L

t R~ UIS
,._,
\\i:~RfJ

~
-
~~CHfOll!;TR£
Simr-Yvcs
r~~~;.gi~f

z
FR\',f\1'-
\
H~-BRO
N
S\~',fR\1
r
f.(.ll'T IE"
\;
Rf\11.0'l[TRt
~11lf!. ( ,r.
f5PRli &.fOR'lf.
l.A}'&M;1E 1.~MERE
 A Wicked Pack of Cards

'A Wicked Pack of Cards is exciting reading ....

It is a thoroughly researched piece of cultural
history that should interest all circles. This is the
Book on the history of the occult tarot.'
The Playing Card

'The authors tell an absorbing and surprising

tale.' Financial Times

Tarot cards were invented in Italy in the early 15th

century, and for almost four centuries used exclusively
for playing games. In late 18th-century France, however,
they were purloined from the card-players for fortune-
telling and the occult. This book tells the fascinating
story of how Tarot divination was born and grew to
maturity in a single country, tracing the phenomenon
through the writings and activities of many advocates
of Tarot occultism, including Court de Gebelin,
Etteilla, Levi and Papus.
The second volume of this work, A History of the
Occult Tarot, 1870-1970, by Ronald Decker and
Michael Dummett, was published in April 2002. It
traces the story beyond 19th-century France to the
Anglophone world of the 20th century, where Tarot
occultism now vigorously flourishes.
RONALD DECKER has thirty years experience in
teaching art and art history at all levels. He was until
recently the curator of a notable collection of antique
cards at the United States Playing Card Company,
Cincinnati, Ohio.

THIERRY DEPAULIS is an independent historian

specialising in the history of g;ames and playing-cards.

MICHAEL DUMMETT was Wykeham Professor of

Logic at Oxford from 1979-1992. He is the author of
The Game of Tarot (1980), Il Mondo e l'Angelo (1993),
and other books on Tarot cards and games, as well as
books on philosophy and voting theory.
A Wicked Pack of Cards
A Wicked Pack of Cards
The Origins of the Occult Tarot

Ronald Decker, Thierry Depaulis

and Michael Dummett

Duckworth
 This impression 2002
First published in 1996 by
Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd.
61 Frith Street, London WlD 3JL
Tel: 020 7434 4242
Fax: 020 7434 4420
[email protected]
www .ducknet.co.uk

© 1996 by Ronald Decker, Thierry Depaulis

and Michael Dummett

All rights reserved. No part of this publication

may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without the prior permission of the publisher.

A catalogue record for this book is available

from the British Library

ISBN O7156 2713 9

The cards reproduced on the cover come from the

Tarot Divinatoire of Dr Papus. (Courtesy Editions
Dusserre, 4 rue Nansouty, F-75014 Paris.)

Cover design by the Senate

 Contents

List of plates vii

Preface ix
Introduction: Imaginary Magi 1

1. Game or Magic? 23
2. How Tarot Divination Began 40
3. The Founders of Tarot Occultism 52
4. Etteilla: the First Professional Cartomancer 74
5. Etteilla's Disciples and Posterity 100
6. Mlle Le Normand: Prophet or Sorcerer? 116
7. The Tradition ofEtteilla 143
8. The Second Founder: Eliphas Levi 166
9. From Ghost Writer to Magus: Paul Christian 194
10. Among the Gypsies: Jean-Alexandre Vaillant 214
11. Papus and his Circle 234

Notes 263
References 293
Index 299
To the memory of
Sylvia Mann
 Plates
(between pages 148 and 149)

la. Antoine Court de Gebelin.

lb. Plates III and V from Court de Gebelin, Monde primitif.
2-3. Cards from the original edition of Etteilla's Tarot.
4. Etteilla at work.
5. 'Petit Etteilla'.
6. Mlle Le Normand.
7. Cards from the Jeu de la Princesse Tarot.
8. Anonymous hand-drawn Tarot cards
9a. Cards from Grand Etteilla II.
9b. Cards from Grand Etteilla Ill.
lOa. Eliphas Levi.
lOb. Two 'cles' from Levi, Dogme et rituel de la haute magie.
11. Paul Christian.
12. Cards from Edmond's Tarot.
13. Dr Gerard Encausse (Papus) as a young physician.
14. Cards from 0. Wirth, Les 22 Arcanes du Tarot Kabbalistique.
15. Cards from Papus's Tarot divinatoire.
16. Plates from R. Falconnier, Les XXII lames hermetiques du tarot
divinatoire.
Madame Sosostris, famous clairvoyante,
Had a bad cold, nevertheless
Is known to be the wisest woman in Europe,
With a wicked pack of cards.
T.S. Eliot, The Waste Land
 Preface

Tarot cards have a surprising history. They were invented in northern

Italy in the early XV century as a variation from the regular card pack,
already made of four suits and documented as early as the 1370s. From
northern Italy, the new game - for it was a game - gradually spread to the
rest ofltaly, then, by 1500, to France where the cards settled up to modern
times. Their adoption in France did not change the suit system, which
remained 'Italian', i.e. Swords, Batons, Cups and Coins, the suits still
familiar to most Southern Europeans. What is peculiar to the Tarot pack
is its series of twenty-two picture cards not belonging to any suit. They
were called trionfi, whence the modern English 'trumps'.
Our knowledge of the history of the Tarot pack was significantly in-
creased in 1980 when Michael Dummett's book, The Game of Tarot, came
out. His was a new approach, based on solid documentation, not on wild
interpretations of the cards. The picture that emerged was that of a
fascinating game of cards, whose extra series of allegorical figures had
meanings only for the happy few for whom the cards had been originally
designed.
Although massively documented and very emphatic in its conclusions,
Michael Dummett's book did not circulate widely. Most people, throughout
the world, still think Tarot cards were invented for fortune-telling. Apart
from France, Austria and Central Europe, where the game is still played
- though now with 'French-suited' cards and 'lay' trumps - and some parts
of Italy and of Switzerland, it is true that Tarot cards are mainly known
as instruments of card-reading, employed by cartomancers and magi. In
the English-speaking countries, it is the only usage they have. Interest-
ingly, when Michael Dummett's book was published in Britain, the
bookshops put it in their sections on the occult, even though the work dealt
primarily with the history of the game of Tarot, as indeed, its title clearly
states.
The heavy presence of the occult Tarot today should not obscure the fact
that the association of the Tarot with the occultist tradition, as it is
generally understood, is a relatively recent product, dating back no earlier
than the late XVIII century. During almost four centuries Tarot cards
were used only for playing a game. How they were diverted to what we
may call a 'secondary', esoteric usage at the end of the XVIII century and
x Preface
the mid-XIX century is precisely the subject of this book. After all, the
occult Tarot is a point of cultural and social history which has its place in
Western society.
In his The Game of Tarot, Michael Dummett devoted a single chapter,
though a long one, to cartomantic and occult Tarots. However, the subject
has not been previously treated in a single work from the specific angle of
the use of Tarot cards for divination and the integration of the Tarot into
general occultist doctrines and practice. The Tarot is the only ingredient
that has been added, since Renaissance times, to the Western esoteric
tradition. That is why a study of the incorporation into magical theory and
practice of the imagery found in a special kind of playing-card pack goes
to the heart of present-day occultism. It is time to go deeper into the
history of the occult Tarot.
This book is a true work of collaboration, not just a patchwork of
contributions by different hands. In the beginning, the idea was Michael
Dummett's jointly with Donald Laycock, an Australian anthropologist
who had begun researching into modern Tarot practice - what its devotees
sometimes call 'Tarotism'. Their project was to cover the history of the
occult Tarot from the XVIII century to its present 'New Age' forms. Very
sadly Donald Laycock died in 1989. A new impulse came from an offer of
collaboration by Ronald Decker, the Curator of the United States Playing
Card Company Museum in Cincinnati and an expert on Renaissance art.
So the project did not have to be abandoned. Subsequently, Thierry
Depaulis, who had organised the great exhibition of Tarot cards at the
Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris ('Tarot,jeu et magie') in 1984 and had just
conducted thorough investigations into the life of Etteilla, joined the team.
Naturally, first drafts of particular chapters, or of parts of chapters, have
been composed by individual authors; but all has been brought into final
form through consultation, and we all three take the responsibility for
everything the book contains.
Since 1980 the history of the Tarot pack has been illuminated by many
new publications. Its esoteric side has not been forgotten: many details
about the origins and evolution of the occult Tarot have come to light in
recent years. It soon became clear that a single volume would be too
restrictive for our project, and we finally decided with the publisher to split
the whole into two books, of which A Wicked Pack of Cards is the first. It
covers the birth and first steps of the occult Tarot, whose invention and
development were confined to France up to the end of the XIX century.
The angle we have chosen is mainly chronological, reviewing what has
been published and printed from roughly 1750 up to the end of World War
I. But, in order that the reader may better understand the place the Tarot
pack and its interpretations have taken in the history of the Occult, we
have summed up in our Introduction the main streams of the history of
Western esotericism, from Antiquity to the late XVIII century. We hope
 Preface xi
that this will illuminate the conditions that allowed the emergence of this
very special branch of the occult, the divinatory Tarot.
Those conditions were perfect. The late XVIII century in France was far
from being a unalloyed age of reason: it was also an epoch in which, in a
variety of secret societies, mostly allied to Freemasonry, occult beliefs and
practices flourished luxuriantly. Of equal importance, as we shall see, it
was the heyday of Egyptomania: the fascination with the mysterious
civilisation of Egypt, more ancient than those of classical Rome and
Greece, had been greatly increased by the abbe Terrasson's very successful
novel Sethos (1731), although there was as yet little genuine knowledge of
the Pharaoh's land. Morover, it was only in the XVIII century that playing
cards started to be used as an instrument of divination, while it was during
the first half of the XIX century that professional fortune-tellers enjoyed
their greatest success in France. From 1750 to 1850 the game of Tarot
achieved its greatest popularity outside Italy, and many were the Tarot
packs produced by French cardmakers in Marseilles, Strasbourg and
elsewhere. The game, formerly popular throughout France, was now
played only in the eastern parts of the country, in Alsace, Burgundy,
Franche-Comte and Provence; as we shall document, it had by 1700
become completely unknown in Paris and the central and western regions.
French Tarot cards had changed very little from their Italian originals: to
those unfamiliar with them, with the Italian suit-signs or with the Ren-
aissance images shown on the trumps, they were bound to appear
enigmatic bearers of a hidden symbolism. To anyone accustomed to see
Tarot cards used for play, the idea would not occur; but, for Frenchmen
living in Paris or elsewhere where the game was now forgotten, they were
exotic and a natural subject for the extravagant speculations of the
occultists and the cartomancers.
Our concern has been not only to draw the portraits of the theorists who
have 'made' the occult Tarot but also to expound their theories and
concepts, by giving analyses of their main works. Thus the lives of Court
de Gebelin, Etteilla/Alliette - about whom not even his first name had
previously been known-, Eliphas Levi, Paul Christian, J.-A. Vaillant and
Papus are told in close relationship with their writings and theories about
the Tarot, which we have tried to explain and elucidate. Many other people
appear, most of them simple cartomancers who were influenced by both
Etteilla and Mlle Le Normand - to whom a chapter is also devoted - as
well as occultists of lesser importance.
By the end of the XIX century the occult Tarot had been fed with
Hermetism, Cabalism, astrology and Gypsy 'knowledge'. It fell to Papus to
operate the great synthesis which helped the Tarot to be publicised and
studied in larger circles. Now the occult Tarot was mature enough to cross
the Channel and start its conquest of the English-speaking world. But this
is another story, which we shall tell in a further book.
xii Preface

References
The full bibliographical reference to a book or article referred to or cited
only once in the footnotes is given in the footnote in question. Works
mentioned more than once are cited, in footnotes and sometimes in text,
by means of the author's name followed by the year of publication. When
two publications by the same author appeared in the same year, they are
distinguished by a letter added to the year. The complete bibliographical
references, with translations of titles if not in English, are given in the
final Bibliography, where they are listed in alphabetical order of the
abbreviations used to refer to them earlier.
 Introduction
Imaginary Magi

This Introduction supplies a background for understanding various occult-

ist theories about the Tarot, especially those which prevailed in France.
The reader may prefer to start immediately with Chapter 1, consulting
the relevant section of the Introduction when he comes upon a reference
to it.
We need not attempt a comprehensive survey of occultism. We instead
will examine specific documents that represent typically occultist pur-
suits: astrology, philosophical Hermetism, alchemy, Cabalism and
Rosicrucianism. These activities used ancient ideas whose credibility
declined markedly in the XVII century. For each occult trend, one or
more XVII-century critics will be cited. In the XVIII century, occultism
survived in secret societies, which will be noted under the theme of
Illuminism.
Several theories about the Tarot purport to trace the cards, or at least
their content, to various sages, dignified as 'Magi'. That term originally
denoted the priests of ancient Persia and Media but was extended to
include all sorts of magicians. In Western occultism, three of the most
revered 'Magi' are Hermes Trismegistus, Enoch-Metatron and Christian
Rosenkreutz. They were similar types: they lived in great piety and to a
great age; they possessed profound knowledge of the world, visible and
invisible; each magus preserved his basic message in a mysterious vault
and initiated an oral tradition that has endured in secret. Yet no historical
evidence indicates that these supposed founders ever really existed. The
illusion of their existence was fostered by their reputations as teachers.
The relevant literature is actually by anonymous advocates, usually work-
ing separately. They believed in the authenticity of their heroes and
aggrandised them by attaching their names to all doctrinal expressions,
old and new. This practice was common in antiquity and was a form of
homage, not fraud. Difficulties naturally arise in determining the age and
provenance of particular writings.
2 Introduction

1 Hermes Trismegistus and the Hermetic texts

1.1 Hermes Trismegistus

Hellenistic culture conflated the Egyptian god Thoth and the Greek god
Hermes. Both were gods of invention, logic, language, arbitration and, to
some extent, magic and the afterlife. Thoth-Hermes received the title
'trismegistus' (three times great) from the Egyptian practice of addressing
the gods as 'great', 'twice great' and 'thrice great'. In Latin literature, the
Roman Mercury often replaced Hermes. We accordingly read of Mercuri us
Termaximus. His composite identity prompted various reputations. He
could be a god,1 but was more often a god's mortal descendant, living in
some primordial era.
Hermes's doctrine was not truly primeval. It arose under the Ptolemies,
probably around 100 B.C., but preserved older traditions. It combined
Egyptian magic and Middle Platonism, which had already borrowed from
Stoicism and Neopythagoreanism. The first Hermetists were Egyptians,
presumably of Greek descent. When recording their philosophy, they used
Greek, well suited to their platonising. However, they were silent about
Plato. All credit devolves on Hermes Trismegistus and the Egyptians.

1.2 Hellenistic astrology

The priests of Thoth observed the stars, important in maintaining the
sacred calendar and anticipating the changing seasons. The myth of
Hermes Trismegistus equipped him with the same knowledge and, fur-
ther, the evolving art of astrology. Embedded in Hermetic astrology is an
archaic system of decans. They are ten-degree arcs of the ecliptic; thirty-
six of them naturally fill the circle of the sky. In Egyptian lore, they were
personified, named, and regarded as star-demons who could be called
upon according to their natures and their orientations above the earth.
When the zodiac was introduced into Hellenised Egypt, astrologers pre-
served the decans by superimposing them on the zodiac: each sign was
divided into three arcs. The decans have endured in Christian, Islamic and
Hindu astrology, although they have mutated into demons of different
descriptions and have received different names. 2
Full-fledged astrology evolved in Egypt in tandem with Hermetism.
Astrology, as we know it, combines a variety of systems and doctrines. The
Babylonians had compiled tables of celestial cycles and had regarded
planetary positions, along with weather conditions, as omens. The planets
were viewed as belonging to specific deities, an opinion adopted by the
Greeks. The astrological significance of the planets therefore depended
both on their objective behaviour and on the temperaments of the presid-
ing gods and goddesses as described in mythology. The zodiac likewise
originated in Mesopotamia and was revised by Greek astrologers. They
 Introduction 3
also contributed mathematics that refined the planetary relationships and
progressions, while the Egyptians contributed the division of the day into
24 hours. A functional synthesis did not occur until Alexander the Great
took control of Egypt in 332 B.C. The oldest surviving horoscopes on
papyrus date no earlier than the reign of Augustus, the first Roman
Emperor. From Rome of the first century A.D. comes a lengthy book, the
Astronomicon of Marcus Manilius. 3 He identifies astrology's inventor as
'the Cyllenian', i.e. the god Hermes, apparently confused with Hermes
Trismegistus. In the Astronomicon we find the standard meanings of the
zodiacal signs and their coordination with twelve parts of the human body.
But other factors, such as the houses of the horoscope, were still in flux.
In the II century, Claudius Ptolemaeus tried to codify astrological systems
in his Tetrabiblos (Four Books). 4 From Greek philosophy, he borrowed the
four elements - fire, earth, air, water - and associated them with the
planets. He also divided the zodiacal signs into four triplicities; but it was
in Vettius Valens's Anthology (II century) that the elements were first
arbitrarily attached to the triplicities. 5 The results were incongruous: for
instance, the Scorpion, although ordinarily a desert dweller, became a
water sign; and Aquarius, the Waterbearer, became an air sign.
Astrology contributes to the Hermetic principle of correspondences. We
have already seen that the zodiac and human anatomy were thought to
correspond. The Hermetist drew parallels between two levels of organic
unity, as he perceived them: the macrocosm (the total universe) and the
microcosm (the individual human). This parallel could be elaborated into
correspondences between specific conditions in the great cosmos and
specific parts of the body or specific states of mind. The magician's
thinking here largely depends on metaphors, analogies, unconscious asso-
ciations and conventional myths. In Roman mythology, Mars is the
personification of war; and his planet is red, suggesting his fiery tempera-
ment and the fire and blood of the battlefield. The metallic correspondence
for Mars is iron, which is useful for making weapons and which can turn
red with heat and with rust. The magician supposed that rituals involving
'martial' materials could induce bloodshed among his enemies. Each of the
other planets likewise had its own correspondences and magical effects -
saturnine, jovial, venereal, mercurial - according to the presiding deity.
Christian theologians disagreed about the propriety of judicial astrol-
ogy (personal advice from horoscopes). Astrologers assumed that the time
and place of a person's birth largely determined both his character and his
future experiences. This could imply a strict predestination, a concept
incompatible with that of free will. Julius Firmicus Maternus, a IV-cen-
tury astrologer, wrote, 'Let us concede that nothing is placed in our power,
but all is in the power of Fate.' 6 Firmicus nevertheless urged his readers
to be virtuous, socially responsible and respectful of the gods. A birthchart
conceivably could indicate probable tendencies in the newborn without
presupposing an unalterable destiny. Some astrologers viewed celestial
4 Introduction
movements as signs of things to come but not as direct influences. Other
astrologers believed in direct influences but thought that these could be
manipulated. And some astrologers regarded the stars as intelligences
that could be placated and persuaded. Hermetism, drawing on mystical
Platonism, is strongly disposed toward theories of a multitude of spiritual
beings intermediate between man and God. When the astrologer actually
worships the planets and decans as minor gods, he is practising 'astrola-
try'. Jews and Christians generally tolerated astrology and magic, as long
as they did not obviously flout religious doctrines. The astral gods could
be legitimised by regarding them as angels.
Astrology was widespread in the Roman Empire but nearly disappeared
after the empire collapsed. The decline probably can be attributed not to
scepticism but to ignorance: no one any longer received the proper educa-
tion in mathematics and astronomy. In Islam, however, these studies
endured and flourished. In the XII century, Christendom acquired ancient
astrology through the translation of Arabic books.
When mediaeval theologians condemned astrology, they did not declare
it unfeasible, only illicit - as coming from demons. Scholars in the Renais-
sance sometimes took a different tack: in resurrecting ancient literature,
they found that certain Greek and Roman philosophers had already
dismissed magic and astrology on deductive and intuitive grounds. Then
the philosophy of materialism arose to discredit the very thought of
demons, celestial intelligences and the animism of the universe. Finally,
the scientific method was levied against all occultism. Pierre Gassendi
(1592-1655) was an ordained priest, but he refuted astrology by logical and
scientific arguments, not religious. In his Physica, 7 he argues that if the
planets influence human behaviour, the influences cannot be measured.
The fieriness of Mars - and all the elemental qualities alleged for all the
planets - are unfelt and unproved. The obvious powers of the sun and
moon do not require us to acknowledge powers from other celestial bodies.
The sun's orbit is a continuum, and its division into twelve houses is
entirely arbitrary. If the zodiacal constellations are astrologically influen-
tial, why should we neglect other stars, especially the dense array in the
Milky Way? What are we to make of the innumerable stars now revealed
by the telescope? Gassendi doubts the popular belief that astrology is
founded on accurate and abundant observations by the Babylonians. And
even if it was valid in their part of the world, it would not apply in all
regions. Astrologers only succeed through chance, subterfuge and their
clients' credulity and unconscious cooperation.

1.3 The Corpus Hermeticum

The Hermetic Corpus consists of more than a dozen theosophical treatises,
written by anonymous authors whose doctrine is not entirely uniform.
Egyptian religion has been assimilated to Greek philosophy, and the texts
 Introduction 5
may well borrow some ideas from the Jews and Persians. The anthology
represents an extensive literature which is largely lost. The extant texts
date from the Roman Empire.
The first treatise in the collection presumably is meant to be a report
by Hermes Trismegistus after his encounter with God's Mind, called
Poimandres. Most editors, until recently, have given the title Poimandres
(Poemander, Pimander, Pymander) not to the initial treatise alone but to
the entire collection. 8 The enigmatic 'Poimandres' may derive from a
Greek word meaning 'Shepherd' or a Coptic word meaning 'Thought of Re'
or 'Mind of Re' (Re or Ra being the ancient Egyptian god of the sun). 9 Thoth
himself was hailed as 'representative of Re', 'son of Re', 'second Re', etc. 10
Quite possibly, therefore, Poimandres and Hermes are each manifesta-
tions of Thoth who have inadvertently been brought together in a mystical
reverie. This certainly occurs in those Hermetic dialogues that cause
Hermes to address his son Tat (Thoth in yet another guise). Here, Hermes
desires an account of Creation. Communication begins telepathically:

From the [Divine] Light there came forth a holy Word which took its stand
upon the watery substance [of Chaos] ...
I saw in my mind that the Light consisted of innumerable Powers, and
had come to be an ordered world, but a world without bounds ... Poimandres
thus spoke ....
'The watery substance, having received the Word, was fashioned into an
ordered world, the elements being separated from it; and from the elements
came forth the brood of living creatures ....
'And therewith the air too, being light, followed the fire, and mounted up
till it reached the fire, parting from earth and water .... And the first Mind
- the Mind which is Life and Light, - being bisexual, gave birth to another
Mind, a Maker of things ....
'[This second] Mind made out of fire and air the seven Administrators,
who encompass with their orbits the world perceived by sense; and their
administration is called Destiny ....
'And Nature, even as Mind the Maker willed, brought forth from the
downward-tending elements animals devoid of reason; for she no longer had
with her the Word. The air brought forth birds, and the water, fishes, -earth
and water had by this time been separated from one another, - and the earth
brought forth four-footed creatures and creeping things, beasts wild and
tame.
'But Mind the Father of all, he who is Life and Light, gave birth to Man,
a Being like to Himself .... And God delivered over to Man all things that had
been made.' 11

The 'Man' here is utterly ideal, not incarnated on earth. He later

descended through the spheres of the Seven Administrators, i.e. the
planets. When he met Nature, each was attracted by the godlike qualities
in the other. They united and produced seven hermaphroditic offspring
(probably seven types, somehow akin to the seven planets). The offspring
were bifurcated into seven males and seven females. They sought to
6 Introduction
reunite through sex, and so became the progenitors of existing humans.
We humans are unique creatures, for we descend not from animals or
elements, but from the ideal Man, God's own son. Those who are cognisant
of their divine origins will shun bodily and material pleasures in prefer-
ence for the worship of God. They will be informed directly by the Divine
Mind. Hedonists will only receive the Avenging Demon. At death, the
physical body returns to the elements of matter. The soul ascends through
the orbits of the planets, and each of them absorbs a specific sin or vice.
Completely purified, the soul's mind returns to its source.
Besides this Creation myth, the Corpus Hermeticum preserves a vari-
ety of subjects fundamental to Hermetism: Nature is virtually a living
organism with all parts interdependent; the universe owes its unity to the
Mind of God; He created the material world in imitation of an ideal world
in His intellect; His spirit pervades the material realm; His will is exer-
cised through a hierarchy of beings, ranging from angels down through
humans to spirits within minerals. The human mind descends from the
Divine Mind and can return to it, not only after death, but during devo-
tional exercises.
The Corpus Hermeticum, presumably in the form now known, was first
cited by the Byzantine Platonist Michael Psellus (fl. 1060). It was edited
not by magicians but, probably, by Christian monks or philosophers with
no interest in magic. They valued the Corpus because of its allusions to a
'son of God', taken to mean Christ. Inasmuch as the Hermetica were
supposed to be far older than the Gospels, some Christians, such as
Lactantius, revered Hermes Trismegistus as a prophet, a pagan who
nonetheless foresaw the Christian Saviour. Others, such as St Augustine,
rejected Hermetic theosophy as a demonic cult.

1.4 Philosophical Hermetica in the West

Separate from the Corpus Hermeticum is a Latin treatise called the
Asclepius. The title identifies one of Hermes's disciples who engages the
teacher in a rambling dialogue about the nature of the cosmos and the
soul, religion and its inevitable decline, supernatural powers and the
making of magical images. A prayer concludes the discourse. The As·
clepius probably dates from the III century. It was composed in Greek but
is complete only in its Latin translation. Both the author and the transla-
tor are unknown. The Latin Asclepius and the Greek Corpus display
numerous parallels in thought and style. This may or may not indicate
common authorship. Ancient Greek texts were generally inaccessible to
the Latin Middle Ages. For Western Europeans at that time, the Asclepius
was the only complete example of philosophical Hermetism.
In about 1460, Italy received the Corpus Hermeticum from Macedonia.
There, a certain Fra Leonardo da Pistoia had acquired a recent copy of the
book; upon returning home, he gave the manuscript to Angelo Poliziano
 Introduction 7
(1454-94), a noted scholar and poet. He relayed the volume to Cosimo de'
Medici, the famous patron of Florentine artists and intellectuals. Cosimo
then directed Marsilio Ficino (1433-99) to postpone his Latin rendering of
Plato's books in favour of the Corpus. Ficino translated it in 1463 and
published it in 1471. He and his colleagues believed that Plato had
inherited his wisdom from the Hermetists, rather than the reverse. These
Florentine Neoplatonists felt that the teachings credited to Hermes were
inherently compatible with those of Moses, Zoroaster and Orpheus. These
teachings were believed to preserve traces of one archetypal religion.
Renaissance intellectuals hoped to restore the prisca theologia, the pris-
tine theology of the ancients. 12 In reality, no such theology had existed. The
similarities in religions of the Hellenistic and Roman cultures can be
explained by their historical interactions and a general debt to Greek
philosophy.
The Poimandres was widely translated and studied. 13 It was first
rendered in Italian by Tommaso Benci (Florence, 1548), in French by
Gabriel du Preau (Paris, 1557), in English by John Everard (London,
1650), in German by a certain Alethophilus (Hamburg, 1706).14 Here we
still find the occultist's faith in a historical Hermes. This defies the
landmark study by Casaubon, the eminent classicist.
Isaac Casaubon (1559-1614), despite his popularity in France, moved to
England where he enjoyed Anglican patronage. King James I enlisted
Casaubon's aid in criticising Cardinal Cesare Baronius's Annales ecclesi-
astici (Ecclesiastical Annals, Rome, 1588-1607). Casaubon tried to correct
a variety of ancient misconceptions, including the age and authorship of
the Corpus Hermeticum. He used Renaissance methods of textual criti-
cism to prove that the Hermetic books did not date from before Plato, but
only after 100 A.O. Casaubon supposed that the Poimandres cycle was the
invention of an early Christian or 'semi-Christian'. 15 Casaubon's argu-
ments were published in 1614, shortly after his death. Although scholars
today no longer concede any Christian influence on the Corpus Her-
meticum, they still concur with Casaubon's dating ofit. Hermetists never
revised or abandoned the myth of Hermes Trismegistus; they recoiled
from the facts and, in general, drove ever more swiftly toward irrational-
ism.

1.5 Egyptian alchemy

Alchemy probably descended from prehistoric techniques for mining ore
and smelting metals. 16 In Western history, alchemy is first documented
in Egypt. The priesthood had an interest in refining gold, not for coinage
but for ritual objects. The oldest surviving discussions of alchemy are by
Bolos of Mendes (c. 200 B.C.). References to Hermes Trismegistus occur in
other texts attributed to Bolos.17 Hermes is first cited as an actual alche-
mist in the books by Zosimus of Panopolis (c. 300 A.D.). In Peri arietes
8 Introduction
(Concerning the Powers), Zosimus reports dream-visions of spirits, sages
and dragons. 18 Such symbols became traditional but were never openly
explained.
For those who assume that the creation of gold was the only objective
of alchemy, its symbolism offers an obscure recipe, a dubious one at best.
A further assumption is that the recipes were deliberately shrouded in
ambiguities, so as to keep secret any material success. But the material-
istic interpretation of the art is surely too limited. Alchemy is the
'Hermetic Art', and an understanding of Hermetic theosophy will greatly
clarify the alchemist's use of symbolism, his mystical aims and the sources
of his imagery. Mystical symbolism, rather than being a code, is a means
of expressing intuitions that probably exceed the capacity of discursive
prose. The traditional secrecy was said to be necessary because true
revelations could be entrusted only to initiates, selected for their sound
minds and characters.
For the Hermetist, the whole of nature was an array of signs by which
God revealed His will. Chemical reactions offered a specific focus for
meditation. In effect, alchemists used the general concept of occult corre-
spondences and thereby interpreted the operation of matter as reflecting
psychological, spiritual and divine processes. Several levels could be
linked through symbols, which typically convey layered meanings. 19 Fur-
thermore, Hermetists believed implicitly in the unity of the cosmos. If, as
they declared, 'All is One', 20 a single pattern or image can be the paradigm
for apparently different things. Gold, for instance, is the ultimate in
refinement for metals, and its lustre corresponded to the light of reason,
the rays of the Sun, the Mind of God.
The unity of the cosmos was regarded as an organic unity. It was
informed and animated by the Creator's Spirit. Chemicals seemed to share
in the stages of life: birth, maturity, copulation, testing, death, resurrec-
tion, immortality. They were subject to environmental changes,
astrological influences, possibly even the power of prayer. They were
spirits conjoined to bodies. A spirit in its earthly existence - whether as a
metal or a mortal - was thought to be hampered, unable to function as
intended by the Creator. The alchemist hoped to identify spiritual es-
sences and to liberate them; hence his obsession with purification, both of
his materials and of himself. 21 He was God's agent, working in a physical
world that was alien to spirits.
Hermetic alchemists yearned to perceive and reveal the divine realm.
They probably adapted the imagery used by other mystics and by the
Egyptian priesthood. Hermetic theosophy consists of Egyptian theology
cast in the mould of Greek philosophy. The same is true of Hermetic
alchemy. It assimilated the mythic theme of the martyred god who re-
turned to life. Thus, in the laboratory, matter suffered disintegration and
rejoiced in transfiguration. Western alchemy also borrowed
Neopythagorean number symbolism: the stages of transformation were
 Introduction 9
numbered at three (black, white, red), the elements at four (earth, water,
air, fire), the substances at seven (lead, tin, iron, copper, mercury, silver,
gold). Alternatively, we read of three or four basic substances, four or
seven stages. Of course, those quantities had long occurred in symbolic
groupings in Egyptian art and ritual. The priests' sacred hieroglyphs
included figures found in alchemy: egg, chick, hare, lion, phoenix, snake.
Osiris, whose myths included his dismemberment and reconstitution,
embodied transformation on several planes, mundane and divine. 22 In
short, some alchemical symbols apparently derived not from idle fanta-
sies, but from conventional icons. Several of them happened to resemble
laboratory furnishings: ovoid jars, snaky tubes, crucibles like censers,
furnaces like altars.
The mystic did not necessarily shun hard work in the laboratory.
Zosimus wrote A Treatise on Apparatus and Furnaces, and the history of
alchemy shows steady progress in perfecting furnaces and distilleries.
Zosimus knew how to reduce certain compounds to elements. 23 But mod-
ern commentators have tended to devalue the alchemists' practical skills
and discoveries. In 1850, Mary Anne South Oater Mrs Alban Atwood) and
her father, Thomas South, speculated on an entirely mystical alchemy. 24
Then the psychological interpretations, such as those by E.A. Hitchcock,
began to explain away the mysticism. 25 In our time, Dr F. Sherwood Taylor
reminds us of the basics:

If the materials, vessels, and methods of alchemy were mere symbols,

standing in the same relation to chemistry as the symbolsof freemasonry to
architecture, then we should not have found the alchemists to be the inven-
tors of chemical technique and the designers of apparatus which would be
usable by the chemist of today. Moreover,if, as C.G. Jung seems to suggest,
the alchemical phenomena were mere visions or projections of the uncon-
scious upon the matter contained in the alchemical vessels, there is no
reason why alchemical apparatus should be well adapted for practical work
with chemicals as we know them today.26

The chemist and the alchemist differ not in their tools and techniques,
but in their aims and attitudes. Chemists depend on the structures of
molecules and atoms; alchemists depend on the presumed behaviour of
spirits. Hermetism sought a theory that was both physical and metaphysi-
cal.

1.6 Alchemy and the Emerald Tablet, from East to West

Hermetic alchemy was taken up by Egyptian Christians, such as
Stephanus of Alexandria (fl. 640). His student was a certain Morienus or
Marianus. He, in turn, taught the first Islamic alchemist, an Ummayyad
prince named Khalid ibn Yazid (died c. 704). For the next five centuries,
the prominent alchemists were Muslims, most of whom wrote in Arabic.
10 Introduction
Important authors were: Jabir ibn Hayyan (fl. 760), whom some Western-
ers call Geber; Uthman ibn Suwayd of Panopolis (fl. 890); Abu Bakr
Muhammad ibn Zakariyya (d. 925), also called Al-Razi or Rhazes; and Abu
Ali ibn Sina (d. 1037), known in Latin as Avicenna. 27
Jabir's Elementary Book of Foundation (book II) contains the oldest
known account of the so-called Tabula Smaragdina (Emerald Tablet),
which recites alchemical precepts attributed to Hermes Trismegistus. 28
According to Jabir, the tablet bore Phoenician script, which suggests that
he was borrowing from a Syrian account. However, the ultimate source is
believed to have been Greek. Jabir's Arabic was translated into Latin by
Hugh of Santalla. 29 In the English translation by Robert Steele and Mrs
Dorothea Waley Singer, the precepts are stated in sixteen sentences, with
no attempt to interpret them. 30 Other translators have tried. 31 First comes
the Hermetic dictum, 'As above, so below', alluding to the parallelism of
macrocosm and microcosm. The Tablet dubs alchemy as 'the operation of
Sol', for in the Hermetic system of correspondences, the sun is linked to
gold. The Tablet says that subtlety (spirituality) is preferable to grossness
(materiality). The Emerald Tablet supposedly was found in the hands of
the deceased Hermes Trismegistus, interred in a cave. Its discoverer is
variously given as Apollonius of Tyana, Alexander the Great or the biblical
Sarah, called Zora or Zara. Some linguistic confusion is likely here: the
Persian word zaradi means both 'emerald' and 'cave'. 32
On 11 February 1144, Robert of Chester, who was studying in Spain,
finished his translation of an Arabic text, the Composition of Alchemy. 33
Thus we can date the first dissemination of technical alchemy in Latin.
Latin Europe typically learned alchemy through translations of books in
Arabic, not Greek. Zosimus, who wrote in Greek, was known through
Islamic intermediaries. His name was often altered to Rosinus, Rasinus
and Resinus. Zosimus had addressed some of his writings to a certain
Theosebia. Copyists distorted her name to Euthesia and Eustasia. 34
Alchemy interested several famous Christians, including Albertus
Magnus, St Thomas Aquinas, Roger Bacon, Arnald of Villanova, Petrus
Bonus and Ramon Lull. The basic theory and practice of alchemy went
unchanged in Europe until challenged by Theophrastus Bombastus von
Hohenheim, called Paracelsus (1493-1541). He attempted to revive an
alliance of alchemy and medicine, as formerly practised by Egyptian
priests. Pharmacology in his day tended to rely on herbs and animal
products, but he urged the isolation and purification of inorganic chemi-
cals to be used in healing. Medical alchemy later would inspire the
followers of Rosicrucianism (see below). Paracelsus inherited the alche-
mists' usual taste for symbolism and personification. He imagined the
intelligences of earth, fire, water and air as mythic creatures: gnomes,
salamanders, undines and sylphs, respectively. The word 'sylph' may have
been coined by Paracelsus himself.
In the Late Renaissance, intellectuals tended to abandon the antique
 Introduction 11
idea that inorganic matter could be the residence of spirits. Alchemists
more frequently referred to the old idea of astral influences: rays from
planets were supposed to nourish particular ores in the earth. The alche-
mist, using planetary correspondences, tried to accelerate the maturation
of metals in the laboratory. But the scientific explanation of chemistry
finally rejected organic models and other representations dear to alche-
mists. In The Sceptical Chymist (1661), Robert Boyle denied the mythic
belief in merely four elements and a Paracelsan theory that salt, sulphur
and mercury were essential 'principles' of matter. He theorised that
matter consists of corpuscles of various sizes and combinations. He pro-
perly defined the concepts of mixture, compound and element. Alchemical
theory eroded along with astrology.

2 The patriarch Enoch and the Cabala

2.1 Enoch
According to Genesis 5:24, 'Enoch walked with God. Then he vanished
because God took him.' On the basis of this statement, Enoch became an
exemplar in myths that endowed him with eternal life and direct know-
ledge of Heaven. Three apocalyptic books, now termed 'pseudepigraphous',
bear the name of Enoch. The Ethiopic Book of Enoch ( 1 Enoch) was
probably written in Hebrew or Aramaic at some time between 200 B.C. and
100 A.D. The Slavonic Book of Enoch (2 Enoch) is also a translation,
probably from the Greek of a first-century original. The Hebrew Enoch (3
Enoch) is presumably in its original language and dates from the V or VI
century. In the two older books, Enoch is transported to heaven and
receives divine wisdom. In 3 Enoch, it is Rabbi Ishmael who ascends to the
seventh heaven and there prays for assistance in approaching God's
throne. Ishmael is then guided by a great angel, Metatron, who reveals
that, during his life on earth, he was Enoch. Enoch appears in other books
among the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, 35 and Metatron receives men-
tion by many Jewish mystics and teachers. 36
Both Thoth-Hermes and Enoch-Metatron supposedly were instructed
by the Supreme God, and both were the instructors of humans inquiring
about the divine order in heaven and earth. In Hermetic and Hebrew
mysticism alike, the devotee typically transcends the heavens of the seven
planets and encounters various spirits in charge of the cosmos. Not
surprisingly, then, Hermes and Enoch were sometimes identified. 37
In the Book of Ezekiel (VI century B.C.), the prophet reports his vision
of God's 'throne'. It appeared as a celestial vehicle, supported at its four
corners by the cherubim. These creatures each consisted of a winged body
with four heads: those of a man, a lion, a bull and an eagle. They
transported a fiery and monumental figure, sometimes identified as Meta-
tron. In Ecclesiasticus 49:8, the vehicle is called a chariot (merkabah), a
12 Introduction
term borrowed from 1 Chronicles 28:18. Jewish mystics meditated on the
merkabah in hopes of seeing it in a divine revelation. Some of the earliest
evidence for merkabah mysticism has been found in the Dead Sea scrolls.
They also contain pointed references to Enoch. Allied to the literature on
the throne-chariot are books about the heavenly palaces (hekhaloth). The
mystic was supposed to ascend through sequential levels, encountered as
distinctive chambers, before reaching the merkabah. Books dating from
the III century to the VII describe such ascents made by Rabbi Akiba and
Rabbi Ishmael before their having been martyred by the Romans in the II
century. 38

2.2 The Sepher Yetzirah

Another Hebrew book dealing with a mystical cosmos is the Sepher
Yetzirah (Book of Creation). It is a slender treatise, known in manuscripts
with certain variations. It probably was written some time between 100
and 600 A.D. in Palestine or further east. The book itself claims Abraham
as its author, but some scholars attribute it to Rabbi Akiba. 39 It begins
with a paradigm of God's Creation, said to proceed through ten categories
called sephiroth (a neologism coined after saphar, number). They are
likened to God's cherubim: 'They run like a whirlwind and humble them-
selves before His throne.' The imagery obviously follows Ezekiel's. From
the sephiroth emanated the cosmic elements and the six directions (height,
depth, east, west, north, south).
When the biblical Creator decreed the origin of the universe, His
language was presumably Hebrew. The Sepher Yetzirah may intend to
suggest that magicians can themselves use Hebrew to conjure lesser
creations. The author divides the Hebrew letters into three groups accord-
ing to his peculiar linguistic system. The smallest group consists of three
letters, called 'mothers' or 'matrices', which are the foundation of various
trinities (notably the elements of air, water and fire). Seven letters, called
'doubles', have dual pronunciations - hard or soft - and are the foundation
of all septenaries (such as the 'wandering stars': sun and moon plus the
five planets known in antiquity). The remaining twelve letters, called
'singles' or 'simples', are the foundation of all duodecimals (such as the
signs of the zodiac). The 'doubles' and planets somehow align with the
seven openings in the human head, the 'simples' and signs with twelve
human organs. When more specific correspondences are desired, the
tradition is not consistent. Given below is the XVIII-century recension by
the Gaon of Vilna (Vilnius), Rabbi Elijah ben Solomon (1720-97). He tried
to reconcile the most authoritative texts. 40 The 'mothers' here are keyed as
M, the doubles as d. The italicised terms in the third column are the
months of the Hebrew calendar.
 Introduction 13
Letters Cosmic Divisions Annual Divisions Bodilr Divisions
Aleph (M) (air) spring/autumn chest
Beth (d) MOON Sunday right eye
Gimel (d) MARS Monday right ear
Daleth (d) SUN Tuesday right nostril
He Aries Nissan right foot
Vau Taurus lyar right kidney
Zain Gemini Sivan left foot
Heth Cancer Tammuz right hand
Teth Leo Av left kidney
Yod Virgo Elul left hand
Kaph (d) VENUS Wednesday left eye
Lamed Libra Tishrei gall bladder
Mem(M) (water) winter belly
Nun Scorpio Cheshvan intestine
Samekh Sagittarius Kislev stomach(?)
Ayin Capricorn Tevet liver
Pe (d) MERCURY Thursday left ear
Tzaddi Aquarius Shevat oesophagus (?)
Qoph Pisces Adar spleen
Resh (d) SATURN Friday left nostril
Shin (M) (fire) summer head
Tau(d) JUPITER Saturday mouth

2.3 The Cabala

In the late XII century, Jewish mystics in Languedoc and Spain began to
develop the Cabala properly so called. The word 'cabala' (qabbalah in
Hebrew) means 'received lore', referring to the oral tradition conveyed
from master to initiate. Merkabah mysticism was again attractive, along
with the Sepher Yetzirah. Cabalistic literature expanded through the
'decoding' of the Scriptures and commentaries on them: new messages
were derived by recombining letters in accordance with prescribed sys-
tems. The shapes of Hebrew letters were analysed into their formal parts.
From their similarities to each other and to various objects, further
meanings were extracted. The letters were visualised in trances, and the
phonetic values were intoned as hymns. By these techniques, Cabalists
invited God's presence or a union with Him.
The Sepher ha-Bahir (Book of Brilliance) and the Sepher ha-Zohar
(Book of Splendour) were the seminal books of the Jewish Cabala. Accord-
ing to Cabalist folklore, the Bahir is by Nehunia hen ha-Kanah, the
14 Introduction
teacher of Rabbi Ishmael, while the Zohar is by Rabbi Simeon bar Yohai,
a student of Rabbi Akiba. In fact, the Bahir dates to the XII century, the
Zohar to the XIII. Historians credit the Zohar to the Spanish Cabalist
Moses de Leon (c. 1240-1305). Cabalists continued to elaborate on the
sephiroth. They were symbolised as ten lights or spheres in a symmetrical
array. They became attributes of God, emanations of His power, extending
to a material manifestation on earth: not only the spheres by which God
arranged Creation, but a maze through which the mystic could ascend to
God. In its organic unity, the array of powers was likened to an inverted
tree with roots planted in the Godhead while branches touch the sphere of
matter. The sephiroth received standard names: uppermost is the Su-
preme Crown, followed by Wisdom, Intelligence, Greatness or Love, Power
or Judgement, Beauty or Compassion, Endurance, Majesty, Righteous
One or Foundation, Kingdom or Diadem.
Enoch reappears in the Zohar. It says that angels provided Adam with
a book that explained the secrets of the universe. This book passed to Seth,
Enoch, Noah and Abraham. In honour of Enoch, who attained angelic
status, the mysterious book became known as The Book of Enoch. This
mythical book was presumably thought by some to have been the nucleus
of the Cabala.
As early as the XVII century, the Cabala had a notable challenger from
the Jewish community. Leone Modena (1571-1648), also known as Ye-
hudah Aryeh, was a Venetian Jew who studied the language of the
Cabalistic books and correctly judged that it was mediaeval, not ancient.
In about 1638, he wrote his Ari Nohem (Lion Orator). He circulated this
polemic as a manuscript, not a printed book, for the Cabala was widely
revered at that time, and its detractors were routinely accused of impiety.
The Ari Nohem seems not to have been printed until 1840 (in Konigsberg
and Leipzig).

