EECI 3132: GEOSPATIAL

TECHNOLOGIES
LESSON FIVE: INTRODUCTION TO GIS
NELLY C.MULWA

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Definition
A geographic information system (GIS) is a system designed to capture,
store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of geographical
data.
The key word to this technology is Geography – this means that some
portion of the data is spatial. In other words, data that is in some way
referenced to locations on the earth.
Coupled with this data is usually tabular data known as attribute data.
Attribute data can be generally defined as additional information about
each of the spatial features. An example of this would be schools. The
actual location of the schools is the spatial data. Additional data such as the
school name, level of education taught, student capacity would make up
the attribute data.
It is the partnership of these two data types that enables GIS to be such an
effective problem solving tool through spatial analysis.

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 Cont’
GIS is more than just software. People and methods are combined with geospatial
software and tools, to enable spatial analysis, management of large datasets, and
display of information in a map/graphical form.
A GIS is a computer-based information system, which is used to digitally represent
and analyze the geographic features present on earth surface and the events that
take place on it.
GIS consists of three main components:
i. A spatial database management system and
ii. Automated map making tools
iii. An analytic tool
GIS is a decision-making tool that produces useful information in a cost effective
manner.
GIS can be used as a tool in both problem solving and decision making processes, as
well as for visualization of data in a spatial environment.

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 GIS capabilities
GIS provides four sets of capabilities to handle geo-referenced data;
1) Data input
2) Data management (data storage and retrieval)
3) Data manipulation and analysis
4) Data output
GIS can be used to determine the following;
❖Location-What is at…?
❖Condition-where/how is it…?
❖Trends-What has changed since…?
❖Patterns-What spatial patterns exists…?
❖Modelling-What if…?
❖Routing-Which is the best way…?

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Location: What is at…?
Involves querying a database to determine the types of features that occur at a given place.
Ex. What is the asset value at a particular location?
Condition: Where is it…?
Involves finding the location of sites which have certain characteristics.
Finds the intersection of data sets
Ex. How many houses/villages are therewithin 200 meters of a tailing dump site?
Trend: What has changed…?
Involves monitoring how things change over time
Ex. What is the change in the land use pattern within 5 km radius around a mining site?
Pattern: What is the pattern…?
Allows scientists and planners to describe and compare the distribution of phenomena and
understand the processes which account for their distribution
Ex. Is there some pattern in the distribution of Suspended Particle Matter (SPM) around a mine site?
Modeling: What if…?
Allows different models of the world to be evaluated
Ex. Which areas would be flooded if the water lever reaches x meter above a particular RL value?
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Cont’
In summary, geospatial data can be analyzed to determine;
1) The location of features and relationships to other features,
2) Where the most and/or least of some feature exists,
3) The density of features in a given space,
4) What is happening inside an area of interest (AOI),
5) What is happening nearby some feature or phenomenon, and
6) How a specific area has changed over time (and in what way).

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 Components of GIS
A working GIS integrates six key
components.
i. Hardware
ii. Software
iii. Data
iv. Procedures
v. People
vi. Networks

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❖ Hardware: Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS software runs
on a wide range of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop
computers used in stand-alone or networked configurations.
❖ Software: this is the software needed to create, edit and analyze spatial and attribute
data. GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display
geographic information. Key software components are
• Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information
• A database management system (DBMS)
• Tools that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization
• A graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools
❖ Data: Possibly the most important component of a GIS is the data. Geographic data and
related tabular data can be collected in-house or purchased from a commercial data
provider. A GIS will integrate spatial data with other data resources and can even use a
DBMS, used by most organizations to organize and maintain their data, to manage spatial
data.
❖ People: GIS technology is of limited value without the people who manage the system and
develop plans for applying it to real-world problems. GIS users range from technical
specialists who design and maintain the system to those who use it to help them perform
their everyday work.
❖ Procedures: A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business
rules, which are the models and operating practices unique to each organization.
❖ Network: Distributed users through the network who can access a centralized GIS.

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 GIS Data
GIS data can be obtained from;
i. Remote Sensing :Satellite Imageries
ii. Aerial Photographs
iii. Toposheets
iv. Collateral data from field visits
v. Digitizing Geographic features
vi. Global Positioning Systems
GIS technology allows all these different types of information, no matter their source
or original format, to be overlaid on top of one another on a single map. GIS uses
location as the key index variable to relate these seemingly unrelated data.
Putting information into GIS is called data capture. Data that are already in digital
form, such as most tables and images taken by satellites, can simply be uploaded
into GIS. Maps, however, must first be scanned, or converted to digital format.

