in wintertide
When winds without make moan,
I love my own fireside
Not least when most alone.

Then oft I turn the page

 Then oft I turn the page
In which our country’s name,
Spoiling the Greek of fame,
Shall sound in every age:
Or some Terentian play
Renew, whose excellent
Adjusted folds betray
How once Menander went.

Or if grave study suit

The yet unwearied brain,
Plato can teach again,
And Socrates dispute;
Till fancy in a dream
Confront their souls with mine,
Crowning the mind supreme,
And her delights divine.

While pleasure yet can be

Pleasant, and fancy sweet,
I bid all care retreat
From my philosophy;
Which, when I come to try
Your simpler life, will find,
I doubt not, joys to vie
With those I leave behind.
 10
ELEGY
AMONG THE TOMBS
Sad, sombre place, beneath whose antique
yews
I come, unquiet sorrows to control;
Amid thy silent mossgrown graves to muse
With my neglected solitary soul;
And to poetic sadness care confide,
Trusting sweet Melancholy for my guide:

They will not ask why in thy shades I stray,

Among the tombs finding my rare delight,
Beneath the sun at indolent noonday,
Or in the windy moon-enchanted night,
Who have once reined in their steeds at any
shrine,
And given them water from the well divine.—

The orchards are all ripened, and the sun

Spots the deserted gleanings with decay;
The seeds are perfected: his work is done,
And Autumn lingers but to outsmile the May;
Bidding his tinted leaves glide, bidding clear
Unto clear skies the birds applaud the year.

Lo, here I sit, and to the world I call,

The world my solemn fancy leaves behind,
Come! pass within the inviolable wall,
Come pride, come pleasure, come distracted
mind;
Within the fated refuge, hither, turn,
And learn your wisdom ere ’tis late to learn.

Come with me now, and taste the fount of

tears;
For many eyes have sanctified this spot,
Where grief’s unbroken lineage endears
The charm untimely Folly injures not,
 ec a u t e y o y ju es ot,
And slays the intruding thoughts, that
overleap
The simple fence its holiness doth keep.

Read the worn names of the forgotten dead,

Their pompous legends will no smile awake;
Even the vainglorious title o’er the head
Wins its pride pardon for its sorrow’s sake;
And carven Loves scorn not their dusty prize,
Though fallen so far from tender sympathies.

Here where a mother laid her only son,

Here where a lover left his bride, below
The treasured names their own are added on
To those whom they have followed long ago:
Sealing the record of the tears they shed,
That ’where their treasure there their hearts
are fled.’

Grandfather, father, son, and then again

Child, grandchild, and great-grandchild laid
beneath,
Numbered in turn among the sons of men,
And gathered each one in his turn to death:
While he that occupies their house and name
To-day,—to-morrow too their grave shall
claim.

And where are all their spirits? Ah! could we

tell
The manner of our being when we die,
And see beyond the scene we know so well
The country that so much obscured doth lie!
With brightest visions our fond hopes repair,
Or crown our melancholy with despair;

From death still death still would a comfort

From death, still death, still would a comfort
come:
Since of this world the essential joy must fall
In all distributed, in each thing some,
In nothing all, and all complete in all;
Till pleasure, ageing to her full increase,
Puts on perfection, and is throned in peace.

Yea, sweetest peace, unsought-for,

undesired,
Loathed and misnamed, ’tis thee I worship
here:
Though in most black habiliments attired,
Thou art sweet peace, and thee I cannot
fear.
Nay, were my last hope quenched, I here
would sit
And praise the annihilation of the pit.

Nor quickly disenchanted will my feet

Back to the busy town return, but yet
Linger, ere I my loving friends would greet,
Or touch their hands, or share without regret
The warmth of that kind hearth, whose
sacred ties
Only shall dim with tears my dying eyes.
 11
DEJECTION
Wherefore to-night so full of care,
My soul, revolving hopeless strife,
Pointing at hindrance, and the bare
Painful escapes of fitful life?

Shaping the doom that may befall

By precedent of terror past:
By love dishonoured, and the call
Of friendship slighted at the last?

By treasured names, the little store

That memory out of wreck could save
Of loving hearts, that gone before
Call their old comrade to the grave?

O soul, be patient: thou shalt find

A little matter mend all this;
Some strain of music to thy mind,
Some praise for skill not spent amiss.

Again shall pleasure overflow

Thy cup with sweetness, thou shalt taste
Nothing but sweetness, and shalt grow
Half sad for sweetness run to waste.

O happy life! I hear thee sing,

O rare delight of mortal stuff!
I praise my days for all they bring,
Yet are they only not enough.
 12
MORNING HYMN
 O golden Sun, whose ray
My path illumineth:
Light of the circling day,
Whose night is birth and death:

That dost not stint the prime

Of wise and strong, nor stay
The changeful ordering time,
That brings their sure decay:

Though thou, the central sphere,

Dost seem to turn around
Thy creature world, and near
As father fond art found;

Thereon, as from above

To shine, and make rejoice
With beauty, life, and love,
The garden of thy choice,

To dress the jocund Spring

With bounteous promise gay
Of hotter months, that bring
The full perfected day;

To touch with richest gold

The ripe fruit, ere it fall;
And smile through cloud and cold
On Winter’s funeral.

Now with resplendent flood

Gladden my waking eyes,
And stir my slothful blood
To joyous enterprise.

Arise, arise, as when

At fi t G d id L !
At first God said Light be!
That He might make us men
With eyes His light to see.

Scatter the clouds that hide

The face of heaven, and show
Where sweet Peace doth abide,
Where Truth and Beauty grow.

Awaken, cheer, adorn,

Invite, inspire, assure
The joys that praise thy morn,
The toil thy noons mature:

And soothe the eve of day,

That darkens back to death;
O golden Sun, whose ray
Our path illumineth!
 13
I have loved flowers that fade,
Within whose magic tents
Rich hues have marriage made
With sweet unmemoried scents:
A honeymoon delight,—
A joy of love at sight,
That ages in an hour:—
My song be like a flower!

I have loved airs, that die

Before their charm is writ
Along a liquid sky
Trembling to welcome it.
Notes, that with pulse of fire
Proclaim the spirit’s desire,
Then die, and are nowhere:—
My song be like an air!

Die, song, die like a breath,

And wither as a bloom:
Fear not a flowery death,
Dread not an airy tomb!
Fly with delight, fly hence!
’Twas thine love’s tender sense
To feast; now on thy bier
Beauty shall shed a tear.
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