2.4 Christian Cabalism

Giovanni Pico (1463-94) was count ofMirandola and lord of Concordia. As
a close friend of Marsilio Ficino, Pico was familiar with the Hermetica. In
a famous essay on humankind, he begins with a quotation from the
Asclepius: 'How great a miracle is man .... ' This could be the basic slogan
of Renaissance humanists. Pico provided them with their first exposure to
the Cabala. In 1486 he published Hebrew esoterica translated for him by
an apostate Jew, 'Flavius Mithridates' (also known as Raymondo Mon-
cada, but born Samuel ben Nissim Abulfaraj). As we saw, humanist
scholars were reviving and synthesising a variety of exotic philosophies
and mystical religions. Pico tried to reconcile Cabalism with Christianity
and Neoplatonism.
Pico's writings influenced intellectuals throughout Europe. Johannes
Reuchlin (1455-1522) was a German Hebraicist who published two Latin
 Introduction 15
books on the Cabala. Both Pico and Reuchlin inspired another author,
Paulus Ricius, who converted from Judaism to Christianity and became a
physician in the court of Emperor Maximilian I. Serving the same emperor
was Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486-1535), who lectured on Hermetism
and Reuchlin's Cabalism. Both subjects merged with popular magic in
Agrippa's influential Occulta philosophia (Occult Philosophy, Antwerp,
1531). Agrippa diverged markedly from the precedents set by Jewish
Cabalists. But some Christians still seriously investigated the Hebrew
texts. Guillaume Postel (1510-81) translated into Latin the Sepher Yetzi-
rah and the Zohar, even before those works were printed in the original.
Johannes Pistorius of Nidde (1546-1608) began to publish the major
commentators on the Cabala but produced only one volume, Artis cabalis-
ticae scriptores (Writers on the Cabalistic Art, Basel, 1587). It included
Johannes Reuchlin's De Verbo mirifico (On the Miraculous Word) and De
arte cabalistica (On the Cabalistic Art), Ricius's De coelesti agricultura (On
Celestial Agriculture), Leone Hebreo's De amore (On Love), and Joseph
Gikatilla's Portae lucis (Gates of Light). The literature of Hermetism and
Christian Cabalism was entirely familiar to John Dee (1527-1608), a
mathematician and astrologer to Elizabeth I. He employed seers to com-
municate with angelic spirits, and some of the resulting transcripts
survive. Dee referred to one of his manuscripts as 'The Book of Enoch'; and
the angelic language had its own alphabet, similar to an occult script
called 'Enochian'. Dee wrote scholarly and esoteric books, but did not
broadcast his Enochian material. He published Monas hieroglyphica in
1564. A summary appeared in conjunction with the Confessio, a Rosicru-
cian manifesto of 1615 (see below).
Much more influential, within the scope of the present survey, was
Athanasius Kircher (1602-80). He was a Jesuit priest who, in the spirit of
the prisca theologia, tried to identify ancient doctrines that anticipated
Christian theology. He found value in the ideas attributed to Enoch,
Zoroaster, Orpheus, Hermes Trismegistus and the Greek philosophers.
But Kircher's ecumenism was limited. He rejected Islam, Gnosticism and
Judaism. He accepted the Cabala, believing that it had passed from Noah
to his son Ham. According to Kircher, Ham was the progenitor of the
Egyptians, and they were custodians of the true Cabala. Moses was an
initiate, but all later Jews had corrupted the Cabala. On the contrary, it
was Kircher who corrupted the Cabala. This can be seen in his correspon-
dences for the Hebrew alphabet. 41 His pseudo-cabala accommodates a
ranking of angels (see the fourth column of the following table). This
hierarchy was not imagined by Jewish mystics but by platonising Chris-
tians in the tradition of Pseudo-Dionysius (VI century) and St Ambrose (IV
century). The lower levels of Creation, arranged as 'ladders', were also
common among Christian contemplatives, such as Ramon Lull. Kircher
has modified a system from De Harmonia mundi (On the Harmony of the
World, Venice, 1525) by Francesco Giorgio (Giorgi, Zorzi). Giorgio, unlike
16 Introduction
Kircher, sensibly ranked humans above animals, vegetables and ele-
ments.

Seehiroth Letters Homonl!!!s Cosmic Ranks

1 Aleph doctrina Seraphim
2 Beth domus Cherubim
3 Gimel plenitudo Thrones
4 Daleth porta Dominations
5 He ecce Powers
6 Vau uncus Virtues
7 Zain arm a Principalities
8 Heth vita Archangels
9 Teth bonus Angels
10 Yod uiri fortes Heroes
Kaph man us First Motion
Kaph final Fixed Stars
Lamed disciplina SATURN
Mem ex ipsis JUPITER
Mem final MARS
Nun sempiternum SUN
Nun final VENUS
Samekh adiutorium MERCURY
Ayin fons, oculus MOON
Pe OS soul
Pe final spirit
Tzaddi iustitia matter
Tzaddi final the four elements
Qoph uocatio mineral
Resh caput vegetable
Shin den.tes animal
Tau sign um microcosm (human)

Kircher knew the Sepher Yetzirah but did not respect it. The zodiacal
signs no longer appear, and the planets occupy positions quite different
from those in any version of the Sepher Yetzirah. The ancient sequence of
22 letters has been augmented by five 'finals', special forms used when
these letters terminate a word. The Sepher Yetzirah makes no mention of
final forms, nor of homonyms. The names of the letters do resemble other
words in Hebrew. In some cases, the homonyms occur by chance. In other
cases, such as Resh (for head) and Shin (for teeth), the names for the
 Introduction 17
letters are well deserved, for they probably evolved out of pictograms for
those anatomical objects. However, homonyms for the entire alphabet are
not so conveniently clear, and linguists disagree among themselves. About
half ofKircher's homonyms are still accepted. Kircher's book also included
the schematic Tree of the sephiroth. In that diagram, the planets align
with seven sephiroth, while 22 intervening pathways receive the Hebrew
letters. The discrepancies would raise serious problems for a student
seeking practical applications of the Cabala or hoping to synthesise it with
other esoteric systems.
Christian Knorr von Rosenroth (1636-89), the son of a Protestant
minister in Silesia, became an adviser to Prince Christian Augustus of
Bavaria, who shared an interest in mysticism. Knorr von Rosenroth
translated parts of the Zohar and other Cabalistic books into Latin in his
Kabbala Denudata (The Cabala Unveiled, Vol. 1, Sulzbach, 1677; Vol. 2,
Frankfurt, 1684). The first volume preserves extensive translations from
a vanished original, probably of Italian provenance but certainly written
in Hebrew. The title-Asch Mezareph to occultists, but more properly Aesh
Mezareph or Esh ha-Mezareph - means 'The Refining (or Purifying) Fire',
an allusion to Malachi 3:2. The treatise sought to apply Cabalistic doctrine
to alchemy. Internal evidence suggests an origin in the early XVII cen-
tury.42The Kabbala Denudata also contains essays by Henry More, one of
the Cambridge Platonists, and Franz Mercurius van Helmont, the Belgian
mystic. Contemporary Jews claimed that Knorr von Rosenroth misrepre-
sented the Cabala. But his anthology is a sincere and responsible effort.
For at least two centuries, it served as a standard reference for Christian
Cabalists.
Marin Mersenne (1588-1648) was a priest with wide-ranging interests,
including science. In Quaestiones in Genesim (Questions on Genesis, Paris,
1623), he rejects judicial astrology and the principle of astral correspon-
dences. Talismans, he decides, have power only through demons. In the
context of the Cabala, Mersenne denies that letters, names and images
have supernatural effects. Mersenne exchanged polemics with Robert
Fludd (1574-1637), an English occultist who had already written in refu-
tation of Johannes Kepler and other scientific authors. At Mersenne's
behest, Pierre Gassendi wrote Epistolica exercitatio in qua principia
philosophiae Roberti Fluddi medici reteguntur ... (Epistolary exercise in
which the principles of the philosophy of Doctor Robert Fludd are exposed,
Paris, 1630). While Mersenne attacked Fludd's character and beliefs,
Gassendi examined the latter in impersonal terms. He concluded that
magic, alchemy and Cabalism are not demonic, but are unproven and
probably baseless. Fludd kept his faith in Hermetism and Christian
Cabalism, and he believed that both were preserved in a secret fraternity,
the Rosicrucians.
18 Introduction

3 Frater C.R. and the Rosicrucians

3.1 The manifestos

In the very year in which Isaac Casaubon revised the date of the Poiman-
dres, occultists were newly exploiting the Hermetic myths. In 1614 there
was published at Cassel a volume containing, with other matter, a brief
manifesto entitled Fama Fraternitatis, but written in German. This
speaks of a Brotherhood founded in Germany by a Frater C.R., or C. Ros.
C. Having lived long in the East, where he learned many secrets from wise
men in Damascus and in Fez, he returned to Germany and recruited his
new Brotherhood, with at first only four members, later expanded to eight.
They bound themselves to virginity and to heal the sick without fee. Each
was to nominate his successor, the Brotherhood remaining secret for a
hundred years. Frater C.R.'s incorrupt body is stated to have been discov-
ered in a seven-sided vault. The Fama ends by proclaiming a general
Reformation of both divine and human things. The religion of the Brothers
is declared to be Protestant, and their philosophy to have come down from
Adam. This philosophy is indicated as connected with the Cabala, and,
above all, with alchemy; but it is declared to have nothing to do with the
transmutation of baser metals into gold. 'The Book M', which Frater C.R.
is credited with having translated from Arabic into Latin, supposedly
descended to Theophrastus (Paracelsus), although he himself was not a
Rosicrucian.
In the following year, a second manifesto appeared, in Latin, entitled
Confessio Fraternitatis Roseae Crucis, inviting learned men to make them-
selves known and join the Brotherhood. It revealed the date of the
founder's birth to have been 1378; his full name, which is not given in the
manifestos, is always taken to have been Christian Rosenkreutz. The
Confessio frequently refers to the Fama by title and purports to originate
- and presumably did originate - from the same circle. But it is doubtful
whether the two manifestos are by the same hand, since they differ in tone.
In particular, the Confessio is virulently anti-Catholic.
Some responded to the invitation to join the Brotherhood by publicly
announcing their wish to do so. But nothing was forthcoming: no plan of
reformation was declared, and no more was heard from the supposed
Brotherhood. The probability is that the whole affair had been no more
than an ingenious hoax. It had, however, reintroduced into Western
Occultism the ancient idea of hidden wisdom secretly conveyed within a
secret band of initiates. Many were the clandestine societies that were
subsequently to claim descent from the almost certainly non-existent
Rosicrucian Brotherhood.
The romance of a Rosicrucian movement was partially sustained by
Robert Fludd through his ample books, finely illustrated. Kepler,
Mersenne and Gassendi opposed Fludd in the first half of the XVII
 Introduction 19
century. In 1690, E.D. Colberg branded all Hermetists as heretics. He
included the Rosicrucians along with other 'fanatics'. 43

3.2 Freemasons and Illuminists in the XVIII century

S. Richter, under the name of Sincerus Renatus, published Die wahrhafte
und vollkommene Bereitung des philosophischen Stein der Bruderschaft
aus dem Orden des Gulden und Rosen Kreutz (The Perfect and True
Preparation of the Philosopher's Stone by the Brotherhood of the Golden
and Rosy Cross, Breslau, 1710).44 Richter asserted that the original Rosi-
crucians really existed but were not to be found because they had retired
to India; Europe was still residence to a secret following of 63 members,
one of whom ruled as Imperator. He remained anonymous by periodically
changing his name and relocating.
Secrecy was also associated with alchemy and other specialised crafts.
Exclusive guilds, such as those for stonemasons, had evolved in the Middle
Ages. Mediaeval 'operative masonry' must have been nearly defunct in the
XVII century but was then transformed into 'speculative masonry'. As in
alchemy, the materials of the craft were interpreted symbolically and were
believed to convey esoteric knowledge. The first non-operative Mason is
said to have been John Boswell, laird of Auchinleck, who attended a lodge
at Edinburgh in 1600. However, all existing Freemasonry seems to have
emanated from the Grand Lodge of England, founded at London in 1717.
The movement rapidly spread throughout Europe, and even to India and
the Americas. Masons developed a bewildering array of orders, rites and
grades. These were originally implicated in the occult tendences of their
day. 45 The symbolism of ancient architecture - above all, the Temple of
Solomon, but also pagan temples, pyramids and cathedrals - was merged
with symbolism meant to be alchemical, Cabalistic and Rosicrucian. A
major innovator in Freemasonry was Andrew Michael Ramsay (1686-
1743), a Scot who spent most of his life in France. He tried to forge a new
Hermetism, incorporating Catholicism, Quietist mysticism and the the-
osophy of Jakob Boehme (1575-1624). In The Travels of Cyrus (London,
1727), Ramsay extended the claims for a prisca theologia: traces of one
religion, he believed, could still be found as far east as China. Ramsay
invented or retailed a story that became the basis for a Masonic degree,
the Royal Arch. According to this story, builders were working on the
Temple at Jerusalem when they discovered an underground chamber with
arches superimposed to a depth of nine levels. At the bottom, workmen
found an engraved plate and two pillars, one recounting the history of the
vault, the other codifying the principles of the liberal arts, especially
masonry. The story credited the vault to Enoch, who contrived it and its
contents so as to survive the Great Flood, which he had foreseen. (The
image of the miraculous chamber no doubt derives from the vault of C.
Rosenkreutz, which goes back to the legendary sepulchre of Hermes
20 Introduction
Trismegistus.) Ramsay, at the Grande Loge Provinciale d'Angleterre in
Paris, delivered a revered oration at some time in the years 1736-8. He
suggested that Christians had first learned Masonry as Crusaders in the
Holy Land. Following Ramsay's suggestion, Freemasons instituted chival-
ric orders, such as the 'Knights Templar'. They originally had constituted
a military order, founded in the XII century and charged with protecting
Christian pilgrims in the Holy Land. The Templars amassed great wealth
and thus became the envy of King Philippe IV of France. He ruthlessly
suppressed the Order in the early XIV century. But the Masons claimed
that their society had given refuge to the Templars and had received
mystical wisdom from them. Proof is lacking for this claim and, indeed, for
the very existence of Freemasonry at such an early date.
The second half of the XVIII century was the age of the Enlightenment:
it was also the beginning of the Romantic period. Both Egyptomania and
Illuminism became fashionable. A flood of Eastern theosophy, gnosticism
and blatant sorcery mingled with Hermetism, Cabalism and Rosicrucian-
ism. A German official, C. Friedrich von Koppen (1734-97/8?) helped to
found the African Architects, an intellectual fraternity open only to Ma-
sons. 46 He and a fellow member, Johann Wilhelm Bernhard von Hymmen
(1725-86/7?), anonymously published the Grata Repoa (Berlin, 1778).47 Its
title has been construed as Silence of God. It recounts, in German, a
fictitious initiation into the Egyptian mysteries, entailing seven grades,
conferred in secret chambers, crypts and caves. The initiate's encounters
included disturbing weather, distractive girls, dire monsters, difficult
pathways. The Romantic revival of ancient lore did not preclude novelties,
such as cartomancy, physiognomy and mesmerism. Franz Anton Mesmer
(1734-1815), a German physician, belonged to the quasi-Masonic Society
of the Golden and Rosy Cross of the Ancient System, which was founded
in 1777 and which pretended not merely to a continuity with the Rosicru-
cians of the XVII century, but to an original foundation by an Egyptian
priest of Alexandria. This Society ceased operations in 1786.48 Mesmer,
however, had emigrated to Paris, where he practised a therapy that
exerted 'animal magnetism', advertised as one of the binding forces of the
universe. This concept was rejected by the medical establishment but
accepted by many occultists. Mesmer founded the Society of Universal
Harmony, which employed symbols of a Masonic type. 49 Also in France
was the order of the Elus Coens (Elect Cohens), founded in 1761 by that
strange figure Martines de Pasqually (1710-74), and disbanded by its third
Grand Sovereign in 1781. Following Martines de Pasqually was Louis-
Claude de Saint-Martin (1743-1803), a writer on mysticism who signed his
works 'Le Philosophe Inconnu'. He absorbed ideas from Jakob Boehme and
from Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772), a Swedish inventor and vision-
ary. Both Boehme and Swedenborg perceived various symmetries between
heaven and earth, good and evil. Such correspondences, as we know, had
long been used in theurgy and alchemy. Those pursuits attracted the abbe
 Introduction 21
Joseph-Antoine Pernety (1716-96), an ex-Benedictine who, in 1765,
founded the Hermetic Rite; later known as the Illumines d'Avignon, it
petered out after the turn of the century. As for Egyptomania, the style
flourished in France, even before Napoleon led his armies to the Nile. In
1784, Cagliostro (1743-95) unveiled his Egyptian Rite, a Masonic order of
his own devising. Aristocrats visited a Parisian 'Temple of Isis' where a
servant in Egyptian costume ushered them into seances conducted by 'le
Grand Copht' Cagliostro. Yet another ·example of Egyptomanie was the
new mythology about playing cards: divination by cards was believed to
have originated among Pharaoh's priests, and a fabled Book of Thoth was
said to survive in a certain pack of cards called Tarots.
 CHAPTER 1

Game or Magic?

What is the Tarot?

In Western countries most people nowadays have heard of Tarot cards. Of
these, a good many have only the vaguest idea what they are; but almost
all think they know what they are for. 'They're used for fortune-telling,
aren't they?', all but one in a thousand will say if asked. This response is
particularly likely in English- and Spanish-speaking countries, in which
no tradition of using Tarot cards extends further back than the present
century, or, in some cases, than the end of the Second World War. The
impression on which the response is based has been conveyed by numer-
ous sources: by T.S. Eliot's The Waste Land, Italo Calvino's The Castle of
Crossed Destinies, and Charles Williams's The Greater Trumps, on the
part of the well-read, or by a James Bond film, Live and Let Die, on that
of the less highbrow. It will have been reinforced by advertisements for
'Tarot readings' now to be seen in every city of the Western world: readings
such as those given, for $35 the half-hour, at the East-West Bookshop in
Menlo Park, California, by Dennis Michael Harness of Mill Valley, or by
the Mago del Tarocco in the Viale XX Settembre, Catania, or by their
countless fellow practitioners. In Italy and France, where a tradition of
using Tarot cards is far older, the response may vary slightly, assuming
the form, 'They were invented to tell fortunes with, weren't they?'; but, in
either case, the association between Tarot cards and fortune-telling has
been firmly implanted in the minds of the overwhelming majority of those
who have heard of cards of that kind at all.
That is not to say that these standard responses are likely to be wholly
pleasing to many of those who take the cards most seriously. A distinction
needs to be made between fortune-telling and occultism. Fortune-telling
is carried out by two classes of people: professionals, who make or supple-
ment their living by it; and private individuals, who do it in their homes,
following instructions from a book of do-it-yourself magic, for their own
diversion or that of their friends. The methods are manifold: the casting
of horoscopes; laying out Tarot cards or ordinary playing cards; scrutinis-
ing the lines on the palm of the hand; reading the disposition of tea-leaves
or of coffee grounds. Few of those who patronise the professionals have
more than a half-belief in their powers, thinking, at most, that 'there
24 A Wicked Pack of Cards
might be something in it', or exclaiming superstitiously, 'She told me
things she couldn't possibly have known'. The amateurs who try it out in
the privacy of their homes seldom have any more robust commitment than
that; for many, it is a mere entertainment, with no claim to be seriously
credited.
For all this the genuine occultist feels only disdain. Divination, for him,
is just one of a variety of magical operations of which an adept is capable:
but none of them is possible save to one who has received a thorough
grounding in the complexities of occult theory and has undergone a course
of self-discipline and training to qualify him for the practice of magic. No
one could therefore learn how to divine the future merely by reading a
printed book; nor would anyone really capable of practical magic prosti-
tute his art by offering his services for sale. Besides, the instrument
employed must be one with true occult significance, occupying a place in
magical theory - in the hautes sciences: for that theory is not a mere
collection ofrecipes for magical operations, but a comprehensive interpre-
tation of the working of the cosmos. Astrology is, indeed, an important
component of this theory, and so, for a little less than a century and a half,
has been the Tarot. But no cosmic significance can be attached to ordinary
playing cards, which are mere instruments of play; still less to coffee
grounds and tea-leaves: for the serious occultist, divination by such means
is mere frivolity. For the occultist, then, the professional fortune-teller is
probably a charlatan, his clients dupes, and the amateur a trifler.
This distinction, clear enough in principle, has in practice frequently
been blurred. Even the most grandiose occultist needs to live. If, having
no other profession such as medicine or the civil service, he makes magic
his livelihood, he must publish books or advertise his services; he must
then perforce practise Tarot divination and cast horoscopes, or explain in
his books how to do so. At the present time, the line of distinction has been
almost obliterated. Yet it is important to be aware of the distinction, which
has often led the occultists to deprecate the practice of divination, which
they nevertheless have no wish to repudiate altogether, and always
prompts them to insist that the principal significance of the Tarot lies not
in its power to reveal the future, or other hidden facts, but in its salient
place in magical theory as a whole, to whose secrets it is the essential key.
Eliphas Levi declared that 'an imprisoned person with no other book than
the Tarot, ifhe knew how to use it, could in a few years acquire universal
knowledge' .1 One would think that so amazing a capacity to supply factual
knowledge would be the principal property of this set of cards. Not so,
according to Levi: for him, even more than for any other of the writers on
occultism, their main significance lay in their enrichment of the complex
web of doctrine constituting the high magic. The history of the esoteric use
of Tarot cards is an oscillation between the two poles of vulgar fortune-tell-
ing and high magic; though the fence between them may have collapsed in
 1. Game or Magic? 25
places, the story cannot be understood if we fail to discern the difference
between the regions it demarcates.
The Tarot pack has many different forms; rather than framing a
definition that covers all of them, it is better to describe the archetypal
version, which is also the best known. It is archetypal in that every other
form that has existed from 1500 to the present day is derived directly or
indirectly from it. It may or may not have been the original form. Almost
certainly the earliest Tarot cards surviving to us are those of an incom-
plete hand-painted set made, perhaps in 1441, for the court of Filippo
Maria Visconti, Duke ofMilan. 2 The pack of which this is the remnant was
certainly constituted differently from our archetypal form; whether it
represents an earlier stage in the evolution, or a mere isolated experiment,
the evidence is too scanty for us to say. But the Tarot pack had certainly
been standardised, as regards the number and identity of the cards, by
1450: the archetypal form was that which resulted from that stand-
ardisation.
In its archetypal form, the Tarot pack consists of seventy-eight cards.
There are four suits, not those of Hearts, Diamonds, Spades and Clubs
most familiar in English-speaking countries, but of Cups, Coins, Swords
and Batons. Each suit has ten numeral cards, from Ace to 10, and four
court cards, King, Queen, Knight and Jack. That makes fifty-six cards.
The remaining twenty-two are all picture cards without any suit-sign. One
of them, the Fool-ii Matto in Italian - stands by itself; it is very naturally
compared to the Joker of modern playing-card packs, with which, however,
it has no historical connection. The other twenty-one cards form a se-
quence, usually numbered with Arabic or Roman numerals from I to XXI:
for what we shall later see as good reason, they will be referred to as
'trumps'. They depict a series of standard subjects - the Emperor, the
Pope, the Wheel of Fortune, the Hanged Man, the Devil, the Moon, the
Sun, the Angel (or Judgement), the World and so on. In several later forms
of the pack, some of these subjects were changed: the Pope and his
unexpected associate the Popess were particularly liable to replacement.
But, when the pack was first standardised, the subjects of the trump ~ds
were standardised, too: they were at first everywhere the same.
Somewhat surprisingly, however, they were not everywhere arranged
in the same order. The variations in order were not a later development,
but must have occurred from the earliest moment when Tarot cards were
known in the principal original centres of their use - Milan, Ferrara,
Bologna and Florence. We need not for the moment enquire more closely
into these quite considerable variations; instead, we may list the twenty-
one trumps, under their most familiar names, in the best-known order,
that almost invariably observed in France as long as the archetypal form
of the pack remained in use there.
26 A Wicked Pack of Cards
XXI the World
XX the Angel or Judgement
XIX the Sun
XVIII the Moon
XVII the Star
XVI the Tower
XV the Devil
XIV Temperance
XIII Death
XII the Hanged Man
XI Fortitude or Strength
X the Wheel of Fortune
IX the Hermit
VIII Justice
VII the Chariot
VI Love
V thePope
IV the Emperor
III the Empress
II the Popess
I the Bagatto or Mountebank

It would take someone with an abnormally low degree of curiosity not

to wonder where, when and for what purpose such a pack of cards was
invented. That is simple, one might think: to understand the purpose, we
merely have to discover the use to which the cards were originally put. To
this it is natural to seek initial clues in the uses to which they are put
nowadays. On the table at which these words are being written lies a
French computer programme called 'Defiau Tarot' ('Tarot Challenge').
This is not an unholy alliance of electronics and divination: when you run
the programme, it presents you with an image on the screen of a hand of
cards - Tarot cards - with which you are to play against three notional
players; it is, in fact, a Tarot equivalent of a Bridge programme. Beside it
on the table is a volume of proceedings of a symposium held in Los Angeles
in 1988 on 'New Thoughts on Tarot', whose purpose is explained by its
editors, Mary K. Greer and Rachel Pollack, in their Introduction as
follows:
The primary development in contemporary Tarot has been in readings.
We have come a very long way from the simple formulas once found in
popular instruction books. The . . . Symposium shows how useful a tool
readings have become, not only for self-knowledge, but for transformation.
For when we know ourselves, and why we do the things we do, we can begin
the process of deliberate change, using the Tarot images to help us move into
new ways of being. To do this work we need to trust the images themselves.
First of all we need to believe that they contain genuine symbols, that is,
representations of reality .... So it was that those ofus who had gathered at
the Sheraton represented the new voice of the Tarot. We were the speakers
for all those who have chosen these symbolic images as a tool for assisting
 1. Game or Magic? 27
themselves and others in self-awareness, meeting challenges, discovering
purpose and meaning in life's experiences, and creating change in accord-
ance with a vision ofwholeness.3

So what are Tarot cards? Are they instruments of a card game, or a

means to self-knowledge, or, as Papus called them, the absolute key to
occult science? 4 How to reconcile this bewildering variety of ways of
regarding them and using them? Here is an explanation:

For all its theoretical and practical importance, the history of the Tarot is
still a matter of controversy and debate. We simply do not know where it
came from, or if someone does know, he can't prove it to anyone else. The
necessary facts simply don't exist. Some say it came from India, others from
China. The majority view among the Western occultists is that the Tarot
originated in ancient Egypt. Its trumps are said to contain in disguised form
the secrets of the teaching of Hermes Trismegistus, or Thoth. This legendary
'Book of Thoth', the Tarot, survived to modem times precisely because its
true nature was not understood. It was taken as a diversion, a game. And
since it amused people, it survived the vicissitudes of ages and kingdoms ....
Because the Tarot became a game of chance, we are able to study it today.
There is general agreement among occult authorities that the use of the
Tarot was popularized in western Europe by the wandering bands of Bohe-
mians - gypsies - who made their appearance in the late Middle Ages. The
earliest historical reference to the Tarot dates from the time of Charles VI of
France, who is known to have possessed a set that survives, in part, to this
day. Of its earlier history, nothing is known.5

This passage, taken from Thomas Williams's doctoral thesis for the
University of Alabama, very well illustrates what, sociologically regarded,
is the most interesting fact about the Tarot pack, namely that it is the
subject of the most successful propaganda campaign ever launched: not by
a very long way the most important, but the most completely successful.
An entire false history, and false interpretation, of the Tarot pack was
concocted by the occultists; and it is all but universally believed. For
instance, save in so far as it is safeguarded by qualifications (themselves
often dubious) like 'the majority view among occultists is that .. .', every
single sentence in the foregoing quotation is untrue.
It is not at all difficult to say, in general terms, where and when the
Tarot pack originated: it was invented in northern Italy in the first half of
the XV century. Indeed, anyone with an elementary knowledge of the
history of playing cards would, on inspecting a Tarot pack of traditional
type, assign it an Italian origin on the strength of the suit-signs and their
arrangement on the cards. The earliest documentary references to Tarot
cards are from account-books of the d'Este court of Ferrara, in the year
1442. 6 A lower bound for the date of their invention is harder to determine.
It probably occurred around 1425; the earliest date with any claim to be
plausible would be 1410. Heirs of the occultist tradition cling to a conjec-
28 A Wicked Pack of Cards
ture advanced nearly one and a half centuries ago, and rejected by all
subsequent scholars, that would give the Tarot pack an earlier origin
outside Italy. This is that in 1392 a certain Jacquemin Gringonneur
painted a Tarot pack, of which the seventeen surviving cards are now in
the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, for King Charles VI of France. The
conjecture, stated as fact by Williams, was propagated in 1842 by the
French antiquarian M.C. Leber. 7 There is indeed a documentary record
that a painter by that name produced hand-painted cards in that year for
Charles VI.8 The Tarot cards in question were in France, in the collection
of Roger de Gaignieres (1642-1715), by 1698 at the latest. 9 But there was
nothing whatever either to identify those hand-painted tarots with the
cards painted by Gringonneur, or to classify Gringonneur's cards as tarots;
Tarot cards had not in fact been invented by 1392, and, so far as the
evidence shows, were not generally known in France before the XVI
century. All this was quickly pointed out by W.A. Chatto in 1848, and
again by R. Merlin in 1869, since when no scholar has entertained the
conjecture. 10 By costume, by artistic style and by the close similarity of
design of two of the cards with those of an earlier set made for Ercole I
d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, or for his predecessor Borso d'Este, the cards still
often called the 'Charles VI' tarots are commonly identified as in fact
painted by a Ferrarese artist in about 1480.11
Tarot cards originated in an aristocratic milieu, possibly in Bologna, but
much more likely in the court of Ferrara or that of Milan. To this we owe
the comparatively large number of Tarot cards surviving from XV-century
Italy, since the majority of them exemplify the extravagant fashion among
the Italian nobility of that century (and especially of those two courts) for
costly hand-painted cards, sometimes produced by quite well-known art-
ists. Fortunately we also have from the same century some popular Italian
Tarot cards, printed from wood blocks; fortunately, because these have a
much closer connection in design with later cards than do the de luxe
items.
Axe we really in a position, all the same, to say that the historical
account given by the occultists is wholly spurious? We must surely set
aside their fantastic ideas of an immense antiquity for the cards, and the
invention of them by the ancient Egyptians; but might they not be right in
seeing them as having an esoteric significance, and as having been in-
vented for divinatory or other occult purposes? Do we know enough about
the very early history ofthe cards to be sure that the occultistsare wrong?
We cannot directly determine the intention underlying the invention of
the Tarot pack, since we do not know who its inventor was, and he has left
no record of what was in his mind. We have therefore to deduce the answer
from the appearance of the cards and the use subsequently made of them.
The question is not, however, entirely simple. We might be able to say for
what purpose the Tarot pack was invented without knowing why it took
the form that it did: why those images were used for the trump cards, and
 1. Game or Magic? 29
where they came from. We have accordingly to distinguish the use of the
cards from the use of the images, and the use of the images from their
significance. A man sitting in the open at a table in a street in Florence,
offering, for a fee, to give Tarot readings to passers-by - as may often be
seen - is obviously using the cards, in his case for purposes of cartomancy;
and when three or four friends sit down at a table and cut and deal from
a Tarot pack as a preliminary to a game, they, too, are using the cards, for
purposes of play. When the figures of the Tarot appear in a novel, however,
such as those by Italo Calvino and Charles Williams mentioned earlier,
the author is using the images, but is obviously not using the cards
themselves.
Such a use of the images might draw upon esoteric meanings that
attached to them; but they might incorporate an occult significance with-
out their ever being used as enshrining it. The iconography of a pack of
cards need bear no relation to its use; all that necessarily has such a
relation is its structure. An outstanding example of this is the indigenous
Indian Dasavatara pack, whose ten suits correspond to the ten incarna-
tions of the god Vishnu: their suit-signs and the designs of their two court
cards correspond to these incarnations, but the cards are never used save
to play a form of the game of Ganjifa, originally introduced into India by
the Muslims and having no connection with Hindu mythology. Hidd~n
meanings could have been concealed within the Tarot trumps even if those
meanings were quite irrelevant to any uses made of the cards in early
times.

In what did the invention of the Tarot pack consist?

To understand the purpose for which the Tarot pack was invented, we
have to know what the invention was: that is, which features of the pack
are peculiar to it, and which it shares with other packs of playing cards.
The theory once proposed that Tarot cards were the earliest playing cards
known in Europe, and that our ordinary playing-card pack was derived
from them by subtraction, was decisively refuted in 1900, as resting on a
linguistic error. 12
Playing cards reached Europe from the Islamic world in the second half
of the XIV century in a form with fifty-two cards, consisting of four suits
of ten numeral cards and three court cards each. The suit-signs of the
Tarot pack are not peculiar to it: they were those normally used for
ordinary playing cards throughout Italy up to the end of the XV century,
and are still so used in much of Italy, as well as in Spain, Morocco and
Latin America. We may call them the 'Latin' suit-signs; they are still used
even in certain parts of France. They were, in fact, the suit-signs that must
have been employed in all parts of Europe to which playing cards spread
when they were first introduced. We do not have direct evidence to this
effect, because hardly any playing cards survive to us from the XIV
30 A Wicked Pack of Cards
century, and no known documentary reference specifies the suit-signs. It
can be inferred, however, from the obvious derivation of the Latin suit-
signs from the Islamic suits of Cups, Coins, Swords and Polo-Sticks. The
game of polo was of great importance in Islamic culture, but remained
unknown in Europe until brought back from India by the British in the
XIX century: the Islamic suit of Polo-Sticks therefore became in Europe,
less specifically, that of Batons. Italy and the Iberian peninsula long
remained faithful to these original suit-signs. During the XV century,
Germany and Switzerland experimented with a great variety of alterna-
tive systems, eventually settling, in Germany, on Hearts, Bells, Leaves
and Acorns, and, in Switzerland, on Shields, Bells, Roses and Acorns; the
latter system is still in use in German-speaking cantons of Switzerland,
and the former in certain parts of Germany and Central Europe. The
suit-signs of Hearts, Diamonds, Spades and Clubs were invented by the
French cardmakers in about 1470, forty years or more after Tarot cards
made their first appearance. The question 'Why did not the inventors of
the Tarot pack use the ordinary suit-signs?' - meaning the French ones -
would therefore be utterly misplaced: they did use what were for them and
all Italians of the time the ordinary suit-signs.
The French cardmakers' invention was a brilliant commercial coup.
Being simple monochrome silhouettes, the new suit-signs could be pro-
duced by stencil, obviating the need to print from wood-blocks outline
designs of all the cards in the pack, as had to be done for the older
suit-systems. It is no wonder that the French system spread to many other
countries, including England: it is surprising only that it did not drive out
all its rivals. In Italy, only Florence and Piedmont adopted the French
system as early as the XVI century; in the XVIII, it made further advances,
into Lombardy and into many parts of Germany and Central Europe. The
Portuguese went over to the French suit-system in the XIX century, but
Spain has retained the Latin suit-signs to this day, as have many parts of
Italy.
During the XV century and later, the cardmakers of Spain and Portu-
gal, though loyal to the Latin suits, experimented with their shapes and
arrangement on the cards; only the Italian cardmakers displayed a reso-
lute conservatism. On cards made in the Iberian peninsula, the Swords
were always straight; but cards conforming to the Italian suit-system are
more faithful to the Islamic prototypes in that the Swords are curved (save
that on odd-numbered cards one is straight, and usually two are on the
10s): half face in one direction, and the other half in the other. Since they
extend the entire length of the card, each intersects twice with those facing
in the opposite direction. Italian Batons are very regular staffs, placed
diagonally (save for one upright on odd-numbered cards, and often two on
the 10s): they therefore intersect to form a trellis pattern. In the Portu-
guese suit-system, the straight Swords likewise form a trellis pattern, as
do the Batons, which are less regular in shape than the Italian ones. In
 1. Game or Magic? 31
the form eventually adopted in Spain, the Batons are knotty cudgels, and
both they and the straight Swords are arranged upright and separate on
the cards, more in the manner in which the pips are arranged on French-
suited cards such as those used in Britain and the United States; unlike
the latter, however, all suit-signs are larger on lower-numbered cards
than on higher-numbered ones.
It is for this reason that traditional Tarot cards can be immediately
identified as Italian in origin. The suit cards conform to the Italian
suit-system in the shape and arrangement of the suit-signs; they could not
have originated anywhere but in Italy.
The invention of the Tarot pack thus consisted in the invention of the
twenty-two new picture cards - the Matto or Fool and the sequence of
twenty-one trumps - as additions to the ordinary pack. 13 In consequence,
Italians, especially before the XVIII century, saw a Tarot pack as an
ordinary playing-card pack to which twenty-two supplementary cards had
been added. When, in the XVI century, the Tarot pack became known in
their countries, the French and Swiss, by contrast, saw the whole pack as
exotic, because they were unfamiliar with the Latin suit-signs, at least in
their Italian form.
There is, admittedly, a salient difference between the Tarot suits and
those of the ordinary pack, namely that they contain four court cards
instead of only three; but Italian XVI-century writers never appear to
think this worthy of particular remark. The intruder is not, as one might
think, the Knight, but the Queen. In ordinary Italian and Spanish packs,
the three court cards are all male, consisting of the King, the Knight and
the Jack; in Portuguese-suited ones, the lowest court figure, the Jack, is
replaced by a female one, the Maid. A speculative explanation for the
presence of the Queen in the Tarot pack derives from the fact that in a
hand-painted pack, made for the Milanese court in about 1441, each suit
had six court figures, male and female of each rank: a King and Queen,
both seated, a Knight and Dame, both mounted, and a Page (or Jack) and
Maid, both standing. 14 Conceivably this was the original form, later sim-
plified by retaining only four of the six court cards.

Ancient uses
It is indisputable that by far the most salient use of Tarot cards, from the
first evidence that we have of them, was for playing a particular type of
card game. The earliest known documentary reference from Milan occurs
in a letter, written in 1450, from Duke Francesco Sforza to his treasurer,
asking him to send a Tarot pack, or, if he could not find one, an ordinary
pack of playing cards. 16 Quite obviously, he wanted the Tarot cards for
play: ifhe had wanted them for occult purposes, ordinary cards would not
have been even an inferior substitute. An edict of the city of Florence,
issued in the same year, lists the game of Tarot (under its original name
32 A Wicked Pack of Cards
of trionfo) as one of those the playing of which was not prohibited; it was
reiterated in 1463 and amplified in 1477.16 An oration of 1456 by the
Ferrarese jurist Ugo Trotti on the law relating to gaming mentions the
four-handed game of Tarot as one involving both luck and skill. 17 Edicts of
1488, 1489, 1491 and 1500 respectively from Brescia, Salo, Bergamo and
Reggio nell'Emilia exempt the games of chess and Tarot from general
prohibitions of card and board games. 18 An anonymous sermon, included
in a manuscript book of sermons compiled around 1500, and probably
delivered in the 1480s, vehemently denounces Tarot, along with many dice
and backgammon games, as devices of the devil, but makes no mention of
any use of Tarot cards save for play. 19 Indeed, no reference from the XV
century gives any hint of any other use. From the following century,
references to the game, some of them very detailed, are manifold: they
include two satirical poems about cardinals, at different conclaves, playing
Tarot, and a mock verse diatribe against the game, with a rejoinder to it,
also in verse, both of them describing the course ofplay. 20 It is impossible
to understand the history of Tarot cards without recognising that card
play was either the only use, or at least the principal use, to which they
were put, and that it was that use that largely determined the evolution
of their design.
Tarot cards were invented in Italy, and all the XV-century references to
them are Italian. In the early XVI century the game spread to France and
Switzerland, almost certainly in consequence of the wars, in which the
Swiss were involved, of the French to capture Milan, which they occupied
from 1499 to 1512 and from 1515 to 1522. Early Swiss references to the
game are all contained in municipal ordinances. 21 French XVI-century
literature, on the other hand, is crammed with allusions to it. These,
however, all relate to the practice of the game, and, although individual
cards are not infrequently mentioned, only one of them makes any play
with their names or with the subjects they depict or shows any interest in
them. Tarot was known to French writers before the late XVIII century
solely as a game - a game more widely played in France than chess, one
XVII-century writer says.22
It is quite otherwise in Italian literary references of the same century,
which often exploit the subjects of the Tarot trumps; unlike the French,
the Italians were interested in the images. One means of exploiting them
was a curious minor verse form known as tarocchi appropriati. The poet
selected twenty-two people from some group - most often, the ladies at a
court, or other set of gentlewomen - and assigned one of the trumps
(including the Matto or Fool) to each of them; each lady would be described
in a verse in which the name of the trump card assigned to her figured
prominently. But no esoteric symbolism is appealed to in such verses; only
the evident surface meanings of the trump subjects play any part. These
are, of course, uses of the images, not of the cards. There is also a record
of a simple society game played without cards: in it, each member of a
 1. Game or Magic? 33
group was assigned the subject of one of the Tarot trumps, to the amuse-
ment, perhaps malicious, of all. 23 There is even a description of a
non-standard Tarot game - one played with a non-standard pack having
a verse tercet on each card - at one point during which each player had to
read out the verses on his cards, from which much amusement was
supposed to derive. 24
Some Italians of the XVI century were concerned to discover the sym-
bolic intentions of the inventor of the Tarot pack and to find meanings, not
only for the individual trumps but for the sequence they composed. There
exist two Discorsi (orations) - one published, one in manuscript - whose
authors endeavoured to dothis. 25 Neither of the proposed interpretations
is at all plausible; and neither of them attributes meanings to the cards
that are in any sense esoteric.
There is no room to dispute that card play was the principal use made
of the cards, once they were invented. Were they used, before the XVIII
century, in any other way? On the basis of a solitary and perplexing piece
of evidence constituted by a passage from a bizarre fictional work, 26 a case
can be made that the trump cards were occasionally used, in XVI-century
Italy, for the analysis of character (rather than for foretelling the future).
The method described in the passage involves no layout of the cards, nor
reading them in any usual sense of the term: no particular character-trait
is associated with any of the cards. The method consists, rather, in
distributing five or six trumps to each of four people, and then composing
a sonnet for each of them, into which the names of the trumps allotted to
that person are woven; no divinatory or esoteric significance is assigned to
the trump cards. It is conceivable that the passage is a literary elaboration
of a parlour entertainment of the time, practised without composing any
sonnets; but the absence of any other reference to it makes this doubtful.
At all events, if the cards ever were in fact used in this way, it must have
been a quite minor and peripheral use of them: in the first three centuries
of their existence, virtually the only purpose to which the Tarot pack was
put was to play a certain type of card game.
As already remarked, these conclusions do not rule it out that the
subjects, the designs and the sequential order of the trump cards were
originally endowed with some esoteric meaning. There is no questioning
the symbolic character of the images on the Tarot trumps: if you represent
the virtue of justice as a woman holding a sword and a pair of scales, you
are making heavy use of symbolism. This is exoteric symbolism. It happens
to be an instance in which the symbolism has remained familiar to us; but
symbolism embodied in others of the Tarot trumps would have been
equally familiar to Italians of the Renaissance. The only question open to
dispute is whether there is esoteric symbolism as well: symbolism intelli-
gible only to those instructed in astrology or other arcane subjects. It is
intrinsically plausible that there should have been such symbolism in a
special pack of cards invented at that time and in that milieu. People of
34 A Wicked Pack of Cards
the Renaissance revelled in hidden symbolism, and the occult sciences
enjoyed greater prestige in the Christian world than at any other time
before or since. Any theory to this effect must pass a severe test, however.
It must depend, not on any direct evidence that can be cited, but on the
intrinsic plausibility of the particular interpretation proposed, which must
draw on nothing that was not available at that time and place. But it ought
not to be too plausible; it cannot be anything which, if present, would leap
to the eye of a man of the Renaissance looking at the cards. The reason is
that, if the trump sequence was designed in accordance with any esoteric
symbolism, this fact was very quickly and generally overlooked. None of
the XV-and XVI-century sources so much as hints at such a thing; and the
absence of such a hint from some of these sources would be very surprising
if their authors had had any inkling that any such symbolism was there
to be found. This applies to the sermon in which Tarot, together with other
card and dice games, was denounced as an invention of the devil; the
preacher would not have lost such an opportunity to reinforce his point. It
applies equally to Lollio's Invettiva, in which both the game and the cards
are ridiculed; the poet, likewise, would not have lost so good an opportu-
nity to ridicule the cards still further, instead of saying somewhat lamely
that their inventor must have been drunk.

Modern uses
There are occult uses of the Tarot images that are not uses of Tarot cards.
The XIX-century writer Eliphas Levi, the channel through whom the
Western tradition of magic flowed down to our own times, incorporated the
Tarot into magical doctrine, of which it has remained an integral part; but
he gave only meagre instructions on the use of the cards for predicting the
future, or, indeed, for any other purpose. There are also uses of Tarot
cards, otherwise than for play, that can hardly be classified as occult. That
described by Mary Greer and Rachel Pollack, in the quotation given
earlier, is aimed at 'assisting themselves and others in self-awareness'; in
this use, the cards become an instrument in autopsychotherapy, which can
scarcely be counted as a branch of magic. For all that, all such uses, of
images and of cards, other than the traditional use for playing card games,
should be grouped together. The reason is that, despite the diversity of
objective, they all stem from a single tradition, which can reasonably be
termed the occultist tradition, even though its most recent manifestations
cannot properly be called occultist.
What primarily identifies a theory or practice as deriving from the
occultist tradition is what its proponents or practitioners take 'the Tarot'
to be; and it is also this, above all, that demonstrates that the founders of
that tradition were not heirs to any secret knowledge passed down from
earlier ages. Though some argue that mathematical truth is invented, not
discovered, there ought to be no disputing that historical truth needs to be
 1. Game or Magic? 35
discovered: but the founders of the occultist tradition of the Tarot and their
successors assumed the right to invent it. They made plenty of historical
assertions, propounding theories of the origin and dissemination of Tarot
cards, and were free with accusations that the cardmakers had ignorantly
misunderstood and misrepresented the original designs of the cards; some
of them issued 'rectified' packs, which purported to restore the imagery to
its pristine form. Yet they remained wholly ignorant of the actual history
of Tarot cards, and made no effort to inform themselves ofit. The inevita-
ble result was that they made grave mistakes about it; the heirs of the
tradition have naturally inherited those mistakes.
From the foundation of the occultist tradition in the last two decades of
the XVIII century until a hundred years later, those who contributed to it
were all French. Being French, they were completely unaware of any
traditional version of the Tarot pack save that which was currently in use
in France and Switzerland and has been known, from 1930 onwards, as
the Tarot de Marseille. (A few, such as Etteilla, were also aware of the
so-called Tarot de Besan~on, used principally by German-speaking play-
ers; but this is no more than a slight variant, differing from the Tarot de
Marseille only in replacing the Pope and Popess, as trumps V and II, by
Jupiter and Juno.) The Tarot de Marseille formed what is known as a
standard pattern.
What is a standard pattern? Everyone in Britain and the USA is
familiar with one standard pattern. Anyone in either country seeking to
buy a pack (or deck) of playing cards will get a standardised product,
whose designs will not differ, save under the closest inspection, from one
manufacturer to another. These stereotyped designs constitute what has
successively been known as the English, the Anglo-American and the
International pattern. What players who use the Anglo-American pattern
often fail to realise is that theirs is only one of many very diverse patterns
in current use in Europe and other parts of the world, and of countless
such patterns that have been used in the past. The phenomenon is
universal: all playing cards ordinarily used for play have always con-
formed to one or another standard pattern; this holds good of the
indigenous playing cards of China, Japan and India as much as it does of
those of Europe. 27 This stereotyping of designs occurs because it is essen-
tial for play that each player be able to identify any card in his hand or
played to the table without hesitation; the necessity was the more pressing
before corner indices were introduced in the later XIX century - a practice
that originated in the United States shortly before 1870, and spread to
most European countries in the 1890s, although Austria and Italy still
resist it.
Standard patterns are often quite localised: some may be proper to a
single country, while many are confined to one province or region within
a country. This is because, until this century, national or international
tournaments were unknown: card play took place only on the local level,
36 A Wicked Pack of Cards
and so the standardisation of design was necessary only within a small
region.
The coalescence into standard patterns occurred as markedly to Tarot
cards as to ordinary ones, since they, too, were used for play. In Italy there
remain many different regional patterns for ordinary cards; and before the
XVIII century, cardmakers who produced Tarot cards in the different
Italian cities standardised the designs of the trump cards, but used the
same standard pattern for the suit cards of the Tarot pack as they used for
ordinary packs. The subjects of the trumps were originally always the
same (though in different places a few of them were changed), but their
order varied, as did the manner in which they were depicted. Owing to the
early adoption of the French suit-system for ordinary playing cards in
Piedmont and Tuscany, the same designs were not used there for the suit
cards of Tarot packs; and in the XVIII century this ceased to hold good
generally. After the collapse of the Milanese cardmaking industry at the
end of the XVII century, cards were imported from France: from then on,
the French suit-system was used in Lombardy for ordinary cards, and, for
Tarot cards, a version of the Tarot de Marseille, of which a different
version was established in Piedmont, to become the ancestor of the pre-
sent-day Tarocco piemontese. At the same time Rome and Sicily went over
to ordinary packs of Spanish type; the traditional type of Sicilian Tarot
pack, no longer corresponding to the designs for ordinary packs, was still
produced, while in the course of the century Roman players took to the
Lombard form of the Tarot de Marseille. Only in Bologna did the pattern
used there for Tarot cards continue to be used also for ordinary packs. 28
The two standard patterns used outside Italy for the Tarot pack both
had Italian antecedents. Of these, the Tarot de Marseille was derived from
the standard pattern native to Milan but defunct since the end of the XVII
century. By the mid-XVIII century, either it or its offshoot, the Tarot de
Besan~on, was used everywhere outside Italy save in what is now Bel-
gium. There a quite different pattern was in use, one which may have been
descended from a Piedmontese pattern, and had previously been known
in France, but had died out in that country. 29 Over the centuries the Tarot
de Marseille had developed certain characteristics of its own, in particular
the practice, not observed in Italy, of inscribing the names of the trump
subjects and of the court figures in a panel at the foot of the cards.
The occultists knew no other pattern than the Tarot de Marseille. Those
of the late XIX century were aware of what was called in France the
'German Tarot', meaning the form of Tarot pack whose trumps bore
fanciful illustrations instead of the traditional subjects and which used the
French suit-signs instead of the Italian ones. This form had been intro-
duced a little before 1750 and, by the beginning of the XIX century, had
replaced the Italian-suited form, for purposes of play, everywhere but in
France, Switzerland and Italy; French players adopted it about a hundred
years later. But none of the occultists realised that, among Italian-suited
 1. Game or Magic? 37
packs, the Tarot de Marseille had never been more than one pattern
among many: 30 for them, 'the Tarot' simply was the Tarot de Marseille.
Anyone, whether an occultist or not, who speaks of the order of the Tarot
trumps, meaning thereby their order in the Tarot de Marseille, as if it were
the only one ever known, or describes a feature of design peculiar to the
Tarot de Marseille, such as the wings on the figure of Temperance, as the
way that subject is depicted in the Tarot, is revealed as belonging to the
occultist tradition.