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 GIS data models
In order to visualize natural phenomena, one must first determine how
to best represent geographic space.
Data models are a set of rules used to describe and represent aspects of
the real world in a computer.
Two primary data models are available to complete this task:
i. Vector and
ii. raster data models.

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 Vector data models
Vector data models use points and their associated X, Y coordinate pairs to
represent the vertices of spatial features, much as if they were being drawn
on a map by hand (Aronoff 1989).
The data attributes of these features are then stored in a separate database
management system.
The spatial information and the attribute information for these models are
linked via a simple identification number that is given to each feature in a
map.
Vector data is split into three types:
i. polygon,
ii. line (or arc) and
iii. point data.

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Polygons
Polygons are used to represent areas
such as the boundary of a city (on a
large scale map), lake, or forest.
Polygon features are two
dimensional and therefore can be
used to measure the area and
perimeter of a geographic feature.
Polygon features are most
commonly distinguished using either
a thematic mapping symbology
(color schemes), patterns, or in the
case of numeric gradation, a color
gradation scheme could be used.

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 Lines
Line (or arc) data is used to represent linear
features.
Common examples would be rivers, trails, and
streets.
Line features only have one dimension and
therefore can only be used to measure length.
Line features have a starting and ending point.
Common examples would be road centerlines
and hydrology.
Symbology most commonly used to distinguish
arc features from one another are line types
(solid lines versus dashed lines) and
combinations using colors and line thicknesses.
The example below shows stream network
designated by thin solid lines.

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Point data
Point data is most commonly used
to represent nonadjacent features
and to represent discrete data
points.
Points have zero dimensions;
therefore, one can measure neither
length nor area with this dataset.
Examples would be schools, points
of interest, and as in the example
below, bridge and culvert locations.
Point features are also used to
represent abstract points. For
instance, point locations could
represent city locations or place
names.

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Cont’
Both line and point feature data represent polygon data at a much
smaller scale.
They help reduce clutter by simplifying data locations.
As the features are zoomed in, the point location of a school is more
realistically represented by a series of building footprints showing the
physical location of the campus.
Line features of a street centerline file only represent the physical
location of the street. If a higher degree of spatial resolution is needed,
a street curb width file would be used to show the width of the road as
well as any features such as rights-of-way or sidewalks.

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Raster data models
The raster data model consists of
rows and columns of equally sized
pixels interconnected to form a
planar surface.
Raster data is also known as grid
data.
Raster data represents the fourth
type of feature: surfaces.
Raster data is cell-based and this
data category also includes aerial
and satellite imagery.

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Integer versus floating point values in
raster data
Raster cell values can be either integer or floating point.
In raster data, floating point refers to a data type that allows for the
representation of real numbers with fractional values. Unlike integer
data types, which only allow for whole numbers, floating point data can
represent values that fall between integer values, such as 3.14 or 5.5.
Floating point raster data is often used in applications that require high
precision, such as scientific or engineering simulations, where small
variations in values can have a significant impact on the results. It can
also be useful in GIS analysis applications that require more precise
calculations, such as slope or terrain analysis.
It is important to note that floating point data requires more storage
space and processing power than integer data, and it can be more
prone to rounding errors and other numerical issues.

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Discrete vs continuous raster data
There are two types of raster data: discrete and continuous.
Discrete data values are distinct, separate values that are often categorical or nominal in
nature.
An example of discrete raster data is population density and land cover types and land
use categories.
Discrete data is typically represented by integer values in raster data, with each unique
value representing a different category or class. For example, a raster layer that
represents land cover types might assign the value of 1 to forests, 2 to agricultural land,
and 3 to urban areas.
Continuous data values, on the other hand, are numeric and represent measurements
that can take on any value within a range.
Continuous data is typically represented by floating point values in raster data, with each
pixel value representing a continuous measurement of the variable being measured.
Continuous data examples are temperature and elevation measurements.
There are three types of raster datasets: thematic data, spectral data, and
pictures/images.

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Thematic data
This example of a thematic raster
dataset is called a Digital Elevation
Model (DEM).
Each cell presents a 30m pixel size
with an elevation value assigned
to that cell.