Mistakes bred of ignorance

The occultists' neglect of ascertainable facts concerning the Tarot pack 31
naturally led them to make serious mistakes. One of the most pathetic of
these was their ignorance of a curious feature of card order. In the suits of
Swords and Batons, the original ranking of the cards was {in descending
order) King, Queen, Knight, Jack, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, Ace, while, in the
other two suits of Cups and Coins, it was King, Queen, Knight, Jack, Ace,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. Odd as it seems to us, this reversal of the ranking
of the numeral cards in the latter two suits was not originally a peculiarity
of Tarot. Rather, it was common to all Italian trick-taking games until the
end of the XV century, and to Spanish ones until several decades after
that; it was retained, not only in Tarot, but in the quite different Spanish
game of Ombre. Since it is found also in the Persian and Indian game of
Ganjifa, it was probably the general practice in Islamic card games,
introduced into Europe with playing cards themselves. It was retained in
all forms of the game of Tarot, save those played in France and Sicily;
independently of one another, Tarot players in both lands dropped it as a
mere nuisance making no essential contribution to the game, and used for
Cups and Coins the same ranking as in Swords and Batons. It is easy to
imagine the deep significance that occultists would have read into this
feature, had they known of it. They did not know, because they never
concerned themselves to discover anything about Tarot outside France.
Their ignorance of this feature demonstrates conclusively that their theo-
ries did not derive from any tradition stemming from the original inven-
tion of Tarot cards.
The most serious manifestation of the occultists' ignorance of the actual
history of the Tarot was their uncritical acceptance of the order and
numbering of the trump cards found in the Tarot de Marseille - that order
and numbering cited above. The order of the trumps was of critical
importance for the occultists' incorporation of the Tarot into the general
scheme of occult theory. The principal means for doing this was to corre-
late the twenty-two trumps {including the Fool) with the twenty-two
letters of the Hebrew alphabet, and so to intertwine them with the
mystical letter-symbolism that is a salient feature of the Cabala [see
Introduction, 2.2, 2.3]. The attribution of Hebrew letters to trumps de-
38 A Wicked Pack of Cards
pends, naturally, on the order of the trumps: it is therefore essential, for
this purpose, to get the order right. The occultists were quite unaware that
there was ever any other traditional order than that found in the Tarot de
Marseille. 32 The correlation between trumps and Hebrew letters formed
no part of any actual symbolic intent of the inventors of the Tarot pack,
because the Cabala was first introduced to the Christian public by Pico
della Mirandola more than forty years after Tarot cards had been in
existence; but, if it had, the correct attribution could be established only by
determining the original order of the trumps. The occultists, however, were
oblivious to the problem what that original order was; and hence their
speculations concerning the attribution were doubly devoid of foundation.
The same applies to all the play they made so freely with the name
TAROT, which some linked with the goddess Ashtharoth, and others be-
lieved they could discover in a diagram they falsely attributed to
Guillaume Postel. The occultists were unaware of the etymology of the
word. It is simply the French version of the Italian word tarocco (tarocchi
in the plural): in the XVI century, it was as frequently spelled tarau,
tarault or the like. It went into German as Tarock, into Hungarian as
tarokk, into Czech as taroky, into Swiss German as trogge, and so on.
French is the only language in which the final guttural disappeared, a fact
sufficient in itself to invalidate virtually all the etymologies the occultists
proposed for it.
The occultists came to name the trump cards the 'major Arcana', and
the suit cards the 'minor Arcana'. The leading French occultist of the late
XIX and early XX centuries, who wrote under the name of Pa pus, rebuked
certain of his colleagues for using only the major Arcana for divination,
and insisted that the entire pack is essential; and all occult theories of the
Tarot assign symbolic significance to the suit cards or minor Arcana. But
those whom Papus rebuked were in better accord than he with the true
facts of the matter. The suit cards are in no way special to the Tarot pack; its
inventor can have imbued at most the trump cards with esoteric meanings,
since the others were not of his invention, but only rather faithful copies of
the Islamic cards from which European ones were derived.
From the late 1880s, Tarot occultism ceased to be confined to France:
but its subsequent proponents failed to correct the errors of its French
originators. For, first, the two countries, other than France, in which the
occultist theories of the Tarot took first and firmest root were Britain and
the United States, neither of which had any tradition of play with Tarot
cards. The occultists of those countries therefore had no prior knowledge
of the cards on which to draw: they naturally derived all their information
about them from the writings of their French predecessors.
Moreover, while a physicist or historian, who has his own evidence, has
no qualms about challenging the theories of earlier experts, an occult
theorist has no evidence. His claim to knowledge usually rests upon the
supposed transmission of secret wisdom from remote antiquity. To dis-
 1. Game or Magic? 39
agree with his predecessors is therefore to undermine his own pretensions:
if they did not really know, where does his own pretended knowledge come
from? Eliphas Levi felt he could afford to condemn Etteilla for having
failed to penetrate the sanctuary of occult wisdom; but an occultist dare
not very often say of any other that he was simply wrong.
Since the founders of the occult tradition of the Tarot knew about it only
what was apparent, in their day, in their own country, France, they cannot
have inherited any oral tradition going back to the origin of the cards in
Italy. Nor were they setting out any ancient tradition proper to France:
there can have been no such tradition, since, during the first 250 years in
which Tarot cards were known in that country, they were viewed solely as
instruments of an interesting game. The earliest exponents of Tarot
occultism did not even pretend to be privy to any secret tradition: they
claimed to have discovered the truth about the Tarot by the power of their
own intuition.
 CHAPTER2

How Tarot Divination Began

The game of Tarot

Of the seventeen cards that survive to us in the Bibliotheque N ationale in
Paris from a pack painted by hand for the court of Ferrara, all but one, the
Jack of Swords, are trumps. 1 If the set had not included the one suit card
that it does, it would no doubt have been triumphantly cited as proving the
thesis that the Tarot trumps once formed an independent entity. As it is,
there is no ground whatever to accept that thesis: the trumps were from
the outset part of the composite Tarot pack. The invention of this compos-
ite pack can only have been for the purpose of playing card games with it.
But why should this motive prompt the addition of twenty-two additional
picture cards to an ordinary set of Italian playing cards?
Tarot is not a single game, but an entire family of games. From France
and Switzerland, Tarot games spread in the XVII century to Germany and
thence to the entire Habsburg Empire, making the family yet more
diversified; their heyday was the century from 1750 to 1850, during which
they were played in virtually every country of Europe except Britain and
the Iberian peninsula. All Tarot games are trick-taking games, in which
the cards we have been calling 'trumps' indeed play the role of permanent
trumps. A player who has the lead to the first trick or, as the winner of the
preceding trick, to any later trick may play any card of his choice to the
table. Subsequent players, in counter-clockwise rotation, must follow suit
if they can, that is, play a card of the same suit as that led, or, if they
cannot follow suit, must play a trump; they must play a trump if a trump
was led. Only one who cannot follow suit and has no more trumps in his
hand is free to play any card he likes. If a trick contains no trump card, it
is won by the highest-ranking card of the suit led; otherwise, it is won by
the highest trump played to it. The Fool or Matto does not count as a
trump; it cannot win a trick, but by playing it the player is released from
the obligation to follow suit or to play a trump. 2 It is not normally captured
with the trick to which it was played; the player from whose hand it was
played takes it back and adds it to the cards he has won in tricks, usually
giving another card in exchange. The object of the game is not merely to
win tricks, but to win points on the cards taken in tricks: different cards
have different point-values, although all have some value. (The Fool has
 2. How Tarot Divination Began 41
a high value.) These are only the basic principles, complicated in different
versions of the game by a great variety of other means of gaining points.
A bridge player will probably be scornful of a game in which the trump
suit is not determined by bidding, but there is instead a set of cards that
permanently rate as trumps; but the practice of bidding was unknown
when the game of Tarot was invented. 3 Without bidding, a permanent set
of trumps is no disadvantage; but that does not explain why it was
necessary to add a special series of cards to serve that purpose. The answer
is that the invention of the Tarot pack was, simultaneously, the invention
of the idea of trumps. It is virtually certain that trick-taking games were
introduced into Europe from the Islamic world with playing cards them-
selves; but trumps are a European invention. 4 Trump cards, able to beat
all cards of the ordinary suits without regard to the card led, play a
completely different role in the game from the cards of those suits; it was
entirely natural to add quite special cards to fulfil this new role. It was
only the nobility that could afford to commission artists to produce these
new cards; when the game proved highly popular at the courts, cardmak-
ers began to make cheap printed Tarot packs, and less wealthy sections of
society took up the game, which they had done by 1450.
In the earliest Tarot packs, the trumps bore no numerals. It is therefore
unsurprising that easily recognisable and distinguishable subjects were
adopted for the trump cards. The idea of numbering the trumps probably
originated in Ferrara before the XV century was out, and was quickly
followed in Florence. The Milanese probably adopted it early in the XVI
century; it was first adopted in Bologna as late as the second half of the
XVIII century. Before the trumps came to be numbered, players simply
had to memorise the trump order. Even afterwards, players continued to
identify the trump cards by their subjects, rather than by their numbers
alone, although the numbering of the trumps probably facilitated small
variations of order among the less important ones. A modern bridge player
would be astonished and confused to find a Queen with the index J or a
Jack with the index K, let alone a 3 indexed A or an 8 indexed 4; similarly,
Tarot players would have been astonished and confused by any radical
change in the ordering, such as a rearrangement of the five highest
trumps.
The adaptation of the idea of trumps to games played with the ordinary
four-suited pack, by making one of the suits trumps, spread more quickly
than the game of Tarot itself. This is borne out by etymology. The word
tarocchi, of which tarots is the French version, did not appear until the XVI
century; by 1550 the Ferrarese poet Alberto Lollio was already complain-
ing that its etymology was obscure. In the XV century, the trump cards
and the game played with the composite pack were called trionfi; and the
word persisted as applying to the trumps even when the game had become
known as tarocchi. The Italian word trionfi is in fact the ancestor of the
English word 'trumps'. By the early XVI century, a number of card games
42 A Wicked Pack of Cards
had appeared in different countries all bearing names cognate with trionfi:
in France the game ofTriomphe, recorded as early as 1480, and in England
that of Triumph, the ancestor of Whist; the word 'trump' is simply a
corruption of 'triumph'. These games were not at all alike, save in being
trick-taking games with trumps, played with the ordinary pack: they took
their names from their most novel feature. And the term used for that
feature testifies to its having been borrowed, directly or indirectly, from
the game of Tarot.
That is not to claim that Tarot was the first card game to incorporate
the idea of trumps. That honour probably belongs to Karnoffel, a game
first recorded in 1426 and arising in a social milieu remote from the Italian
nobility: the German peasantry. It was played with an ordinary four-
suited pack, and had no resemblance to Tarot save for being a trick-taking
game. A suit was selected to be the trump suit; but the peculiarity lay in
the fact that only some cards of that suit were full trumps in the usual
sense. Others were partial trumps, able, according to their rank, to beat
every card of the suit led save the highest, or the highest two or highest
three. 5 Almost certainly this invention was independent, having no con-
nection with Tarot. That it was not from it, but from Tarot, that the idea
of trumps spread to other card games is once more clinched by etymology,
for Karnoffel players, before the XIX century, never used the word
Trumpfe for the trumps, but spoke instead of the 'chosen' suit (erwelete
Farbe) and, e.g., of the 'chosen' 3.

The trump order

Three basic types of ordering of the trump subjects were observed in Italy,
with some variations within each. In the Bolognese order, the Angel is the
highest trump, followed by the World; the three virtues occupy consecutive
places just above the Chariot. The Florentine order was similar, save that
the virtues were placed below the Chariot and above Love. In the Fer-
rarese order, the World was the highest trump, followed by Justice and
then the Angel; Temperance was placedjust above the Pope, and Fortitude
three places higher, with the Chariot and Love intervening. The order
observed in Lombardy was of the same type as that of the Tarot de
Marseille: the World was again the highest trump, followed by the Angel;
Temperance came between Death and the Devil, while the other two
virtues occupied lower but not adjacent positions. In the only version of it
for which we have an Italian documentary source, it differs in minor
respects from the Tarot de Marseille order. The two orders differ in regard
to five intermediate trumps, 6 as follows:
 2. How Tarot Divination Began 43
Tarot de Marseille Lombard order
Fortitude XI Hermit
Wheel of Fortune x Wheel of Fortune
Hermit IX Fortitude
Justice VIII Chariot
Chariot VII Justice

It is unlikely that the Tarot de Marseille ordering was an invention of

the French cardmakers, however; far more probably, it had an Italian
origin. It may have been the order observed in Milan itself, while what we
have called the Lombard ordering was used elsewhere in the Duchy. The
Lombard ordering is also found in a mid-XVII-century pack made by
Jacques Vieville of Paris; this exemplifies a standard pattern quite differ-
ent from the Tarot de Marseille, but one also known from a pack made in
Rouen in the early XVIII century, and used by Belgian cardmakers in the
later part of the century. It may have derived from Piedmont or Savoy,
though, since no surviving examples of the original Piedmontese pattern
are known, this is only a conjecture. 7

The exoteric meanings of the trumps

In the XV and XVI centuries, the exoteric symbolism of most of the Tarot
trumps would have been apparent to all educated Italians. For them, their
symbolic meanings would have been as obvious as it is to us that a woman
with a sword and a pair of scales represents Justice; it is these meanings
that constitute the exoteric symbolism of the cards. The presence of this
exoteric symbolism in no way rules out that of a deeper level of esoteric
symbolism needing specialised knowledge, not possessed by all educated
people of the time, to discern; a surface meaning often coexists with
another buried beneath it.
The exoteric meanings of the trump subjects, as they can be understood
from the names given to them in early Italian sources and from the
interpretations put on them by Italian writers of the time, do not always
coincide with those they convey to us. Many features of the Tarot de
Marseille designs are peculiar to it or shared only with the Milanese
pattern of which it was a descendant; likewise, many features of the
designs of modern occultist or cartomantic Tarot packs are peculiar to
them. Neither should be confused with those common to all traditional
representations of the trump subjects.

The Fool. Sometimes represented as a jester in cap and bells, sometimes .

merely as an idiot, this card, called the Matto in Italian, has for long been
called l'Excuse by French players of the game, because its traditional role
is to excuse whoever plays it from the obligation to follow suit or to play a
44 A Wicked Pack of Cards
trump. In many games, it serves as a wild card, able to substitute for
others in special scoring combinations of cards held in hand or won in
tricks. It has no historical connection with the modern Joker, which
originated in the United States in the second half of the XIX century. The
crocodile seen on some occultist versions of this card lacks any historical
basis; it derives from the work of the XIX-century occultist Paul Christian.
The Mountebank. The modern Italian name of this card, il Bagatto, has
no other meaning than 'the lowest Tarot trump'. In the XV and XVI
centuries, it was usually called il Bagatella, which probably meant the
same as the modern la bagatella, namely 'a trifle'; the name would thus
have referred to the rank of the card rather than to its subject. French
players similarly call it le Petit, although names corrupted from the Italian
such as le Baga and le Paguet were previously used. In the Tarot de
Marseille, the card is inscribed le Bateleur (the Mountebank), which
reasonably describes it. In the different versions, the card always shows a
man seated or standing behind a table, on which are spread wares he has
to sell. He is a merchant or a travelling vendor; sometimes customers are
shown, but usually not. In some versions, he may be intended to be a
conjuror, but he is definitely not a Magus or Magician, as he is regularly
called in occultist packs, in the sense of an adept of high magic. He does
not always hold a rod, or anything else, in his hand, as in the Tarot de
Marseille version: the idea that the four suit-symbols are to be seen on the
table is of occultist origin and devoid of historical justification. The card is
extremely important in all Tarot games, as having a high scoring value
but, as being the lowest trump, highly liable to capture.
Pope, Popess, Emperor, Empress. These four cards represent the su-
preme spiritual and temporal powers. The occultist names 'the
Hierophant' and 'the High Priestess' for the Pope and Popess receive no
support from any traditional representation of them, but are part of an
attempt to dechristianise the cards, originally out of a belief in their
pre-Christian origin. The replacement, by order of the Papal Legate, of
these four 'Popes' by four Moors in the Bolognese pack is paralleled by the
elimination of the Pope and Popess from many forms of Tarot pack. In the
Tarot de Besan~on, a variant of the Tarot de Marseille formerly used by
German-speaking players throughout Europe, they were replaced by Ju-
piter and Juno; in the distinctive Belgian Tarot, by Bacchus and the
Spanish Captain (a figure from the Commedia dell'Arte). The Popess is the
only one of these four cards to vary her position in the ranking; in different
versions, she may rank immediately below any one of the other three. She
alone is iconographically perplexing. She is always depicted quite rever-
ently, usually just like the Pope save that she is a woman. She does not,
as has been thought, represent the legendary Pope Joan, since she is never
shown with the newborn child with whom Pope Joan is usually portrayed.
In the Visconti-Sforza pack, the most complete of the hand-painted packs,
she wears the habit of a nun, resembling that of a Franciscan.
 2. How Tarot Divination Began 45
Justice, Temperance and Fortitude. The card called la Forza (Strength)
in the modern Tarocco piemontese was formerly always known as la
Fortezza, in the now nearly obsolete sense of 'Fortitude': it thus represents
one of the four cardinal virtues of Plato and scholastic moral theology. The
wings of Temperance in the Tarot de Marseille are a cardmakers' error:
they misrepresent the two corners of the back of a chair on which, in the
version of the card on the Cary sheet, the earliest set of printed Milanese
Tarot cards, she is shown sitting. 8 Italian Renaissance art is full of
representations of these and other virtues, not usually as angels, but as
human female figures with traditional symbolic attributes. Temperance
always pours water from one vessel to another filled with wine. Fortitude
has either a lion or a column, or both, and at least one of these two
attributes is shown on every version of the Tarot card (both in the
Minchiate pack). The three virtues exhibit a greater diversity of position
in the different orderings of the trumps than any other subjects.
Love, the Chariot, the Wheel of Fortune. These cards are easy to under-
stand. The first of them is always known in the early sources as 'Love',
never as 'the Lovers'. It always shows Cupid aiming his arrow from above
at a pair of lovers (on the 'Charles VI' card, two cupids and three pairs).
Sometimes, as in the Tarot de Marseille, one or more other figures are
present, more often not. The Chariot is a triumphal one, in which a king
rides in a victory procession, like a general in a classical Roman triumph.
Victorious captains, such as Alfonso I of Naples in 1443, sometimes staged
these; more popular were symbolic 'triumphs', in which an allegorical figure
rode in a triumphal car, accompanied by other symbolic characters. 9 The
Wheel of Fortune was an immensely familiar mediaeval image, to be found
in manuscripts and on the walls of churches all over Europe. On Tarot cards
it took its most usual form, in which the goddess Fortuna spins the wheel,
while four figures, in different places on it, represent individuals in varying
phases of their fortunes. In the Tarot de Marseille, the meaning of the image
has been obscured by the replacement of these human figures by strange
beasts. This may well be due to the cardmakers' having misunderstood the
ass's ears or tail often shown on the figures in the higher position, symbolic
of their foolish trust in fortune's whims.
The Hermit. The name now used for this card misinterprets the original
meaning of the figure. From an early date, some cardmakers converted his
hourglass into a lantern. 10 In the early sources, he is never identified as a
religious of any kind, but variously called 'the Old Man', 'the Hunchback'
and 'Time'. This last surely points to his originally intended identity. 11
The Hanged Man. This card has been the subject of wild speculations
by the occultists; but it would have been immediately intelligible to any
citizen of Renaissance Rome, Florence or Milan. Except in the Sicilian
pack, the figure is always shown hung upside-down from a gallows by the
foot. The bodies of executed traitors were sometimes subjected to this
indignity. 12 More usually, paintings were made of those deemed traitors to
46 A Wicked Pack of Cards
the State, showing them thus hung upside-down; this was a universally
understood means of branding them traitors. 13 The card is actually called
'the Traitor' in some of the early sources.
The order in which the cards from Love to the Hanged Man have here
been arranged is the most typical, with two or all three of the virtues being
inserted in the segment. All divergences from it take the form of inter-
changing just one adjacent pair: for instance, in the Tarot de Marseille, the
order of the Wheel of Fortune and the Hermit is reversed.
Death, the Devil, the Tower. Death and the Devil need no explanation.
Death is always depicted as a skeleton, typically with a scythe, and is
sometimes mounted, sometimes standing. The Devil assumes many
guises, all of them instantly recognisable. The Tower, on the other hand,
is the most obscure card in the entire sequence. It has the most varied
nomenclature and the most varied representations: it looks as though
confusion set in at an early stage about what it was meant to signify. The
names used for it in the early sources do not include 'the Tower'; among
them are 'the Fire', 'the Thunderbolt' and 'the Lightning'. The Tarot de
Marseille version of a tower struck by lightning, with figures falling
headlong from it, faithfully preserves the design of the card on the Cary
sheet. In other versions, the card usually shows a building - not always a
tower - in the course of destruction by fire or lightning; sometimes there
are falling or fallen figures, sometimes not. One version shows lightning
striking a tree. under which sheep are sheltering and towards which a
youth is walking. Two others show a hell-mouth, belching flames, from
which a devil emerges to pull men or women down to hell. The card is
sometimes called 'the House of the Devil', 'the House of the Damned' or
simply 'the House'; it must have been through a misunderstanding of this
that it came in the Tarot de Marseille to be called la Maison Dieu (the
House of God). In every ordering it is immediately superior to the Devil.
In some texts it is called 'Hell' outright; and this is quite probably its
primitive connotation, although it may possibly rather have originally
represented Purgatory.
The Star, the Moon, the Sun. There is no variation in the names of these
three cards in the early sources ('the Star' is always in the singular); and
there is nothing in common between the various representations of each
of their subjects save the presence of the celestial body in question. The
details of the Tarot de Marseille designs are again faithful to those of the
Cary sheet, but differ from all others. The two boys on the Sun card appear
in Renaissance prints of 'Children of the Planets': Sol produced athletes.
The crayfish crawling out of the pond beneath the Moon probably has an
astrological significance, representing the sign of Cancer. The two dogs
baying at the Moon, on the other hand, are not found on the Cary sheet;
they must be an addition by the French cardmakers, and need no expla-
nation.
The World and the Angel. The Angel is always so called in the early
 2. How Tarot Divination Began 47
sources, and never 'the Judgement'; but he is the angel of the Last
Judgement, always shown sounding his trumpet, while the dead are
usually shown rising from their graves. The representation of the World
in the Tarot de Marseille is yet again faithful to the Milanese pattern, as
shown on a card found in the Castello Sforzesco. It differs greatly from all
others, however; save for that in the earliest pack, they all show a globe,
held aloft by putti, or at arms' length by an angel, or supporting a figure
with a sceptre. The Milanesefl'arot de Marseille symbolism of the half-
clothed figure enclosed by an oval laurel wreath, with the symbols of the
four Evangelists in the corners of the card, is quite unconventional in
Christian art.
The suit-signs. The suit of Batons is usually called 'Wands' in occultist
packs, in a crude attempt to give it a magical connotation which its original
Italian name of Bastoni wholly lacks. The term 'Pentacles', used in occult-
ist packs for the suit of Coins (Italian Denari), is more interesting, since it
derives from a linguistic mistake of which A. E. Waite, who first had
pentacles put on the suit-signs, was completely aware. In his writings on
the Tarot, Eliphas Levi asserted that the suit represented what he called
pantacles. By this he did not mean five-pointed stars, for which he used
the word pentagrammes, but talismans. In his translations from Levi's
writings, Waite simply left the word 'pantacle' untranslated, with the
inevitable result that British readers thought it meant 'pentacle'. Waite
exploited the misunderstanding for which he had been responsible by
calling the suit 'Pentacles' and requiring Pamela Colman Smith to place
pentacles on the suit-signs in the famous Tarot pack which she designed
to his instructions.

In France, before the XVIII century, Tarot cards were known only as
instruments of play. Probably from the very outset, and certainly by the
XVII century, this was the only use known for them in Italy, either, though
there may earlier have existed an occasional light-hearted practice of
using the trumps to rea~ people's characters. In any case, our history- the
history of the cartomantic use and occult interpretation of Tarot cards as
they flourish today- begins in the XVIII century. For those who originated
and developed that interpretation and that use of the cards demonstrably
owed nothing to any antecedent tradition that had come down from earlier
times. If there were such a tradition, the founders of modem Tarot occultism
knew nothing of it; but there was no such tradition, nor ever had been.

The beginnings of Tarot cartomancy

Cartomancy - the practice of foretelling the future by means of playing
cards - does not appear to have been practised in Western Europe with
cards of any kind until much before the XVIII century. In 1690 a special
pack designed for the purpose was issued in London by Dorman Newman,
48 A Wicked Pack of Cards
and reissued subsequently by John Lenthall; but this was not cartomancy
as we understand it, based on symbolic meanings attached to the individ-
ual cards. We do not actually hear of ordinary playing cards as being used
for fortune-telling before the second half of the XVIII century, though it
may date from a decade or two earlier. It is possible that the practice
existed among the Russian peasantry before it originated independently
in Western Europe, but this is little more than a guess.14
The use of Tarot cards for cartomancy appears to have begun, not in
France, but in Bologna, where the game was much played. The sixty-two-
card Bolognese Tarot pack (the Tarocco bolognese) differs greatly from the
Tarot de Marseille, both in its designs and in the order and nomenclature
of the trumps. The biggest change was the replacement of the so-called
Papi (Popes), the four Papal and Imperial cards, by Moors in 1725. Soon
afterwards, in the two suits of Cups and Coins the female figures, called
Fantesche, which had always formed the two lowest court cards of those
suits in the Bolognese standard pattern, both for the Tarot pack and for
the ordinary or 'Primiera' pack, were, in both packs, replaced by male
figures (Fanti), as in the other two suits. This change was well established
by the dates of publication, 1753 and 1754, of the first printed descriptions
of the Bolognese game, which speak exclusively of Fanti. 15
Later yet in the second half of the XVIII century, probably in the 1760s,
two changes followed hard upon one another. Numerals were, for the first
time, added to some of the trump cards: those from 5 (Love) to 16 (the
Star), so that, ifit were continued to the highest card, the Angel, it would
reach only to 20; the lowest trump, the Bagattino, nowadays called Begato,
was thus unnumbered in theory as well as in practice. Further, the pack
became double-headed; it was one of the earliest European playing-card
packs to do so. The change spread very slowly, and has not been adopted
everywhere, for ordinary packs or Tarot packs, even yet, for instance not
in Spain, southern Italy or Sicily; in Britain it was not adopted until the
1850s, and did not take hold in the United States until two decades later.
Double-headed cards are abhorrent to occultists and most cartomancers,
principally because, in the system of interpretation promoted by the late
XVIII-century French professional fortune-teller Etteilla, the suit cards
have a different significance according as they are placed right way up or
upside down. For the purposes of card players, on the other hand, double-
headed cards are particularly advantageous for the Tarot pack, because it
contains so many picture cards.
The Tarocco bolognese probably began to be used for fortune-telling
sooner than did the French Tarot pack. A single loose manuscript sheet
giving cartomantic interpretations of thirty-five cards of the Tarocco
bolognese was discovered by Franco Pratesi in the Library of the Univer-
sity of Bologna. 16 The meanings are as follows:
 2. How Tarot Divination Began 49
Angel: wedding and settlement
World: Jongjourney
Sun: day
Moon: night
Star: gift
Devil: anger
Death: death
Traitor (Hanged Man): betrayal
Old Man (Hermit): an old man
Force: violence
Temperance: time
Chariot: journey
Love: love
Bagattino: married man
Matto: madness
King of Swords: evil tongue
10 of Swords: tears
Ace of Swords: Jetter
King of Batons: an unmarried gentleman
Queen of Batons: harlot
Knight of Batons: door-knocker
Fante of Batons: thought of the lady
Ace of Batons: annoyances
King of Cups: an old man
Queen of Cups: married lady
Knight of Cups: settlement
Fantesca of Cups: the lady
10 of Cups: roof tiles
Ace of Cups: the house
King of Coins: the man
Queen of Coins: truth
Knight of Coins: thought of the man
Fantesca of Coins: young lady
10 of Coins: money
Ace of Coins: table

These interpretations do not derive from Etteilla, and do not follow his
principle of different meanings for the suit cards according to whether
they are placed right way up or upside down.
This selection of thirty-five cards seems eccentric; it includes all the
50 A Wicked Pack of Cards
Aces, all the court cards save the Queen, Knight and Fante of Swords, all
the 10s save that of Batons, and most but not all of the trumps, of which
Justice, the Wheel and the Tower (or Thunderbolt) are missing; also
missing are the Pope, Popess, Emperor and Empress (called collectively
Papi). This might prompt the suspicion that there was formerly a second
sheet with the remaining cards, especially as the cards are not listed in
the foregoing order, but in a seemingly haphazard one. 17 The suspicion
appears unjustified, however, for there is a brief instruction how to use the
cards for divination, saying that 'they are put down in five piles, making
seven cards in each pile'; this clearly indicates that only thirty-five cards
were to be used. Pratesi's suggestion that the procedure was simply to
assign each seven-card pile to one person, and then to interpret the
selection of seven cards in the light of the meanings attributed to the
individual cards, has some plausibility in that it concurs with the proce-
dure described two centuries earlier in Teofilo Folengo's Caos del
Triperuno.
Since they are not included among the thirty-five cards, we cannot say
whether the Tarocco bolognese of the time included the four Papi or,
instead, the four Moors which, by order of the Papal Legate, replaced them
from 1725 onwards. It did, however, still have female court figures for the
lowest court cards in the suits of Cups and Coins, since these are called
Fantesca instead of Fante. This nomenclature dates the document to
before 1750, and supplies a ground for thinking that divination with Tarot
cards, of a crude variety, began earlier in Bologna than in France, and
possibly earlier even than divination with ordinary French cards. It is
therefore likely to have been an independent development, not due to
French influence; it reflects only the general spread of cartomancy in
Europe during the XVIII century.
The vogue for fortune-telling with Tarot cards lasted in Bologna until
at least the early XIX century. Shown in the exhibition of Tarot cards at
the Castello Estense in Ferrara in 1987 was a double-headed Tarocco
bolognese pack, with numbered trumps, from the 1820s. In this, divinatory
meanings had been written by hand at each end of all the 62 cards. 18
The evidence suggests only a light-hearted practice of telling fortunes,
probably practised for amusement at home rather than by professionals
charging fees. There is certainly nothing to make us suspect the appro-
priation of the Bolognese Tarot pack by proponents of high occultism,
which, despite Cagliostro, was not at all vigorous in XVIII-century Italy.
The first mention of fortune-telling in France by means of Tarot cards is
in the same mode. It occurs in a book on cartomancy with the ordinary
French pack of thirty-two cards, supplemented by one other, written by
the professional fortune-teller who called himself Etteilla, with whom we
shall be much concerned. The book was first published in Amsterdam in
1770, under the title Etteilla, ou maniere de se recreer avec unjeu de cartes
(Etteilla, or a way to entertain oneself with a pack of cards); it had
 2. How Tarot Divination Began 51
subsequent editions, under different titles, in 1773 and 1783. Towards the
end of the first edition (pp. 73-4), Etteilla says that everyone knows that
there are other methods of divination, including the reading of Tarot
cards, of coffee grounds and of the white of an egg; this remark was for
some reason deleted from the later editions. At that date, Etteilla had no
pretensions as an occultist: not only these other methods of divination that
he mentions in passing, but the method of cartomancy with ordinary
playing cards which his book expounds, are treated by the author as mere
entertaining diversions, not as serious techniques for penetrating the veil
of the future. The connection between Tarot cards and the high magic
had yet to be made; and Etteilla himself was to play a critical part in
making it.
 CHAPTER3

The Founders of Tarot Occultism

Antoine Court de Gebelin

Italy gave Tarot to the world - the cards and the game. It was France that
gave us the occult interpretation of the Tarot now so widely accepted. A
succession of French occultists first appropriated the Tarot pack for their
own purposes from the devotees of the ancient game, at just the period
when that game had achieved the peak of its popularity in Germany and
Central Europe. The French theorists of the occult incorporated this pack
of playing cards, with its traditional images, into the amalgam of doctrines
making up the Western heritage of magic; they skilfully integrated it with
those more ancient ideas, so that the Tarot is now taken to be as essential
an ingredient of Western magic as astrology. For a hundred years, how-
ever, this occultist conception of the Tarot was virtually confined to
France: it was not until the late XIX century that it spread from France to
Britain, and from there throughout the Western world.
The entire esoteric Tarot tradition stems ultimately from the work of
Antoine Court de Gebelin, a Protestant pastor, Freemason and savant. He
was the third child of Antoine Court (1695-1760) and his wife, nee Etien-
nette Pages. The father, Antoine Court, himself the son of Jean Court and
Marie Gebelin, was the most prominent French Protestant pastor of his
day, at a time when Protestants were subject to severe persecution in
France. In 1720, he visited Geneva, intending to stay for only a few weeks,
but was inhibited from returning to France until August 1722 by an
outbreak of plague in the southern part of the country. Hunted by the
soldiers, a price on his head, Court escaped to Lausanne in November
1729, and remained in Switzerland for the rest of his life, save for a highly
dangerous visit of four months to France in 1744; for this he was con-
demned as a deserter by some of the French Protestants. 1
It was at the time of his entry into France in 1762 that Antoine Court
the son, having up to then spent his whole life since infancy in Switzer-
land, adopted the suffix 'de Gebelin' to his name. This suffix was simply a
pseudonym. of the type frequently adopted by French Protestants of the
time: 'Gebelin' was borrowed from his paternal grandmother, while the
preposition 'de', to which he was not properly entitled, was a claim to
 3. The Founders of Tarot Occultism 53
aristocratic birth such as was made by many contemporary Frenchmen
who attached it without warrant to their surnames.

An irritating puzzle
The date of Court de Gebelin's death, 1784, is very well attested. Irritat-
ingly, however, his biography opens with a mystery: the date of his birth
- something often difficult to ascertain for French Protestants of the time,
but, in Court de Gebelin's case, particularly obscure. It is in fact impossible
to resolve the question definitively without detailed further study of the
documents at Geneva and Paris. Both Court de Gebelin himself and his
father stated his date of birth as 1728. His earliest biographer, Rabaut de
Saint-Etienne (1753-93), another Protestant pastor who later sat in the
Convention as a member of the Girondin party, and was executed during
the Terror, in a notice of his life and works written in the very year of Court
de Gebelin's death, contradicted this date. 2 Rabaut, who had known Court
de Gebelin personally, and whose father, Paul Rabaut, yet another Prot-
estant pastor, had known Court de Gebelin's father Antoine Court, pro-
posed the year 1725 for Court de Gebelin's birth, which he considered had
been postdated by his father to disguise his exceptionally slow early
development; it is this date which has usually been accepted. In the early
years of this century, however, a modem Protestant pastor, Paul Schmidt,
stated by Daniel Robert to have 'disappeared' in 1969, submitted a thesis
on Court de Gebelin to the Faculty of Theology of the University of Paris. 3
In this, he argued for an even earlier date, 1719. It seems almost incredible
that Antoine Court would at any stage have reduced his son's age by as
much as nine years; but Schmidt's arguments appear quite strong, and
have convinced Roman d'Amat, editor of a dictionary of French biography. 4
Schmidt had of course had access to the documents, and cites letters to
Court de Gebelin of 1736 and 1738 expressed in a manner that would be
very surprising if addressed to a boy of 8 or 11, and to one of 10 or 13; he
also cites a discussion about whether the young man should attend the
University of Geneva in 1736. He observes that in February 1719 a child
was born at the home in Geneva of Mme Corteiz, the wife of Pierre-Car-
riere Corteiz, another Protestant pastor and colleague of Antoine Court.
Schmidt states that, although Antoine Court was at that time in France,
his wife was then living at Mme Corteiz's house, and refers to letters
written from Geneva to Antoine Court in which the child born in February
is referred to as Antoine Corteiz; but he observes that on 25 March of the
same year Mme Corteiz was delivered of a daughter. He infers that the
boy who had been born in February was actually the child of Antoine Court
and his wife, whose identity was concealed to deceive the agents of the
French government.
Schmidt's theory resolves the mystery of how Mme Corteiz could have
had one baby in February and another in March, only to create a second
54 A Wicked Pack of Cards
enigma. Schmidt refers to the book by Edmond Hugues as 'passing over in
silence' the question of Court de Gebelin's date of birth; but he fails to
remark on the fact that both that book and Antoine Court's Memoires
make assertions which contradict his theory. 5 Hugues states that Antoine
Court married Etiennette Pages in 1722;6 both he and Court himself in his
Memoires give 1720 as the date of Court's first visit to Switzerland, and
Hugues states clearly that his wife first left France for Geneva in 1729.7
Plainly, if this information is correct, Schmidt's theory is erroneous; yet,
although well aware of Edmond Hugues's book, he does not trouble to
refute it, or even to mention the discrepancy. A study by Daniel Robert
rejects the arguments of Paul Schmidt as 'inadequate', and comes down in
favour of a date 1724-5, without, however, either drawing attention to the
contradiction between him and Hugues concerning the whereabouts of
Etiennette Pages in 1719 and the date of her marriage to Antoine Court,
or resolving, or even mentioning, the mystery of Mme Corteiz's apparent
remarkable fecundity. 8 The matter is plainly not of the first importance.
It would nevertheless be helpful if someone would clear it up completely
and conclusively; but it is evident that this cannot be done from printed
texts alone.

Court de Gebelin's entry into France

After completing his seminary studies in Switzerland, Antoine Court de
Gebelin was ordained pastor in 1754. His mother died in the following
year; 9 five years later, his father died also. In 1762, two years after that,
Court de Gebelin entered France and involved himself in the celebrated
affair of Jean Calas, the Protestant merchant who was executed in that
year for the alleged murder of his son, a convert to Catholicism. The most
prominent of those who denounced the execution as a miscarriage of
justice was Voltaire. Court de Gebelin composed a book on the subject, Les
Toulousaines, which was published in Switzerland in December, and
which infuriated Voltaire, who made strenuous efforts to prevent the
dissemination of the book in France. Voltaire believed it to be extremely
injudicious and damaging to the cause - a cause whose belated success in
1765, when the King and Council reversed the verdict, did not bring Calas
back to life. What Voltaire objected to was Court de Gebelin's including in
his book propaganda for the Protestant faith; he also accused him of
confusing the issue by simultaneously discussing an only partially similar
case involving another Protestant, Pierre-Paul Sirven, who had fallen
under suspicion of murdering his daughter, but had fled to Switzerland;
he was to be condemned to death in his absence in 1764, but reprieved in
1769.
After visiting many of the Protestant communities in the South and
West of France, Court de Gebelin established himself in Paris in 1763. He
remained there for the rest of his life, never marrying, and never renounc-
 3. The Founders of Tarot Occultism 55
ing the Swiss citizenship which he had possessed since before he had
entered France. In Paris he gradually evolved from an advocate of the
Protestant religion and of toleration for the Protestant churches into a
savant, Freemason and devotee of illuminist movements. He hoped at first
for an appointment as official representative of all the Protestant
churches. This scheme never worked out, however; but, throughout the
rest of his career, he succeeded in acting quite effectively as a protector of
French Protestants. He was assiduous in cultivating good relations with
influential courtiers and officials, through whom he intervened on behalf
of persecuted individuals or churches. Towards the end of his life, in about
1778, he was appointed one of the royal censors, an extraordinary position
for a Protestant and a Swiss citizen to hold.

Court de Gebelin as savant

It was during the 1770s that Court de Gebelin plunged into the heady
waters of occultism. He was initiated into Freemasonry as a member of
the Lodge of Les Amis Reunis, founded in 1771.10He subsequently joined
a yet more famous Masonic Lodge, that of Les Neuf Soeurs, of which he
became the secretary in 1778, and to which Voltaire and Benjamin Frank-
lin also belonged. 11 In 1780 he resigned from the Neuf Soeurs in order to
found the Societe Apollonienne, of which he became the president. 12This
society developed into the Musee de Paris: not a museum in our sense, but
a centre for lectures, readings and discussions. Court de Gebelin remained
a member of the Amis Reunis, however, and in 1783 was one of the seven
of its members belonging to the twelfth and highest degree. 13In 1777 he
gave a series of seven lectures in the temple of the principal Lodge of the
Scottish Masonic Rite on the allegorical meanings of the Masonic de-
grees.14In 1775, the Amis Reunis, instigated by Savalette de Langes, set
in motion the foundation of a new body, that of the Philalethes, of which
Court de Gebelin became one of the founder members. 15The Philalethes
combined almost every type ofilluminist and occultist doctrine. When the
Order of the Elect Cohens (Elus Coens) [see Introduction, 3.2] was dis-
solved in 1781, it was to the order of the Philalethes that its last Grand
Sovereign entrusted its archives. 16 Certainly the Philalethes included
more than one former Elect Cohen; there is evidence that Court de Gebelin
had himself belonged to that Order. 17Evidently, Court de Gebelin, Protes-
tant pastor and the son of a Protestant pastor as he was, thoroughly
immersed himself, in the final dozen years of his life, in the great swirl of
occultist thinking and activity that marked the later XVIII century, above
all in France.
In 1772, Court de Gebelin published a prospectus inviting subscriptions
for a learned work in many volumes, Monde primitif. More than a thou-
sand subscriptions were forthcoming, the royal family putting themselves
down for a hundred copies; nine volumes of this enormous work appeared,
56 A Wicked Pack of Cards
from 1773 to 1782, when it was cut short, far from completion, by its
author's death in 1784. The composition of this monument to misdirected
erudition was the chief occupation of Court de Gebelin's later years, and
its publication earned for him a modest celebrity which helped to maintain
his standing with the government. For Court de Gebelin, the phrase 'the
primitive world' which he selected as the title of his book did not refer, as
we should take it to do, to savage or backward societies. Quite the
contrary: it referred to a golden age, an original civilisation of which, after
its disintegration, all later civilisations were the decadent descendants. In
that 'primitive world', all men had shared a common language, common
customs, a common culture and a common religion: 'all the nations', he
informs us, 'at the moment when they each arrived in their countries, had
exactly the same customs and practices.' 18 'There exists an eternal and
immutable order', he declares, 'which unites heaven and earth, the body
and the soul, the physical and the moral life, men, societies, empires, the
generations that pass, those which arrive, which make themselves [sic]
known by a single worship'. 19
Such a belief has a certain affinity with the ideas of Jean-Jacques
Rousseau, an affinity not lost upon contemporaries: in 1785 there ap-
peared a comparative study of the two writers by the abbe Le Gros.2°Court
de Gebelin believed further that he could, by certain techniques, recon-
struct the vanished unified civilisation. One of these techniques was the
allegorical interpretation of myths; for instance, the twelve labours of
Hercules represented the different tasks carried out in each of the twelve
months of the agricultural year, and so afforded an insight into primitive
agriculture. 21 Another technique was the etymological study of known
languages, by means of which Court de Gebelin professed to be able to
reconstruct the single primitive language from which they all derived,
together with the primitive alphabet of sixteen letters. Within the nine
volumes of Monde primitif actually published, by far the greater part of
the space is devoted to linguistic investigations. Given the initial assump-
tion of the former existence of an original unified civilisation, these
techniques are not, in themselves, absurd. It is not unreasonable to
suppose that myths may offer clues to the societies which devised and
transmitted them. Nor, in view of the subsequent success of philologists
in reconstructing Proto-Indo-European, can the etymological part of the
project be dismissed out of hand, although the inclusion of Hebrew as a
source made failure certain. Court de Gebelin's procedure was, however,
wholly unscientific, as we might expect from one steeped, as he was, in the
illuminist and occultist ideas then in vogue. His conclusions rest on mere
intuition or on wild guesses; his etymologies are often wide of the mark,
and occasionally ludicrous. He cites the French word 'ouest' (West) as an
example of a supposed negative prefix 'o', 'ouest' thus meaning 'the oppo-
site of est (East)'. 22 In a disquisition on the meanings of individual letters,
he says that the trio of 'hieroglyphic characters, A, M & N' represent
 3. The Founders of Tarot Occultism 57
Father, Mother and Child or new-born; 23 it is unclear whether he means
this as an interpretation of the word 'AMEN'. In common with many
contemporaries influenced by the Egyptomania of the time, 24 he asserts
that the name 'Paris' originally meant 'ship of Isis', that Isis was wor-
shipped by the Druids and that a temple to her once stood on the site of
Notre-Dame. 25 In the history of ideas, Court de Gebelin's vast unfinished
work has a minor importance as having helped to reinforce the conception
of a happy, natural but accomplished original civilisation. Considered as
a work of scholarship, however, the product of a dozen years is rendered
utterly worthless by its author's disdain for serious evidence and for any
process of rational demonstration.

The first published essay on the Tarot

Among the more absurd results of Court de Gebelin's method of intuitive
insight into origins is the ground of his inclusion in this book: an essay on
the Tarot contained in Monde primitif, Volume VIII, published in 1781. All
his other bizarre speculations have long been forgotten: this one essay
continues to be read, as having been the fountain-head of the entire occult
Tarot mystique.
There is no reference to the Tarot in the detailed plan of the entire book
with which Volume I begins. Volume V, however, published in 1778,
contains an 'Etymological Dictionary of the French Language', in which
the old-fashioned form of the word, Tarraux, is listed. 26 The entry reads:
Game of cards well known in Germany, Italy and Switzerland. It is an
Egyptian game, as we shall demonstrate one day; its name is composed of
two Oriental words, TAR and Rha, Rho, which mean 'royal road'.

It must therefore have been before 1778, and after 1773, when Volume I
appeared, that Court de Gebelin formed his ideas about the Tarot. We
shall see, however, that there is some reason to think that he was already
possessed of them by 1776, when Volume IV came out.
How he came to form those ideas is described in his essay in the
following words:27

A few years ago, invited to visit one of the ladies of our acquaintance,
Madame la C.[omtesse] d'H., who had arrived from Germany or from Swit-
zerland, we found her occupied in playing this game with some other people.
We play a game which you surely do not know. -That may be; what is it? -
The game of Tarots. - I have had occasion to see it when I was very young,
but I have no idea of it. - It is a rhapsody of the most bizarre, the most
extravagant figures. Here is one of them, for example; I take care to choose
the one displaying the greatest number of figures, one which has no relation
to its name: it is the World. I scrutinise them, and suddenly I recognise the
allegory: everyone abandons the game and comes to look at this marvellous
pack of cards in which I have perceived what they have never seen. Each one
58 A Wicked Pack of Cards
shows me another of the cards: in quarter of an hour the pack has been run
through, explained, declared Egyptian; and since this is in no way the
product of our imagination, but the effect of the deliberate and perceptible
connections of this pack with everything that is known of Egyptian ideas, we
promised ourselves one day to make it known to the public. We were
convinced that the public would take pleasure in a discovery and a gift of
such a kind, an Egyptian Book escaped from barbarism, from the ravages of
time, from accidental and deliberate conflagrations, and from what is even
more disastrous, ignorance.
This ignorance is an inevitable effect of the frivolous and light-hearted
form of this Book, which has enabled it to triumph over the ages and to come
down to us preserved with an exceptional fidelity: the ignorance in which we
have been until now of what it represented has been a fortunate safe conduct
which has allowed it to pass peacefully through all the centuries without
anyone having thought to destroy it.
It was time to rediscover the allegories which it had been destined to
preserve, and to reveal that, among that wisest of peoples, everything, even
including games, was based on allegory, and that those sages knew how to
change the most useful knowledge into an amusement and make it into no
more than a game.

The reader will recognise the source of many of the ideas of Thomas A.
Williams, quoted in Chapter 1. According to Court de Gebelin's account, a
book of antique wisdom had been deliberately disguised by ancient Egyp-
tian sages as a pack of cards used to play a special card game. It had for
centuries survived as an instrument of play, unrecognised as anything
more than that; it had survived because it was not recognised as anything
more. Its secret had remained unpenetrated until Court de Gebelin,
calling on Madame la C. d'H., had been inspired to interrupt her game and
to divine its long-forgotten symbolism and hence to infer its origin and the
intention of its inventors. He did not pretend to have derived his know-
ledge from any ancient tradition, orally transmitted. Quite the contrary:
according to him, no such tradition existed; for long ages no one had
suspected the truth until he himself had with his genius perceived it and
uncovered it.
According to Jean-Marie Lhote, 28 Madame la C. d'H. was Mme
Helvetius (1719-1800), who began to hold her celebrated salon for writers
and intellectuals after the death of her famous husband, the Encyclopae-
dist, in 1771. In the XVI century and much of the XVII, the game of Tarot
had been well known throughout France; but, by the XVIII century, it had
been quite forgotten in Paris, and was confined to the eastern part of the
country. 29 Court de Gebelin himself testifies to its remaining unknown
there in his day. At the beginning of his Volume VIII, he speaks of 'the
game of Tarots, a game well known in Italy, in Provence, in Germany, etc.',
and again of'the game ofT~ots, a game of cards well known in Italy, in
Avignon, in Switzerland and in Germany'; 30 and in his essay on the Tarot
he calls it 'a game unknown, it is true, in Paris, but well known in Italy,
 3. The Founders of Tarot Occultism 59
31
in Germany, and even in Provence'. Later, he attempts to explain the
neglect of the game in Paris: 32

If it never reached Paris, this must be attributed to the bizarre character of

the figures and to the number of cards, features not calculated to please the
vivaciousnature of French ladies.

How gratified Mme Helvetius must have been by this remark, we can only
surmise: Court de Gebelin was of course quite mistaken in thinking that
the game had never reached Paris, or that it had been predominantly
played by ladies. As he admits, he had seen the game played in his native
Switzerland, where it was still very popular in the XVIII century, as it was
also in many parts of Germany; that is why he emphasises that Mme la C.
d'H had recently returned from Germany or Switzerland. If Lhote has
identified her correctly, she was not herself Swiss: despite his name,
Helvetius was not Swiss but French by birth, as was his wife. If she was a
card player, and had visited Switzerland or Germany, however, she would
have been quite likely to learn the game of Tarot on her travels.
It was inevitable that it should have been in a milieu in which the game
was unknown that Tarot occultism arose. Casual divination with the
cards, not taken very seriously, such as was practised at Bologna, or as
had been referred to by Etteilla in 1770 as being practised in France, is a
different matter. Grandiose theories of the origin and significance of the
Tarot pack are, by contrast, far more likely to be believed by those
previously quite unacquainted with the cards than by those accustomed to
use them in play or familiar with their use in play by others.
Believing that he had discovered Egyptian symbolism in the designs of
the Tarot cards, including the figures of Osiris riding the Chariot (trump
VII in the Tarot de Marseille), of Typhon as the Devil (trump XV) and of
Isis under the Star {trump XVII), Court de Gebelin thus advanced the
theory that the cards had been invented by ancient Egyptian priests, and
that it contained a symbolic representation of their doctrine. It was, in
fact, a book of seventy-eight pages, one that, by its disguise as a pack of
playing cards, had escaped the flames that had destroyed their libraries.
The opening of his essay is famous: 33
If one heard it announced that there still exists in our days a work of the
ancient Egyptians, one of their books that had escaped the flames that
devouredtheir magnificentlibraries, and that contained in a pure form their
doctrines concerninginteresting subjects, everyonewould without doubt be
eager to cometo know so preciousand so remarkable a book.If it were added
that this book is widely disseminated over a large part of Europe, that it has
for a number of centuries been in everybody'shands, the surprise would
certainly increase: would it not reach its peak if it were affirmed that it had
never been suspected to be Egyptian, that it had been possessed as if it had
not been possessed at all, that no one had ever tried to decipher a page ofit,
that the fruit of a refined wisdom is regarded as a mass of extravagant
60 A Wicked Pack of Cards
figures signifying nothing in themselves? Would people not think that the
informant was amusing himself by playing on the credulity of his hearers?
The fact is, however, quite true. This Egyptian Book, the only remnant of
their magnificent libraries, exists in our day: it is such a common thing that
no scholar has deigned to concern himself with it; no one among us has ever
suspected its illustrious origin. This Book is composed of LXXVII pages
(feuillets) or plates, or, rather, of LXXVIII,divided into five classes, which
present subjects as varied as they are amusing and instructive. This Book is,
in a word, the game of TAROTS.

When Court de Gebelin was writing, the Rosetta Stone had not yet been
deciphered by Champollion: hieroglyphics remained unreadable, and the
ancient Egyptian language unknown. That did not deter the savant;
genuinely erudite, he never hesitated to invent a fact ifhe did not know it.
The word 'TARO', he informs us, is composed of the Egyptian words 'TAR',
meaning 'road', and 'Ros' or 'Rog, meaning 'royal': it is perhaps superflu-
ous to remark that neither word figures in Wallis Budge's Egyptian
dictionary. As for the name 'PAGAD' (the French version of the Italian
Bagatto), it derives from 'PAG' ='master' and 'GAD'= 'fortune': the figure
on the trump I, who holds the wand of Jacob or the staff of the Magi, is
thus the lord of chance, disposing of men's fortunes. 34
Court de Gebelin's reconstruction of the history of the Tarot pack is
that, during the Empire, it had become known in Rome, where many
Egyptians were living. The Germans and the Counts of Provence had
learned it from the Italians, and it had taken root in Provence and in
Avignon during the Papal captivity in the latter city. 35
Court de Gebelin's essay is accompanied by rather free engravings,
from the Tarot de Marseille, of the trump cards and the four Aces. In the
introduction to Volume VII, published in 1780, he tells us that these,
together with the illustrations to Volumes I and IV, were the work of Mlle
L., a dear friend of seventeen years' standing, whose recent death has
greatly grieved him. 'Mlle L.' has been identified by Jean-Marie Lhote as
Mademoiselle Linote, an artist of some reputation. 36 In his essay, Court de
Gebelin discusses each of the trumps in turn. He renames the Pope (V) the
'High Priest' or 'Chief Hierophant', it being evidently necessary to dechris-
tianise this card if an ancient Egyptian origin was to be attributed to it.
He likewise renames the Popess (II) the 'High Priestess'; the name 'Popess'
he terms ridiculous, ascribing its invention to German cardmakers. 37 He
could naturally admit no Christian symbolism in a book devised by ancient
Egyptians: the triple cross held by the Pope he asserts to be 'absolutely
Egyptian'. Love (VI) he labels 'Marriage', while trumps VIII, XI, XII and
XIIII (misnumbered XIII by Court de Gebelin and his illustrator) repre-
sent the four cardinal virtues. That trumps VIII, XI and XIIII represent
cardinal virtues is evident; but the statement is surprising as applied to
trump XII (the Hanged Man). Court de Gebelin confidently asserts,
however, that the miserable and presumptuous cardmakers, misunder-
 3. The Founders of Tarot Occultism 61
standing the card, have made a grievous mistake, thereby completely
disfiguring the image, and that the figure should be shown upright,
standing on one leg, rather than hung upside down by one foot. In her
illustration, Mlle Linote depicts the figure as one standing on one leg, in
accordance with Court de Gebelin's interpretation. He tells us further that
the figure represents the otherwise missing virtue of Prudence. 38 Apart
from being entirely wrong as a matter of historical fact, this interpretation
overlooks the fact that the virtues are almost always represented by
female figures; 39 but Court de Gebelin was here inaugurating the occultist
tradition of 'rectifying', by blind guesswork, the traditional imagery.
Trump VII (the Chariot) represents 'Osiris triumphant', according to
Court de Gebelin, and trump IX (the Hermit) a Sage. Trump X remains
the Wheel of Fortune, and trump XIII Death. 40 Trump XV, as we have
seen, is Typhon, a character of Greek mythology identified with the
Egyptian god Set, the enemy of Osiris; and trump XVI (the Tower) is the
Castle of Plutus, which is falling into ruin, while the worshippers of Plutus
fall headlong to be crushed among the debris. 41 The Star (trump XVII) is
Sirius, the Dog-Star, the seven smaller stars being the planets; since, in
the Ptolemaic system, the seven planets included the Sun and the Moon,
this latter suggestion of Court de Gebelin seems particularly unlikely. The
woman beneath the Star pouring water into the stream is identified by
Court de Gebelin as Isis: the whole image, he assures us, is 'pure Egyp-
tianism'. 42 The waters shown beneath the Moon (trump XVIII) are those
of the Nile, and the two dogs represent a 'perfectly Egyptian' idea, that of
the dogs who guard, or actually represent, the Tropics. 43 The Sun (trump
XIX) prompts little from Court de Gebelin; but trump XX is declared to be
another instance of the cardmakers' misinterpretation, being miscalled
'the last Judgement'. It represents, rather, the Creation, while trump XXI,
likewise misnamed 'the World', actually represents Time, the four symbols
in the corner of the card signifying the four seasons. 44 (Here again an
obviously Christian symbol needed to be explained away.) As for the Fool,
he is shown pursued by a tiger, although Court de Gebelin does not remark
on the rarity of these animals in Egypt. Although in the game it is placed
after the XXI, it should be numbered Zero, because it has no value on its
own, but only when it is added to other cards, 'exactly like our zero'. 45 This
observation was destined to cause much confusion among later occultists,
of just the kind that allows Court de Gebelin to claim that the book has
only seventy-seven pages, since the Fool has the value 0. Hence the pack
'is absolutely founded on the sacred number seven': there are 7 x 11 cards
altogether, 7 x 3 trumps, and 7 x 2 cards in each suit. This, he says, shows
that 'this game can only have been invented by the Egyptians, because it
has the number seven as its base'; this Protestant pastor appears to have
forgotten that the week is of Jewish origin. 46 Finally, the suits represent
'the four estates into which the Egyptians were divided': Swords the King
62 A WickedPack of Cards
and military nobility; Cups the priesthood; Batons those occupied in
agriculture; and Coins those engaged in commerce.
It may seem surprising that trump XX should be declared by Court de
Gebelin to represent Creation instead of the Last Judgement, as it evi-
dently does. The explanation is to be found in what may well be the most
absurd remark in the whole of Monde primitif: 'it appears that the
Egyptians began counting from the highest number, going down to the
lowest'. 47 The author does not explain how they knew with which number
to start, nor why, if they did, they bothered to count at all. It is, however,
by appeal to this astonishing theory that he argues that, to arrive at the
correct interpretation, the trump sequence must be taken in descending
numerical order. Naturally, then, the higher-numbered cards will repre-
sent, not the last, but the earliest, events.
Having expounded his interpretation of this supposed Egyptian book,
Court de Gebelin interposes a description of the game, as played in France
in his day, very useful for the historian of card play. He acknowledges this
account as having been supplied by his friend M. L'A. R., identified by
Jean-Marie Lhote as the abbe Rive, one of the earliest writers on the
history of playing cards. After this, the essay continues with a detailed,
but quite unimpressive, 'geographico-politico-moral' exegesis of the Tarot
pack as a whole. This need not detain us, save for a passing remark
destined to bear luxuriant fruit: 48
The set of XXI or XXII trumps (Atous), the XXII letters of the Egyptian
alphabet common to the Hebrews and the Orientals, which also served as
numerals, are necessary in order to keep count of so many countries.

There were not, of course, twenty-two Egyptian letters, but there were
indeed twenty-two letters in the Hebrew alphabet. Court de Gebelin's
remark, of which he himself makes nothing, was the first suggestion of an
association between the Tarot trumps and the Hebrew letters, an associa-
tion which was subsequently to play an absolutely central role in occultist
theories of the Tarot.
The rest of Court de Gebelin's essay is taken up with extraneous
matters. One is a spurious attempt to connect the Tarot pack with a
Chinese monument. More important is an attempted proof that Spanish
playing cards are derived from the Tarot pack: 'the names of the four suits
... show that [the Spanish pack] was entirely formed from the Tarot pack,
and that Spanish cards are just an imitation in miniature of the Egyptian
game'. The truth is, of course, that, quite independently of the Tarot pack,
the Italians and the Spaniards shared the Latin suit-signs, derived,
indeed, from Egypt, but from post-Christian rather than pre-Christian
Egypt, and that it was to the ordinary Italian pack that the trump cards
were added to form the composite Tarot pack. Having thus got the origins
of Spanish playing cards and of Tarot cards exactly the wrong way round,
 3. The Founders of Tarot Occultism 63
Court de Gebelin goes on to argue that 'French cards are themselves
merely an imitation of Spanish cards'; he could thus claim that both types
of playing cards derived ultimately from the Tarot pack, with its supposed
ancient Egyptian origin. (In point of fact, the French suit-signs appear to
have been simplifications of the German, not of the Spanish, ones.) A
thoroughly muddled remark in Court de Gebelin's section on French
playing cards deserves here to be quoted:
We may, perhaps, even be in the right to supposethat French cards are older
than Charles VI [of France], because Ducange [in his Latin Dictionary]
credits St. Bernard of Siena, a contemporary of Charles V, with having
condemnedto the flames, not only masks and dice,but also triumphal cards,
or the game called Triumph.

Court de Gebelin means St Bernardine of Siena, who indeed organised

a bonfire of vanities, including playing cards, in Bologna in 1423, when
Charles VII (not Charles V) was King of France (not that the King of
France had anything to do with it). If the playing cards cast on the bonfire
included cartae triumphales, as one source of about fifty years later
alleges, these would have been Tarot cards. It is more probable, however,
that they did not include them, but were ordinary playing cards with
Italian suits. In neither case would they have been French-suited cards,
which certainly did not exist even in France, let alone Bologna, at the time.
Court de Gebelin was attempting to prove the existence of French-suited
playing cards before the reign of Charles VI by reference to an event in
Italy, which did not involve them, subsequent to his reign: he was in a
condition of hopeless confusion, which we shall find repeated in books of
the XIX and XX centuries.
At the very end of his essay on the Tarot, Court de Gebelin reverts to
his thesis that Spanish-suited playing cards are ultimately of Egyptian
origin, and invokes in further proof of it certain appellations of individual
cards. Although he seems unaware of the fact, these names are peculiar
to the game of Aluette, played from at least the early XVI century down to
the present day in Western coastal regions of France, Brittany and the
region of Bordeaux. Aluette is and has always been played with a Span-
ish-suited pack of forty-eight cards, which in course of time has assumed
a special form used only for that game: for instance, the Knights have
turned into female Dames (Cavalieres). Thus, in the Aluette pack, the 2 of
Cups is called 'la Vache' (the Cow), and bears an image of a cow: ignoring
the sex of the beast, Court de Gebelin identifies it with Apis. So far as can
be discovered, the game of Aluette has never been known in Spain, but is
exclusively French: the names quoted by Court de Gebelin owe nothing to
ancient Egypt, or even to Spain.
Towards the end of his life, Court de Gebelin became a fervent sup-
porter of the theory of 'animal magnetism' advocated by Franz Anton
64 A Wicked Pack of Cards
Mesmer, who had arrived in Paris from Vienna in 1778, and joined
Mesmer's Society of Universal Harmony; 49 one of the lectures given in
early February 1783 to Court de Gebelin's Musee de Paris was by the
Mesmerist Jean-Louis Carra, who apparently spoke on light-waves and
sound-waves. 50 In March 1783, Court de Gebelin became the victim of a
vecy grave affliction to his legs, and applied to Mesmer for a cure. Con-
vinced that the cure had been successful, he circulated a letter to all the
subscribers to Monde primitif, enthusiastically reporting his cure and
asserting that Mesmerism gave the clue to the nature of primitive science.
Alas! his malady soon returned with great severity. He went back to
Mesmer for further treatment, and, on 12 May 1784, fell dead while
attached to a magnetic tub. 51 The manner of his death prompted a satirical
epitaph:
Ci-git ce pauvre Gebelin,
Qui parloit Gree, Hebreu, Latin;
Admirez tous son heroisme:
II fut martyr du magnetisme. 52

The comte de Mellet

All Court de Gebelin's fanfare about the rediscovered Egyptian Book was
calculated to produce great expectations in the readers. Such readers must
have found the interpretation expounded in the body of the essay a
bathetic anti-climax: was it only to communicate to posterity so banal a
message that those sages of antiquity had been to the trouble of ingen-
iously devising a disguise as a pack of playing cards so as to preserve the
book from the flames that were to destroy their libraries? This disappoint-
ment was in part redressed by a second essay, by another hand, which, in
Volume VIII of Monde primitif, Court de Gebelin appended to his own. He
had referred to it in the 'Discours preliminaire' at the beginning of the
volume: 53
This explanation [Court de Gebelin's own] is accompanied by a very interest-
ing dissertation, which has kindly been supplied to us, on the manner in
which the Sages or Magi of Egypt used this game for divination, and how this
practice has been perpetuated even with our own playing cards, imitated
from them.

Court de Gebelin refers again to this second essay in more detail early in
his own:54
This essay will be followed by a dissertation in which it is established how
this game was applied to the art of divination. It is the work of a General
officer, the Governor ofa province, who has honoured us by his kindness, and
has, with a most ingenious perspicacity, rediscovered in this game the
Egyptian principles governing the art of divining the future by means of the
 3. The Founders of Tarot Occultism 65
cards. These principles were characteristic of the first bands of Egyptians,
misnamed Bohemians [Gypsiesare meant], who spread over Europe. There
still remain some vestiges of these principles in our packs of cards, but they
are infinitely impoverished by the monotonyof these packs and the small
number of figures in them.

Just as with his casual reference to the letters of the Hebrew alphabet,
Court de Gebelin here, with a passing remark, planted another seed
destined to grow into an immense tree. His official theory was that Tarot
cards had been brought to Rome by Egyptians in the days of the Empire,
and carried from Italy to France many centuries later by the Avignon
Popes: but now, in the passage quoted, he suddenly mentions the Gypsies
as the disseminators of the cards. In his time, the Gypsies were still
believed to have originated from Egypt, as they had given out when they
first arrived in Europe, and as their English name 'gypsies' indicates; in
French they are called 'Bohemiens' from the fact that they reached West-
ern Europe via the Eastern part of the continent. It was only in the late
XIX century that a philological study of their language identified them as
having originated in India. It is useless to enquire why Court de Gebelin
should have propounded two incompatible theories of the dissemination of
the Tarot pack: questions of consistency did not preoccupy him greatly.
Court de Gebelin returns to the supplementary dissertation once more
in the very last section of his essay, headed 'Application of this Pack to
Divination': 55

To concludethese researches and reflectionson the Egyptian game, we shall

present to the public the dissertation announced above,in which it is proved
how the Egyptians applied this game to the art of divining, and in what
~anner the same way of regarding them was transmitted to our playing
cards, made in imitation of the Egyptian ones ....
This dissertation is so full of matter, and so well designedto conveysound
ideas about the manner in which the sages of Egypt consulted the Book of
Destiny, which we do not doubt will be well receivedby the public,which has
otherwise up to now been deprived of similar researches, since up to now no
one has had the courage to concern himself with subjects which appear lost
for ever in the profound night of time.

In the 'Discours preliminaire' to Volume IV of Monde primitif, publish-

ed in 1776, Court de Gebelin recorded his receipt of a communication from
one of his subscribers, 'a Governor of a provincial city'. 56 If, as seems likely,
this was from the same Governor who wrote the 'dissertation', and if the
communication consisted in that dissertation, or related to the same
subject, Court de Gebelin was already in possession of theories about the
Egyptian origin of Tarot cards, and their esoteric significance, in 1775 or
'76: whether his crucial meeting with Mme Helvetius had yet taken place
we have no means of knowing.
The 'dissertation' occupies thirty-one pages of Monde primitif, as
66 A Wicked Pack of Cards
opposed to the sixty-one occupied by Court de Gebelin's own essay. Enti-
tled 'Researches on the Tarots, and on Divination by Tarot Cards', it is
presented as by 'M. le C. de M.***', that is, Monsieur le comte de M-.
Given Court de Gebelin's information that de M. *** was an 'Officier
General, Gouverneur de Province', the only possible identification is with
Louis-Raphael-Lucrece de Fayolle, comte de Mellet (1727-1804). Since he
appears, as M. le Comte de Mellet, Lieutenant des Gardes du Corps du Roi
(Lieutenant of the King's Bodyguard), in the third list of subscribers to
Monde primitif, 57 he may well have been the one whose communication to
the author was reported by him in Volume IV. The identification of de
M*** as the comte de Mellet was first made by Mr Robin Briggs, an Oxford
historian, from the Etat militaire de la France for 1778. It was reported,
and credited to him, in Dummett, The Game of Tarot. 58 It was corroborated
by Jean-Marie Lhote in 1983.59
The comte de Mellet was a cavalry officer who rose through the ranks
of Colonel and Brigadier to that of Lieutenant-General. He was Governor
of the Maine and Perche from 1767 to 1784, and was awarded the Grand
Cross of the Order of St-Louis; he was born at Perigueux and died at
Constance. He appears to have been an unremarkable court noble and
military commander, and is not even known to have been a Freemason.
Yet he contributed an essay on the Tarot considerably more impressive
than Court de Gebelin's own. It is, admittedly, as full as that of absurd
assertions with no basis in truth, and displays markedly less concern to
provide any evidence whatever for these assertions. It is, however, decid-
edly less disappointing than Court de Gebelin's revelations: it is just about
credible as an interpretation of a symbolic message which men of ancient
times had taken great pains to transmit to future generations.
How could this have come about? How could this individual, otherwise
unknown as a writer, a scholar or an occultist, have produced this piece of
work? The clue lies in the fact that its very existence contradicts Court de
Gebelin's claims. The two essays agree in their main conclusions. De
Mellet, too, believed the Tarot pack to be of ancient Egyptian origin. He,
too, thought it contained, in symbolic representation, teachings of ancient
Egyptian sages; he, too, believed that the trump cards must be taken in
descending order to arrive at the correct interpretation. But in detail he
disagrees with Court de Gebelin. He gives a different spurious Egyptian
etymology for the word 'Tarot'; he propounds a different theory of the
dissemination of the cards in Europe. Now the surprising feature of his
essay is that he makes no reference to Court de Gebelin. He nowhere says,
'Contrary to Monsieur de Gebelin's opinion, .. .', or, 'I must beg to differ
with Monsieur de Gebelin when he says that .. .'. Still less does he say, 'We
owe to Monsieur de Gebelin the discovery that Tarot cards were first
devised in ancient Egypt'. Quite the contrary: he ignores Court de Gebelin
altogether. This would be very strange, if de Mellet had written his essay
expressly to be included in Court de Gebelin's book, or even if he had
 3. The Founders of Tarot Occultism 67
written it having first seen Court de Gebelin's own essay, knowing that it
was to be published. We are driven to conclude that de Mellet had never
seen Court de Gebelin's essay, or learned of his theories on the subject,
before writing his own contribution.
When we recall Court de Gebelin's claims, however, we see that a
stronger conclusion can be drawn. He professed to be the first for many
centuries to have penetrated the significance of Tarot cards, to have
realised that they were more than the instruments of a card game and that
they had originated in ancient Egypt. He had arrived at these unguessed-
at truths, not by the study of ancient documents, but in a brief
quarter-hour of inspiration at the card table of Mme Helvetius. Did de
Mellet, then, learn these things from Court de Gebelin by correspondence
before the publication of Volume VIII of Monde primitif in 1781? If so, he
would surely have written differently, ifhe had any grace at all. He would
have paid tribute to the insight of Monsieur Court de Gebelin, who had
uncovered the true nature of these cards, so long quite unsuspected: he
would not have written an essay making use of fundamental ideas which
he had first learned from Court de Gebelin, but leaving the debt unac-
knowledged; or, if he had, he would not have submitted it, or even allowed
it, to be published in that form in Court de Gebelin's own book. Indeed,
despite the divergences between them, so many of de Mellet's detailed
ideas coincide with Court de Gebelin's - the meanings of the four suit-
signs, for example - that they must have had a common source. If the
source were Court de Gebelin himself, de Mellet's essay would have been
a piece of impertinence so marked that the author of Monde primitifwould
surely not have been willing to publish it. We cannot avoid the conclusion
that de Mellet already had these ideas independently of Court de Gebelin,
and wrote his essay, and sent it to him, without knowing of his claim to be
their originator.
Could it be, then, that two men arrived at essentially the same conclu-
sions independently? That is possible, especially given the prevalence of
Egyptomania at that time; 60 but it is hardly probable. But, if we reject it
as improbable, we must convict Court de Gebelin of falsehood, at least
unintentional. The ideas he claimed as original to him must already have
been current in a certain milieu; and where more likely than in those
occultist circles which he frequented with such enthusiasm in the last ten
or twelve years of his life? It is conceivable that he heard them expressed
briefly and casually, and forgot that he had done so, so that what he
believed to be an inspiration that struck him in the house of Mme
Helvetius was in fact the revival of a memory buried in his unconscious.
The alternative is that he told a deliberate untruth in print, laying claim
to ideas he had been given by others. We cannot tell; in either case, it was
unwise of him to publish de Mellet's essay, which gave the lie to his claim.
For de Mellet's essay is not exclusively concerned with divination, as Court
de Gebelin repeatedly represents it as being. The first third ofit is devoted
68 A Wicked Pack of Cards
to expounding a theory of the origin and symbolic significance of the cards,
similar to but not identical with Court de Gebelin's own; and, for the
reasons stated here, its mere existence casts doubt upon the pretensions
of Court de Gebelin to have been the sole discoverer of the true nature of
the Tarot. Though we do not know de Mellet to have been a Freemason, it
is reasonable to assume him to have had some close contact with occult
circles of the day, whether through a Masonic Lodge or in some other of
the secret orders. Just as divination with Tarot cards had been practised
before it ever came to be mentioned in print, so theories of the ancient
origin and esoteric meaning of the Tarot pack antedated their first expo-
sition by Court de Gebelin. But, in both cases, it was their publication that
was to influence later generations.

Another essay on the Tarot

De Mellet's essay, though shorter, was not only more substantial than
Court de Gebelin's; it was also to contribute more to the subsequent
occultist mythology of the Tarot. He agrees with Court de Gebelin that the
Tarot pack was in intention and in fact a book. He calls this book 'the Book
of Thoth' (le livre de Thot), explaining the word 'Tarot' as derived from the
Egyptian 'TA-ROSH'. The initial 'T' is just the definite article; 'A' means
'doctrine' or 'science'; and 'ROSH is the Egyptian name of Mercury or
Thoth. This Thoth or Mercury is not understood by de Mellet as a god, but
as a human being of great antiquity, who was the first historian and who
made pictorial images of the gods: he is obviously Hermes Trismegistus
under equivalent names [Introduction, 1.1]. But the word 'ROSH', de Mellet
tells us, also meant 'beginning': hence the book TA-ROSH is particularly
concerned with cosmogony. Naturally, these supposedly Egyptian words
are no more to be found in Wallis Budge's dictionary than those cited by
Court de Gebelin. Unlike him, de Mellet regards the Book of Thoth as
having originally consisted of only twenty-two pages, corresponding to the
twenty-two trumps; 61 the suit cards were added later. This was to be the
subject of some vacillation by subsequent theorists of the occult Tarot; we
can say that, in this matter, de Mellet's instinct was sounder than Court
de Gebelin's. Furthermore, the Tarot pack, according to de Mellet, did not
spread beyond Egypt during the Roman Empire, but only after the Arab
conquest. The Arabs brought it with them to Spain, whose Christian
inhabitants learned it from them. It was the soldiers of the Emperor
Charles V who carried it to Germany.
It is in his interpretation of the trumps that de Mellet shows himself
Court de Gebelin's superior in plausibility. The sequence is divided into
three sets of seven cards, seven being a 'mystical number, famous among
the Cabalists, the Pythagoreans, etc.'; here we have the first faint allusion
to the Cabala in connection with the Tarot. 'There is, finally, a twenty-sec-
ond card without number and without power, which, however, increases
 3. The Founders of Tarot Occultism 69
the value of that which precedes it; it is the zero of magic computations: it
is called MADNESS'. As in many passages, the resemblance to Court de
Gebelin's observations is close. Like him, de Mellet treats all of the trumps
in descending order. The first septenary, trumps XXI to XV, represents the
golden age. Trump XXI (the World) represents the Universe: the figure on
the card is the goddess Isis, and, as in Court de Gebelin's essay, the four
symbols in the corners (actually those of the four Evangelists) represent
the four seasons of the year. Trump XX (the Angel) represents the Crea-
tion of Man: we do not see the dead rising from their graves, but men and
women newly formed arising from the earth. The winged figure with the
trumpet is Osiris, and the 'droplets' represent tongues of fire by which the
Spirit of God animates dead matter. Trump XIX (the Sun) depicts the
Creation of the Sun; the two small figures below represent the union of
man and woman. Trump XVIII (the Moon) naturally represents the Crea-
tion of the Moon, and also of terrestrial animals, exemplified by a wolf and
a dog, typifying wild and domesticated animals respectively. De Mellet
regards this card as signifying great misfortunes when the cards are used
in divination. Trump XVII (the Star) represents the Creation of the Stars
and of the fishes. Trump XVI (the Tower) is indeed the House of God (la
Maison Dieu, as named in the Tarot de Marseille): it is the earthly
Paradise from which man and woman are being expelled by a comet or
flaming sword, accompanied by a hailstorm. Finally, as for Court de
Gebelin, trump XV (the Devil) represents Typhon, who comes to disturb
the innocence of man and bring the golden age to a close. The two small
beings chained at his feet represent human nature degraded and subject,
a new and perverse generation. 62
The second septenary, consisting of trumps XIV to VIII, represents the
silver age. On trump XIV (Temperance), we see the Angel of Temperance
come to instruct man, so that he can avoid that death to which he has
recently been condemned; she is pouring water into wine. Trump XIII
(Death) bears a number that is always ill-omened; de Mellet accepts it as
representing Death, which the greatest ingenuity could hardly dispute.
Unlike Court de Gebelin, de Mellet also accepts that trump XII (the
Hanged Man) is, in its traditional form, correctly oriented: it depicts a man
hung by the foot, representing the accidents that befall human life. But
he, too, connects the card with the virtue of prudence, since, in order to
avoid such accidents, 'one must always walk with prudence in this world'.
Trump X (Strength) shows Strength coming to the help of Prudence, and
vanquishing the lion, which symbolises wild and uncultivated land.
Trump X (the Wheel of Fortune) displays the injustices of the fickle
goddess Fortune. Trump IX (the Hermit) represents the Sage, his lantern
in his hand, searching for justice on the earth: trump VIII simply is
Justice, as traditionally designated. 63
The third septenary is composed of trumps VII to I, and represents the
iron age. Trump VII is the Chariot of War, and 'announces the crimes of
70 A Wicked Pack of Cards
the iron age'. Trump VI (Love) depicts man hesitating between vice and
virtue; he is no longer guided by reason, but prompted by desire or
concupiscence, his eyes blindfolded, as represented by the figure of Eros.
This interpretation of the card as symbolising a choice between vice and
virtue was to be very popular with later occultists. De Mellet evidently
based his interpretation on a Tarot de Besan~on pack, differing from the
Tarot de Marseille only in replacing the Pope and Popess on trumps V and
II by Jupiter and Juno. He thus describes trump Vas showing 'Jupiter or
the Everlasting mounted on his eagle', as indeed it does in the Tarot de
Besan~on. Trump IV (the Emperor) shows a King armed with a club; it is
the ignorance of German cardmakers that has transformed the latter into
an Imperial sceptre. Why it should be German cardmakers, especially,
who come in for such repeated castigation, it is difficult to say. Perhaps
illuminist groups in France, amongst whom these theories about the Tarot
originated, were in touch with other such groups in Germany, as the
Freemasons certainly were, and had in the first instance learned about the
Tarot from them; de Mellet's reliance on a Tarot de Besan~on, which was
primarily in use among German-speaking players, in Switzerland, in
Alsace and in Germany itself, suggests that he was unaware of the Tarot
de Marseille packs then being produced in great numbers in Marseilles,
Lyons and other cities in southern France. For de Mellet, trump III (the
Empress) is, correspondingly, a Queen, also holding a club. Trump II, Juno
in the Tarot de Besan~on, represents the Pride of the powerful, symbolised
by Juno's peacocks; Juno is announcing an earthly religion of idolatry.
Finally, on trump I the Mountebank (Bateleur) holds the rod of the Magi,
and works miracles in order to deceive the credulous peoples. 64 The figure
of the Mountebank was indeed to become a Magician for later occultists,
but not, for them, a deceitful one.
This interpretation by de Mellet of the twenty-one trumps involved no
great inventiveness. Unlike Court de Gebelin's somewhat rambling obser-
vations, however, it possesses a coherence that enables the reader to
extract a connected general message which the supposed Egyptian inven-
tors of the cards might be thought to have reckoned worth encoding in a
sequence of pictorial images.
De Mellet states that the last numbered trump - trump I in the
descending order adopted by him and Court de Gebelin - is followed by a
single card representing Madness: the figure's march towards crime is
impeded by a tiger which symbolises remorse. It will be recalled that de
Gebelin also took the diminutive animal to be a tiger, without, however,
putting the allegorical interpretation upon it. De Mellet's next remark
foreshadows a feature of great importance in later Tarot occultism: 65

These first twenty-two cards are not merely hieroglyphs, which, placed in
their proper order, retrace the history of the earliest times, but are also
letters which, combined in different ways, are capable of forming sentences;
 3. The Founders of Tarot Occultism 71
even their name (A-tout) is just a literal translation of their use and general
character.

The word 'atout' is simply the ordinary French word, in use then and now,
for 'trump', including a Tarot trump: divided in de Mellet's way, it means
'to all'. In a footnote, de Mellet remarks that the Hebrew alphabet has
twenty-two letters. This reinforces Court de Gebelin's glancing remark,
associating the Hebrew letters with the trump cards. In another footnote,
de Mellet says of the Fool:
This card has no rank: it completesthe sacred alphabet, and correspondsto
the letter Tau, which signifies completionor perfection: perhaps it was
intended in its most natural sense to represent the results of man's actions.
Tau is the last letter of the Hebrew alphabet, and Aleph the first. Jean-
Marie Lhote's comment on this passage is doubly mistaken. 66 He says that
this is the first time attention has been drawn to the coincidence in
number of the Tarot trumps and of the Hebrew letters, overlooking Court
de Gebelin's previous remark to that effect. He also suggests that the
correspondence runs from the Bateleur (trump I), as associated with
Aleph, to the Fool, associated with Tau. This, however, conflicts with de
Mellet's insistence that the cards are to be taken in descending numerical
order, so that it must be the World (XXI), according to him, that is
associated with Aleph. This is confirmed by later remarks made by de
Mellet when he expounds his system of divination: the Sun (XIX) is stated
to correspond to Gimel, Typhon (the Devil, XV) to Zain, Death (XIII) to
Teth, Fortune (X) to Lamed, and the Fool to Tau. 67 This can be understood
only as meaning what one would expect from all that has gone before,
namely that the correspondence runs from trump XXI as Aleph, trump XX
as the second letter, Beth, and so on down to trump I as Shin and finally
the Fool as Tau. Unlike Court de Gebelin, de Mellet actually puts the
correspondence to use in his divinatory procedure, since he takes the
Hebrew letters to have symbolic meanings which are transferred to the
associated cards: for example, Gimel signifies recompense or happiness,
Zain inconstancy, error or crime, Teth the action of sweeping, Lamed law
or science, and Samech adhesion. De Mellet does not give a complete list
of these meanings, which he seems to assume are known to all.
Having explained that the twenty-two trumps were originally 'hiero-
glyphs', by which he means symbolic images, representing the early
history of mankind, but later became letters of an alphabet, de Mellet
proceeds to recount how the suit cards came to be added to them.
When the Egyptians had forgotten the first interpretation of these pictures,
and when the latter had come to serve as simple letters for their sacred
writing, it was natural that so superstitious a peopleshould attach an occult
potency to characters which were venerable for their antiquity, and which
72 A Wicked Pack of Cards
the priests, who alone understood them, used only for religious purposes.
They even invented new characters ...

In a footnote, de Mellet refers to the 'science of numbers and the value

of the letters' as 'formerly very well known'; possibly an allusion to the
Cabala. He cites Holy Scripture as recording divination by means of the
objects represented by the suit-signs: Joseph's cup; the staff (baton) of
Moses; swords, arrows and other weapons; and talismans (corresponding
to Coins) such as the household gods of Laban. This connection between
talismans and the Coins suit was later to be emphasised by Eliphas Levi.
De Mellet, however, concludes by assigning exactly the same significance
to the four suits as Court de Gebelin had done. 'These four signs were
introduced alongside the religious images once the institution of the Kings
had led to the differentiation of estates in society', that is, of social classes.
Swords represent royalty and the powerful of the earth; Cups the priest-
hood; Coins commerce; and Batons agriculture. From this point on, de
Mellet reserves the term 'tableaux' (pictures) for the trump cards.
He proceeds to commit the same mistake as Court de Gebelin in
supposing that the names given to certain particular cards in the game of
Aluette apply to the corresponding cards in Tarot, and makes the same
error of detail as Court de Gebelin had done in assigning the name 'le
Borgne' (the one-eyed man) to the Ace of Coins rather than to the 2. If
Court de Gebelin's essay were wholly original, then de Mellet's would have
been a piece of shameless plagiarism; if not, then both must have had the
same, or closely related, sources.
Before expounding the manner of divination by means of Tarot cards
supposedly employed by the ancient Egyptians, de Mellet makes a prelimi-
nary comparison with that employed by contemporary cartomancers using
ordinary French playing cards. 'Our fortune-tellers', he begins, 'not know-
ing how to read the hieroglyphs, have subtracted all the pictures' - that is,
the trump cards - 'and changed the names of Cups, Batons, Coins and
Swords, ... substituting those of Hearts, Diamonds, Clubs and Spades'.
Although Etteilla had reported a practice of divination by means of Tarot
cards eleven years earlier, de Mellet appears unaware of any such prac-
tice, at least by professional fortune-tellers. Probably the practice to which
Etteilla was referring was confined to casual employment by private
individuals.
De Mellet's principal importance to our history lies in his being the first
to describe a method of divination with Tarot cards. Quoting from Genesis,
he insists on the Egyptians' having predicted the future from dreams, but
asserts, of course without a shred of evidence, that they supplemented this
with cartomancy. He even illustrates this by a lay-out of Tarot cards that
would have given the same message as Pharaoh's dream of the seven fat
and seven lean kine. The technique of Tarot cartomancy he attributes to
the ancient Egyptians is not at all clearly described, and appears to be
 3. The Founders of Tarot Occultism 73
based on methods of divination by means of ordinary cards in use amongst
contemporary French cartomancers; but it is noteworthy that, unlike any
other method ever recorded, it operates with the trump cards and the suit
cards separately. There is no lay-out in the proper sense: it is merely a
matter of extracting the cards from which the future is to be foretold. De
Mellet envisages two operators acting simultaneously, one holding the set
of twenty-two trumps, the other the set of fifty-six suit cards, each of which
has first to be shuffled. The one with the suit cards turns them over
successively, saying in turn, 'Ace', '2', '3', ... , '10', 'Jack', 'Cavalier', 'Queen',
'King', and then beginning again with 'Ace'. Any card that proves to be of
the rank which he names in turning it over he sets aside to be one of those
selected for the reading. While he does this, the one holding the trumps
simultaneously and at the same pace runs through them, keeping them
face down, however. Whenever his colleague sets a card aside, he turns
over and sets aside the trump card that he has simultaneously laid down;
it, too, has by this means been selected as one of those to be used in the
reading. He has, of course, fewer cards than his colleague with the suit
cards: when he has laid them all down, he picks up the pile (diminished by
those cards that have been set aside), and, without disturbing the order
(now the reverse of the original one), starts again from the top. The
outcome of this procedure is a row of suit cards and another row of trumps,
of the same length. How these are to be read is hardly explained at all.
Numerical values can be given to the suit cards, the Jacks each counting
1, the Cavaliers 2, the Queens 3 and the Kings 4; each numeral card is of
course valued according to its number. The sum of these values is signifi-
cant; but how, in general, its significance is to be determined, we are not
told. In the example, the values sum to 7, and this is interpreted as
denoting a period of seven years (seven years of good harvests and seven
years of bad); but, obviously, this cannot always be the meaning. The
associations of the suits - Batons with agriculture, Coins with commerce,
and so on - are important for the reading. The trumps appear to be
interpreted in accordance with the symbolic meanings of the Hebrew
letters: but since de Mellet does not tell us what all of these are, it would
be difficult to put his cartomantic method into practice.
The essay of this obscure nobleman on the Tarot would never have come
down to us, or even have made an appearance in print, had not Court de
Gebelin included it in his book. It forces us to view the latter's own
contribution, not merely as the product of a single individual's eccentric
fantasy, but as part of a lore current among the illuminist circles of which
Court de Gebelin had made himself so active a participant: a lore as
baseless, indeed, as the legends of Hiram and of the Templars which
formed the mythology of Freemasonry. Within two years of the publication
of the eighth and penultimate volume of Monde primitif, the brief studies
of the Tarot by Court de Gebelin and de Mellet were to give birth to a
startling progeny.
 CHAPTER4

Etteilla: the First Professional

Cartomancer

In 1765, the celebrated adventurer Giacomo Casanova was in Russia.