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Imagery data
Each cell contains one value
representing the dominate value
of that cell.
Raster datasets are intrinsic to
most spatial analysis.

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 Spectral raster data
Spectral data presents aerial or satellite imagery which is then often
used to derive vegetation or geologic information by classifying the
spectral signatures of each type of feature.

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Data Formats
The term data/file format refers to the logical structure used to store information in
a GIS file.
File formats are important in part because not every GIS software package supports
all formats. If you want to use a data set, but it isn’t available in a format that your
GIS supports, you will have to find a way to transform it, find another data set, or
find another GIS software.
Almost every GIS has its own internal file format. These formats are designed for
optimal use inside the software and are often proprietary.
They are not designed for use outside their native systems.
Most systems also support transfer file formats. Transfer formats are designed to
bring data in and out of the GIS software, so they are usually standardized and well
documented. If your data needs are simple, your main concern will be with the
internal format your GIS software supports. If you have complex data needs, you will
want to learn about a wider range of transfer formats, especially if you want to mix
data from different sources. Transfer formats will be required to import some data
sets into your software.

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Vector formats
Many GIS applications are based on vector technology, so vector
formats are the most common.
They are also the most complex because there are many ways to store
coordinates, attributes, attribute linkages, database structures, and
display information.
Examples; tiger, shapefile, digital line graph DLG and digital exchange
format DXF.

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Raster formats
Raster files generally are used to store image information, such as
scanned paper maps or aerial photographs.
They are also used for data captured by satellite and other airborne
imaging systems.
Images from these systems are often referred to as remote-sensing
data.
Unlike other raster files, which express resolution in terms of cell size,
resolution in remotely sensed images is expressed in meters, which
indicates the size of the ground area covered by each cell.
Examples are; Tagged Image File Format (TIFF), Geo-TIFF, Graphics
Interchange Format (GIF), Joint Photograph Experts Group (JPEG),
Digital Elevation Model (DEM) .

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 Software
•GIS software provides a wide range of tools for creating, editing, visualizing, and
analyzing geospatial data.
•GIS software packages commonly used in GIS include;
a) Quantum GIS (QGIS)
b) R programming language packages and libraries (e.g. sf, sp, rgdal, raster, terra, ...)
c) ArcGIS
d) GRASS GIS
e) Google Earth Engine(GEE)
f) ArcGIS online
g) Google Earth Pro
h) Others; MapInfo, ERDAS, AUTOCAD MAP 3D, IDRISI GIS

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 Reference Surfaces for Mapping in GIS
• There are two main reference surfaces used to
approximate the shape of the earth;
1. Geoid
2. Ellipsoid
• A geoid is a model of the earth's shape that
approximates global mean sea level, taking into
account the effects of gravity and the earth's
rotation; serves as the classical reference for
measurements of elevation and gravity, as well as for
mapping ocean currents and tides.
• The geoid is an equipotential surface, meaning that
the gravity field is constant everywhere on its
surface.
• The geoid is not a perfectly smooth surface, as it is
influenced by the earth's topography and variations
in the density of the underlying rock.
• The geoid is constantly changing over time due to
changes in the earth's rotation, tectonic activity, and
changes in the distribution of mass on the earth's
surface

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 Ellipsoid
• An ellipsoid is a mathematical model of the earth's shape that serves as a
reference surface for measurements of latitude, longitude, and elevation.

• An ellipsoid is a three-dimensional figure resembling a stretched sphere,

defined by a set of three axes and a reference point at the center.

• The reference ellipsoid is a mathematical construct, and does not

accurately represent the earth's actual shape, which is irregular and uneven
(-> Geoid).

• The reference ellipsoid is used to model the earth's shape as a smooth,

continuous surface that can be easily approximated mathematically.

• There are many different reference ellipsoids in use, with different sizes
and shapes depending on the purpose and location of the measurement.

• The most commonly used global reference ellipsoid is the World Geodetic
System 1984 (WGS84) ellipsoid, which is used for global navigation and
mapping systems (other global datums are e.g. NAD83, ETRS89).

• In contrast, many locally adopted ellipsoids (local horizontal datum) exist,

which were adopted to best fit the local mean sea level in different
countries and regions (e.g. Bessel ellipsoid in Austria).