Near St Petersburg, at 'Catarinoff' (Ekaterinov), he had an opportunity
to buy a charming little slave-girl of thirteen whom he immediately
renamed Zarre and who was soon to become his mistress. Zarre had two
failings: she was extremely jealous and she was addicted to card-reading.
She had a 'blind faith in what the cards she consulted every day told her'.
Some weeks later, as Casanova had spent a night out, without Zarre but
not without companions of both sexes, he was welcomed home with cries
and reproaches. 'She points to a square of twenty-five cards, in which she
makes me read in symbols the whole of the debauch which had kept me
out all night .... I saw nothing; but she imagined she saw everything.'
Casanova did not like it and 'threw her accursed abracadabra into the fire';
he threatened Zaire that he would dismiss her unless she gave up card
reading. 1
Although it is surprising to hear of card reading in such remote a place
as Russia - and in the hands of a young uneducated Russian peasant girl
- this is the very first account we have of anyone's using a spread of
playing cards to tell fortunes. We may note that, in spite of his great
experience oflife, Casanova is not really accustomed to it.
Five years later, a book was published in Paris under the title Etteilla,
ou maniere de se recreer avec unjeu de cartes par M*** (Etteilla, or A Way
to Entertain Oneself with a Pack of Cards by Mr***, Amsterdam and Paris,
Lesclapart, 1770). It expounded a way of using ordinary playing cards to
tell the future. Introduced as a mere entertainment, the process needed a
full Piquet pack, that is a pack of cards where the lower cards, from twos
to sixes, had been eliminated, as was then customary in France for playing
the popular game of Piguet. To these thirty-two cards, the writer recom-
mended adding a thirty-third, which he called 'Etteilla', designed to
represent the questioner.
Here too, the full meaning of the cards was obtained by spreading them
in different ways (fan, square, etc.), but each card had also a meaning by
itself or rather two meanings, according to the orientation it had when laid
out. (At this time, French playing cards were not yet 'double-headed'; the
 4. Etteilla: the First Professional Cartomancer 75
figures were complete, so when a card was dealt upside down, it was
'reversed'.) Here is a table showing the system of meanings as stated in
the 1770 (and later) editions (/R stands for reversed meaning):

Table I: Etteilla•s Piquet (1770)

Hearts Diamonds Clubs Spades
K A blonde man Aman Dark man Lawyer
UR) Chestnut blonde Aman Chestnut brown Widowed man
Q A blonde lady A lady Dark lady Widowed lady
(JR) Chestnut blonde A lady Chestnut brown Lady of the world
J A blonde youth A soldier Dark youth Messenger
(JR) Chestnut blonde A servant Chestnut brown Spy
A Mars A letter Purse of money Venus
Extraordinary table [!] Note Nobility Pregnancy
10 Town Gold House Tears
Inheritance Betrayal Lover Losses
9 Victory Delay Bill (E{fet) Ecclesiastic
Boredom Enterprise A gift Saturn
8 Blonde Country Brunette Illness
Chestnut blonde Sorrow Chestnut brunette Nun
7 The thought Gossip Money Hope
Desire Birth Embarrassment Friendship
Etteilla
The questioner

General themes emerge for the suits. Hearts deal in power and expec-
tations, Diamonds in relationships, Clubs in material goods and money,
Spades in spiritual ideas and love. Although these various meanings are
by no means the same as those stated in 1781 by the comte de Mellet, it is
hard to believe they were invented by Etteilla himself. However, it must
be underlined that it is the oldest printed account we know of a method of
card-reading. In spite oflater claims by Albert d'Alby2 and others, there is
no earlier description of the use of playing cards for fortune-telling. It is
also to be noted that Etteilla ignores Pere Menestrier's classical interpre-
tation of the four suits which was still current in the late XVIII century.
For Father C.-F. Menestrier, writing in 1704,3 Hearts represented men of
the Church, Diamonds the Merchants, Clubs were the symbols of Peas-
antry, and Spades that of the 'Noblesse d'epee'. As we have seen, these
meanings were familiar to Court de Gebelin and the comte de Mellet.
76 A Wicked Pack of Cards

The man who was Etteilla

Although, in this first book, Etteilla is not exactly a pen-name, it is clear
it has been formed by reversing the author's true surname, Alliette.
Actually, most libraries in the world which have books written by Etteilla
between 1770 and 1791 put them under the entry Alliette. This is con-
firmed by a brief biography of Etteilla which was published by J.-B.
Millet-Saint-Pierre in 1859 at Le Havre (Millet-Saint-Pierre 1859).4 A long
but spurious tradition, mainly due to occultist circles, took him as a
hairdresser (perruquier). His given name was quite unknown. Although
the name of Etteilla is attached to a strange Tarot pack still printed by the
French cardmaking firm Grimaud-France and now marketed in a bilin-
gual version (Grand Etteilla ou Tarots egyptiens I Egyptian Gypsies Tarot),
very little was known of his life. From Millet-Saint-Pierre, we only knew
he had died in December 1791. From his publications, we can see he
published books from 1770 to 1791. Is he really the designer of the
so-called Grand Etteilla Tarot?
Research in the archives, close examination of Etteilla's writings and
some other finds now allow us to trace a more consistent biography. A full
list of Etteilla's books, pamphlets and graphic publications has been
established, and some of his disciples have been brought to light, whom
we will deal with in the next chapter.
Etteilla's real name was Jean-Baptiste Alliette, as is made clear in a
burial certificate delivered on 13 December 1791 which is kept in the Paris
Archives. 5 It reads:
Extracted from St-Germain-l'Auxerrois parish registers of christenings,
marriages and deaths.
Tuesday, 13 December 1791, Jean-Baptiste Alliette, teacher of algebra
('professeur d'algebre'), aged 53, spouse to Jeanne Vatier, deceased yester-
day at 8 in the evening, rue de Beauvais, has been buried in the cemetery in
the presence of Louis-Jean-Baptiste Alliette, merchant grocer, his son, and
of Rene Moussu, master hairdresser.

This interesting document gives us many clues. Indeed, from 1782,

Etteilla was accustomed to style himself 'teacher of algebra', a fancy title
which had no real professional basis. The rather early age of 53 allows us
to calculate the year of his birth. Not only does he say he is 47 in one of his
1785 books, 6 but he himself confirms he was born on 1 March 1738 at the
end of Le zodiaque mysterieux, ou les oracles d'Etteilla (Amsterdam and
Paris, Lesclapart, 1772). In a short anonymous pamphlet called Lettre sur
['oracle dujour, published in 1772, certainly inspired by Etteilla himself,
he says he was born in Paris. It is not surprising to find his son at his
burial, since we know that some books printed in 1790 and 1791 were
published at Etteilla fils's address: 'quartier du Palais-Royal, vers le
milieu de la rue du Chantre, maison du Perruquier, au 3•, attenant l'hotel
 4. Etteilla: the First Professional Cartomancer 77
de Wasingthon [sic]' (Palais-Royal district, around the middle of the rue
du Chantre, Hairdresser's House, 3rd Floor, near Washington [mis-
spelled] Hotel). Certainly Rene Moussu was the hairdresser whose house
accommodated Etteilla's son. He may be the origin of the legend which
made Etteilla himself a hairdresser. As we shall see, Jean-Baptiste Al-
liette never did any hairdressing, but first sold seeds and, later, prints!
Nothing is known of Etteilla's youth. Evidence goes no further back
than 1760, when Jean-Baptiste Alliette still owed 600 livres to one Jean
Langlois. 7 He must have married Jeanne Vattier by 1763, as the Alliette
couple is sued for a job certificate delivered to a young apprentice. They
are then said to be seed merchants ('marchands grainiers'). Other docu-
ments from the same source confirm that Etteilla used to sell seeds at least
until 1769.8 In 1767, Etteilla separated from his wife and may well have
begun his card-reading activities.
It is not so strange to see Jean-Baptiste Alliette selling seeds and
grains. All his family was involved in the food trade: his father, also
christened Jean-Baptiste, was a caterer ('maitre rotisseur'), and his
brother took over his father's shop when he died in 1758. Marie-Anne
Bautray, Etteilla's mother, became a seed merchant too once her husband
was dead. She died in 1769.9 By now, Jean-Baptiste Alliette lived at the
'quai de la Megisserie'. However, in the same archives, we meet a third
Jean-Baptiste Alliette: Jean-Baptiste Alliette l'Aine [the Elder], 'ancien
maitre traiteur et bourgeois de Paris, demeurant rue aux Feves en la Cite'
(former master caterer and burgess of Paris). As Jean-Baptiste Alliette
pere was already dead - his wife is accordingly called 'veuve Alliette' - we
have to conclude that Etteilla had a brother curiously bearing the same
name. The document now kept in the National Archives (Paris) therefore
makes a distinction between Jean-Baptiste Alliette l'Aine (the Elder) and
Jean-Baptiste Alliette le Jeune (the Younger). Other accounts specify
'Jean-Baptiste Alliette le Jeune, dit Etteilla'.
This ghost brother was not so much older: a very amusing case has left
traces in the police files of 1763.10 Although married, Alliette the Elder was
in love with a young girl whom he tried to kidnap. The archives inform us
that he was by then 26, so that he was born in 1737. He too was born in
Paris. He had been emancipated in 175811 in order to succeed his father
although he still was in his minority (up to 25 in those days). Jean-Baptiste
Alliette l'Aine was not very successful in business. Apparently he was for
a while a wine merchant and caterer ('marchand de vins traiteur') or a
refreshment-stall owner ('buvetier') 'au Palais' (today the Paris Palais de
Justice in the Cite). He went bankrupt and obtained terms of payment for
his debts in 1772 and 1773.12 He had married Marianne-Elisabeth Fon-
taine, whose will, written in December 1780, has been kept and who
probably died in 1781; he then married Marie-Marguerite Delespine as
soon as 1782. In 1786-7, Alliette I'Aine was living in Bagneux, in the Paris
 78 A Wicked Pack of Cards
suburbs, as a farmer. He must have died before November 1791, since his
widow appears in a notarised act of that date. 13
As we have seen, Etteilla had a son who was christened Louis-Jean-
Baptiste. (Maybe other children were born, but they have left no traces.)
We have already met him around 1790-1, when he seems to have taken
share in his father's business as Etteilla fils. He nevertheless is styled
'merchant grocer' in his father's burial certificate. We find him again as a
merchant in 1805, 1811 and 1826.14
Etteilla repeatedly asserts he was engaged in studying the Tarot pack
from 1757 to 1765;15 he informs us that he had been prompted to under-
take this study by an aged Piedmontese. Millet-Saint-Pierre was in
position to add that this 'vieillard Piemontois' had been met at Lamballe
(Brittany) and that he was named Alexis. 16 In another book of 1785,
Philosophie des hautes sciences, Etteilla speaks of 1753 as the date of his
first writings (p. 116). However, we have no way to prove Etteilla's own
claims about his very precocious meeting with a 'Piedmontese' nor his
early travels.
Nonetheless, it seems that his conjugal misfortunes have left traces in
Jean-Baptiste Alliette's words. The fourth 'cahier' of Maniere de se recreer
avec unjeu de cartes nommees tarots (1785) may allude to his heartbreaks.
It is an example of Etteilla's astrological method which supposes 'a ques-
tioner named Etteilla'. A long and painful account follows which can be
interpreted in the light of the 1767 separation:
151, &c. Etteilla will ally himself to a Xanthippe, who by her roundabout
means, with the major force upon him, will cause the loss of all his property.
. . . Etteilla, overwhelmed with worries, will seek solitude .. .. He will be
devoured by sorrows .. . and will find death preferable to an inform or
unfortunate lifeno,.
... 14 & 34. Etteilla overcomes force, breaks his ties and strikes down his
sorrows .... He loses the remainder of his heritage; Xanthippe demands a
share and his joint heirs grab the rest [... ].

Footnote (10) has this disabused comment: 'When you have come to the
point of considering how one can find life not to be the greater of goods,
you begin to enjoy the real bliss of your existence ... .' Was Etteilla tempted
by suicide?
This really would very well accord with what we now know ofEtteilla's
life. Exactly when Alliette was writing these lines (i.e. 1785), Jeanne
Vattier was being sued by a bailiff named Masson, who was claiming back
payment of his fees for old debts going back to the time when she was still
in business with her husband. 17
Furthermore, the link between Xanthippe and Jeanne Vattier is once
again alluded to by Etteilla in another book, Philosophie des hautes
sciences (1785). At the end of it, Etteilla has put some letters to the Editor.
One of them reads: 'To the Editor. Is it true, Sir, that in order to advance

-------- --------~--
 4. Etteilla: the First Professional Cartomancer 79
in High Sciences ['les hautes Sciences'], you must not have a wife, children,
or civil life embarrassments?' Etteilla answers by quoting his own case: 'It
is in the company of my Xanthippe, in household embarrassments, among
my children, in the distress of business [of selling seeds?], and in other
different mortifications that I have endured, that I conceived the hautes
Sciences' (p. 140). Later, his disciple D'Odoucet also accused him of
'causing much trouble to science by stepping back from the sacred duties
of a husband, of a father, etc. with impunity'. 18

A first phase of success

In 1770, as we have seen, Etteilla published Etteilla, ou maniere de se
recreer avec un jeu de cartes par M***. In spite of all later claims, this is
for sure the very first book he has ever published. The book had a
frontispiece and eight engraved plates. It was reviewed in the very serious
Journal de Trevoux edited by the Jesuits 19 as well as in L'Avant-Coureur,
which gave a summary with Etteilla's address: 'rue de Beauvais, place du
Louvre, maison du menuisier'. 20 Two years later a new book came out: Le
zodiaque mysterieux, ou les oracles d'Etteilla (The mysterious zodiac, or
Etteilla's oracles, Amsterdam and Paris, Lesclapart, 1772), a mere collec-
tion of astrological predictions. Like the previous one, it was reviewed in
the Journal de Trevoux. 21 Surely Jean-Baptiste Alliette was also inter-
ested in 'astral' divination. But, according to a recent study by Jacques
Halbronn, 22 this is not real astrology.
The following year saw a new edition of his first publication: Etteilla,
ou la seule maniere de tirer les cartes; revue, corrigee et augmentee par
l'auteur sur son premier manuscrit (Etteilla, or the only way to read cards;
revised, corrected and augmented by the author from his first manuscript,
Amsterdam and Paris, Lesclapart, 1773). By now, Alliette lives 'rue de
Bretagne, vis-a-vis celle de Bausse [in front of the rue de Beauce], dans la
maison neuve, au 1er[in the new building, 1st floor]'. This second edition
is a good proof that Etteilla's method of card-reading was successful. But
we have other evidence of his success. Etteilla is alluded to in a small
light-hearted pamphlet written by Claude-Nicolas Bricaire de La
Dixmerie 23 much about the same time. The writer says in a footnote that
'the famous card-reader in China [here an amusing metaphor for France]
prints his judgements as the author ofl'Almanach des Muses prints his',
and adds this ironical comment: 'The whole of China is divided between
these two inspired men.' Another little book, which we may suspect to have
been written at Etteilla's request, Lettre sur l'oracle du jour (1772), gives,
under the signature of one 'Duchesse de***', a flattering portrait of the
fortune-teller.
80 A Wicked Pack of Cards

Ten years of silence

From then on, we have a gap of ten years in Etteilla's publications. Given
his frenetic activities, of which we already have had examples - three
books in four years - and the flood of publications which will come from
his pen between 1782 and 1791, it is very strange to hear nothing from
him during these ten years. Had he problems with his predictions? Had he
family problems, as alluded to in one of his later books? It is impossible to
say.
But Jean-Baptiste Alliette has not disappeared: he has just taken up a
new business, that of print selling. From 1768-9, we have traces of a print
seller named Alliette. Several clues lead to the conclusion that this print
seller is very often, though possibly not always, to be identified with
Etteilla. First of all, we have the testimony of Johann-Samuel Ersch in his
bibliography of the current French literature, which was published in
1797.24 He introduces Etteilla's books under his real name: 'Alliette, by
anagram Etteilla, Print seller in Paris'. Researches on the Parisian print
trade made by Pierre Casselle in 1976 have allowed him to trace Alliette,
irritatingly with no Christian name. 25 Alliette's career begins with a
strange affair. During the year 1768, three young thieves had stolen
several books and prints in the Bibliotheque du Roi. The Police visited
many book and print sellers and found most of the stolen goods in their
shops. Alliette was inspected on 11 March 1769, 'in his shop, quai de
!'Infante and in his flat, quai de la Ferraille'. Although the keeper of the
Royal Library discovered some of the stolen prints there, Alliette offered
solid reasons for having stored them: he had regularly purchased them
from a youth who had given him a letter by a noble protector. Finally,
although the 'noble protector' was found to be a forger, Alliette was proved
innocent and was not sued. 26
It is true that Etteilla had a particular interest in prints and engrav-
ings: in his Le,;ons theoriques et pratiques du livre de Thot (1787), he tells
us of a purchase he made of a 'magical calendar' by Tycho Brahe engraved
by Theodore de Bry in 1582,27 and adds in a footnote:
Print Amateurs are unaware ... that this map is as rare as some of the pretty
compositions by this skilful engraver. The celebrated Mariette auction,
organised by Monsieur Basan, a man to whom the print owes its price today
... and, let me say in passing, the talent of the engravers better paid than in
the time ofEdelink, Drevet, Ma~on, G. Audran; this sale, I say, brought me
two of these maps .... 28

This famous auction sale was devoted to Pierre-Jean Mariette's collec-

tion and was held in February and May 1775. Fortunately, some of the
auction catalogues survive. The Musee du Louvre Central Library owns a
copy with all prices and buyers' names written in ink on additional
sheets! 29 Although it is impossible to trace the maps by Theodore de Bry,
 4. Etteilla: the First Professional Cartomancer 81
the table of contents announces de Bry's 'complete oeuvre'. By reading the
names of the buyers, it is striking to find Alliette many times. Actually,
Alliette bought much more during the second sale (May 1775). The study
of the pieces where his name is marked gives no clue to a specific theme:
the purchases are quite diversified and are for the most part of whole lots.
It really looks like a dealer's choice rather than a collector's.
Alliette's shop was advertised at length in a directory published in Paris
in 1776 by J.-B.-P. Lebrun, under the title Almanach historique et
raisonne des architectes, peintres, .. .graveurs ... (Paris, 1776):
ALLIETI'E,rue Froidmanteau, near the 'Guichet' [i.e. the Louvre], has early
attached himself to trading antique prints, principally those by little mas-
ters. He also has drawings. He completes collections and values print rooms.
One can rely on his knowledge and the good faith of a dealer well-known for
the many travels he has made in the Provinces of the Kingdom, where he has
brought the taste for rare and precious pieces, and has enlightened amateurs
(pp. 216-17).

The second edition ofLebrun's directory, in 1777, has only two lines but
gives the same address (p. 172). Another proof of the identity of Alliette
with Etteilla is given by his very own signature, under his real name
Alliette, visible on one of the registers of the Book Office ('la Librairie')
where he acknowledges receipt of a packet from Sainte-Menehould. 30
There is even a print bearing Alliette's address: it is entitled Lotto des
lndiens .. . 1772. . .. Extrait des recreations algebriques d'Etteilla and has,
in the lower right corner, 'chez Alliette, bourgeois et marchand d'estam-
pes, a Strasbourg'.
Etteilla? Strasbourg? Yes, Etteilla was in Strasbourg in the same years.
This is one of the puzzles the fortune-teller has left us. There is no doubt
that Jean-Baptiste Alliette the Younger went to Strasbourg in 1777 where
he settled as a 'Kupferstichhandler' (German for print seller); he even
bought the 'Burgerrecht' (citizenship) as is evidenced from the Citizenship
Books ('Livres de Bourgeoisie'): on 2 April 1777, Jean-Baptiste Alliette,
'print seller and bachelor, from Paris, legitimate son of Jean-Baptiste
Alliette, burgess and caterer from there, and of Marie-Anne nee Bautray'
paid 103 florins 5 schillings for the right of being a burgess of Strasbourg. 31
At the same time he joined the 'Stilt' Guild ('Zunft der Stelz') which
grouped the art craftsmen, like printers, print sellers, cardmakers and
book-binders. A directory of the guild for the year 1779 has been kept at
the City Archives. Here, we find the name of Jean-Baptiste Aliette (sic) as
Kupferstichhandler with the date 1777.32
Was it really Etteilla or his brother, who bore exactly the same name
as he? There is a good clue for the first of our Alliettes, since Etteilla
himself reveals he knows the Strasbourg cardmakers very well. Not only
because, by 1785, he used to buy their Tarot cards, as we shall see later,
but because he also used to meet them in the same guild! In one of his
82 A Wicked Pack of Cards
books on the Tarot, Etteilla tells us it is in Strasbourg that the best Tarot
cards are made, but blames the cardmaker Jean-Baptiste Benoist in the
following terms:
Mr Benoit, cardmaker in Strasbourg, will you please put back, as it is in all
workshops, a butterfly on the tree which is on the hieroglyph called the Star?
his father has let it be taken off by the Nuremberger who cut his old blocks.
Mr Benoit is half-German; he will listen to no argument, therefore, he will
change nothing. 33

Another, still better, proof comes from another of Etteilla's books: in

Philosophie des hautes sciences (1785), alluding to his stay in Strasbourg,
Etteilla says: 'When in Strasbourg, I was pleased to fix M. Cerbere's
youngest son's birth chart' (p. 105). But his stay was not to last very long.
In the 1781 edition of the Zunft Buchlein, 34 the guild directory, Alliette
appears among the 'verzogene Ziinftige' ('guild members no longer resi-
dent'): Alliette had left Strasbourg before 1781.

Etteilla and the Tarot

It may well be that, in 1781, Etteilla had a flash of inspiration. This was
the year when Court de Gebelin published the eighth volume of his Monde
primitif where he dealt with the Tarot seen as the 'Book of Thoth'. This
certainly helped Etteilla to come back into the field of card-reading. The
following year Etteilla published two leaflets: Instruction sur le loto des
Indiens que nous a donne en 1772 Mr Etteilla, professeur d'algebre (In-
struction upon the Indians' Lotto which Mr Etteilla, Teacher of Algebra,
gave us in 1772) and Instruction sur la combinaison hislerique, extraite du
Loto des Indiens (Instruction upon the 'Hislerian' Combination, extracted
from the Indians' Lotto) both intended to be joined to the engraving Lotto
des Indiens ... 1772. ... Extrait des recreations algebriques d'Etteilla.
From then on, he will constantly style himself 'Etteilla, professeur d'al-
gebre'.
In 1783 Etteilla brought out a new edition of his first book: Etteilla, ou
instructions sur l'art de tirer les cartes. Troisieme et derniere edition,
together with an engraving etched by Patron entitled 'Cartonomancie, ou
l'art de tirer les cartes. Troisieme edition ... Extrait des recreations
algebriques d'Etteilla' (Cartonomancy, or the Art of card reading. Third
edition ... Taken from Etteilla's algebraic entertainments). It is the earli-
est occurrence of this word for which Etteilla would always claim the
authorship and which was to give rise to the modern cartomancie (and so,
of course, to English 'cartomancy'). In the same year a strange 38-page
book appeared: L'homme aprojets, in which Etteilla - who, for once, has
not put his name on the title page - tells us a dream and ends by
expounding in very abstruse words three short 'projects'. In spite of its
 4. Etteilla: the First Professional Cartomancer 83
anonymous presentation, the book got an official 'permission tacite' on 24
April 1783.35 In those years, Etteilla lives in the rue de la Verrerie,
'vis-a-vis celle de la Poterie, dans le batiment neuf' (in front of the rue de
la Poterie, in the new building). This new building soon became known as
'l'hotel de Crillon' because it belonged to the count (later duke) de Crillon.
This address remained Etteilla's until 1786.
But there was something new: the Book of Thoth. Certainly, Etteilla
had already heard of the Tarot. At the end of his first book of 1770, he lists
several methods of fortune-telling: 36 'the Tarot, tin, molten lead, coffee
grounds, the white of an egg', where Tarot - actually spelled 'les Taraux'
- is written in an obviously archaic spelling which might indicate that
Etteilla was not familiar with the word. After 1782, and in accordance with
Court de Gebelin's more learned spelling, he constantly wrote tarot.
We can imagine what an outstanding justification Jean-Baptiste Al-
liette could find for his rigmarole: a kind of playing cards, whose antiquity
was established by no less a savant than Court de Gebelin, was proved to
be a book full of 'philosophy'! How gratifying it was for Etteilla to be
supported in his quest by a man who was a member of several academies.
We have evidence that, as early as 1782, Alliette submitted a manuscript
to the royal censors, as was usual at that time. The Book Office ('Librairie')
archives have kept the mention of his original title: Cartonomanie [sic]
Egiptienne, ou interpretation de 78 hierogliphes qui sont sur les cartes
nommees Tarots (Egyptian Cartonomania, or Interpretation of the 78
hieroglyphs which are on the cards called Tarots). But the manuscript was
denied publication. In the right-hand column, someone has written: 'raye
du 20 novembre 1782' (cancelled 20 November 1782).37 Unfortunately, it
has not been possible to find the censor's report, so we have to rely on
Etteilla's words. In Le,;ons theoriques et pratiques du livre de Thot (1787),
he labours to convince his readers that he had long been independently
aware of the esoteric significance of the Tarot pack. He makes reference
to his first book (1770), trying to show it dealt with Tarot cards, and not
with ordinary cards only. Was he accused of plagiarism?
In 1782, upon the report of a rigid censor, we were forbidden to print them
[the arguments of the Book of Thoth]; they were printed in 1783, under a
vague title, a title which got us a more tolerant censor. This book, entitled
Maniere de se recreer avec le Jeu de Cartes nommees Tarots, 12mo, ... , could
not be copied from de Gebelin; we even have the proof of the date, 1782,
thanks to the registers of the General Book Office, and that of 1783, thanks
to the registers of the Police Book office ... 38

If it was not possible to find any mention of Maniere de se recreer ... in

the 'Registre de librairie pour les permissions tacites' for 1782-1788, at
least we were lucky to find a report dated 26 June 1787 by another royal
censor (Dudin), authorising 'several manuscripts entitled: Le,;ons theori-
ques et pratiques du Livre de Thot: Collection sur les hautes sciences divisee
84 A Wicked Pack of Cards
en 12 parties: Supplement au Second et cinquieme cahier des Tharots, par
M. Eteilla.' 39 What actually was the role of Court de Gebelin, who appears
to have been 'censeur royal' from 1781?40 We have no proof that he was the
'rigide censeur'.
Between 1783 and 1785, Etteilla produced his master contribution to
the esoteric Tarot under the title Manie re de se recreer avec le jeu de cart es
nommees tarots (A way to entertain oneself with the pack of cards called
Tarots). If Alliette constantly pays homage to Court de Gebelin, neither
the style, nor the description of the 'hieroglyphs' accords with Court's
words. It is a turgid, wordy, confusing work, but no one can deny its
novelty. It certainly was planned to be published in four 'cahiers' (fas-
cicules), but censorship and other obstacles, among which Etteilla's lack
of academic rigour, have led to a very strange order of publication. Manie re
de se recreer avec lejeu de cartes nommees tarots; pour servir de troisieme
cahier a cet ouvrage (the third 'cahier') was published first in Amsterdam
and Paris by Segault and Legras in 1783. A 'first cahier' followed (making
reference to the previously published third fascicule), then a Supplement
au premier cahier de la maniere de se recreer avec lejeu de cartes nommees
tarots (dated July 1783). The following year, the Supplement au troisieme
cahier (dated 19 May 1784) came out. In 1785, Etteilla inserted a Frag-
ment sur les hautes sciences, suivi d'une note sur les trois sortes de
medecines donnees aux hommes (Fragment on High Sciences, followed by
a note on the three kinds of medicines given to men .. ., Amsterdam, 1785),
which was written in November 1784. Then, the 'quatrieme cahier' (fourth
fascicule) of Maniere de se recreer avec lejeu de cartes nommees tarots came
out, followed soon by its supplement (both 1785). The 'second cahier' was
not forgotten, which was published in 1785 too. The series was completed
in the same year by a book entitled Philosophie des hautes sciences, ou la
clef donnee aux enfans de l'art, de la science & de la sagesse (Philosophy of
High Sciences, or the Key given to Children of the Arts, Science and
Wisdom). 41 The missing fascicule was published later (1786) as Supple-
ment au second cahier, ou mieux cinquieme livre des tarots (Supplement to
the second fascicule, or better fifth book of Tarots). All four 'cahiers' of
Maniere de se recreer avec le jeu de cartes nommees tarots have each a
different frontispiece representing one of the four virtues (Temperance,
Justice, Prudence and Fortitude, respectively). Prudence shows a woman
holding a caduceus, raising her gown, and looking downwards at an
undulating snake under her feet. In this Etteilla is following Court de
Gebelin who saw Prudence in the Hanged Man; however, the figure is not
only turned upside down, but the man has been changed into a woman!
The other virtues, though more 'classical', have a strange look.
Like Court de Gebelin and the comte de Mellet, Jean-Baptiste Alliette
regards the Tarot pack as of Egyptian origin; like them, he saw it not as
intended for use in play, but as comprising a book, written in symbols
which he calls hieroglyphs, embodying an ancient wisdom, including a
 4. Etteilla: the First Professional Cartomancer 85
universal medicine and an account of the creation of the world and the
history of mankind. However, Etteilla was able to disclose more detail
about the composition of the book of Thoth than de Gebelin had done: it
was devised by a committee of seventeen magi, presided over by Hermes
Trismegistus in the 171st year after the Flood, being 3,953 years before
the date (1783) at which Etteilla recorded the fact, and the first copy was
inscribed on leaves of gold, which were disposed about a fire temple at
Memphis; he is even able to supply an exact plan of their disposition
within the temple. He makes no pretence at any explanation of how he has
come by the remarkable knowledge which he is imparting.
Etteilla confidently asserted that the Tarot pack, as it then existed, had
been distorted from its original Egyptian form by the mistakes of the
cardmakers. In the first place, several of the designs, or 'hieroglyphs', on
the trump cards are, he says, wrong on points of detail; for instance, in
place of the oval wreath on the World card there should be a serpent biting
its tail and forming a circle, in which we recognise the ouroboros, an
ancient cosmological symbol. Five of the 'hieroglyphs' used by the 'vile
cardmakers' are completely incorrect. Beside Prudence, the other four
'false hieroglyphs' are the Pope, Popess, Emperor and Empress. Instead of
the Pope, the corresponding card in the 'original Egyptian' version showed
light dispelling chaos; instead of the Popess, the 'original' card showed a
superb garden, with a naked man standing in it, surrounded by eleven
circles in the air. Secondly, the cardmakers have confused the order of the
cards. Alliette takes quite literally the idea that the cards, which he calls
feuillets (again following Court de Gebelin) or lames (a term which was to
meet a greater success among XIX-century occultists), form the pages of a
book: hence every card should be numbered, as the pages of a book are
numbered, and not just the twenty-one trumps. Moreover, it is proper to
use Arabic numerals, rather than the Roman ones employed by the
cardmakers, since according to Etteilla, it was the Egyptians who invented
the zero and from whom the Arabs derived their numerals.
In the first published fascicule (i.e. Maniere de se recreer avec le jeu de
cartes nommees tarots; pour servir de troisieme cahier a cet ouvrage, 1783),
Etteilla enumerates the cards according to the numbers in the 'original
Egyptian' order and gives instructions to correct the current Tarot cards. For
example, here is what he says of Le Monde (to which he assigns the number 5):
No. 5. The World signifies Journey.
(Please delete the oval cartouche, and put in place a serpent with its tail in
its mouth ... and, in place of two miserable blades of grass, put two pyramids
which must have 59 measures, because of the figure which had 121; and, in
accordance with all scholars, you will understand that this figure was
encircled with seven stars). (p. 6)

In spite of such a vivid and precise description, we have evidence that

only the four virtues were rendered into engravings to serve as frontis-
86 A Wicked Pack of Cards
pieces. In order to have a whole pack, Etteilla suggests correcting ordinary
Tarot cards, as those which were still in use for play in some parts of
France. For that, he gives very precise instructions in the Supplement to
the third cahier: (1) you first need to change the numbering of the feuillets;
(2) 'When your 78 feuillets are numbered, you put under the numbers the
meanings the cards have, as, for instance, under no. 27, Delay. When your
78 feuillets are marked with their first meanings, you put them upside
down, and you write, always following the book, their second meanings.' 42
Here are the correspondences which can be tabulated from the four
cahiers of Maniere de se recreer auec lejeu de cartes nommees tarots:

Table II: Numbering of Etteilla's Tarot compared to the

Tarot de Marseille trumps (1783)
Etteilla Tarot de Marseille
1= V. Pope
2= XIX.Sun
3= XVIII. Moon
4= XVII. Star
5= XXI. World
6= III. Empress
7= IV. Emperor
8= II. Popess
9= VIII. Justice
10 = XIV. Temperance
11= XI. Fortitude
12 = XII. Hanged Man
13 = VI. Love
14 = xv. Devil
15 = I. Mountebank (Bateleur)
16 = XX. Judgement
17 = XIII. Death
18= IX. Hermit
19 = XVI. Tower (Maison-Dieu)
20= X. Wheel of Fortune
21 = VII. Chariot
0= -Fool

Cards 1 to 7 represent the creation of the world (an adaptation of an

idea of the comte de Mellet) while card 8 represents the rest after creation.
In the second cahier, Etteilla explains the first seven cards as depicting
the creation of the world in a manner which appears to correspond to the
account of this given in the Pimander, to which he refers repeatedly. 43
 4. Etteilla: the First Professional Cartomancer 87
The Pimander was Etteilla's authority, mentioned frequently in his
writings about the Tarot, notably in the 'Second cahier' of Maniere de se
recreer avec le jeu de cartes nommees tarots, where reference is made to the
14th section of the 'Pymandre, traduit par Fran<;oisde Candalle, 1578' (p.
17).44 Despite Etteilla's fantasies, his fundamental thinking is still coher-
ent: if the Tarot is the Book of Thoth, and Thoth is Hermes Trismegistus
('Mercure Trismegiste', as he calls him), and the teachings of Hermes
Trismegistus are preserved in the Pimander, then we should find learned
Hermetism in the cards. However, Etteilla does not attempt to accommo-
date the whole of Hermetic philosophy in his Tarot. His focus is on the
creation myths. Etteilla also noted the Hermetist's reliance on the four
classical elements: this is why he assigned four trumps to the elements.
Both Etteilla and his authority are partially dependent upon the descript-
ion of creation in Genesis with its six days culminating in the formation of
humans.
In his idiosyncratic scheme, Etteilla next inserted Justice, Temperance,
Fortitude and Prudence as trumps 9 to 12. The remaining nine trumps
have their counterparts in the Tarot de Marseille, but Etteilla again
prefers a peculiar sequence. The secret order here may still spring from
the Corpus Hermeticum. In addition, cards 1 to 12 are associated with the
signs of the Zodiac, and should bear astrological symbols. Astrology plays
a large part too in Etteilla's Tarot.

Astrology, alchemy and other occult sciences

The second publication ofEtteilla, Le zodiaque mysterieux (1772), reveals
that Etteilla was also interested in 'astral' divination. The book is of very
minor interest and offers only a collection of oracles. 'Etteilla discovered
the astrological literature in detail late in his career, having only a rather
superficial view of the subject in his first texts', says Jacques Halbronn in
a recent analysis of Alliette's contribution to astrology. 45
Real progress must have been made, for the fourth 'cahier' of Maniere
de se recreer avec le jeu de cartes nommees tarots and its inescapable
Supplement, all published in 1785, are mostly devoted to astrology. Astrol-
ogy was then completely discredited and in deep decline, having
degenerated into a simple system of prognostications for country folk. All
specific literature had disappeared since the late XVII century and, in the
XVIII century, the Encyclopedists dealt the coup de grace. Thus Etteilla
appears to be swimming upstream. However, he is an original astrologer
since he realises a blend of the Tarot with astrology that neither Court de
Gebelin nor the comte de Mellet had imagined!
Etteilla of course assigns the invention of astrology to the Egyptians
who, 'by using the Book of Thoth in order to consult the oracles in the
astrological way, started by drawing twelve lames'. 46 The book offers
equivalences between the Tarot cards and astrological values, allowing
88 A Wicked Pack of Cards
the questioner to fix a birth chart. Etteilla quotes Rantzau, a German
astrologer of the XVII century, and Lenoble (Tableaux des philosophes,
1697), who was to be the last French classical author on astrology. Et-
teilla's novelty has left a definite mark to the esoteric Tarot. D'Odoucet
was to reprint these astrological equivalences in the third volume of his
Science des signes (c. 1806), but it was Paul Christian (Pitois) who would
definitely introduce astrology into the Tarot tradition with his L'homme
rouge des Tuileries (Christian 1863).
Not only was Jean-Baptiste Alliette concerned with astrology, but he
was also interested in other occult sciences. In 1786 and 1787, he publish-
ed no less than three books dealing with occult sciences other than
Egyptian 'cartonomancy' or astrology. The first of these books is a treatise
of alchemy, Les sept nuances de l'a!uvre philosophique-hermetique, suivies
d'un traite sur la perfection des metaux (The Seven Grades of the Philo-
sophical-Hermetic Work, followed by a treatise on metal perfecting), which
was probably published in 1786.47 Alchemy, too, had been in decline since
the late XVII century, a decline mainly due to the progress of scientific
chemistry. Although there still were some publications, they were mostly
general and academic publications, like Roth-Scholtz's Bibliographia
chemica (1727), Lenglet-Dufresnoy's Histoire de la philosophie hermetique
(1742) or Dom Pernety's famous Dictionnaire mytho-hermetique of 1758.
However, 'operative' alchemy had almost disappeared. Nonetheless, Etteilla
dared to publish a short alchemical treatise describing 'le grand oeuvre'. In
this book, he described himself as a disciple of the Comte de Saint-Germain
(1707-84), pretending he was still alive. Historians of alchemy regard
Etteilla's book as the last alchemical treatise of the classical period.48
The two other books came out in 1787, and were more commercial. One
deals with 'metoposcopy' (or physiognomy) and the other is a treatise on
palmistry (chiromancy), respectively entitled L'art de connoitre les
hommes par l'inspection du front, ou elemens de metoposcopie suivant les
anciens (The art of knowing men by inspecting the forehead, or elements of
metoposcopy according to the Ancient Sages) and L'art de lire dans les
lignes et caracteres qui sont dans les mains, ou elemens de chiromance (The
Art of reading in the lines and characters which are in the palms, or
elements of chiromancy ), obviously published both at once. Although
physiognomy had been totally reconstituted by Lavater (Physiognomische
Fragmente, 1775-8), it is dubious whether Etteilla had ever heard of this.
Instead, he refers to the old metoposcopy, citing an old text 'of 1656 by le
S. C**', i.e. Cureau de La Chambre who wrote L'art de connoistre les
hommes (Paris, 1659 and 1666, not 1656). Like metoposcopy, palmistry
was largely out offashion. It had been immensely popular in XVII-century
France, 49 but now it was mainly left to Gypsies. Nevertheless, a demand
for books certainly existed and Jean-Baptiste Alliette wanted to meet it.
By now, Etteilla had become a serious magician and a 'teacher of
algebra', such an impressive title that even Millet-Saint-Pierre seems to
 4. Etteilla: the First Professional Cartomancer 89
have misinterpreted it when observing Etteilla's reputedly deep know-
ledge in mathematics. What is sure is that Etteilla had a very prosaic
sense of values and prices. Not only did he never forget to advertise his
lessons and publications, but he always gave their prices very precisely.
The pamphlet Livre de Thot (1789), a 4-page summary of his method, is
an excellent example of Etteilla's small-trader attitude: 'If, holding in your
hands the Book ofThoth,price £ 6 [underlined], you don't understand me,
take six lessons for £ 3 each from myself or my pupil, M. d'Odoucet, or else
buy the book on Tarots (2 bound vol., 1200 pages with many figures, price
£ 12).' Here the shopkeeper shows himself under the robe of the magus.
After all, Etteilla came from a family of shopkeepers: his father and his
brother were caterers, and, like his mother, he had been a seed merchant.
No surprise if he knew how to count, how to advertise prices, or how to
promote his business! However, in spite of this price obsession, Alliette
was not moneygrubbing. In a footnote at the beginning of Philosophie des
hautes sciences (1785), he even offered to give free oracles, but only if
distress was real and not 'soiled with vile passions'.
Etteilla's reputation had reached some advanced circles, like the order
of the 'Philalethes', which had been founded in 1775 by Savalette de
Langes. When the Philalethes organised their second big philosophical
convention ('convent') on 8 March 1787, they invited Alliette to talk
'because of his reputation of knowledge in secret sciences'. 50 However,
Etteilla had towards Freemasonry some prejudice that he frankly ex-
pressed in his little 'Treatise on Metal Perfecting' appended to Les sept
nuances de l'muvre philosophique-hermetique (1786): 'Although I am not a
member of any lodge, I have for all that is true Masonry as much respect
as a brother can have when he knows the origin and understands the aim,
the Wisdom and the High sciences.' But he immediately adds: 'All the little
denominations of lodges and grades announce folly more than wisdom,
and all outside enactments announce ignorance more than science' (pp.
54-5).

The 'Societe des Interpretes du Livre de

Tbot' and Etteilla's Tarot
Etteilla had plans to publish the 'restored hieroglyphs' of the Tarot, but,
in 1783, he was still complaining about difficulties:
The author's intention was to have the 78 hieroglyphs of the Book of Thoth
engraved, as closely to the original ones as would have been possible; but
having calculated the cost, the fatigue, the general taste of the world, he has
preferred to leave this enterprise to posterity. 51

The demand for Tarot cards - which were difficult to get in Paris where
they were unknown to cardmakers since the late XVII century 52 - led
 90 A WickedPack of Car<is
Jean-Baptiste Alliette to retail packs that he bought in numbers from
places where they were traditionally made. He refers to Tourcaty, a
well-known cardmaker of Marseilles, and we have already been told of his
relationships with Jean-Baptiste Benoist and the Strasbourg cardmakers,
who were producing that slightly divergent kind of Tarot pack where Juno
replaced the Popess and Jupiter the Pope. 53
Still in 1787, one of Etteilla's numerous advertisements, put at the end
of Ler;ons theoriques et pratiques du livre de Thot, reveals that the cards
he was selling were ordinary Tarot packs:
The pack of cards called Tarots (on which one finds thousands of geometrical,
numerical, algebraic and cabalistic operations) ... being not made and not in
use in Paris, is to be found fully corrected and ready for play or for the art of
card reading (3 livres 12 sols) at Mr Etteilla's, teacher of algebra, rue de
l'Oseille, in the Marais, adjoining the rue Saint-Louis, No. 48.

If, as we have seen, Etteilla was averse to sectarian forms of organisa-

tion, he was certainly influenced by the then widespread fashion of
creating study groups and more or less initiatory societies, for, in 1788, he
founded a group under the name of 'Societe des Interpretes du Livre de
Thot' in order to gather all those who were interested in the 'interpretation
of the Book of Thoth'. Etteilla was at the head of it as 'correspondant
general'. The creation of the 'Societe des Interpretes du Livre de Thot'
certainly made possible the necessary investment for restoring the 78
hieroglyphs in their 'true' figures. In this matter, the Societe might have
played the role of a subscribers' club.
The name of Etteilla is nowadays associated with a very peculiar
divinatory Tarot pack, which is still printed by the French cardmaking
firm Grimaud-France. Although the current captions have been changed
without reason, the general look of these cards betray an old tradition. It
is easy to see that the virtues of the Etteilla Tarot pack are very similar to
the frontispieces of the four 'cahiers' of Maniere de se recreer ... (Justice has
been reversed from left to right.) It has been shown that the cards very
well correspond to Etteilla's own descriptions. 54 But the question re-
mained: was Etteilla's Tarot designed by Jean-Baptiste Alliette?
We have, first, two good witnesses who testify that such a T~ot had
existed, bearing Etteilla's signature: J.-B. Millet-Saint-Pierre and Eliphas
Levi. In his 1859 biography of Etteilla, Millet-Saint-Pierre said he had had
such a pack in his possession, 'a sort of expurgata edition of the Book of
Thoth, where the figures are represented according to his system'. Unfor-
tunately, the pack was lost while moving.55 Eliphas Levi had a copy of
Etteilla's Tarot too, and refers to it in one of his books: 'On the Tarot pack
that he [Etteilla] commissioned to engrave, and which is now very rare,
we read on card 28 (the Eight of Batons) this naive advertisement:
"Etteilla, teacher of Algebra, renovator of cartomancy and editors [sic] of
 4. Etteilla: the First Professional Cartomancer 91
the modern incorrections of this ancient Book of Thoth, lives in the rue de
l'Oseille, No. 48, in Paris".' That Levi was looking at an actual pack can be
inferred from this very precise passage, for such a caption could not have
been forged by him. 56
This story does not end here. Eliphas Levi's own copy of an Etteilla
Tarot pack was for sale at Dorbon's, a well-known Parisian antique book
dealer of the 1930s who specialised in esoteric and occult literature and
published in 1940 such a rich catalogue that it remains a valuable refer-
ence (Dorbon 1940). Entry no. 6664 reads: 'Etteilla's Tarot cards. 78
engraved and coloured cards, four of which bear advertising captions.'
Etteilla's address, as read by Levi, can, as expected, be seen on 'page 28',
whereas 'page 34' advertises the 'work on Tharaoth' (a fancy spelling of
Tarot), which consists of two bound volumes 'with many figures. Price: 12
livres.' Page 76 gives us the date of publication: 1788. The catalogue went
on to describe the 18mo illustrated red cardboard case and added that the
cards were 'finely engraved'. Eliphas Levi had adorned them with Hebrew
letters, additional drawings, comments, etc.
Another piece of evidence is provided by one of Etteilla's disciples, who
lived in Lyons: Charles Geille-Saint-Leger de Bonrecueille meticulously
copied all his letters in a clean and well-kept book, now owned by the
Lyons City Library. About twenty of his letters were sent to Etteilla. 57 On
27 November 1788, he writes to Alliette: 'I am very glad to hear that we
will soon have the Tarot cards you have restored.' On 14 March 1789, he
says he has at last received the new pack: 'We very satisfactorily have
received the Tarot cards which you sent us: I have divided them according
to their numbers .... You alone could reinstate the ancient Tarot cards in
their true and primeval splendour. Thanks to you, the study will become
easier and more interesting since the hieroglyphs are now much more
significant and, therefore, more intelligible.'
Although these cards seem extremely rare, one of us (T.D.) was lucky
enough to buy forty of this original edition. In this copy, which is far from
complete, card 28 has a caption half-scratched out: instead of Etteilla's
name, we read the name of his successor, D'Odoucet (with all Etteilla's
usual titles!); the address has been changed, in pen, to D'Odoucet's address
(i.e. 'rue Ste Anne, no. 11, a Paris'). The backs are printed with blue crosses
and suns as was customary for (ordinary) Tarot cards in the late XVIII
century. These cards are etched and very delicately painted by hand. Card
9 (Justice) has A.P.D.R. ('avec privilege du roi', with the King's appoint-
ment) printed on its side, a usual caption which disappeared in 1791. All
the purchased cards are identical to their modern reproductions, save card
1 ('Questionnant. I Etteilla.') which has no light-burst and card 14 where
the two little people surrounding the devil have no loincloths. D'Odoucet's
name is no surprise here, since he proclaimed himself successor to Etteilla
'and continuator ofhis works'. Since the rue Sainte-Anne was changed to 'rue
Helvetius' from 1793 to 1814, this copy would date back to 1792 (see Plates 2-3).
92 A Wicked Pack of Cards
The 'privilege' that Jean-Baptiste Alliette got for his Tarot pack was
quite a revenge against censorship. In what appears to be the complemen-
tary leaflet to these cards, a four-page pamphlet entitled Livre de Thot and
dated 1789, Etteilla introduces his new set: 'See the Book of Thoth, which
I am permitted to publish today, with the King's appointment.' This
'general' patent was asked for on 16 January 1789,58 granted on 5 Febru-
ary and registered on 13 March under no. 1924.59 It is delivered to 'le sieur
Alliette d'Etteilla [sic], teacher of algebra and mathematics' who 'tells us
that he wanted to print and offer to the public the Book of Thoth etc.
together with figures, with the summary and all pieces and discourses that
the author will have printed afterwards to help understand the whole
work'. So the Tarot pack concluded the 'Collection of High Sciences' that
Etteilla had issued so patiently. We may suppose it was designed and
engraved in 1788.
The forty cards in our possession make clear that the late XIX-century
version by Grimaud conformed to the original edition in all details (apart
from those listed above). Their captions and meanings seem to have been
remarkably stable up to the 1970s. Here is a chart showing how Etteilla's
Tarot departs from the Tarot de Marseille:

Table Ill: Etteilla's Tarot (1788) compared to the Tarot de Marseille

Tarot de Marseille Etteilla
I. Mountebank (Bateleur) 15. Illness
II. Popess 1. Etteilla/Male questioner
III. Pope 7. Support
N. Emperor 6. Day/Night
v. Empress 8. Etteilla/Female questioner
VI. Love 13. Marriage
VII. Chariot 21. Dissension
VIII. Justice 9. Justice
IX. Hermit 18. Traitor
x. Wheel of Fortune 20. Fortune
XI. Fortitude 11. Fortitude
XII. Hanged Man 12. Prudence
XIII. Death 17. Mortality
XN. Temperance 10. Temperance
xv. Devil 14. Major force
XVI. Tower (Maison-Dieu) 19. Misery/Jail
XVII. Star 4. Deprivation/Air
XVIII. Moon 3. Opinion/Water
XIX. Sun 2. Enlightenment
xx. Judgement 16. Judgement
XXI. World 5. Journey/Earth
Fool 0. Folly
 4. Etteilla: the First Professional Cartomancer 93
Cards 2 to 8 represent the creation of the world (an adaptation of an
idea of the comte de Mellet). They nevertheless do not follow the order in
which the cards are arranged: card 2 is 'le Creation' ('first [day] of
Creation'), card 4 is second, card 3 is •3e Cre.' while cards 6 and 7
correspond to the 4th and 5th days of Creation, card 5 corresponds to '6
Cre.' and, finally, card 8 represents the rest after Creation ('7. Repos').
Beside this special numbering, the first cards bear other symbols: cards 2
to 5 represent the four elements, but not in this order. The first element
('1. El') is on card 3, the second on card 2, the third on card 4, and the fourth
on card 5. In addition, cards 1 to 12 are associated with the signs of the
Zodiac, and bear the classical astrological symbols.
Strangely, cards 13 to 17 all have a second number in the upper right
comer, though in a different order: 13 has also 14, 14 has 15, 15 has 16,
16 has 17, 17 has 13. These numbers are explained in the Dictionnaire
synonimique du livre de Thot as 'signes de mort' ('signs of death').
The numbers of the suit cards run from 22 to 77, starting with the
Batons, followed by the Cups, the Swords and finally the Coins; the Coins
are in fact, Etteilla tells us, again following the comte de Mellet, the 'little
gods of Egypt', talismans from which all monetary coins were originally
derived. Within each suit, the cards run in the order King, Queen, Cava-
lier, Jack, 10, 9, and so on down to Ace, the King bearing the lowest
number, e.g. no. 22 in Batons, and the Ace the highest, no. 35 in Batons.
The Ace to 10 of Coins - cards nos. 77 to 68 - are associated with the Sun,
Mercury, Venus, the Moon, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the head of the Dragon,
the taii of the Dragon, and part of Fortune respectively. The Fool, however,
bears the number 0, and does not really have a number at all; it comes
between cards 21 and 22, that is, after the trump cards and before the suit
cards.
Once transposed from Batons, Cups, Swords and Coins to the French
suit system, the meanings of the numeral cards of Etteilla's Tarot can be
compared to the meanings of the numeral cards of his Piquet pack of 1770
(Table I). Hearts have become Cups; Diamonds have been changed into
Batons, Clubs into Coins and Spades into Swords, a system which once
again follows the comte de Mellet. The general significances roughly
accord with what the count tells us in the fifth section of 'Recherches sur
les tarots' (as published in Monde primitif, VIII, 1781). For de Mellet,
Hearts/Cups mean happiness, Clubs/Coins stand for fortune,
Spades/Swords for misfortune, and Diamonds/Batons for indifference and
country.
94 A Wicked Pack of Cards
Table IV: Etteilla's Tarot (numeral cards) (1788)
Cups Batons Coins Swords
A Table Birth Perfect joy Pregnancy
10 The city Betrayal House Tears
9 Victory Delay Bill of goods Ecclesiastic
8 Blond girl Country Dark girl Criticism
7 Thought Negotiations A little money Hope
6 The past Domestic The present Journey
5 Inheritance Gold Lovers Loss
4 Boredom Social success A gift Loneliness
3 Success Enterprises Noble Separation
2 Love Sorrow Embarrassment Friendship

It is clear that Etteilla has slightly adapted his scheme in order to fit
both the cards which were not in his Piquet pack (2 to 6) and de Mellet's
own general meanings of the suits. Cups have to do with success and
victory, i.e. happiness; Batons have a card labelled 'country'; Coins are full
of money and joy; Swords are clearly turned to misfortune. The twos,
threes, fours, fives and sixes have inherited some reversed meanings of
the Piquet pack of 1770: the fives roughly refer to the reversed tens, the
fours to the reversed nines, the twos to the reversed sevens. The meanings
of the threes can be found elsewhere in the same pack. Note that in
Etteilla's numeral cards, there is nothing peculiar to Hermetism. It is
therefore abundantly demonstrated that Etteilla's Tarot, the first carto-
mantic Tarot pack commercially available, is largely fed from older French
cartomancy.
Etteilla's cards are really disconcerting. They offer pictures which do
not conform to any known system or artistic standard. Their iconography
has no equivalent in any of the widespread books of emblemata or symbols.
They obviously have not been found in Court de Gebelin's text, which kept
close to the traditional Tarot de Marseille (even in reversing the Hanged
Man, for there are examples of such a mistake). Even the virtues are not
classical at all, in spite of a rich range of representations. However, we
know for certain that Alliette already had these pictures in mind as early
as 1783. His direct iconographical sources are as yet unknown.

The last years

At the time the Bastille was taken by storm on 14 July 1789, Etteilla had
only two further years in front of him. The emergence of new ideas and the
liberty given to political and social expression met Jean-Baptiste Alliette's
own beliefs. Already in 1783, he had published L'homme aprojets, a short
book where he expounded three naive and hardly understandable social
'projects'. The 'Licee fran~ais' (not to be understood as 'French high school',
 4. Etteilla: the First Professional Cartomancer 95
but as 'French art centre'!) was seen as a permanent show, the 'Chaine
d'or' was a kind of patriotic call, and the 'Pere de famille' was still waiting
a definition. Although quite woolly, L'homme a projets can be considered
as a contribution to the spirit of pre-Revolutionary times. It is not surpris-
ing that Etteilla took advantages of his premonition.
On 1 July 1790, a 'Nouvelle Ecole de Magie' (New School of Magic)
sprang up in Paris. Of course it was Etteilla's creation, now helped by his
own son, Louis-Jean-Baptiste Alliette, who was introduced as 'Etteilla
fils'. The school offered lessons in the Book of Thoth and many other
related topics. It also published Etteilla's theories as well as books by
disciples. Cours theorique et pratique du livre de Thot, pour entendre avec
justesse l'art, la science et la sagesse de rendre les oracles (Theoretical and
practical lesson in the Book of Thoth, in order to understand aright the art,
science and wisdom of giving oracles) had just been published with a
frontispiece showing Etteilla himself consulting the cards (plate 4). It was
intended to provide six lessons, but all the copies have only four, followed
by Jeu du Tharaoth, suivant une des manieres des premiers Egyptiens
(according to the first Egyptians). Soon afterwards, two leaflets came out
at Etteilla fils's address. Both are talks given at the Nouvelle Ecole in July
1790: one is entitled Indulgence and is dated 8 July 1790, the other is
entitled Apper<;usur la nouvelle ecole de magie etablie a Paris, le premier
juillet de la seconde annee de la Liberte franr;aise ... and dated 19 July
1790; it reveals the date of the foundation of Etteilla's new school, here
using Bastille Day as a new era (the first 'year of French Liberty').
The first months of 1791 saw a flood of periodical pamphlets, printed in
a 4-page format and published every week from 1 January to 27 March,
followed by four other issues, one dated 31 May, one published on 5 July
1791 and two further ones without date. This 'journal projetique et patrio-
tique', as Alliette wanted to call it, has little to do with magic and
cartomancy: it is a real political and social bulletin, which revived Et-
teilla's old 'projects'. The first issue was devoted to a 'Vraie pension
bourgeoise nationale' (real national burgess' pension), a quite visionary
system of old-age insurance based on a financial scheme known as 'ton-
tine'. The following issues talked of taxes (notably on playing cards),
administration, social insurance. No. 14, Tune tueras point, is remarkable
in being a vibrant plea against the death penalty. It is here the citizen -
sometimes signing his pamphlets under his real name Alliette - who
publishes advice and suggestions. 60
Issue No. 8, Petitions proposees aux 83 departemens (Proposal sent to
the 83 Departements), dated 21 February 1791, is a proposal to stop taxing
playing cards, at least divinatory playing cards, like those inspired by
Etteilla: 'the Book of Thoth, renewed from the Egyptians; the Etteilla,
composed of33 cards.' Actually, a week later, the Assemblee Constituante
abolished all duties on trade and commerce. But this is good evidence for
the existence of specifically designed packs of 33 cards to tell fortunes in
96 A Wicked Pack of Cards
the ordinary way. The last income account of playing-card truces reveals
that one Lebouvier made 24 'Eteila' [sic], beside the 1,212 52-card packs,
the 1,704 Piquet packs and others of different configurations during the
first months of 1791.61 We know no pack bearing Lebouvier's name, but we
know one bearing Etteilla's: it is made of 33 black-and-white cards show-
ing courts and pips of the Paris pattern, surrounded by captions which
exactly correspond to Etteilla's meanings of 1770 as shown in Table I (see
Plate 5). One card, supposed to represent the questioner (Questionnant),
reads on the left side: 'Cette copie du Livre de I Thot, n'est propre qu'a I
l'art de tirer les cartes', and on the other: 'Voyez le Livre de Thot I dont le
prix est 6 liv.' ('This copy of the Book of Thoth is only intended for the art
of reading the cards I See the Book of Thoth whose price is 6 livres'); below
the central panel: 'Chez Etteilla, Rue de I Beauvais, a Paris 1791.'62
Whatever success the collection of projects may have met, Etteilla was
well aware of his premonitory social feelings. After all, he could now claim
that he had predicted the Revolution. Had he not published a book
announcing some of its themes? Shortly afterwards, in April 1791, he
reprinted his book of 1783, proudly stating in his foreword, now at last
signed by his pen-name, that he had foreseen the 1789 events some six
years ago.63 But the 'eclaircissemens' (explanations) give new keys to his
previous statements: now, the yet-to-be-defined 'Pere de famille' is related
to the 'Pension nationale bourgeoise'. The book bears Jean-Baptiste Al-
liette's address, 'rue de Beauvais, near the Louvre, in the Plasterer's
House'. His last writing was to be a foreword he signed on 7 August 1791
for a book, Etteilla, ou l'art de lire dans les cartes (Etteilla, or the Art of
Card Reading), giving a kind of summary of his methods of divination
together with a history of card reading. 64

Etteilla, ou L 'art de lire dans les caries:

a 'narrative of origins'
A quick look at this book, published 'avec privilege de la Loi, de la Nation
& du Roi; accorde comme tribut de !'invention & du genie' (by appointment
of the Law, the Nation and the King, granted as a tribute to invention and
genius) gives the impression that it is a fourth - hitherto unknown -
edition of Etteilla's first book. But it is not. It is a sort of compendium,
published under Etteilla's authority. A foreword, ironically entitled 'Le
Censeur', claims: 'Therefore I make myself a guarantee ... This is why I
have approved it and signed. Etteilla. 7 August 1791.' The first pages of
the book actually provide us with a history of cartomancy in France and
ofEtteilla's career which sounds authentic. Although we find in it some of
Etteilla's old fables, the general sense is interesting to hear.
In 1750 [we are told] the art of card reading was unknown in France; but in
1751, 52 and 1753, three aged persons, among whom a man and two women,
 4. Etteilla: the First Professional Cartomancer 97
offered to draw the cards .... They used to let them draw one by one from the
pack, and when the questioner had drawn a Spade, this (as these old people
used to say) announced sorrow; so, Hearts announced happiness, Diamonds
country, and Clubs money. [We may note that these meanings are those
expounded by the comte de Mellet.] ... As early as 1753, our scholar and
single Renovator of Cartonomancy had begun by discarding the art of read-
ing cards one by one, substituting the art of card reading from the whole pack
laid out on the table.

Then it is said that Etteilla restored the 9 of Spades' true meaning -

Victory - which had wrongly been assigned to the 9 of Diamonds by the
three aged persons.
All this tallies with what we know of Alliette or with what he says of
himself. But the book contains a revelation: it assigns the origin of card
reading to 'stick reading'!
From an ancient manuscript, he [Etteilla] thought it came from the 33 sticks
that a Greek, in Gaul, used in order to give oracles; he had taken or had by
birth the name of Alpha. This origin was not correct, but it was not without
relevance, either, since Alpha's sticks and the art of card reading are, as one
can say, the fables which in fact have succeeded to Egyptian Cartonomancy.

The book adds detail about a Piedmontese who taught Etteilla in 1757
about the Egyptian Book of Thoth, and reminds us that 'in spite of
obstacles from royal censors, the Book Office and the Police, in 1782, he
brought to light in 1783, his work on Tharoth or Tarots, which had cost
him more than ten consecutive years of studying and thinking.' Jean-Bap-
tiste Alliette had certainly some resentment against Court de Gebelin,
since we are told that 'he brought down what this grave antiquarian had
transcribed in his eighth volume of Monde primitif, from an amateur [the
comte de Mellet!] who himself could only copy the art of card reading,
which is in question here, from his kitchen maid.'
So, Etteilla would have borrowed the 'art of card reading' from another
form of telling the future. The only clue to Alpha is the frontispiece to
Etteilla's volume of 1770: it shows a man seated in front of cards spread
on a table and is simply entitled Alpha. Unfortunately, the book itself tells
nothing on this point. However, when it was reissued in 1773, with the
same frontispiece, it was preceded by a 'petit avant-tout' (short foreword),
where we find a quick allusion to this divinatory method; but, here, it is
presented in very negative terms: 'The 33 sticks thrown in a circle from
breast height: Illusion of the ancient Gauls. I say: illusion, because they
imagined they actually saw the Soldiers or Generals they had designated
with their sticks run away, when these sticks fell out of the circle .. .' (p. xv).
It nevertheless may be inferred that Etteilla had heard of some divinatory
method with sticks as early as 1770 and that he had the name Alpha in
mind, maybe as an alternative pen-name.
Most of the material from L'art de lire dans les cartes of 1791 appears
98 A Wicked Pack of Cards
to have been used in a little book which came out six years later, Le tireur
de cartes, ou le cartonomancien (Paris, Deroy, year V-1797).65 This is a
compilation of different methods of card reading, in which we can recog-
nise many borrowings from L'art de lire dans les cartes. So, it is not
surprising to find a chapter entitled 'Le petit Eteilla', with a preceding
'avis' (foreword) in which the Editor says that he is simply 'transcribing
verbatim a short work of some folios which appeared at the end of the year
1771, under the title of Le petit Eteilla'. He adds that a copy fell into his
hands 'in the beginning of 1772', and that he visited Etteilla to 'ask his
permission to inform the public'. Etteilla allowed him to reprint this 'petit
amusement', since he had 'given this method of reading the cards when he
was 15 or 16 years old, and having verified it just at 33'. Researches have
failed to discover such a book, and we must note that Etteilla himself never
mentions any work printed in 1771 or 1772. But 33 years is exactly
Etteilla's age in 1771, who actually 'was 15 or 16 years old' in 1753. The
editor of Le petit Eteilla gives a portrait of Alliette:
This truly honest and hospitable man is unique, and the great proof is in his
Zodiaque mysterieux [1772].... We are expecting from him: 1°. La maniere
de tirer les cartes appelees tarots [The way to draw cards called tarots]. 2°. Le
combat de cinq contre quatre-vingt-cinq [The Fight of Five against Eighty-
Five]. 3°. Eteilla devoile sincerement de grands mysteres sous un autre titre
[Eteilla (sic) sincerely unveils great mysteries under another title]. 4°. Il est
des genies: le moyen de n'en point douter, c'est en les voyant. S'ensuit beau-
coup de commentateurs aux abois [There are geniuses: the way for not
doubting is to see them. There follow many commentators at bay].

This quite extraordinary programme, of which only the first title is

familiar to us, could have been written about 1782-3, when Etteilla had
problems with royal censorship.
All this sounds quite in accord with what we know, so we cannot dismiss
what appears in the following pages under the title 'L'art de tirer les
cartes'. The style strongly resembles Etteilla's own very peculiar style.
Would it be the 'Abrege de la cartonomancie' that our magus has always
claimed to have written in 1753? The writer reveals that he was inspired
by a 'very old manuscript' he owns and that 'card reading does not derive
from [playing] cards, but from the game of the 33 sticks ofAlpha(*), name
of a Greek refugee in Spain who predicted the future'. The footnote (*)
adds: 'Attributed to the power of the goddess of the forests.' Oddly enough,
seers in the forests of West Africa still invoke the god Fa, a spirit who
presides over divination by geomancy, which requires the casting of
pebbles, shells or nuts. The name for this practice is fa or ifa, a word
descending from the Arabic al-fa'l, meaning 'omen, lot or fortune'. Geo-
mancy itself is of Arab origin, and one wonders if Etteilla's little myth
could be a confused account of a geomantic system reaching France from
Moorish Spain. In any case, Alpha's preferred 33 must have induced
 4. Etteilla: the First Professional Cartomancer 99
Etteilla to use groups of thirty-three cards in his Tarot format and to
improve the Piquet pack by adding his special card, the 'Etteilla'.
The 33 'Greek sticks' were to survive since they were one of the
divinatory techniques used by Mademoiselle Le Normand and expounded
by her in Les souvenirs prophetiques d'une sibylle. There she describes
them as made of ebony with two 'gothic heads sculpted in the Egyptian
style' at each end. 'These thirty-three Greek sticks', she says, 'are perhaps
the unique ones in Europe.' 66 She does not explain where or how she
obtained them.

*
Although Etteilla receives little credit in popular literature today, he can
be credited with many 'firsts': he was certainly the first to popularise
fortune-telling with playing cards, the first to promote card reading as a
professional activity and the first to publish books on the subject. He also
was the first to use a pseudonym as a constant pen-name, initiating a
tradition which was to.flourish among XIX-century esoteric writers, as the
following chapters will abundantly demonstrate. Thanks to Etteilla, Court
de Gebelin's theory about the 'Egyptian' origin of the Tarot had a wider
diffusion and fortune-telling with Tarot cards became popular. He was the
first, too, to attempt to incorporate Tarot cards into a system of magical
theory: his example, though not his means of doing so, was to be followed
by others whose influence has persisted longer.
Last but not least, he can be credited too with the invention of the very
word cartomancie, or rather of its forerunner, 'cartonomancie', which
appeared in his writings from 1782. Amazingly, one of his disciples was
about to publish a book on 'cartomancie' in 1789 (the first occurrence of
such a word in a European language), but as the book is now lost we only
know it from Etteilla's very critical review, rejecting this quite new and
'illogical' word to which he opposed his 'better' cartonomancie. Neverthe-
less, cartomancie took hold and its use spread. In 1803, it entered de
Wailly's French dictionary, 67 and from these it has found its way into
almost all European languages.
Jean-Baptiste Alliette died on 12 December 1791. He was only 53,
which is, even in the XVIII century, a rather young age at which to die. We
unfortunately know nothing of what he died of. Etteilla was a fascinating
character and deserves more than giving his name to a strange Tarot pack.
There is something touching in the man, who was sincere and passionate,
generous and enlightened (in all the meanings of the word in the late XVIII
century).
 CHAPTERS

Etteilla's Disciples and Posterity

The succession to Etteilla

Etteilla's succession seems to have been rather confused. Although no will
is known ever to have been written, it was clear to all that Etteilla had
nominated one of his disciples as his preferred successor. Millet-Saint-
Pierre, Etteilla's first biographer, has quoted extensively from autograph
letters which had come into his hands. 1 These letters from disciples reveal
the name of Hugand. According to another disciple, de Bonrecueille, who
was writing on 5 March 1792, three months after Etteilla's death, 'Etteilla
had already designated him [Hugand] to succeed him as "Correspondant
general" of the Book of Thoth. Consequently, he should receive a casket
containing all that the "Interpretes" had severally provided.' 2 Hugand
himself was well aware of this situation and in a reply of 7 May 1792 to an
unknown correspondent said: 'This deserving man wanted me to fix my
residence in Paris, I did not think I could accept his offers at that time.' 3
All this is confirmed by Etteilla himself, who claimed in his 1791 reprint
of L'homme aprojets that of his five hundred students, a hundred and fifty
had become professional cartomancers, but only two in Europe were really
good ones: Hisler, a Prussian who lived in Berlin, and 'H. Jejalel' from
Lyons; 'all the others are charlatans', he adds! We have already met
Hisler, who, according to Etteilla's .1791 volume, was student to Etteilla in
1769-70 and designed a 'combinaison hislerique' (Hislerian Combination),
'extracted from the Indians' Lotto' that Etteilla published in 1782 (see
Chapter 4). From one of de Bonrecueille's letters kept at the Lyons City
Library,4 we know that Hisler came back to Paris and visited Etteilla in
1788. He may be responsible for the German translation of Cours theori-
que et pratique du livre de Thot which was published at Leipzig in 1793.
'H. Jejalel' is to be understood as Hugand-Jejalel, since we have evi-
dence that 'Jejalel' was Hugand's cabalistic name, a name borrowed from
the forty-fourth of the spirits (IHL-'L) who surround the throne of God in
the Cabala. The life and career ofHugand are desperately obscure. He first
emerges in 1789 with a leaflet entitled Faites mieux, j'y consens, ou les
instructions d'lsis divulguees par un electeur de la Commune de Lyon, en
l'annee 1789 (Do better, I agree, or Isis' instructions divulged by a voter of
 5. Etteilla's Disciples and Posterity 101
the City of Lyons, in the year 1789) published in Lyons and signed
Hugand. 5
In 1790, at the end of the fourth lesson of Cours theorique et pratique
du livre de Thot, Etteilla introduces him:
Lyons, which cannot lose the title of France's second city, although ignorance
has torn out of its bosom the major part of its rich factories, had at least to
be the city which possessed the second true public Teacher ofCartonomancy
residing in France .... His address is Mr. H ... Jejalet [sic], at madame Loire's,
quai and place Saint Benoit, no. 195, Lyons. I declare that I have been many
times filled with wonder at the science of this Lyons-born Philosopher.

Hugand was something of a bookseller too: the reprint of L'homme a

projets (1791) and the Dictionnaire synonimique du livre de Thot (same
year) both bear his address, now 'place Neuve-Saint-Jean, no. 51 (or 58)'.
He can be certainly identified with Claude Hugand, who appeared as
'negociant, rue Henri' in a Liste des citoyens eligibles aux places munici-
pales de la ville de Lyon (List of eligible citizens for the city elections)
printed in 1790. However, we also have evidence that he was a member of
a secret society in Lyons composed of 'unknown philosophers' who had
close contacts with Etteilla and his 'Societe des Interpretes du Livre de
Thot'. He even became 'first pilot' of the 'Temple philosophique du Soleil'
in 1791.6 As late as 1794, he alluded to this society in a short dedication
which he signed: 'Your brothers and good friends the Unknown Philo-
sophers. Jejalel, Secretary.' 7 According to Millet-Saint-Pierre, who had a
copy, Hugand had published at Lyons in 1791 a twelve-page book entitled
Cartomancie, ou l'art de developper la chaine des evenemens de la vie:
recreations astrologiques par le livre de Thot (Card-reading, or the Art of
developing the succession of life events: astrological recreations through the
Book ofThoth). 8
In spite of Etteilla's appeal, Hugand was reluctant to settle in Paris, but
the death of the magus changed things. In the letter quoted by Millet-
Saint-Pierre, Hugand explains: 'Since his death, everything has changed,
his office has passed into the hands of Mr. Dodoucet, one of his students;
and now everything is ready to change since Mr Dodoucet, on one hand,
and his widow, on the other, offer me to succeed my dear master to teach
oracles.'9 According to de Bonrecueille, however, Dodoucet (or D'Odoucet)
had seized hold of Etteilla's filing box, and 'regardless of the deceased's
intentions claims also to be the correspondent general, a title which he
actually does not deserve in any respect' .10
It is very likely that D'Odoucet-whom we will meet later in more detail
- had taken Etteilla's properties, since he was selling Etteilla's Tarot
under his name (see Chapter 4). Etteilla's widow - either Jeanne Vatier.
his legitimate but separated wife, or Elisabeth, who shared Ettema·s lift.•
in his last years - may have agreed. In the meantime, accordin~ to
Millet-Saint-Pierre, who makes quotations from it, Hugand puhli:-:lwd a
102 A Wicked Pack of Cards
short 'Necrologie d'Etteilla par Jejalel' of which no copy has yet been
found.
Still in Lyons in May 1792, Hugand must finally have settled in Paris.
His 'cabalistic' name appears in a short almanac for Year II and Year III,
Almanach astrologique et philosophique a l'usage des cultivateurs et de
tousles citoyens du monde par les Associes interpretes du Livre de Thot
(Astrological and philosophical almanac to serve for farmers and all
citizens of the world, by the Associated Interpreters of the Book of Thoth),
printed in Paris at 'l'Imprimerie Celere' (the Fast Printing Office).11 It is
only a calendar (from Germinal Year II - i.e. March-April 1794) with
different texts added, like the Year-II 'Declaration of the Rights of Man
and Citizen', sayings, medical and agricultural instructions, etc. Although
there are also 'philosophical and astrological instructions', Etteilla's theo-
ries are never mentioned. It is a very commercial publication. But it has a
very interesting advertisement, giving on page 2 all that is to be found at
'l'Imprimerie Celere, rue Galande N. 63':

1. The Book of Thoth, colloquially known as the game ofTharots [sic], in 78

cards, set back in its first state and cleansed of all stupidities with which
ignorance had overloaded it.
2. Its summary in 33 cards: origin of our playing cards.
3. The complete works on high occult sciences of the late Etteilla, whose
whole property is between the hands of the owners of this printing office, who
continue his works.
4. The Art of Life, or Complete Lesson for reading the Book of Thoth, by
Jejalel.
5. The works of the other 'Interpretes', as published to this day.
6. A great deal of old and good works on secret sciences.
7. Some precious manuscripts which only wait for subscribers to see the
light.

The Imprimerie Celere seems to have sheltered an Etteillian coterie,

probably run - or founded - in the first instance by D'Odoucet at whose
address ('a l'lmprimerie Celere, rue Gallande, Hotel Chatillon, N° 79, ... ,
chez M. d'Odoucet")we find an eight-page prospectus entitled Aux curieux,
probably printed around 1793 and offering lessons in occultism, with a list
of the works of Etteilla together with Hugand's pamphletFaites mieux,j'y
consens of 1789. 12
It is not easy to understand what had happened then, but it is tempting
to imagine that some sort of squabble occurred between Hugand and
D'Odoucet, and that the Imprimerie Celere was no longer led by D'Odoucet
when the Almanach astrologique et philosophique came out. It is remark-
able that among the books offered for sale in the final list, Hugand's 'The
Art of Life, or Complete Lesson for reading the Book of Thoth' occupies no.
4. It is possible to recognise here the book which he had published at Lyons
in 1791 under the title Cartomancie, ou l'art de developper la chaine des
evenemens de la vie: recreations astrologiques par le livre de Thot. The
 5. Etteilla's Disciples and Posterity 103
'Book of Thoth, colloquially known as the game of Tharots, in 78 cards, set
back in its first state and cleansed of all stupidities' is no surprise: it is
Etteilla's engraved Tarot pack in its original edition. The 'summary in 33
cards' of course is a 'petit Etteilla'. The claim that the 'property is between
the hands of the owners of this printing office, who continue his works'
recalls the claim of D'Odoucet, who styled himself in Aux curieux, 'owner
of this author's [i.e. Etteilla's] whole stock' ('possesseur de la totalite du
fonds de cet auteur'), a claim that he was to repeat some ten years later.
Shortly afterwards (1794?), Hugand signs with his real name a booklet
entitled Les decans franr;ais: meditations politiques, morales, pour chaque
jour de l'annee (French decans: political and moral meditations for each
day of the year), 'par C. Hugand, editeur' (publisher). The book comes from
the press of the same Imprimerie Celere and bears also Hugand's address,
'printer and bookseller, in the rue de la Juiverie N° 15, Cite district'. Les
decans franr;ais must have been printed after March-April 1794, since its
page 2 advertises the Almanach meteorologique, astrologique, philo-
sophique, agricole ... already available at Hugand's.
All traces of Hugand/Jejalel are lost after 1794 (and researches carried
through the Lyons archives were unsuccessful). Geille de Bonrecueille was
still looking for him in February 1801 when he asked one Madame Le
Brun, in Paris, whether she knew 'la demeure du citoyen Hugand'. 13
Madame Le Brun very probably is the 'femme Lebrun', who was living no.
11 rue Jacob, and was denounced by a police informer in January 1808.
'She mysteriously sells cards and a three-volume book by Mr Etteilla.' In
June 1808, Mme Lebrun was finally arrested. She said that she 'only
showed cartomantic operations to sell a book, La science des signes', in
which we easily recognise D'Odoucet's work. 14 Another disciple, Joubert
de La Salette, was also looking for Hugand. On 15 January 1803, in reply
to a letter from Madame Etteilla, he complained that a letter, sent by him
to Hugand through her, had had no reply. 15

D'Odoucet
D'Odoucet is the last but not the least of Etteilla's disciples. In 1789, we
have seen him working together with Etteilla at the same address. How-
ever, a clash must have occurred in 1790. In this very year D'Odoucet, who
was now living in the rue Sainte-Anne, published a booklet entitled
Revolution frant;aise, les evenemens qui l'ont provoquee, accompagnee &
ceux qui la suivront, pronostiques par les Prophetiques centuries de M
Michel Nostradamus (French Revolution, the events that have caused it,
accompanied it and those which will follow it, prognosticated through Mr
M. Nostradamus's prophetical 'centuries'); there a final footnote (p. 45)
expresses negative feelings for two magi 'living in France, one in Paris and
the other in Lyons'. It is easy to recognise Etteilla and Hugand, his
Lyonese disciple; 'the first one, "half-savant" who is causing much trouble
104 A Wicked Pack of Cards
to science by stepping back from the sacred duties of a husband, of a father,
etc. with impunity', is accused of 'real ignorance, concealed with much
art ... ' Hugand is 'enthusiastic', but 'less skilled'.
Confirmation of this dispute is given by some bitter remarks placed by
Etteilla at the end of his leaflet Apper,;u sur la nouvelle ecole de magie ...
(1790). Here, D'Odoucet's name has become 'Dodo', an obvious cryptic
form. The text also attacks 'half-savants' - surely an expression which
cannot have been invented by anyone other than Etteilla! - and the
'despising tone, unbearable to all honest men, to the savants who have
gone deeper into the subject' (p. 1). Etteilla tells us how he i:p.etD'Odoucet:
One of my students, the one hundred and first, was wrong when he put in
one of his advertisements: 1789, Messrs ETTEILLA AND DODO, known as the
earliest disciples who cultivate high sciences ... He should have been grateful
to the time of 35 to 36 years of studying, more on the master's side, and
consequently less on the pupil's side. At the end of 1787, he was recom-
mended to me, and in 1788,I could remove from his mind his nanny's tales
of the werewolf, sprites and generally of sorcerers, to fill him with some first
theoretical notions of the high sciences and practical card reading. 16

In the same time, D'Odoucet, who seems to have had royalist leanings,
appeared as a collaborator of a forthcoming Journal des Federes of which
only the susbcription leaflet is known. 17 The political line is quite ambigu-
ous but ends with a capitalised AMOUR POUR LE ROI, which leaves little
doubt. Subscriptions were received at l'Imprimerie des 83 departemens,
in the rue Ste-Apolline, no. 18, as well as at Dodoucet's address, rue
Sainte-Anne, no. 11. Since his is the only name mentioned, we may
suppose he was the editor of the Journal des Federes.
Little is known of this 'M; d'Odoucet', who had taken no cabalistic name.
Although D'Odoucet opposed his master in 1790, it was he who inherited
Etteilla's succession in 1792, at least partially. By February, Etteilla's
stock had fallen into his hands and, according to a letter of another disciple
writing on 5 March 1792, he had assumed the title of 'correspondant
general'. Soon aft.er, however, he turned to Hugand, inviting him to come
to Paris and to be Etteilla's successor. 18 There seems to have been some
association between the two men. As we have seen in the preceding
chapter, in 1792, D'Odoucet was selling Etteilla's engraved Tarot with his
address written in pen instead ofEtteilla's.
About 1793, D'Odoucet published an eight-page leaflet entitled Aux
curieux, offering lessons in occultism, with a list of the works ofEtteilla as
well as Hugand's pamphlet Faites mieux, j'y consens of 1789. It was
printed 'a l'lmprimerie Celere, rue Gallande, Hotel Chatillon, N° 79, ... ,
chez M. d'Odoucet'. All the books have the same prices as in 1791, when a
prospectus for the reprint of Etteilla's L'homme a projets came out from
'l'lmprimerie des Editeurs des ouvrages sur le Livre de Thot', giving a list
of roughly the same titles. 19 This means that Aux curieux was published
 5. Etteilla's Disciples and Posterity 105
before the dramatic inflation which broke out in 1794, when the French
Republic got into serious financial and monetary problems.
So, D'Odoucet was a printer. His political feelings brought him consid-
erable problems, for he seems to have used his press to print any
anti-government material, regardless of its content. Between 1797 and
1808 he was sent to prison many times for violation of the press laws. He
printed five pamphlets in defence of his position. 20On 13 Fructidor year V
(30 August 1797), he was arrested and accused of printing posters against
the government. The public prosecutor desperately tried to prove that
D'Odoucet - who now spells his name Dodoucet - was plotting against the
government, and sent him to prison for several weeks. The 'petitions' that
D'Odoucet printed had no effect on the Conseil des Cinq-Cents, the highest
Council of the Republic. Moreover new charges were found against him:
was he not the publisher of a seditious newspaper, called Rapsodies du
}our? In spite of his denial, D'Odoucet, was still in jail in September 1799;
he pretended to be only a worker of the 'Imprimerie expeditive, in the rue
Taranne, no. 35, formerly in the rue des Petits-Augustins, no. 33', with no
responsibility. The Rapsodies du Jour was a satirical and more or less
royalist weekly magazine whose editor was P.-A.-J.-B. Villiers. Its first
issue came out on 6 Prairial year IV (25 May 1796), and it was printed at
'l'imprimerie de la rue des Petits-Augustins, no. 33, maison Larochefou-
cault'21until issue no. VII (24 June). From no. VIII, the address is simply
given as 'l'Imprimerie du Journal des Rapsodies', but a little quatrain
printed at the end of a subscription leaflet makes clear it is the same
printing office.22 The Rapsodies du Jour was banned by the Directory on
16 Fructidor year V (2 September 1797).
That D'Odoucet was the actual printer established in the rue des
Petits-Augustins can be inferred from another publication whose author
was also a member of the Societe des Interpretes du Livre de Thot. One
'citoyen Goulet', who styled himself 'eleve de feu le celebre Etteilla' and
who lived at the comer of the rue Coquillere and the rue Coqueron
[Cog-Heron]', of whom nothing more is known, signed a leaflet entitled La
chatne des evenemens, ou l'art de les prevoir suivant les principes traces
dans le livre de Thot (The succession of events, or the Art of preventing them
according to the principles written in the Book of Thoth). 23This is a short
praise of divination, which ends with prices of consultations, much in
Etteilla's vein. No date is given, but the four pages came out 'de l'im-
primerie de la rue des Petits-Augustins, n° 33'. Therefore, it must have
been printed at the same time as the Rapsodies du Jour, that is in 1796 or
1797.
Some years later, D'Odoucet was imprisoned again, at Sainte-Pelagie,
again for violation of the press laws. This forced him to print a Precis pour
Melchior-Montmignon Dodoucet, directeur de l'lmprimerie expeditive, rue
Taranne, n° 35, contre l'inculpation d'impressions ... d'ecrits seditieux ...
(Short treatise for M.-M. Dodoucet, director of the lmprimerie expeditive,
106 A Wicked Pack of Cards
... against the charge of printing ... seditious texts). 24 Now D'Odoucet,
whose first name - Melchior-Montmignon - is at last revealed, is accused
of having printed a 'Journal invisible' which Fouche, Bonaparte's powerful
minister of the Police, did not like. Unfortunately, no 'Journal invisible'
has been kept in public libraries, and it seems implausible to identify it
withL'Invisible, published by Fabre d'Olivet between May and September
1797.25 Obviously the 'Imprimerie expeditive' echoes the former 'Im-
primerie celere' which D'Odoucet seems to have run in association with
Hugand.
Although theAnnuaire de la librairie (trade directory) mentions him as
'imprimeur-libraire, rue Saint-Benoit, no. 21, a l'lmprimerie expeditive' in
its 1802 and 1804 editions, 26 Melchior-Montmignon D'Odoucet had not
dropped his political activities. In 1804 he was prosecuted for having
printed a petition to the Senat for General Moreau, a rebel officer who
opposed Napoleon in 1804 and was sentenced to death on 10 June, then
pardoned and exiled to the United States. D'Odoucet was sent to Lille and
was still considered under surveillance in November 1808.27
However, this did not stop D'Odoucet, who had switched back to the old
spelling of his name and to his magical activities, from publishing the
three volumes of Science des signes, ou medecine de ['esprit between 1804
and 1807. D'Odoucet's Science des signes was to be the major 'Etteillian'
publication since Etteilla's last books and the anonymous Dictionnaire
synonimique. Although the book has no date in any of its three volumes,
it was advertised in the Journal typographique et bibliographique of 24
Fructidor year XII (11 September 1804). The entry reads:
No. 898: Science des signes, ou Medecine de l'esprit, connue sous le nom d'Art
de tirer les cartes; by M. d'Odoucet, one of the Interpreters of the Book of
Thoth, owner ofEttiella's [sic] property, his collaborator and continuator of
his works. - 3 12mo vol., illustrated with engravings. Paris, printed by the
Author, rue St-Benoit, faubourg St-Germain, n° 21, and at Petit's, book-
seller, palais du Tribunat.

Science des signes, ou medecine de l'esprit is a compendium ofEtteilla's

philosophy, written very much in Etteilla's style and expounding his
system of Tarot cartomancy. The first volume is reminiscent of Etteilla's
Cours theorique et pratique du livre de Thot of which it retains the
arrangement in six lessons under roughly the same title ('Cours theorique,
philosophique et pratique du livre de Thot').
The actual date of publication of the two other volumes is questionable:
their title-pages are a little different and the names of the booksellers are
not the same. There is room for supposing that the entry in the Journal
typographique of 1804 deals with the first volume only, leaving the two
other volumes to a later issue. The second volume has a slightly different
title: Science des signes, ou medecine de ['esprit, vulgairement connue sous
le nom d'art de tirer les cartes; contenant ['explication litterale et philo-
 5. Etteilla's Disciples and Posterity 107
sophique des hieroglyphes et des inscriptions de chaque feuillet du livre de
Thot, leurs rapports sinonymes, homonymes et numeriques, ornes de 78
gravures. Seconde partie I par M. d'Odoucet ... (Science of signs, or mind
medicine, colloquially known under the name of card reading; containing
the literal and philosophical explanation of the hieroglyphs and inscrip-
tions of each sheet of the Book of Thoth, their synonymous, homonymous
and numerical relationships, embellished with 78 woodcuts. Second part),
A Paris: chez l'Auteur ... ; et chez Surosne ... , n. d.
The second volume of the Science des signes is more concerned with the
Tarot and is clearly inspired by the Dictionnaire synonimique (1791) of
which it is a kind of summary. But it also offers seventy-eight Tarot
woodcuts in the text with due comments. It only shows some minor
divergences, e.g. when the Dictionnaire says 'Questionnant', D'Odoucet
uses 'Consultant'. A Parisian private collection owns forty-five actual
cards printed with the same woodblocks, slightly diverging from Etteilla's
copper-engraved edition in some minor detail. 28 No doubt it is the set
which was advertised by the author on page 11 of his first volume: 'The
Book of Thoth, 78 hieroglyphic pictures or figures cut and coloured, is for
sale in Paris, rue Taranne, no. 35, and rue [Saint] Benoit, no. 21, faubourg
St-Germain.' D'Odoucet's own stock coming from Etteilla had been sold
out, forcing him to have fresh copies made from woodblocks. (Obviously,
D'Odoucet had no access to the original copper plates.)
Although the first volume had no dedication, this second one is dedi-
cated to 'His Serene Highness His Lordship the Prince of ***, Grand
*** ...',and D'Odoucet praises the recipient's 'rare and precious collection
of manuscripts and printed books'. This mysterious prince (of the Empire)
can only be Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Perigord. He was the only one
among Napoleon's generals to have had enough education and to have
possessed a large library. We know Talleyrand to have many times sold
books from his library, since sale catalogues have been kept. 29 Although
no esoteric book can be pointed out, the Talleyrand hypothesis still re-
mains the most likely. Napoleon had promoted him as 'grand chambellan'
on 11 July 1804. However, Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand only became
styled Serene Highness in June 1806, when Napoleon made him a prince
and duke of Benevento. If it is to Talleyrand that D'Odoucet's second
volume is dedicated, then it can only have come out after June 1806 - and
before 19 August 1807, when Napoleon suppressed the Tribunat whose
palace (previously known as 'Palais-Royal', then 'Palais-National')
appears in Surosne's address (as Palais du Tribunat).
D'Odoucet's third volume must have come out later, maybe in the
following year (1807). As its full title reveals, it deals with astrology and
Freemasonry: Science des signes, ou medecine de l'esprit, contenant: 1°.
L'intelligence des sciences numeriques et astrales des premiers Egyptiens;
2°. L'art de connaitre l'interieur de l'homme par ses signes exterieures; 3°.
Un interessant examen de la diversite des esprits et des caracteres; 4°. La
108 A Wicked Pack of Cards
veritable origine de la Franc·Mar;onnerie et /'initiation aux differens grades
.... Troisieme et derniere partie, ornee de gravures I par M. d'Odoucet, l'un
des interpretes du livre de Thot, possesseur du fonds d'Etteilla, son
collaborateur et continuateur des travaux, A Paris: chez l'auteur ... ; et aux
adresses indiquees (Petit; Pichard; Mme Defrene; Martinet; et le F.
Brun .. .), n. d. (Science of signs, or mind medicine, containing: 1 °. The
understanding of numerical and astral sciences of the first Egyptians; 2°.
The art of knowing the heart of man through his external signs; 3°. An
interesting survey of the diversity of minds and characters; 4° The true
origin of Freemasonry and initiation to the different ranks ... ). A copper-en-
graved plate without title has been inserted between pages 160 and 161,
showing a Masonic allegory with two pillars and bearing D'Odoucet's
name ('D'odoucet invenit') together with the signature of the engraver: 'De
Bonrecueille Scrips.' De Bonrecueille, who was another of Etteilla's disci-
ples, was a known Mason of whom we will speak further.
D'Odoucet was still engaged in political activities. We know that at the
same time he was under house arrest in Lille since 1804. A police report
recalls that 'Dodoucet, printer in Paris, had been sent to Lille under
surveillance in Year XII (1804]', because he had used his presses 'since the
beginning of the Revolution' to print 'books opposed to the government'.
The report reveals the direct reason for sending D'Odoucet to Lille: he had
printed a petition to the Senat for General Moreau. Although somewhat of
a republican, Moreau opposed Napoleon and was prosecuted in relation-
ship with Cadoudal's royalist conspiracy in 1804. Once again, we find
D'Odoucet supporting the royalist agitation. According to the prefet in
Lille, writing on 7 November 1808, there were many complaints against
D'Odoucet who was often out; he was currently believed to be in Chateau-
Thierry (Aisne), halfway between Paris and Lille, and had promised to be
back in a week. The report ends by ordering his arrest. 30
It is no surprise that D'Odoucet is not to be found among the Paris
printers who got their official licence ('brevet') in 1811, when an imperial
decree regulated the printing trade, which had been totally free since
1791. The Liste des imprimeurs-typographes de Paris du ler avril 1811 au
10 septembre 1870 (Paris, [1900]),which Paul Delalain has carefully edited,
does not mention D'Odoucet's name. It is easy to imagine the reasons why he
did not get a licence. However, we lose all trace of him after 1808.