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 Coordinate systems
• A coordinate system is a reference system
used to locate spatial features on the earth's
surface
• Coordinate systems can be divided into two
categories: geographic and projected (spatial
& planar).
◦ Geographic coordinate systems use
latitude (φ) and longitude (λ)to describe
locations on the earth's surface e.g.
Vienna: Lat 48°12' 36.1188‘’ N, Long
16°21' 48.4164‘’ E (or in Decimal degrees:
48.210033, 16.363449)

◦ Projected coordinate systems use a two-

dimensional Cartesian coordinate system
to represent the earth's surface on a flat
map e.g. Vienna UTM Easting 601 292.59,
UTM Northing 5 340 543.63

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 Projections
• A map projection is the mathematically described technique of how
to represent the Earth´s curved surface on a flat map.

• Involves mathematical formulas that transform the three-

dimensional shape of the Earth onto a two-dimensional plane.

• There are many types of map projections, depending on the purpose

of the map, the area being represented, and the scale of the map.

• Map projections can be classified into three main categories:

cylindrical, conical, and azimuthal.

• Cylindrical projections are formed by wrapping a cylinder around the

globe and projecting the surface onto the cylinder.

• Conic projections are formed by placing a cone over a portion of the

Earth's surface and projecting the surface onto the cone.

• Azimuthal projections are formed by projecting the Earth's surface

onto a flat plane from a single point on the globe

• There are thousands of map projections that are in existence today

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 Distortion as a result of projection;
• All map projections introduce some level of distortion in the
resulting map.

• Distortion can include; area, distance, and direction

a. Area distortion occurs when the area of a feature on the
map is different from its true area on the Earth's surface;
equal-area map projections correctly represent areas
b. Distance distortion occurs when distances between features
on the map are distorted compared to their true distances
on the Earth's surface; equidistant map projections
represent the length of lines correctly
c. Direction distortion occurs when the direction between
features on the map is distorted compared to their true
directions on the Earth's surface; conformal map projections
correctly depict angles between lines.

• One of the most common distortions shown on maps is area. For

example, the Mercator projection (frequently used on web
services) exaggerates area. The further you go from the equator
the greater the exaggeration.

• One of the reasons the Mercator projections is so popular is

because that it preserves shape and direction-the shape of
countries are correct, and also the direction from one to another
on the map can be used to navigate easily between them.

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EPSG Codes
• EPSG codes are nowadays used in GIS to define
and identify different spatial reference systems
and to ensure that data from different sources
are aligned correctly in space.
• EPSG codes are four or five-digit numeric codes
that correspond to specific coordinate systems
and projections. They were developed by the
European Petroleum Survey Group (EPSG).
• There are thousands of map projections (epsg.io
lists over 6000) that are in existence today.
• Some examples of EPSG codes:
i. EPSG:4326 -WGS 84 is a geographic coordinate
system used for global positioning and
navigation.
ii. EPSG:3857 -WGS 84 / Pseudo-Mercator (“Web
Mercator”) is a popular projected coordinate
system used by web mapping services such as
Google Maps and OpenStreetMap.
iii. EPSG:31287 -MGI / Austria Lambert, a popular
projection in Austria

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 Data visualization
• Mapping and visualization of data in GIS is the
process of representing spatial data in a
meaningful and understandable way.
• GIS allows users to create (e.g. interactive)
maps and visualizations that can help in
decision making, analysis, and
communication of complex information
• GIS software offers a variety of tools and
techniques to map and visualize data,
including thematic maps, heat maps, point
maps, and 3D visualizations, etc.
• These techniques help to identify patterns,
trends, and relationships within data that may
not be apparent in raw data.
• Overall, mapping and visualization of data in
GIS helps to make complex spatial data more
accessible and understandable, which can
lead to better decision making and more
effective communication of information

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• Some important aspects to consider when mapping
and visualizing data in GIS:
➢Selecting appropriate data visualization techniques
based on the type and scale of the data being
analyzed
➢Ensuring that the data is properly georeferenced,
and selecting an appropriate coordinate reference
system (CRS)for the analysis
➢Adjusting the map scale and extent to highlight
important features and patterns in the data
➢Using color, size, and symbology to effectively
represent and distinguish different data categories
➢Labeling features and data points to provide context
and help the viewer understand the information
being presented
➢Including a legend to explain the data and
symbology used in the visualization (and scale
(bar)and north arrow)
➢Considering the audience and purpose of the map,
and designing the visualization to effectively
communicate the intended message
➢Using best practices for cartographic design, such as
minimizing clutter and using appropriate fonts and
text sizes

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