De Bonrecueille, the Masonic link

Charles de Bonrecueille was an important witness of the esoteric activities
which were flourishing in France during the last decades of the XVIII
century. Most of what we know about him is owed to Robert Amadou's
research. 31 Charles Geille-Saint-Leger de Bonrecueille, as his complete
name appears on his bookplates, was an active Freemason - of all obedi-
ences - and a close disciple of Etteilla's. He was born in Paris in 1753 and
 5. Etteilla's Disciples and Posterity 109
became a Freemason in 1773. In 1776, he was employed as tax officer
('employe aux fermes'). About ten years later, he settled in Lyons where
he founded a group of 'unknown philosophers' called 'Temple du Soleil', of
which he was the 'first pilot'. At much the same time he became a member
of Etteilla's Societe des interpretes du livre de Thot. 32 In 1791, he left
Lyons for Toulon, where he was sent as Customs inspector, and asked
Hugand to succeed him. In 1801, he was living in Marseilles where he was
an associate member of the 'Lycee des sciences et des arts' (Centre for
sciences and arts); 33 next year, he was in La Ciotat, on the south coast
between Marseilles and Toulon. De Bonrecueille's last letters are dated
1817, and we have no trace of him after that date. 34
Charles de Bonrecueille had been a keen correspondent and carefully
copied out all his letters in a register now housed at the City Library of
Lyons. 35 Seventeen of his letters were sent to Etteilla between 1786 and
1791, discussing important topics such as astrology, numerology, 'high
sciences' and magic. De Bonrecueille sometimes signed with a cabalistic
name: 'G.C. Neirtetuot I copt•' (i.e. 'tout et rien' reversed, 'copte'?). Of
course, the Tarot was one of de Bonrecueille's favourite subjects, and it is
thanks to his letters of 27 November 1788 and 14 March 1789 that we
know exactly when Etteilla published his Tarot pack (see Chapter 4). One
letter of 1788 is addressed to 'Madame Eteilla', Etteilla's companion,
whose name was Elisabeth. Another letter was sent to a 'Mme Le Brun' in
1801, about 'the late Etteilla, my master and my friend'.
De Bonrecueille's collection ofletters is a mine of information about his
correspondents, Masons or not. He very often mentions 'brother' Hugand,
sometimes abbreviated as 'Hug.' or referred to under his pseudonym
Jejalel. Some of De Bonrecueille's letters were nevertheless sent without
being copied out, since Millet-Saint-Pierre made use of an autograph letter
of 5 March 1792 which is not in the Lyons Library minutes. Several letters,
too, were addressed to one Joubert de La Salette. Written at the same time
as the letters to Etteilla, they also deal with the 'Societe des Interpretes
du livre de Thot' of which La Salette was an active member. 36

From Etteilla to Champollion: Joubert de La Salette

De Bonrecueille's letters found by Robert Amadou reveal another of
Etteilla's disciples: the chevalier de La Salette. Pierre-Joseph Joubert de
La Salette, born in Grenoble in 1743, was an army officer and finished his
career as an artillery general. He retired in 1800 and died in 1833.37
General Joubert de La Salette was also a distinguished musicologist, who
publish~d treatises on pianoforte tuning and on ancient music. However,
his biographers did not know that he secretly practised alchemy and occult
sciences, following a then widespread trend. While he was among Et-
teilla's group, about 1790, he undertook to join - by mail, since he was
garrisoned at Grenoble - the 'Temple philosophique du Soleil' through de
110 A Wicked Pack of Cards
Bonrecueille. Several letters from de Bonrecueille to La Salette show
progress, and Joubert finally entered the group in April 1790.38 However,
he made a mistake: although he had sworn not to say anything to anybody,
he told Etteilla. Because of that, he received a letter of reproach. 39
More interestingly, we can see that Joubert de La Salette had written
in 1790 an 'epistle on the synonyms of the Book of Thoth', that Hugand
and de Bonrecueille found disappointing: 'brother Hugand [de Bonre-
cueille writes] has indeed received your epistle on the synonyms of the
Book of Thoth, but according to the announcement made by Mr Etteilla we
had presumed you had composed something more complete about it.' 40 No
doubt it was a draft version of the Dictionnaire synonimique du livre de
Thot, precede d'un discours preliminaire, par un membre de la Societe des
interpretes de cet ouvrage (Synonymic dictionary of the Book of Thoth,
preceded by a preliminary discourse, by a member of the Society of the
Interpreters of this book), which was published next year in Paris 'chez
Etteilla fils' and in Lyons 'chez Hugand' in 1791. Indeed, the book contains
a letter to Etteilla, dated 22 July 1790 (pp. 58-61), where the anonymous
writer says: 'I am living in a village [Grenoble?] ... and this, joined to
considerable details related to the troops of whom I am in command ... .' If
an author is to be assigned to the Dictionnaire synonimique, Pierre-Joseph
Joubert de La Salette seems to be the right man.
In the 'preliminary discourse', the author tells us of his initiation to the
Book of Thoth, that he owes to 'an honourable member of the Societe des
interpretes, Mr Jejalel', in 1788. He reveals that Jejalel had already
preceded him in 'the same undertaking', but he adds in a footnote that 'a
third Interprete of the Book of Thoth, Mr de B ... , is also occupying himself
with the same task .. .'.41 De Bonrecueille too had planned to publish a
commentary on the Book of Thoth. Evidence can be found in some of his
letters to Etteilla: in January 1791, he complains about the difficulty of
interpreting the 'synonyms'; but on 10 February, it is de Bonrecueille who
sends Etteilla the revised and completed manuscript written by his competi-
tor: 'You will find here enclosed the manuscript of our estimable competitor
Mr de la Salette. There are many synonyms whose fortunate conjunctions I
have admired, however, there are many others which I do not think are at
their natural places. Either he is wrong or I am; but it is true that the work
is very helpful and, in the fear it would not be printed, I took a copy of it.' 42
The core of the Dictionnaire synonimique du livre de Thot is a 'Table des
synonymes du livre de Thot' (pp. 19-57), a systematic exposition of Et-
teilla's 'feuillets', according to Etteilla's order. Seventy-eight 'hieroglyphs'
are described, with their titles as they appear on the engraved cards, of
which the Dictionnaire was the obvious companion. Straightforward syno-
nyms are listed for each one according to its orientation (upright and
reversed). Symbols and complementary captions are also indicated. The
first 'feuillet' is Etteilla ou le Questionnant, the second is Eclaircissemens,
the third one Propos, and so on. Logically, Folie is numbered O and placed
 5. Etteilla's Disciples and Posterity 111
between no. 21 (Dissension) and no. 22 (Homme de campagne). The 'Table
des synonymes' is followed by a letter to Etteilla introducing some exam-
ples of interpretation translated into numerical formulas in order to help
the 'operations of cartonomancy' (pp. 58-61). Lastly, a thirty-page index of
words in alphabetical order with reference to the 'feuillets' of the Book of
Thoth is put at the end of the book.
We are greatly indebted to Dottor Andrea Vitali, ofFaenza (Italy), who
owns some handwritten notes on the Book of Thoth by Joubert de La
Salette, and has very generously allowed us to examine them closely.
These papers are kept in an envelope bearing the address 'A Monsieur I
Monsieur le chevalier de La Salette I capitaine d'artillerie a Grenoble I en
Dauphine'. As we know that La Salette was an artillery captain between
1772 and 1791, this envelope must have been sent to him around 1785-90.
Since it contains different notes of various dates, it must have been re-used
as a filing wallet. On the back, indeed, the names ofEtteilla and Hugand
appear. Most of the papers, written by the same hand, are summaries and
observations taken from Etteilla's books: they are 'Table des matieres
contenues dans le livre de Thot' (Table of contents which are in the Book
of Thoth), 'Releve des nombres du livre de Thot' (List of the numbers of the
Book of Thoth, which has been updated in 1788), 'Pensees' (Thoughts),
'Observations et questions sur le livre de Thot' (Observations and ques-
tions on the Book of Thoth), 'Releve des numeraires et litteraire de
l'analise du livre de Thot, ainsi que des significations des hieroglyphes de
ses feuillets' (List of the numerals and literary [things] from the analysis
of the Book of Thoth, together with the meanings of the hieroglyphs of its
sheets). They have certainly served as preparatory notes for the Diction-
naire synonimique du livre de Thot.
Another document is of a later date. It is entitled 'Sommaire de mes
lettres concemant ma correspondance sur le livre de Thot depuis le mois
de nivose an XI' (Summaries of my letters concerning my correspondence
on the Book of Thoth from Nivose Year XI[= January 1803]). Actually
there are only two summaries, the remaining six pages having been left
blank. Summary No. 1 is the longest and the most interesting: to a letter
received from Me [Madame] Etteilla, 43 dated 4 January 1803, Joubert de
La Salette replied on 15 January. His letter reveals that the Societe des
lnterpretes was defunct and that Madame Etteilla has offered him to
revive it and to become its 'Correspondant general'. A letter, sent by him
to Hugand through Madame Etteilla, has had no reply; La Salette does not
feel like reorganising the Societe on his own. He is reluctant to buy
Etteilla's library, but announces the letter of Mr Champollion. Can we
imagine Champollion writing to Madame Etteilla?
It would not be so surprising to find the decipherer of Egyptian hiero-
glyphs here: after all, both Champollion and Joubert de La Salette were of
Grenoble families, both had been fascinated by the Egyptian 'mysteries'.
Once retired, General de La Salette devoted himself to researches on many
112 A Wicked Pack of Cards
topics: not only musicology, but also history, poetry, ancient scripts,
archaeology, oriental civilisations. He was a member of the Societe des
Lettres, des Sciences et des Arts de Grenoble, which was to welcome
Jean-Fran~ois Champollion 44 in 1804 and had previously granted mem-
bership to his elder brother Jacques-Joseph, better known as
Champollion-Figeac (1778-1867). The latter, who came to Grenoble in
1798, was soon to meet Joubert de La Salette, like him a keen book hunter.
According to his biographer Charles-Olivier Carbonell, in 1803-4 Jacques-
Joseph Champollion-Figeac visited Paris and other places where he
purchased books for him and for Joubert. 45 He may well be the Champol-
lion referred to in La Salette's letter to Madame Etteilla. Warm
relationships were soon established between the Champollion brothers
and the retired general. It was Joubert de La Salette who read to the
Societe des Lettres, des Sciences et des Arts, on 27 March 1806, Jean-
Fran~ois Champollion's very first paper, written in 1804, 'Memoire sur la
fable des geans'. 46 They remained friends, and Champollion thanked
Joubert with notes on Egyptian and Chaldean music.
Although his letters to Madame Etteilla give the impression that he had
lost faith, Joubert de La Salette was probably still tormented by some
remains of magic. His library, which was one of the first in the province,
included books on music, of course, but also 'many German booke and
journals about magnetism. The General was one of the most fervent
disciples of the m9dern German school related to this science'. 47 The
library was also strong on history and archaeology. It is easy to imagine
_that the problem of deciphering the Egyptian hieroglyphs was a central
question. The 'Discours preliminaire' of La Salette's Dictionnaire
synonimique du livre de Thot is of a particular interest when read in this
light. It is entirely focused on hieroglyphs, introduced as 'the first of all
scripts, which modelled all the sciences of the world' (p. 5). Etteilla's usual
sources, like Hermes or the Pimander, are not even mentioned. It is fed
with the latest scientific views - at least those which were current in 1791
- e.g. 'the hieroglyphic script was only the art of painting ideas', it 'spoke
to the senses, to the imagination and to the intelligence' (pp. 6-7). But, in
a strange premonition of Champollion's forthcoming role, the hieroglyphs
had to wait that 'some more enlightened interpreter undertake to treat
them in depth' (p. 6).
If Jacques-Joseph Champollion certainly influenced his younger
brother's vocation, as all his biographers have emphasised, Pierre-Joseph
Joubert de La Salette probably took his part.
 5. Etteilla's Disciples and Posterity 113

Translations and reprints: Etteilla's

posterity in the XIX century
Germany appears to be the only country which echoed Etteilla's theories.
Johann-Samuel Ersch, in his already quoted bibliography La France
litteraire, contenant les auteurs franr;ais de 1771 a 1796 (I, Hamburg,
1797), when dealing with 'Alliette, par anagramme Etteilla', informs us of
a German translation of Cours theorique et pratique du livre de Thot.
Under the title Theoretischer und praktischer Unterricht uber das Buch
Thot, oder uber die hohere Kraft, Natur und Mensch, mit Zuverldssigkeit
die Geheimnisse des Lebens zu enthullen und Orakel zu ertheilen, nach der
Egyptier wunderbarer Kunst it was published at Leipzig by Baumgartner
in 1793, and is described in the catalogue of German books Gesamtver-
zeichnis des deutschsprachigen Schrifttums. 48
The entry adds: 'Mit 78 ill. kpf.' (with 78 illustrations in copper-engrav-
ing). Hisler, Etteilla's Prussian disciple, may have been responsible for
this German edition. Although this book seems to be extremely rare, a set
of engraved cards with German captions is housed in the British Museum
and another identical one belongs to the Kaplan Collection (Greenwich,
Connecticut). 49 In spite of its being described by Kaplan as 'mid-nineteenth
century' and 'printed by lithography', it actually contains hand-coloured
engravings. Kaplan wrongly states that 'the designs on the cards are like
those by Z. Lismon' (indeed a mid-XIX-century modified version; see
further): the pictures exactly tally with the very first edition published by
Etteilla, with no burst of light on card no. 1. These cards are certainly
those which accompanied the 1793 Theoretischer und praktischer Unter-
richt uber das Buch Thot.
There is a way to check whether this book really is Etteilla's Cours
theorique et pratique du livre de Thot in German translation. The text was
reissued at Stuttgart in 1857, in a collection called 'Kleiner Wunder-
Schauplatz' of which it forms volume 14.50 But here, the pictures are
engraved on wood; the reader is invited to cut them, paste them on
cardboard and put them into a case.
It is hard to trace the transmission of Etteilla's Tarot and books through
two centuries. Although his writings seem to have been rapidly forgotten,
one Parisian 'libraire' (i.e. both bookseller and publisher), Gueffier jeune,
reprinted Le zodiaque mysterieux in 1820. In the first loose pages, there is
a 'Catalogue des livres d'Etteilla et autres auteurs cabalistiques qui se
trouvent chez Gueffier jeune' {catalogue of books by Etteilla and other
cabalistic writers to be found at Gueffier jeune's). A foreword explains how
'lovers of the high sciences eagerly welcomed the different treatises by this
author, as soon as he put them on sale; so the edition rapidly ran out of
print, save a very small number of copies, whose existence was ignored in
the trade ... '. Gueffier jeune adds: 'having just purchased what remained
of the different books by the late Etteilla, I think it useful ... to remark
114 A Wicked Pack of Cards
that the copies which we are advertising come from the editions then given
by the writer himself ... .' The interesting list which follows have some
well-known - at least to us, now! - titles, such as the 'Collection sur les
hautes sciences', the Dictionnaire synonimique, Cours theorique et pra-
tique du livre de Thot and some of the graphic publications as the 'Livre
de Thot, or precious collection of pictures ofTri-Mercury-Athotis' doctrine,
... , in 78 "feuillets" traced as hieroglyphs, engraved by etching, fr. [francs]
6, carefully coloured, and with case fr. 6.50', all still 'by number'. Did this
stock directly come from D'Odoucet? This is doubtful since the 'hiero-
glyphs, engraved by etching' sound like new pulls from the original
copper-plates which D'Odoucet did not have in his possession, as we have
seen in a previous section.
Some years later, the same titles came into the hands of an obscure
Parisian bookseller named Peytieux. This information is given in Joseph-
Marie Querard's authoritative La France litteraire, where an entry is
devoted to Alliette, 'cartonomancien', with an incomplete though solid
bibliography of his works. 51 Describing the 'Collection sur les hautes
sciences', of which 'very few copies remain', Querard adds that it is to be
found at Peytieux's address. Peytieux was a newly established bookseller
in 1827. The other titles are those which were being sold by Gueffier some
seven years before. However, the 'Set ('jeu') of 78 cards or hieroglyphic
figures', which costs fr. 36 (or 'separately', i.e. without the 'Collection' of
books, fr. 9), and which may have been Etteilla's original pack, was still
for sale at Gueffier jeune's.
If Etteilla's theories met little success abroad, his Tarot had greater
appeal; we know many foreign adaptations, sometimes very strange ones.
As we have seen, the first country which welcomed Etteilla's Tarot was
Germany. Not only was there a late XVIII-century version, but the cards
were issued again in 1857.
Even Italy had a version of its own in the second half of the XIX century.
It is a curious mixture of a classical though rather artistic 'tarocco piemon-
tese', originally sold to players by the Milanese cardmaker Gumppenberg,
with regular Italian captions, and another, 'Egyptian-like', offspring of
Grand Etteilla, later known under 'Jeu de la Princesse Tarot'. The order
of the major arcana is nevertheless that of the Tarot de Marseille, and the
Matto, Bagatto, Popess, Empress, Emperor and Pope (nos. 1 to 5), as well
as l'Appeso - the Hanged Man (instead of Prudence!) - are mere copies of
the cards engraved by C. Della Rocca for Gumppenberg shortly before
1840. This convoluted construction must have been designed later than its
French model. 52
Grand Etteilla III, a late XIX-century neo-Gothic version, had offspring
in the Southern-European countries too. It was first adapted in Spain,
with captions in Spanish. The cards are here much wider, and they are
divided in two halves: on the right side, the Grand Etteilla III figure is
reproduced; on the left side, different symbols are surrounded with He-
 5. Etteilla's Disciples and Posterity 115
brew letters or standard Spanish-suited cards. Although no publisher's
name appears, it is likely that this Spanish version was first printed in
France at the end of the XIX century for the Spanish market, 53 and then
probably made in Spain around 1900.54 Latin-American countries seem
too to have favoured this version since there are Brazilian and Mexican
examples. Even Italy made use of this Hispanic Grand Etteilla! Examples
are known with captions in Spanish and Italian. 55
 CHAPTER6

Mlle Le Normand:
Prophet or Sorcerer?

'Mlle Le Normand, the celebrated French mystic, has left such an imprint
upon history that any more than a cursory reference here would be
superfluous. It suffices only to say that it was Mlle. Le Normand who
predicted to the great Na poleon his phenomenal rise and sudden fall. Mlle.
Le Normand was one of the greatest ofliving prophets and was recognized
by the nobility of Europe.' This is how a pack of 52 fortune-telling cards
made by The United States Playing Card Company of Cincinnati and
called 'Gypsy Witch' is introduced in the accompanying leaflet.
The name of Mademoiselle Le Normand is probably better known than
that of Etteilla or of any of his followers.Not only was she the most popular
clairvoyante of the first decades of the XIX century, but she remains the
most celebrated fortune-teller of all time. Her popularity seems to have
been largely due to her writings, in which she told how she met famous
people and how she became the confidante of the Empress Josephine,
whose alleged 'secret memoirs' she published. Although they are quite
forgotten nowadays, Mademoiselle Le Normand wrote some fourteen
books; not, however, about theories of the Tarot or methods of cartomancy,
but about her own career and her association with people of importance.
Her concern was not to popularise a theory or a practical system, but to
propagate a belief in her personal powers as a sibyl.
Nevertheless her name is still attached to a set of strange playing cards,
the 'Grand jeu de Mlle Lenormand', still printed by Grimaud, the main
French cardmaking firm. Although this quite popular pack has 54 cards,
comprising 52 'regular' cards and 2 extra figures, it has sometimes been
mistakenly described as a 'Tarot' pack, as is made clear by the titles of two
recent books: Le tarot de Mlle Lenormand (Paris, 1989) by 'Dicta' 1 and
Fran~oise, and Votre personnalite revelee par le tarot de Mlle Lenormand
(Paris, 1992) by Carole Sedillot. The same is true of another offshoot of the
Le Normand tradition, the 'Petit Lenormand'. Here the pack is made of 36
cards and is still produced in the German-speaking countries of which it
seems to be a local speciality.
That the 'Grand jeu de Mlle Lenormand' and its German cousins have
no relationship with the Tarot, is easy to understand. That the former has
 6. Mlle Le Normand: Prophet or Sorcerer? 117
nothing to do with Mlle Le Normand will be clearly stated, and we shall
show that the sibyl herself was not deeply concerned with telling fortunes
with playing cards. Marie-Anne Le Normand 2 (1772-1843) is finally the
most prominent figure of a time which saw the last old-fashioned sorcerers
gave way to modern fortune-tellers, who seem to have particularly prolif-
erated under the reign of Napoleon I (1804-15).

The beginnings of Mademoiselle Le Normand

In spite of his late claims to 'high sciences', Etteilla's first occupation, that
of foretelling the future by means of playing cards, had now taken root in
French society. Although a law punished 'people whose trade is to guess
and prognosticate or explain dreams', Paris was full of cartomancers
during the first years of the XIX century. A report of 1804 says: 'The police
prosecute fortune-tellers with cards ["tireurs de cartes"] in vain because
newcomers set up every day.' The police archives reveal many of these
people whom Eloi:se Mozzani has brought to light in one of the best-docu-
mented chapters of her book.3 Citizen 'Irenee' advertised in 1802 that he
continued his card-reading, offering to trace back the past, depict the
present and foretell the future thanks to his studies in the art of Necro-
mancy. He also had exclusive secrets such as reading in the white of an
egg or coffee grounds, and sold eau de Cologne. Under arrest, 'Irenee'
confessed to being named Bonnier. Another police search carried out at the
woman Gilbert's flat, in the same year, revealed that she owned 'three
packs of cards, including one called "Thoth" '. A man named Lyonnais told
fortunes in the rue de Bucy. When the police came, they seized 'two packs
of cards each bearing quite strange figures'.
Madame Lacoste, the woman Grangou, citizen Meyer, Mademoiselle
Virginie, the Simonets, Madame Lebrun, the widow Chevalier, under the
pseudonym of 'Madame Renard', are only a few names among the many
practitioners cited by Mozzani who were arrested and imprisoned for short
periods by the police during the years 1801-9. Mlle Le Normand was of
exactly the same type, except that she. wrote many books. This made a
great difference.
Although she filled her books with anecdotes about her life and the
people she met, and although many works have been published on her
career - there are at least six biographies, not to mention dictionary
entries-it is not easy to trace the real life of Mlle Le Normand. Most of her
assertions are spurious, many of her biographers are forgers, recognised or
not. Soon after her death, in 1843, three books came out. The first of them,
La sibylledu XJXesiecle,consists of what purport to be prophecies by Mlle Le
Normand herself, composed just before her death, with a commentary on
them and a brief biography of their author; the biography is anonymous.
The author of the commentary calls himself Hortensius Flamel, an
obvious pseudonym. The name of Flamel is clearly borrowed from the
118 A Wicked Pack of Cards
celebrated supposed alchemist of the XN century Nicolas Flamel; 4 the
first name sounds strange. 5 The identity of Hortensius Flamel has been
the subject of much discussion; we shall leave our examination of it until
the next chapter. Entire paragraphs of the biography included in the book
are repeated word for word from a letter previously published in a weekly
magazine called Le Tam-Tam (no. 28 of9-15 July 1843). This letter had
been sent to the editor by one Monsieur Alboise and was said to be
based on unpublished documents coming from Alern;on, the sibyl's
birthplace.
Alboise -Jules-Edouard Alboise (or Alboize) du (or de) Pujol (1805-54)
- was a permanent contributor to the magazine, as is displayed on the
front page; he was a playwright and a theatre manager, author (often in
collaboration) of poor vaudevilles and perfunctory historical novels. 6 Ac-
cording to the 'Lenormand' entry in the Nouvelle biographie generale (Vol.
29, 1859), Alboise du Pujol was a relative of Mlle Le Normand, whose niece
he had married, and had inherited private papers from which he had been
planning to publish a 'Memorial'; but his death, it is said, prevented the
realisation of the project.
Soon afterwards, in 1843, Francis Girault, an obscure poet, published
Mademoiselle Le Normand: sa biographie, ses predictions extraordinaires,
to which he added a 'philosophical introduction on the occult sciences',
giving a history of divination, and palmistry and cartomancy with the
Egyptian Tarots and the Piquet pack 'as explained by the XIX-century
prophetess'. The front cover claims it is the only 'official' biography. The
introduction and the exposition of Tarot cartomancy are plagiarised from
Julia Orsini, Le grand Etteilla, ou l'art de tirer les cartes, published at Lille
in 1838,7 while the biography is largely derived from La sibylle du XIXe
siecle for the early years and from the writings of Mlle Le Normand.
Still in the same year, a sceptical voice was raised by Louis Du Bois in
a twenty-page booklet entitled De Mademoiselle Lenormand et de ses deux
biographies recemment publiees (About Mlle Lenormand and her two
recently published biographies, Paris, 1843). On the basis largely of Gi-
rault's book, he relentlessly attacks Mlle Le Normand's truthfulness and
her claims to have made successful prophecies, without offering much
hard evidence. Du Bois, who styled himself 'former librarian of the Ecole
centrale de !'Orne' (i.e. the department of which Alem;on is the capital),
opens his pamphlet by declaring that Marie-Anne Le Normand was not
born in 1772, as stated both by Girault and in La sibylle du XIXe siecle,
but on 16 September 1768, but, again, cites no evidence. 8
Two years later, Narcisse-Honore Cellier du Fayel, 'professeur a
l'Athenee royal, directeur du journal Le genie des Femmes', published La
verite sur Mademoiselle Lenormand (Cellier du Fayel 1845), telling how
he met Mlle Le Normand in her last years. Although at first a sceptic,
Cellier du Fayel was convinced by her talents and became a close friend of
 6. Mlle Le Normand: Prophet or Sorcerer? 119
hers. His portrait is more plausible than the previous ones and often
sounds honest.
Biographies soon appeared in dictionaries such as Migne's Dictionnaire
des sciences occultes, 1846 (by J. Collin de Plancy), in A.-F. Lecanu's
Dictionnaire des propheties et des miracles (1855), in Firmin-Didot's Nou-
velle biographie generale depuis les temps les plus reculesjusqu'a nosjours
(Vol. 29, 1859), and in the new edition ofMichaud's Biographie universe/le
ancienne et moderne (vol. 24, c. 1860). They reflect very different opinions:
Collin de Plancy's ferocious note is counterbalanced by a more sympathetic
biography signed by L. Boyeldieu d'Auvigny9 in Lecanu's dictionary. But
Lecanu was anxious to stand aloof and added critical comments. The
Nouvelle biographie offers a favourable entry by Ed. de Manne, but the
Biographie universe/le is highly critical under L. Du Bois's pen.
Another, less grandiose side was surveyed in 1911 by Alfred Marquiset
in his La celebre Mademoiselle Lenormand. Marquiset is very sarcastic -
and quite amusing - but his book is the best-documented one so far. He
used the police archives for the first time as well as autograph letters and
manuscripts. This is not true of the latest book on Mlle Le Normand: Dicta
Dimitriadis's Mademoiselle Lenormand: la reine de la voyance (1990) is
heavily romanticised and uses the same jumble of spurious stories as
Flamel, Girault and others in order to present her heroine in a flattering
light. It is no surprise that Marquiset's biography is not even mentioned!
Marie-Anne Le Normand was born at Alem,on, Normandy, on 27 May
1772. Even her entry into the world is surrounded by controversy: as we
saw, one of her many biographers, Louis Du Bois, maintained that she was
actually born on 16 September 1768. Some decades later, Ed. de Manne •
gave her complete date of birth for the first time, contradicting L. Du
Bois. 10 Recent research carried through the parish books of Alen~on has
confirmed that Marie-Anne-Adela'ide Le Normand was born and chris-
tened on the same day, 27 May 1772.11 Her father, Jean-Louis-Antoine Le
Normand, was a draper and died in the following year. Her mother,
Marie-Anne Gilbert, whom Jean-Louis Le Normand had married in 1767,
took a second husband in 1774, Isaac Rosay-Desfontaines. Unfortunately, she
died in her turn in 1777, leaving Marie-Anne an orphan when she was five.
Isaac Rosay married a second wife, then a third in 1779, the second having
died. So Marie-Anne Le Normand was now a stranger to her legal parents.
According to Alboise's letter to Le Tam-Tam, repeated by Flamel and
Gira ult, 12 Marie-Anne was sent to a convent school where she was edu-
cated by the Benedictine Sisters. After a while she went to a Visitation
convent, where it is said that she developed her talent for clairvoyance. In
1782, her stepmother apprenticed her to a dressmaker. Soon afterwards,
in 1786, she left Alen\!on for Paris; it is not clear whether she joined, as
shop assistant, her stepfather, Isaac Rosay-Desfontaines, who had set up
there and had opened a shop in the rue du Colombier, or another shop-
keeper - maybe with Isaac Rosay's recommendation - or even whether she
120 A Wicked Pack of Cards
was simply attracted by the capital and had actually no plans. 13 Once in
Paris, she is said to have met again a fellow countryman, Jacques-Rene
Hebert, 14 who was to become famous between 1790 and 1794 with his Le
Pere Duchesne, the crudest and most violent newspaper of the revolution-
ary period. Did she fall in love with him? Nothing is certain, but it is
unlikely that they became lovers since Mlle Le Normand's last confidant,
N.-H. Cellier du Fayel, reveals she died 'in her whole native purity'. 15
Nothing really serious can be established about the following years.
According to Dimitriadis, who not only relies on Flamel and Girault but
adds many more yet unknown details, 16 Marie-Anne Le Normand was
living from hand to mouth when she decided to leave Paris and to go to
London in order to visit the celebrated Dr Gall 17 whom she met in August
1789. However, Du Bois and Cellier du Fayel have pointed out that Gall
not only was unknown at that date, but that he had not yet left his native
Germany. Furthermore, it was not until 1808 that Dr Gall expounded in
French his researches on skull bumps. Even as a prophetess, the young
Mlle Le Normand could not reasonably have heard of Gall's theories in
1789! It is also an extravagant supposition that she would have travelled
by herself to a foreign country at the age of seventeen.
Marie-Anne Le Normand tells us that by 1793 she was secretary to
Monsieur d'Amerval de La Saussotte. In a long note to her Souvenirs
prophetiques d'une sibylle, 18 she explains how d'Amerval de La Saussotte,
a royalist opponent, plotted to help the queen Marie-Antoinette to escape
from prison. Marie-Anne joined the plot but only succeeded in meeting the
queen in jail. Marie-Antoinette, she says, had a pack of cards to tell
fortunes. Unfortunately, as Alfred Marquiset has shown, everything is
forged in this story. Mlle Le Normand has used the frame. of a real affair
- the 'Carnation Affair' - and simply changed the names, putting hers in
lieu of a man called Gonse and adding some more details. 19
We next find Marie-Anne under arrest, in company with Claude-
Fran~ois Flammermont and Louise Gilbert. According to an archival
document reproduced by Cellier du Fayel in 1845, they were sentenced to
prison and fined 10 livres on 20 Florea! year II (9 May 1794) for being
'diseurs de bonne aventure' (fortune-tellers). The act mentions that they
used 'invitation tickets' and 'cards'. However, Alfred Marquiset expressed
doubts about this document which was published only in 1845 and 'must
have come out from the Lenormand factory'.20 In her book of 1814, Mlle Le
Normand complained about her being imprisoned 'under the awful system
of the Terror' (i.e. 1794); but she explains her stay in jail by her having
'preached a counter-revolution'! 21
The first documented piece of evidence we have of Mlle Le Normand is
nothing less than a daily newspaper called Le mot a l'oreille, ou le Don
Quichotte des dames (The word in the ear, or the ladies' Don Quixote),
whose first issue appeared on 11 Vendemiaire year VI (2 October 1797). It
was a rather light gazette filled with everyday news, rumours, and reports
 6. Mlle Le Normand: Prophet or Sorcerer? 121
from the Conseil des Cinq-Cents (Parliament). The only divinatory allu-
sion is a weather 'prediction' published in its No. 5. Le mot a l'oreille does
not seem to have been very successful: after eight issues, Mlle Le Normand
gave up. It is nevertheless interesting to read that she is 'proprietor-
editor'22and that her address is '1153 rue de Tournon, faubourg Saint-Ger-
main'.
It is likely that this number is what is now no. 5 in the same street.
Although the rue de Tournon has not changed since those old days - most
of the present buildings are late XVIII century - the current numbering
was only introduced in 1805. Before that, different systems were used,
based on the whole district and involving high numbers. It is true that
Jacques-Rene Hebert had his office there up to 1792. It has been inferred
that Marie-Anne Le Normand succeeded Hebert in his shop, but we have
no real trace of her situation during the Revolution. Cellier du Fayel writes
she settled there only in 1799 - although we know she was already
established by 1797 - adding that no. 1153 rue de Tournon was to become
no. 9. For Marquiset, she was living at no. 9 'around 1798' and then left for
no. 5.23 But, in a letter that Mlle Le Normand sent to the Empress on 28
November 1804, she still gives her address as 'rue de Tournon no. 1153,
faubourg Saint-Germain'. 24 The situation is complicated by the layout of
the premises: no. 5 and no. 7 form one building with three shops in the
street and one main entrance. Once numbered '5', the rue de Tournon
location was to remain the sibyl's celebrated address until her last days.
Was Mlle Le Normand already popular? There is no evidence but in her
own writings. Did she really give oracles to the count of Provence, who was
to become King Louis XVIII, Mirabeau, general Hoche, Camille Des-
moulins, Danton, Saint.Just, Marat, Barras, Robespierre, Talleyrand, the
actor Talma, and, last but not least, Josephine de Beauharnais herself? As
early as 1843, Louis Du Bois had demonstrated that this was logi~ally
impossible for most of them. Cellier du Fayel has expressed doubts about
any celebrity. For him, Marie-Anne Le Normand had been living humbly
until around 1800.
Alfred Marquiset has offered a good though hypothetical reconstruction
of Mlle Le Normand's rise: 'The first area which she used for her experi-
ments were the boats of the laundresses, always fond of petty necromancy;
for a few cents, she fed them with such wonderful hopes that they could
not but tell their clients these marvels. Step by step, she got to the
tradesmen, then to the bourgeoisie, then to the women of the world
through the chain of their maids; from there to the high society, there was
only one step. By meeting people of high rank, Mlle Lenormand improved
her education regarding the special knowledge she needed for her craft.
Developing her Norman artfulness, she could arrange secret relations in
all places and often dazzle with revelations having paid for them out of her
own pocket.' 25
122 A Wicked Pack of Cards

Josephine's clairvoyante
On 2nd May 1801, Marie-Anne Le Normand was invited to come to la
Malmaison, Josephine de Beauharnais's own residence in a charming
village west of Paris. Marie-Josephe-Rose Tascher de La Pagerie, Napo-
leon Bonaparte's first wife, was born in the island of Martinique in 1763.
She had married Alexandre de Beauharnais in 1779, then, after Beauhar-
nais's death in 1794, had married Bonaparte in 1796. As the invitation was
anonymous, Mlle Le Normand had no idea whom she would meet. It is by
her art of palmistry that she identified Josephine- whom apparently she
did not recognise in spite of their first contacts during the Terror. Not only
was she in the presence of the first Consul's wife but Napoleon Bonaparte
himself was there. The only problem is that our exclusive source for this
is Mlle Le Normand's own Les oracles sibyllins ... of 1817.26
It is doubtful that she had really become an acquaintance of
Josephine's, since Alfred Marquiset quotes an autograph letter of 28
November 1804 in which Mlle Le Normand addresses the Empress as a
'sybille [sic for sibylle] fran~aise' 'humbly imploring Her Imperial Majesty
to be so kind as to grant her a great favour': the 'book of destiny' informed
her 'that she should obtain a small job from your dignified person'. 27
Once again it is difficult to sort out what is true and what is pure
fabrication. Mademoiselle Ducrest, who had seen Josephine de Beauhar-
nais frequently, agrees that she had leanings towards superstition and
fortune-telling. Alfred Marquiset refers also to the Duchesse d'Abrantes
and to 'Mademoiselle Avrillon', both of whom give evidence for Josephine
consulting Mlle Le Normand, either directly or through a messenger. 28
However, historical researches have proved that the two latter are forged
like many other memoirs on the Napoleonic period. What is obvious is that
Marie-Anne Le Normand took great advantage of this situation. Not only
did she tell of her alleged meetings with Josephine in great detail in many
of her books, but she even published Memoires historiques et secrets de
l'imperatrice Josephine, Marie-Rose Tascher de La Pagerie, in two edi-
tions, 1820 and 1827, priding herself on having been Josephine's
confidante and adviser.
More serious accounts offer great contrasts. A police document reports:
'there are crowds at Le Normand's, the famous card-reader of the rue de
Tournon', and adds that Metternich, the Austrian statesman, then ambas-
sador in Paris, visited her in 1808.29 Jacques-Barthelemy Salgues, in his
Des erreurs et des prejuges repandus dans la societe (Of errors and preju·
dices among the society) was forced to confess that 'long files of coaches'
were waiting in front of 'the famous miss L.R.', meaning here Mlle Le
Normand.ao So Marie-Anne Le Normand was now fashionable and rich.
She seems to have bought a country house in Migneaux (near Poissy,
Yvelines) as early as 1802, and probably soon afterwards a flat in the rue
 6. Mlle Le Normand: Prophet or Sorcerer? 123
de la Sante in Paris. Talleyrand, Mme de Stael and Talma may have
consulted her.
But there is a dark side. In his L'hermite de la chaussee d'Antin,
Victor-Etienne Jouy tells: 'There exists in Paris a modern sibyl whose
reputation and means of existence are only based upon the childish
credulity of the women of the best society ... ; it is in the centre of Paris, in
the rue de Tournon, at the enigmatic sign of the Bureau de Correspon-
dance generale.' 31 The police archives reveal that she was frequently
arrested and imprisoned. In December 1803 she was sent to jail in the
'Madelonnettes' because 'her living-room is a den of conspirators'. 32 Police
reports multiplied. In September 1804 one of them tells that 'Mlle Lenor-
mand, who is living in the rue de Tournon, catches dupes every day'.
The great affair of 1809 was Napoleon's divorce from Josephine. Mlle
Le Normand was arrested on 15 December as a police note reports. 'The
woman Normand [sic], who was making a living as a fortune-teller, has
been arrested. Almost all the court used to consult her on current affairs.
She cast horoscopes for the most important people and earned more than
20,000 francs a year by doing so.'33 But we have another witness: Marie-
Anne Le Normand herself. She employed a full 602-page book (Les
souvenirs prophetiques d'une sibylle ... ), published in 1814, to tell us why
and how she was sent to jail for some days in 1809. She was interviewed
about her customers, her techniques and her predictions, then released.
The true reason for her arrest, she says, was that she had predicted
Napoleon's divorce from Josephine and tried to stop it. From then on, the
police seem to have left her in peace.
In 1812-13, Mlle Le Normand had a bookshop in the rue du Petit-Lion-
Saint-Sulpice (or Petit-Bourbon-Saint-Sulpice, today rue Saint-Sulpice,
the next street to the rue de Tournon), which she may have bought from a
former book dealer, Frechet, about 1810.34 It is at this address that she
published her first books. 35
Les souvenirs prophetiques was published 'a Paris, chez l'auteur, rue de
Tournon, n° 5, et a son magasin de librairie, rue du Petit-Bourbon-
St-Sulpice, n° 1 ('can be obtained from the author, ... and at her book-
shop, ... '). The book was printed by Lenormant, a printer who in fact was
no relation to Marie-Anne. The engraving shows the arrival of the police-
men at Mlle Le Normand's consulting room. A foreword ('Petit avant-tout')
introduces the book itself, which is arranged as a progressive story: first,
'Ma vision', then 'Le reveil' ('the awakening'), 'Le depart' ('the departure'),
'Premier interrogatoire' ('first interview'), 'Deuxieme interrogatoire', fol-
lowed by the eleven days of her imprisonment, some 'reflections', 'a word
in the ear', the 'billet doux', a voyage to Hell, an amazing 'Description de
l'ile d'Elbe', and, last but not least, some 282 pages of notes!
We need not sum up this stifling book whose purpose, as one can easily
imagine, is to show how brilliantly she behaved and how ridiculous the
police were, and of course to promote her art and predictions. In this flow
124 A Wicked Pack of Cards
of spurious anecdotes and historical digressions, we nevertheless can
catch some of the sibyl's divinatory techniques. In 'Le reveil' (pp. 8-9) she
lists some of her instruments, which she explains in her generous notes:
Luca Gaurico's blazing mirror, the thirty-three Greek sticks, 36 her 'cabale
de 99 de Zoroastre', not to mention her grimoires, her divinatory wand, her
precious talisman . . .. But the first question of the policemen is about
card-reading: 'Vous faites les cartes (26)?' <Doyou read cards?). 37 In her
answer she offers to read cards for him. But the promising note no. 26 is
quite disappointing. Strangely Mlle Le Normand inserts here a folk tale
known as 'the story of Grenadier Richard', where a soldier attends a mass
with a pack of playing cards in his hands and, when reprimanded, explains
that each card has a biblical meaning. 38 On the second interview cards are
once again asked for. Marie-Anne Le Normand finds an opportunity to tell
us the origin of playing cards in her note no. 31, referring to the abbe de
Longuerue and to Jacquemin Gringonneur. 39 Most surprisingly there is
not a word about the Tarot in the whole work!
The book was an event of a kind. Reviews appeared in Le Nain Jaune
of20 March 1815 and in Le Journal des Debats, where Hofman, its editor,
published a series of articles in August and early September 1815. Marie-
Anne Le Normand replied in Le Courrier of20 September. 40

The return of the Bourbons

Marie-Anne Le Normand claimed she had always been a royalist. Not only
had she sympathies for the royal family in 1793, but she had of course
predicted the Restoration of 1814-15 (but not Napoleon's Hundred Days!).
No surprise if, after a slim book commemorating the anniversary of
Josephine's death, 41 she published La sibylle au tombeau de Louis XVI
(The sibyl at Louis XVI's tomb, Paris, 1816), where she encounters an
angel who relates to her the battle of Waterloo with a generous sprinkling
of !II!!and ....... Soon afterwards, in 1817, Les oracles sibyllins came out. 42
This thick book is a continuation of her Souvenirs prophetiques, and in
much the same style she tries to prove that she had predicted Napoleon's
fall. We learn that the Emperor liked to read Mlle Le Normand's writings,
but that he did not believe in the strange vision he had. 43 She reveals some
new techniques, and particularly her card-reading method. She clearly
always uses a piquet pack, i.e. a 32-card pack. She cuts three times and
deals the cards in eight piles. She then draws them and proceeds to read.
Although she enumerates the cards she draws in her story, she does not
trouble to give the meanings! 44
Some lines further she at last offers some explanations: 'the King of
Spades, together with the 8 of Diamonds, means that a skilful man has
made trials to stop, if it is possible, the progression of illness . . . Fortu-
nately the 9 of Hearts, which is coming on top, announces to me that you
will quickly see the end of your cruel anxieties' (pp. 151-2). As one can see,
 6. Mlle Le Normand: Prophet or Sorcerer? 125
her system seems very simple, without any planned theories. In any case
it has nothing to do with Etteilla's system of meanings. A great revelation
waits for us on p. 159: the use of Tarot cards - actually spelled tharots - is
at last mentioned by Mlle Le Normand. As usual, she remains very vague:
three typical cards only are named. 'The Fol which I am discarding from
your hand means that your projects are intolerable', she says (p. 159),
then: 'But I see the Devil in company with Death' (p. 160). No meaning is
given, but since the consultant angrily banged on her desk and knocked
over her '78 tharot cards', we may suppose it was no good news. The names
of the Tarot cards mentioned by Mlle Le Normand cannot have been found
in a Grand Etteilla I, where these cards are called, respectively: Folie,
Force majeure, and Mortalite. Fol, Diable and Mort are actually classical
names in the Tarot de Marseille.
Other divinatory techniques are mentioned in the rest of the book:
economancie (i.e. telling fortunes by means of a basin of fresh water with
bay and verbena leaves, and salt!), the steel electre (which 'is unique in
Europe'), the nineteen points of the Book of Thoth (without any explana-
tion), palmistry, of course (deserving a long note 14), onomancy, the white
of an egg, molten lead, and so on. She inventories what she is about to
carry with her: 'my different tharots, my big grimoire, my famous [Solo-
mon's] clavicles, Cornelius Agrippa, my Greek sticks, my magic mirror,
the treatise on dreams according to Joseph, my famous divinatory wand,
9 drachms of fresh lead, and seven pieces of pure wax ... , coffee grounds
and Gyges's ring' (p. 337). This is in short a sorcerer's paraphernalia. No
card-reading method is expounded, but there is a description of the way
Mlle Le Normand uses her Greek sticks: 'I take my thirty-three Greek
sticks, and I throw them here and there in a triangular area; however, I
look after taking away the fearsome Agamemnon and his followers, and I
do this important task again seven times' (p. 196).
In October 1818, another opportunity was given to Mlle Le Normand to
increase her 'international' fame. In order to fight against Napoleon, the
Russian Czar, the Austrian Emperor and the King of Prussia had united
in 1815 in what is known as the 'Sainte-Alliance'. In October and Nov-
ember 1818 a congress met in Aachen to decide the future of France.
Marie-Anne Le Normand chose to go there, because she felt her presence
to be necessary. In order to impress the monarchs she was to advise, she
rented an equipage and left Paris in great array. But she was stopped at
the frontier by the Belgian customs. The strange gear the customs officers
found in Mlle Le Normand's luggage roused suspicions and they sent her
to Tournai, then to Mons in order to check what her plans were. Appar-
ently nothing really dangerous, for they released her three days later.
After the Congress she went to Brussels where, she tells us, she was
fervently welcomed.
At least, all these events were the subject of a new book about herself
that she published in the following year, though it is dated 1818: La sibylle
126 A Wicked Pack of Cards
au congres d'Aix-la-Chapelle 45 clearly modelling its title on L'observateur
au congres, ou Relation historiques et anecdotiques du Congres d'Aix-la-
Chapelle en 1818 (The Observer at the Congress, or Historical and
anecdotal account of the 1818 Aachen Congress, Paris, A. Eymery, 1818).
The latter book was written by the journalist Charles-Maxime de Ville-
marest and gives an account of the much talked-of presence of Mlle Le
Normand in Aachen, describing how she beforehand gleaned rumours and
anecdotes from well-informed people (pp. 151-2). Mlle Le Normand's own
book, on the other hand, is rather a tourist's guide, telling how she went
to Belgium - then under Netherlandish rule - was stopped by the customs
and finally reached Aachen, of which she offers a full description largely
borrowed from J.-B. de Bouge's Guide des etrangers, ou ltineraires de la
ville d'Aix-la-Chapelle (Foreigners' Guide, or Walks in the City of Aachen,
Brussels, 1806). She says very little about meeting important people there,
but devotes a long section to telling of her encounter with a prophet called
Muller. Muller having invited her to go to Brussels, she ends her book with
a tour of the Belgian capital.
Tarots are also dealt with in this book. The table of contents announces
a promising chapter entitled 'Y a-t-il quelque chose de philosophique dans
les Tharots?' (Is there something philosophical in the Tarot?). Here at last
we will learn what Mlle Le Normand thought about the Tarot. She has
prepared us for it: operating her 'grande cabale', she divides her Egyptian
pictures ('mes tableaux egyptiens') into nine (p. 51). She remarks that,
although a pack of cards seems something frivolous, it is not unworthy of
philosophical attention. Further, she describes the familiar utensils which
surround her and mentions her tarots, 'emblematic and hieroglyphic
figures' (p. 193). After having endured a complete description of Aachen,
we now arrive, quivering with emotion, at the core of Marie-Anne Le
Normand's contribution to the Tarot theory. Disappointingly the chapter
is just a description of her bedroom at the Hotel de"Bellevue. The only
sentence she devotes to the Tarot is this: 'mes Tarots m'offrent de sin-
gulieres reflexions' ('my Tarot cards offer me some curious reflections')!
One of the masterpieces of Mlle Le Normand was certainly the
Memoires historiques et secrets de l'imperatrice Josephine, Marie-Rose
Tascher de La Pagerie, premiere epouse de Napoleon Bonaparte; orne de
cinq gravures, portrait et fac-simile (Paris, 1820, 2 vol.), where she tells
the life of Napoleon's first wife. You will not be surprised to hear that the
true heroine of the story is actually Marie-Anne Le Normand in her role
of confidante and adviser of the empress. She never fails to underline her
great merits and her historic visions. Some months before, a subscription
'Prospectus' advertised the book, vaunting 'the luxury of the typography,
the finish of the engravings'. Buyers could subscribe 'au magasin de
librairie, rue du Petit-Bourbon-St-Sulpice, no. 1'. This was to be the last
mention of Marie-Anne Le Normand's bookshop, for neither of the two
volumes gives its address. The later books do not display it.
 6. Mlle Le Normand: Prophet or Sorcerer? 127
The Memoires historiques et secrets quickly prompted negative reac-
tions. J.-M. Deschamps, Josephine's private secretary, protested with a
very firm letter in Le Constitutionnel and Le Courrier Franr;ais of 8
November 1820. In La Gazette de France of 4 December 1820, Colnet
showed that it was a jumble of errors. Although she tries to present
Josephine in a positive way, Napoleon's admirers called it treason. Mar-
quiset's judgment is hard on it: 'it is a crude novel', 'almost everything is
fake in the work' and, further, 'apart from these anachronisms, the
Memoires are essentially the story of Napoleon erroneously and unimagi-
natively told.' 48 Modern historians are no less critical. They generally take
Mlle Le Normand's work on Josephine as a pure swindle. For Pr. Jean
Tulard they are 'entirely apocryphal';"
Nevertheless, the Memoires historiques must have had some success,
and may have been the first best-seller ever published by Mlle Le Nor-
mand. They went to a second augmented edition, with Napoleon's last
words in Saint Helena added. 48 Their fame crossed frontiers: the Memoires
historiques were translated into German as early as 1822 under the title
Historische und geheime Denkwurdigkeiten der Kaiserin Josephine, ...
ersten Gemahlin Napoleon Bonapartes .. ., translated by August von Blum-
roder and published at Sondershausen. They were even, amazingly,
translated into Swedish soon afterwards. 49 Finally, an English transla-
tion, owed to Jacob M. Howard, appeared in the United States in 1847, in
Chicago and in Philadelphia simultaneously: Historical and secret mem-
oirs of the empress Josephine (Marie-Rose Tascher de La Pagerie), first wife
of Napoleon Bonaparte. Translated from the French by Jacob M. Howard.
They were reprinted many times, in 1848, 1850, 1852, 1854, and later, up
to the turn of the century.
Marie-Anne Le Normand seems to have felt humiliated with the sarcas-
tic reactions of the Parisian press. She suddenly decided to g~ back to
Belgium. On 25 February 1821 she left Paris and set up in Brussels.
Customers were quick to come and consult her oracles. But the police were
also quick to prosecute her, and Mlle Le Normand was arrested on 18 April
1821. After interviews and searches, she was indicted for fraud and sent
to court at Louvain. On 7 June, she was sentenced to one year's imprison-
ment and fined three florins. She appealed against the judgement and a
new case was brought before the Brussels court. The prison sentence was
withdrawn, and Marie-Anne was fined only 15 francs, which she refused
to pay. A free Mlle Le Normand finally left Brussels on 15 August 1821.
All this story gave rise to a new book. Souvenirs de la Belgique was
published in October 1822, 'a Paris, chez l'auteur, rue de Tournon, n° 5, et
MM. les principaux libraires de la capitale'. Marie-Anne Le Normand tells
us her memories of'a hundred days of misfortune', to which she adds her
usual 'historical and political notes'. The book was illustrated with an
engraved portrait of the author in her Brussels prison. As in the previous
works, there are footnotes and endnotes; there are even footnotes to the
128 A Wicked Pack of Cards
endnotes! The 415 pages are peppered with lessons in history, anecdotal
digressions, and French, Latin and even English quotations (without any
reference). It is a fancy narrative of what had happened from start to finish
and, in her obsessive desire to prove she was within her rights, she
appends 80 pages of genuine supporting documents (witness statements,
hearing minutes, memoranda that she published in defence of her posi-
tion).
All the 'victims' mention ordinary as well as Tarot cards for telling
fortunes. As her Sibylle au congres d'Aix-la-chapelle, Mlle Le Normand
avoids answering direct questions about the Tarot. In the chapter called
'Mon interrogatoire' (My interview), where she reports questions and
answers in her way, a questioner asks: 'What does this set of tharots which
you have in your possession, where there must be hieroglyphs, mean?' (p.
39). But her answer deals with palmistry!
Back in Paris, Marie-Anne Le Normand engaged in writing a mountain
of books, of which various lists appeared in her printed works. In October
1824, just after Louis XVIII's death, she published a wild vision of 'the
Angel protector of France at Louis XVIII's tomb', in which she predicted a
long and happy reign for Charles X- who was to be driven out by the 1830
Revolution. The death of the Czar Alexander I in 1825 inspired a new
canto on the shade of Catherine II at his tomb. She offered a subscription
to forty-four further works by her; among those which were announced,
but never appeared, were her own memoirs and books about Josephine's
son Eugene de Beauharnais and about Queen Wilhelmina. so
According to Dicta Dimitriadis, Mlle Le Normand travelled to London
again in 1822 and joined there a secret society called 'Members of Mer-
curii'; she even ran, in 1824, a magazine entitled The straggling
astrologers of the 19th century.51 All this is contradicted by a business
letter of Mlle Le Normand sent on 20 January 1823 to Messrs. Truttel and
Wurtz, booksellers in Paris, dealing with the sale of three dozen copies of
her Souvenirs de la Belgique for 178 francs and expecting increasing
business dealings with them during 'this year 1823'.52 It is indeed hard to
imagine how she could be living in London between 1822 and 1824, at the
time when she was publishing in Paris her Souvenirs de la Belgique
(1822), then L'ange protecteur de la France au tombeau de Louis XVIII
(1824)! Not surprisingly, she never alludes to these brilliant English
adventures in her later publications. 53

The last years

After the Revolution of July 1830, a new more liberal monarch was
established on the French throne. In spite of Mlle Le Normand's prediction
six years before, Charles X had been driven out of France and his cousin
Louis-Philippe had become the king of the French. Marie-Anne Le Nor-
mand was a royalist, but she seems to have been a supporter of the elder
 6. Mlle Le Normand: Prophet or Sorcerer? 129
Bourbons. Her fame was probably on the wane too, in spite of support from
Guizot, one of the most influential ministers of the government, and Emile
de Girardin, a leading figure of the press. She also converted Narcisse-
Honore Cellier du Fayel, a rather suspicious lawyer, who wanted to meet
the 'charlatan'. Cellier du Fayel was convinced by her oracles and soon
became her confidant and biographer. 54
In his biography of 1843, Francis Girault tells how in 1835 there came
to Mlle Le Normand's consulting room an old and poor woman, unknown
to her. She confessed to being the widow of Fouquier-Tinville, the sinister
public prosecutor of the Revolution who had been guillotined in 1795. Of
course she had much to say and her secret papers were of great interest
for the sibyl. But this is a new swindle: as Alfred Marquiset has recalled,
Mme Fouquier-Tinville had died seven years before!55
Marie-Anne Le Normand's literary vein had not yet dried up. Between
1831 and 1833, four last books came out from her 'factory' and many others
were advertised. Dedicated to the new king and published in January
1831, L'ombre de Henri Nau palais d'Orleans (Henri N's shade at the
Orleans palace [i.e. the Palais-Royal]) is a boring mishmash of visions,
dialogues, and lessons in history, with footnotes to show how accurate was
her premonition of the 1830 Revolution. A final 'post-scriptum' adds that
it contains the exact prediction of the events of 20-22 December and that
it should have appeared on 20 December 1830.56 Ifit had, we could at last
have tested Olivarius's extraordinary prophecies of 1542. Philippe-
Dieudonne-Noel Olivarius, she tells us in her footnote (2), page 16, had
written 919 predictions up to 1982. She prides herself on having pur-
chased this unique manuscript which had been hunted for 'in all libraries'.
The Pope himself had been filled with wonder. Five folios are reproduced
in L'ombre de Henri N (pp. 18-28), with notes explaining the meaning of
some 'old French' expressions.
This was not the first time Mlle Le Normand had talked about this quite
unknown magus. She had already published one of his predictions in 1820,
at the end of the Memoires historiques et secrets de l'imperatrice Josephine.
According to her, it is Napoleon who mentioned Olivarius's prophecy to
Marie-Anne in 1814. Further folios were published in the next books: one
in Le petit homme rouge au chateau des Tuileries (July 1831), another one
in Manifeste des dieux sur les affaires de France (January 1832) and folios
8 to 10 were given in Mlle Le Normand's last printed book, Arret supreme
des dieux de l'Olympe, dated 28 February 1833.
The ridiculous 'old-style' wording of Olivarius's text is so obviously
forged that Alfred Marquiset has devoted a full appendix to expose this
'attrape-nigaud' (con-game). He not only shows that there is not a single
piece of truth in any of Mlle Le Normand's assertions but that the swindle
was developed by other writers. Henri Dujardin, L'oracle pour 1840 (Paris,
1839), says he knows three people named Olivarius, of whom one has left
a book, Petri Joannis Olivarii Valentini de prophetia et spiritu prophetico
130 A Wicked Pack of Cards
liber, printed at Basel in 1543, to be found in the Royal Library under
inventory number Z 985. Would you be surprised to hear that this shelf-
mark is a fake one? Of the other two, one Olivarius was
Philippe-Dieudonne-Noel, whose text is now presented as a book printed
in 1544 and entitled Previsions d'un solitaire, and a third one wrote the
celebrated 'prophetie d'Orval' (another forged prophecy which was first
published in Journal des villes et des campagnes of 20 June 1839). Eugene
Bareste gave some more credit to Olivarius in his extremely popular
Propheties: La fin des temps, avec une notice, of which four editions were
published in 1840.57
Le petit homme rouge au ch{iteau des Tuileries; La verite a Holy-Rood;
Predictions, etc. (The little red man at the Tuileries palace; The truth at
Holy-Rood; Predictions, etc.), published in July 1831,58introduces a new
prophet: the Petit Homme Rouge (little red man). In 1831, Marie-Anne Le
Normand tells us, an old and twisted woman appeared in the Tuileries
palace uttering curses against the Bourbons. She was the incarnation of
the 1793 Republic. The Petit Homme Rouge was there and replied. His
long talk reveals that he was the organiser of all past events from 1789.
Why did Louis XVI lose his throne? Because Blondinet ('blond-hair'!), for
such is his name as we understand it, decided the king was not able to
reign any longer. Who protected Napoleon? The little red man, of course!
Readers of Mlle Le Normand's Oracles Sibyllins may note that the little
red man had already been mentioned there (p. 340).
In fact, Marie-Anne Le Normand did not invent the Petit Homme
Rouge. She probably got the idea from a short pamphlet against Napoleon
published in 1814 and entitled Le petit homme rouge.59 The six pages
depict Napoleon's last council meeting at the Tuileries and the arrival of
the little red man, a terrifying genie, a 'man of fire', whose contact burned
those who touched him. This infernal creature was there to take Napoleon
to Hell. The Petit Homme Rouge made another appearance some time
after Mlle Le Normand's book. Messrs de Pixerecourt, Brazier and Car-
mouche wrote a play with the same title: Le petit homme rouge, 'folie-feerie
romantique en quatre actes et en vaudevilles, imitee du genre anglais'
(romantic four-act vaudeville folly-extravaganza, in the English style),
performed at the Theatre de la Gaiete on 19 March 1832. The music was
by Alexandre Piccini. Of course this was not the end of the little red man's
career, for new adventures came out anonymously in 1843 under the title
of Memoires et propheties du petit homme rouge, par une sybille [sic],
depuis la Saint-Barthelemy jusqu'a la nuit des tems; as we shall see later,
Paul Christian was to revive him in a book published in 1863: L'homme
rouge des Tuileries. 60
New revelations and predictions came out in 1832 with Manifeste des
dieux sur les affaires de France: apparition de S.A.R. la feue Mme la
duchesse douairiere d'Orleans (Marie-Louise-Adela'ide de Bourbon-Pen-
thievre), descendante de Louis XN, a son fils Louis-Philippe fer, roi des
 6. Mlle Le Normand: Prophet or Sorcerer? 131
Fran<;ais.Revelations (Manifesto of the Gods upon French affairs: appari-
tion of H.R.H. the late dowager duchess of Orleans ... , descendant of Louis
XN, to his son Louis-Philippe I, King of the French. Revelations), publish-
ed on 21 January 1832 by Mlle Le Normand, 'editeur-libraire', and
Dondey-Duprey pere et fils, who had been Marie-Anne Le Normand's
printers and partners since 1824. Although backed up by a further 'feuil-
let' from Olivarius's prophecy, these recommendations do not seem to have
impressed Louis-Philippe, for a last imprecation came out in February
1833 under the titleArret supreme des dieux de l'Olympe en faveur de Mme
la duchesse de Berry et de son fils. L'ombre du prince de Conde (Louis-
He nri-J oseph) a son filleul le due d'Aumale d'Orleans (Henri
Eugene-Philippe-Louis). Revelations, etc., etc. (Supreme decree of the
Olympian gods in favour of the Duchess of Berry and her son. The shade
of the Prince of Conde ... to his godson the Duke of Aumale-Orleans ... ).61
'This little booklet [she warns us on the back of the title-page] was
announced for 19 November 1832. Unofficial friends wrested out of me the
promise to delay its publication until 28 February 1833. "It is enough, said
one, that you were able to predict the Duke of Bordeaux's birth, her noble
mother's heroism; it is certain: Mme the Duchess of Berry will be rescued
from Blaye" '.
Marie-Caroline Duchess of Berry had tried to stir up some provinces
against Louis-Philippe in 1832; she had been arrested and was imprisoned
in Blaye, near Bordeaux. But once again Marie-Anne Le Normand had not
foreseen the burlesque end of this hopeless venture. She did not know that
the duchess was secretly pregnant - not by her legitimate husband, since
the Duke of Berry had been murdered in 1820. In 1833, some months after
the book was published, the Duchess of Berry gave birth to an unexpected
daughter, which scandalised many people and discredited the Legitimist
cause for many years. It may well have discredited Mlle Le Normand too,
since this was to be her very last book.
However, many other writings were in preparation. On the page where
she lists her published works, Marie-Anne Le Normand advertised some
new books to come: Les mysteres de Blaye, Jeanne d'.Arc au Louvre, with
the Duchess of Berry's horoscope, La sibylle aLondres, Louise Wilhelmine
de Prusse, ou les infortunes d'une grande reine, which we have already
met, Anecdotes historiques, politiques, etc. sur la reine d'Angleterre
(Caroline-Amelie-Elisabeth de Brunswick); particularites secretes sur la
princesse Caroline d'Angleterre, premiere epouse de S.A.R. le prince de
Saxe-Cobourg, which we will never be consoled to have missed, and last
but not least the long expected Memoires historiques, politiques, souvenirs,
confessions, correspondances secretes de Mlle Le Normand, whose ten
volumes unfortunately never appeared.
Mlle Le Normand's renown, though probably declining, was still attrac-
tive to some fortune-tellers. In 1838, one Mlle Brunet was giving out
leaflets where she introduced herself as Mlle Le Normand's pupil. Marie-
132 A Wicked Pack of Cards
Anne immediately protested in la Gazette des Tribunaux, reminding
readers that she had no students. 62 So it was a simple adepte who publish-
ed in 1842 Le revelateur du destin, ou Livre merveilleux des bramines, pour
connaitre le present, le passe et l'avenir, par un adepte de Mlle Lenormand
(The enlightener of fate, or Wonderful book of the Brahmins, in order to
know the present, the past and the future, by an adept of Mlle Lenormand),
a straightforward collection of oracles which the Bibliotheque Nationale
catalogue attributes to Auguste de Martres.
The end came on 25 June 1843. Marie-Anne Le Normand died at her
flat in the rue de la Sante. Her burial, on 27 June, was an extraordinary
one. The church had been covered with white hangings, the hearse was
pulled by four caparisoned horses and followed by a hundred mourners!
No doubt this baroque ceremony had been carefully prepared. It was also
a momentous occurrence in the world of divination: the earth had moved,
and all was shaken from its place. Marie-Anne Le Normand's last coup
revived interest in her career and provided the newspapers with a good
reason for sarcastic chronicles. A long article by Jules Janin appeared in
the very serious Journal des Debats (of 3 July 1843), another by Leo
Lespes in its competitor Le Constitutionnel (16-July Supplement). Le
Charivari, Le Globe, and at least three others published articles on her
life. 63 Before July was over biographies had come out, which wehave
analysed in the beginning of this chapter. The legend crystallised and an
army of 'students', 'pupils', 'adepts' or disciples were quick to rival one
another.

The succession to Mlle Le Normand

The only heir to Mlle Le Normand's estate was her 37-year-old nephew,
Michel-Alexandre Hugo, a Second Lieutenant in the infantry, the son of
her younger sister Marthe-Sophie. Her wealth was reputed to amount to
the great sum of 500,000 francs, but was actually only 120,000, of which
nearly 80,000 went on individual legacies, and more on various claims
allowed by the court. 64 In its issue of 16 July, the Parisian daily Le
Charivari 65 published a short article on the succession to•Mlle Le Nor-
mand, concluding that she would have no single successor, but that a
number of lady fortune-tellers would share the succession among them.
The article expresses astonishment at the number of such professionals
then operating in Paris, which it puts at around fifty, who advertise their
services in the newspapers and whom it assumes all to be women. It
singles out three for individual description. The first is Mme Clement,
described in the advertisements as a 'charming soothsayer whose youthful
reputation equals that of Mlle Lenormand'.
She claims to have predicted the future greatness of Marie-Louise,
Napoleon's second Empress, and the downfall of Napoleon himself, we are
told; if so, she cannot have been quite so young. She specialises in foretell-
 6. Mlle Le Normand: Prophet or Sorcerer? 133
ing, by means of the cards, disasters great and small, wears a black robe
and a scarlet toque and lives, the article tells us, in a ground-floor
apartment below a notary. Unfortunately, the address is not given; but by
25 July, within a month of Mlle Le Normand's death, Mme Clement had
staked her claim to the succession by installing herself in the very ground-
floor apartment at rue de Tournon, 5, where the famous sibyl had for many
years held her consultations. In her book published a few years later, Mlle
Lelievre told how Mlle Le Normand's nephew, finding among her effects a
letter written to her by Mlle Lelievre, with favourable comments by the
recipient, had written to offer her the use of the apartment and its
furniture; 66 he offered also to persuade his aunt's clients to transfer to her,
saying that she was the only one capable of being her successor. Mlle
Lelievre refused, however, aware that she needed to study further, and
conscious that neither Mlle Le Normand's apartment nor her furniture
would confer on her the requisite talent: with an eye on Mme Clement, she
declares that she would have regarded that as culpable charlatanry.
Evidently, Lieutenant Alexandre Hugo then discovered Mme Clement and
made her the same offer, which she accepted.
The other two ladies described by the Charivari were Mme Albin and
Mme Melchior, both of whom used coffee grounds as their favoured
instrument of divination. Mme Albin specialised in predicting weddings,
inheritances and other happy events. Mme Melchior was elderly, and
devoted the morning to housework and the evening to making encouraging
predictions, for 20 sous a consultation, to her impecunious clientele.
Before July 1843 was out, the publishing house Lange-Levy had
brought out Flamel's La sibylle du XIXe siecle, already mentioned. In a
preface, the publisher, writing under the name of A. Gallus, explained
that, within forty-eight hours of the sibyl's death, he had received a small
casket from an anonymous sender. The accompanying unsigned letter
stated that, some months before, Mlle Le Normand, whose close friend he
had been, had entrusted the casket to him, instructing him to have the
manuscript prophecies it contained published as soon as possible after her
death. Gallus, expressing a belief that the sender must have been one of
Mlle Le Normand's executors, explains that he is bringing out these final
prophecies with the greatest celerity. He does not pause to wonder why an
executor would proceed in so clandestine a way, or reveal any steps he has
taken to verify the authenticity of the manuscript, even by a comparison
of handwriting. Instead, he has invited Hortensius Flamel, 'the celebrated
author of Le Livre rouge', to provide a commentary.
The entire publication bears all the marks of a swindle. Flamel may
possibly have composed the prophecies himself; more probably, he was
merely brought in as an accomplice. The prophecies, two to a page, vary
in accuracy, as all such prophecies do unless too vague or too obscure ever
to be proved wrong. That the kingdom would a second time become an
Empire was to be proved correct in but a few years; that people would
134 A Wicked Pack of Cards
travel by air took longer to be verified. That Switzerland would be invaded
from all sides, and would soon cease to exist, was badly off target; equally
so that the Cross would replace the Koran in Constantinople.
Flamel's brief commentary is perfunctory and composed largely of
generalities. Certain individuals possess the power to foresee the future,
and Mlle Le Normand had it in the highest degree; her predictions were
invariably accurate. What more specific comment could be made on
prophecies already fully explicit? Only the last paragraph of the commen-
tary reveals an additional motive for the publication. 'When we learned of
the death of Mlle Lenormand, we wondered if a new star would shine in
the prophetic heavens to replace that just extinguished. We watched, and
a brilliant ray reached us. Like Archimedes, that initiate of the occult
sciences, I cried, "Eureka". Mme Clement is the new adept who will be able
once more to raise for us the veil that screens the future'. It may be
doubted whether Flamel had the least interest in the matter; but the
publisher was certainly concerned to push Mme Clement's claim to the
succession. Flamel's commentary is followed by an unsigned life of Mlle Le
Normand, which we have seen to have been based on the letter of Alboise
du Pujol to Le Tam-Tam published earlier in the month. From it we learn
that she began each consultation by asking the consultant for personal
details, including his date of birth, the initial letters of his given name and
birthplace, his favourite colour, animal and flower, and the animal he most
disliked. We learn also of the variety of divinatory techniques she used. In
the middle of the biography is inserted a puff for Mme Clement: 'Let us
not forget to say that already at this time an equally famous sibyl, a new
star of the prophetic skies, was pronouncing her oracles and reading the
future. In Germany Mme Clement predicted the future greatness of the
Empress Marie-Louise.' The repetition of the phrase about the new star
suggests that Flamel had at least a hand in composing the biography,
which ends with a further encomium of Mme Clement: 'The last sibyl is
not dead. Here is another who arises, no less illustrious, no less redoubt-
able: it is the pythoness of Delphi, it is Mme Clement. Her tripod is erected,
her book of destiny is open, her cards are ready. To her belongs the
kingdom of the future'.
'We have never seen Mme Clement, the author continues, 'but we have
heard much about her; and what we have heard has been so extraordinary
that it would need whole volumes to recount it .... It is in the grotto of the
Sibyl now deceased, in the very house where Mlle Lenormand lived, that
the prophetess now in fashion delivers her marvellous oracles.' 'The past
is Mlle Lenormand's', concludes her biographer, 'the future belongs to that
new prophetic star Mme Clement. It is with sibyls as with kings: the sibyl
is dead, long live the sibyl'.
The repeated and extravagant praises of Mme Clement might suggest
some degree of collusion between Lieutenant Hugo and the authors of this
spurious posthumous work, since Mme Clement's success would have
 6. Mlle Le Normand: Prophet or Sorcerer? 135
been important to Hugo as a guarantee of the rent. The suspicion would
be misplaced; and the motivation for the extensive advertisement for Mme
Clement remains obscure.
A little later in the same year the life of Mlle Le Normand by Francis
Girault, plagiarised from various sources, was published. Girault printed
as an appendix some correspondence with Alexandre Hugo. First is a
letter dated 22 July from Hugo to the publishers, Breteau and Pichery,
referring to Flamel's book, denouncing the prophecies in the strongest
terms as spurious - a judgement with which Du Bois subsequently con-
curred - and accusing Breteau and Pichery of publishing them. The
accused publishers evidently did not see fit to reply; but Girault answered,
submitting the manuscript of his biography to Hugo at rue de Tournon, 5,
and denying any responsibility for Flamel's book on the part of either
himself or Messrs Breteau and Pichery. In his reply of 29 July, Hugo
apologised for his false accusation, and accepted Girault's work as the
official biography of his aunt.
Mme Clement's hope of becoming as famous as Mlle Le Normand was
disappointed; and if Lange-Levy hoped that she would publish any books
she wrote with them, so were they, for she published her own books. In
1844 she produced a 64-page booklet, Le Corbeau sanglant, ou l'Avenir
devoile (The Bleeding Raven, or the Future Unveiled). The title refers,
Mme Clement explains, to the Roman method of divination by inspecting
the entrails of a crow. The title-page gives the address of the author, as
her own publisher, as the 'house occupied by Mlle Lenormand, rue de
Tournon 5'. The frontispiece is a lithographed portrait of Mme Clement, a
rather pretty lady wearing a headdress of Aztec appearance, from which
her hair tumbles down in ringlets. The method of divination she expounds
is squarely in the Etteilla tradition, the cards used being those of the jeu
egyptien ou de Thot (Etteilla's Tarot, numbered from 1 to the Fool as 78).
She professes to aim at clarity in expounding her system, but does not
achieve it. The lay-out is simple: first thirteen cards are exposed and read,
then nineteen, and finally twenty-one, the cards that have been read being
each time returned to the pack, which is reshuffled before drawing 'the
next set. A list is given of the significations of all seventy-eight cards,
based on Etteilla's but with no account taken of whether any card is
reversed. Though the instruments used are the Etteilla Tarots, Mme
Clement's heart is with astrology. The numeral cards of the Coins suit are
identified with the 'cabalistic' signs of the planets, the Head and Tail of
the Dragon, and Fortune; to each is associated one of twelve predictions,
according to which of the twelve Zodiacal 'houses' (signs) it is in (however
that is meant to be decided). Mme Clement turns, in the second half of the
book, to what she believes will be more entertaining for the public, a
'horoscope' for men and women according to the month in which they were
born, followed by an account of the various temperaments (phlegmatic,
sanguine, etc.) and of how to read character from physical features.
136 A Wicked Pack of Cards
Certainly there was no great sibyl here: only a rather inexpert practitio-
ner.
In 1852, Mme Clement published another booklet, Le Flambeau de
l'avenir (The Torch of the Future), of the same size and length, still from
rue de Tournon, 5, styled 'the former bookshop of Mlle Lenormand'; 67
below the author's name is printed, somewhat pathetically, 'the successor
of Mlle Lenormand'. The same portrait of Mme Clement, but this time
rather smudgily engraved, forms the frontispiece. It is of interest that
Mme Clement repeatedly uses Etteilla's term 'cartonomancie'; but, al-
though the book is purportedly about the technique of 'cartonomancy',
there is virtually nothing in it about the use of the cards. So inconsequen-
tial is it, in fact, that it prompts a suspicion that the poor lady was no
longer in full control of her reason. Under the heading 'System', she states
that one must first question the consultant to learn his personal details,
likes and dislikes (the practice ascribed to Mlle Le Normand). She passes
immediately to the 'Second System', which is no system at all, but a
rambling discourse about astrology and the cardinal virtues, alluding to
the works of 'the great Thoth'. She ends with historical anecdotes of
successful predictions.
In 1847 there was published an entertaining little book, out of the
common run of the cartomantic literature, Justifications des sciences
divinatoires (Justifications of Divinatory Sciences) by Mlle A Lelievre.
The catalogue of the Bibliotheque Nationale gives the author's name as a
pseudonym ofMarc-Fran'rois Guillois, but this attribution is quite prepos-
terous. Pseudonyms, or supposed pseudonyms, are to librarians as
attributions of works of art to individual artists are to art historians; they
investigate them conscientiously, but, when solid evidence fails, they will
seize on the flimsiest ground for an identification. Guillois was the author
of political writings published in 1795, 1797, 1801, 1816 and 1831: there
is no reason to suspect him of a pseudonymous work on the sciences of
divination in 1847. Moreover, it is not a question of a mere pseudonym.
Mlle Lelievre's book is dedicated to the comtesse Marie d'Adhemard, with
expressions of the warmest gratitude for her assistance a:nd friendship,
and contains a large component of autobiography, naming several indi-
viduals, such as Monsieur Saint-Prix, who in 1830 took her on as a pupil
at the Theatre-Fran1rais and treated her as his daughter (p. 49). The book
would be completely pointless if all this were fictitious; moreover, the
author's address is printed on the title-page, so that an imposture would
have been easy to detect. There is no reason not to accept Mlle Lelievre,
as at least one later writer did, as a genuine sibyl, writing under her own
name. 68
The book is chiefly concerned to recount how Mlle Lelievre came in 1840
to adopt the profession of fortune-teller. Though Mme Clement is never
mentioned by name, it is plainly a secondary object to disparage her claims
to be Mlle Le Normand's successor. The author tells (p. 66) how a friend
 6. Mlle Le Normand: Prophet or Sorcerer? 137
of hers asked Mlle Le Normand to take Mlle Lelievre as a pupil, hut Mlle
Le Normand replied that she did not take pupils; she allowed Mlle Lelievre
to read the cards in her presence, however. In a footnote Mlle Lelievre
says, 'I have before me a card distributed by a certain lady' - surely Mme
Clement - 'calling herself the only pupil of Mlle Le Normand. She is
merely the only one to have claimed that title in order to hoodwink the
public; this lady is no more a pupil of Mlle Le Normand than I am, and
perhaps somewhat less'. It has already been told how, after Mlle Le
Normand's death, her nephew offered Mlle Lelievre her apartment, an
offer she declined. The book was reissued the following year with a new
title, Propheties de la nouvelle sibylle. It is inappropriate, since the book
contains no prophecies, but is obviously intended to embody the author's
implicit claim to be the true successor of Mlle Le Normand; she artlessly
tells how she dreamed that Mlle Le Normand said to her, 'You will replace
me, and your name will make mine forgotten.'
Mlle Lelievre practised chiromancy and cartomancy, the latter both
with ordinary cards and with Egyptian Tarots. Her book contains no
instructions for these arts, however, but, after the long autobiographical
section, consists largely of anecdotes about successful predictions effected
by various divinatory techniques. The section on cartomancy repeats the
fantasies contained in the book of Frederic de la Grange, Le grand livre du
destin, which had been published two years before, about the history of the
art. Marie Ambruget and Fiasson figure in it, as they had in the work of
de la Grange; his story about the duke of Orleans, Mariette and Brivazac
is attributed to 'secret memoirs'. 69 Mlle Le Normand, we are assured, had
the book of Thoth always before her eyes; in this respect Mlle Lelievre
imitates her.
According to Eloi"seMozzani, Mlle Lelievre died in 1849.70 It can hardly
be said that either she or Mme Clement proved herself a true successor to
Mlle Le Normand. Other lady cartomancers made similar claims, on a yet
more slender basis. A Mme Lacombe, who in 1846 was practising at 1, rue
Boucher, set herself up as taking the place of Mlle Le Normand; 71 while in
1848 Mme Morel gave herself out in a printed advertisemertt as an
'intimate friend and pupil of Mlle Lenormand', which she most certainly
had not been. 72 It may therefore not be surprising that when, in 1854, Mme
Eugenie Bonnejoy Perignon revealed Mlle Le Normand's own choice of a
successor, vouchsafed after her death, it should have proved to be, not any
of the lady claimants, but a man. This man was Edmond; but his story is
best reserved until the next chapter.

Was Mlle Le Normand really a 'cartomancer'?

Marie-Anne Le Normand constantly styled herself a 'sibyl' or a 'prophet-
ess' (pythonisse) and used to insist in her books on her visions and
prophecies. When she deigns to talk about her divinatory techniques she
138 A Wicked Pack of Cards
calls up an impressive catalogue of magical instruments: Luca Gaurico's
blazing mirror, the thirty-three Greek sticks, a 'cabale de 99 de Zoroastre',
some grimoires, a divinatory wand, her precious talismans, the steel
electre, Solomon's clavicles, Gyges's ring, the arrow(s) of Abaris, a magic
magnifying glass, etc., etc. Cards are not forgotten but they are obviously
not put first. Tarots, often spelled tharots, are not frequently mentioned.
When they are dealt with, it is, like the other instruments, in a very
confused and nebulous way, generally qualified as 'mysterious', 'magical',
and so on, which allows her to keep it all rather vague.
However, several accounts - police reports and literary publications -
reveal that she used cards and tarots, like all 'tireuses de cartes'. The
supporting documents which were used to indict her in Brussels in 1821
and that she so obligingly reproduces at the end of her Souvenirs de la
Belgique all say that she welcomed her customers with ordinary cards and
tharots, according to what they could afford. 73
In his L'hermite de la chaussee d'Antin (Paris, 1813), Victor-Etienne
Jouy explains how she operated: 'past, present and future will be exposed
together under your eyes thanks to a simple pack of cards. However, it
must be said that these cards are much larger than the others, patterned
with hieroglyphs ["tarotees en forme d'hieroglyphes"]. The enchantress
shuffles them, meditating in a very edifying way, and matches them
according to the skilful combinations of the Etteilla.' 74 Another unexpected
account was given by Baron Karl August von Malchus (1770-1840). Al-
though he was an economist and was far from believing in fortune-telling,
Malchus consulted Marie-Anne Le Normand between 1810 and 1814. If
his memoirs, which were published for the first time in Carl Kiesewetter's
Die Geheimwissenschaften (Leipzig, 1895), are not forged, we have here a
good description of the sibyl's ceremonial. 75
Malchus confirms that she starts by asking questions to elicit personal
details from the consultant; she then turns to playing cards. Because he
was familiar with different kinds and patterns of playing cards as were
used in the German-speaking countries, Karl August von Malchus was
stunned by the range of cards Mlle Le Normand was using, and offers a
detailed description of them: 'Tarokkarten, alte deutsclie Karten ["old
German playing cards", i.e. cards with German suit-signs], Whistkarten
[meaning probably modern French-suited cards], Karten mit Himmels-
korpern bezeichnet ["cards with designs of celestial bodies"], Karten mit
nekromantischen Figuren, etc.' The sibyl insisted on cutting with the left
hand and, surprisingly, mixed the cards from different packs! For exam-
ple, 25 cards from a Tarot pack, 6 from another set, 10 from a third one.
'She reserved the drawn cards and spread them on the table according to
a specific order; all top cards were put on the side.' She continued with
palm-reading.
One may be surprised to hear of 'celestial bodies' and 'necromantic
figures', for this is approximately what can be observed on the 'Grand jeu
 6. Mlle Le Normand: Prophet or Sorcerer? 139
de Mlle Lenormand'. As Malchus died in 1840 he cannot have seen the
'Grandjeu' which came out only in 1845. But many types of fortune-telling
cards were being produced from the beginning of the XIX century. Most of
them bore allegories borrowed from Grand Etteilla. A pack called 'Petit
Necromancien' had been produced by Robert around 1810.76
Can we consider Mlle Le Normand as a follower of Etteilla? The answer
is no. Not only is her method of card-reading vague and seemingly simple,
but her constant use of a 32-card pack shows that she was not following
Etteilla. Her allusions to the Tarot are late (none before 1817), but they
are also elusive and unclear. We have seen that she did not use a Grand
Etteilla pack, since the three cards she names in Les oracles sibyllins in
1817 do not bear the typical names that Etteilla had assigned to them but
instead are called after the regular Tarot de Marseille. Another remark-
able fact is that Marie-Anne Le Normand never mentions Etteilla in any
of her books! Although she alludes to Moult, Nostradamus, Cagliostro, to
whom she devotes a long note, Nicolas Flamel, the Comte de Saint-Ger-
main, and Mesmer, not to mention more 'serious' people like Lavater or
Gall, there is not a word about Etteilla or his disciples, no allusion to his
theories. Court de Gebelin too is never mentioned.
Of course, this is not entirely true. Among the 248 notes of her Souve-
nirs prophetiques (1814), she has a note on Hermes whom she lists with
other 'cabalists' [!] on page 268. Her note no. 238 (pp. 582-3) simply gives
a very short presentation of numerology, but its reference is given as
'Science des Signes'. It is probably D'Odoucet's opus magnum which is
meant here, but it is impossible to check whether the quotation really
belongs to one of the three volumes. There is one puzzling allusion to the
Book of Thoth in Les oracles sibyllins (p. 176): Mlle Le Normand says that
she proceeds 'par les dix-neuf points du livre de Thot .. .' ('through the
nineteen points of the Book of Thoth'), for which she gives no explanation.
And we have seen that V.-E. Jouy, describing her operations rather
negatively, alludes to 'the skilful combinations of the Etteilla'. But this is
probably a confusion made by the writer.

The 'Grand jeu de Mlle Lenormand'

and other Lenormand packs
The name of Mlle Lenormand is also attached to a specially designed
cartomantic pack, the 'Grand jeu de Mlle Lenormand', still printed by
Grimaud, the main French cardmaking firm. Based on a 52-card pack, it
includes two extra cards representing a woman and a man, the male and
female consultants. As Prof. Detlef Hoffmann has remarked, the cards do
not follow any identifiable system; it is thus 'one of the most complicated
modern fortune-telling packs'. 77 Each of the 52 cards displays a central
scene ('grand sujet') surrounded by different symbols. In the upper left
corner, a miniature regular card is reproduced; in the upper right corner
140 A Wicked Pack of Cards
a heavy block letter appears with a geomantic layout underneath; between
them is a stellar constellation. In the lower part a left figure is separated
from the right figure by a flower.
This pack of 'astro-mytho-hermetic' cards appeared for the first time
two years after Mlle Le Normand's death. It was sold with a collection of
five books, under the generic title of Grand jeu de societe et pratiques
secretes de Mlle Le Normand (Mlle Le Normand's great society game and
secret techniques), by 'Mme la comtesse de ***'.78 The publisher gives his
address - but not his name - as 46 rue Vivienne.
The first volume, Explication et application des cartes astro-mytho-
hermetiques, avec de nombreux exercices sur les fieurs, les animaux, les
couleurs, et la maniere de faire les talismans. Sui vi de la geomancie et d'un
double dictionnaire de fieurs emblematiques, is an explanation of the cards
with many exercises on flowers, animals, colours and talismans, together
with a treatise on geomancy and a dictionary of emblematic flowers. Its
title-page promises 'a pack of 54 coloured cards'. An advertisement put at
the end of volume 3 reveals that the cards were printed in colour lithogra-
phy by Engelmann and Graf, the celebrated firm which introduced
lithography in France and pioneered its colour application, of which the
'Grand jeu de societe' is among the earliest examples. 79
The collection goes on with Part 2: Astrologie ancienne et tnoderne
contenant toutes les tables necessaires pour dresser toutes sortes de themes,
en quel lieu et pour quel que ce soit; suivi d'un traite des nombres cabalis-
tiques (Ancient and modern astrology containing all necessary tables to
draw up all sorts of charts, wherever and for whomever; followed by a
treatise about cabalistic numbers); Part 3: Traite complet de chiromancie
ancienne et moderne; suivi d'un petit traite de physiognomonie et de
craniologie, d'apres Lavater et Gall (Complete treatise on ancient and
modern palmistry; followed by a short treatise about physiognomy and
craniology, after Lavater and Gall), now published 'au depot du Grandjeu
de societe'; Part 4: Le jeu de la fortune, ou reponses des dieux, deesses,
demi-dieux et heros de l'antiquite aux questions qui leur sont adressees sur
les destinees humaines (The game of fortune or reply of the gods, goddesses,
demi-gods and heroes of Antiquity to questions they are asked upon human
destinies); Part 5: Les oracles des douze sibylles, ou solutions par les
nombres aux questions proposees (Oracles of the twelve sibyls, or solutions
to proposed questions through numbers), all published in 1845.
This 'immense work', 'well written and well arranged', is supposed to
have been collected by a 'femme d'esprit', whose name must remain
hidden. The explanations of the cards are vaguely reminiscent of the Petit
Etteilla, but assign several meanings to the different subjects. In any case,
they do not tally with the scarce hints found in Mlle Le Normand's
writings. It is furthermore clear that she only used 32-card packs. The
following volumes bear obvious marks of an apocryphal work: neither
their style nor their terminology has any relationship with Mlle Le Nor-
 6. Mlle Le Normand: Prophet or Sorcerer? 141
mand's themes. Volume 1 was reprinted by Breteau in 1865. It was sold
with a new edition of the 'astro-mytho-hermetic' cards, printed in crayon
lithography by Bertauts, and coloured by hand.
The 'Grand jeu de Mlle Lenormand' gave rise to an early German copy:
about 1850, the publishing house of J.F. Aug. Reiff brought out a pack
of 55 cards whose title-card bears the caption 'Wahrsage-Karten der
beriihmten Mlle Le Normand' (fortune-telling cards of the famous Mlle Le
Normand). The cards are differently arranged: the central scene is now in
the lower part of the card and the little figures appear in the centre. The
constellations have been omitted. 80
More recent packs appeared in about 1850 under the name of 'Petit
Lenormand'. Their composition of 36 cards points to Germanic countries
rather than to France, where such a composition was unusual since the
XVII century; their quite simple iconography has actually nothing to do
with either the 'Grand jeu de Mlle Lenormand' or Marie-Anne Le Nor-
mand's own card-reading methods. The miniature cards which sometimes
replace the French captions in the upper central part show typical German
French-suited patterns. Each card bears one symbol: a ring, a ship, a
heart, etc. German, Austrian and even Belgian and Swiss cardmakers
have made and still make these 'Petit Lenormands'. 81 Amazingly this type
of cards has never been produced in France.
Detlef Hoffmann has shown that their prototype can be clearly traced
back to a lovely little pack of fancy cards, called 'Das Spiel der Hofnung
[sic] I Le jeu de l'esperance' (The Game of Hope), published around 1800
by G.P.J. Bieling of Nuremberg. 82 Surprisingly, it is not a fortune-telling
pack but a race game! The accompanying leaflet (Das Spiel der Hofnung
[sic], mit einer neuen Figurenkarten uon 36 illum. Blattern. Zweite uer-
besserte Aufiage, i.e. The Game of Hope, with new figure cards [made] of
36 illuminated cards. Second improved edition) describes the rules: the
cards must be arranged to form a square of 36 x 36 in numerical order.
Two dice are used and each player moves his man according to the throw
of the dice up to the thirty-sixth card. As in many race games, there are
lucky and unlucky cells. However, the last lines of the text state that 'with
the same cards one can also undertake an entertaining fortune-telling
game'. It is a very simple question-and-answer system, using only 32 cards
arranged in eight rows of four. The cards are etched and nicely hand-col-
oured. Each one bears two miniature cards: one of the German-suited
pattern known as 'Ansbach pattern' and the other of the so-called
'Bavarian Paris pattern' (French suited). The symbols and numbers are
exactly the same as in later 'Petit Lenormands'.

*
In the end, Marie-Anne Le Normand's career proved to be quite successful.
Her very modem sense of publicity and her use of the media of the time -
142 A Wicked Pack of Cards
circumstantial books, press articles, even adverse ones, not to mention her
grandiose burial - have brought her a universal fame. The only point
which interested her was to leave her name to posterity. No theories, no
message. She did not design or even inspire any pack of fortune-telling
cards. She wrote many books, but all were focused on her visions and her
historic encounters. She hardly knew what the Tarot was and never
referred to Court de Gebelin, Etteilla or their followers. But the years have
not eclipsed her name: she really remains the most famous cartomancer
of all time.
 CHAPTER7

The Tradition of Etteilla

Cartomantic packs
Mlle Le Normand's fame eclipsed Etteilla's. Her renown was far greater
than that of any fortune-teller before or since, and her importance for our
story lies in the greatly inflated vogue for divination to which her celebrity
gave a major impetus. Unlike all other fortune-tellers who .published
books, however, she had expounded no theory, nor any technique of
divination; any 'tradition' supposedly stemming from her was necessarily
a fabrication. By contrast, Etteilla bequeathed a doctrine, a technique of
divination, a set of designs for the 'Egyptian' Tarots and, elaborated from
Court de Gebelin, an account of their historical origin. From him, there-
fore, an entire tradition took its source. This tradition lasted until the end
of the XIX century, and even later; some vestiges of it survive today. But
it was the spirit of Mlle Le Normand that informed it. For most of the
century, what attracted was not magical theory, but simply divination.
Cartomancy had flourished during the Napoleonic period, and contin-
ued to flourish after the Restoration; but the lives of cartomancers became
a great deal easier, since they ceased to be subject to arrest and arraign-
ment in the courts, which had regularly imposed sentences .of a few
months' imprisonment. Throughout the XIX century, there was a great
vogue in France for specially designed cartomantic packs. 1 Those not
forming a Tarot pack of any type consisted of cards representing subjects,
such as 'Hope', 'Journey', 'Illness', etc., with an obvious divinatory signifi-
cance. In some such packs, the cards bore no relation to cards used for play;
in others, the pack was made to correspond to an ordinary pack with
French suits by means of a small image of a card from such a pack inset
in the main design. 2
Most of the playing cards intended for divination, however, were either
Tarots or showed to a lesser degree the influence of Etteilla. An early
example was 'le Petit Oracle des Dames', a charming if eccentric pack of
which the classic version was produced in Paris by the veuve Gueffier in
1807, but of which an earlier version by Mme Finet, with the same title
but only thirty-six cards, had been issued in about 1800.3 The title reflects
the rooted assumption of the time that cartomancy was principally a
recreation for ladies. In its classic version, the petit Oracle was composed
144 A Wicked Pack of Cards
of forty-two cards, numbered from 1 to 42 in the top left-hand corner, and
with a small ordinary playing card depicted towards the bottom on the
right; some of the cards bear a single main design, others two; some of the
latter have an ordinary playing cards only in one half, while others have
different ones in the two halves, thus making up a full 52-card pack. Each
card has an inscription at top and bottom, giving the subject or, on cards
with only one design, the meaning if reversed. The designs are borrowed
in part from a 66-card fortune-telling pack of about 1790,4 and in part from
Etteilla's version of the Tarot pack. Among the first twenty-one cards are
to be found reproductions ofEtteilla's designs for the trumps; for instance
the Moon on no. 3, the Creation of Man and Woman on no. 9 and the Fool
and the Bateleur on no. 21.
A slightly later fortune-telling pack, composed of thirty-six numbered
cards, with a one-word title at the top of each card, actually borrowed
Etteilla's name: the 'nouvel Etteilla' or 'petit Necromancien' produced by
Robert, another Parisian publisher, in about 1810. Only eight ofEtteilla's
figures were used, however, including Justice (here no. 4), Prudence (no.
14) and Death (no. 36).5

Egyptian Tarots
The majority of writers on cartomancy insisted, however, that the proper
cards to use for the purpose were Tarots. There were now three generally
recognised varieties of Tarot cards. The first were the 'German Tarots',
comprising those introduced in the middle of the preceding century with
the French suit-signs of Hearts, Diamonds, Spades and Clubs, and non-
traditional figures - usually animals - on the trumps. These French-
suited Tarot cards had now completely replaced the traditional type in
Germany and Central Europe generally; but only one writer ever contem-
plated using them for cartomancy. The second variety consisted of the
'Italian Tarots', by which was meant, not those produced in Italy, but the
traditional forms used by players in France "and elsewhere, such as the
Tarot de Marseille, the Tarot de Besan~on with Jupiter and Juno replacing
the Pope and Popess, and the distinctive Belgian form of the Tarot pack
with Italian suit-signs. The third variety was made up of the 'Egyptian
Tarots', by which was meant Etteilla's cards and others in that tradition.
Until 1889, when French writers on cartomancy deigned to notice the first
two varieties of Tarots, they invariably insisted that only the 'Egyptian'
ones are suitable for use in foretelling the future.
A variant of Etteilla's Tarot appeared in 1826, published by Pierre
Mongie l'aine, an important Parisian bookseller and publisher, who had
started his business at the beginning of the Revolution. This version was
printed from the original copper plates, which had been altered to erase
the corner symbols (but not the numbers of the cards) and add to most of
the trumps, court cards and Aces new legends in cursive script, inside the
 7. The Tradition of Etteilla 145
frames of the pictorial designs, thus conferring on them names with a
Biblical or Masonic flavour, such as 'Hiram's Masonry' (card 2), 'Solomon'
(card 9), 'Rehoboam' (card 21) and 'the Cup of Balthasar' (card 49, the Ace
of Cups). The numeral cards of the Coins suit are designated as coins of
various types, ducats, guineas, etc. An example of this pack is in the
collection of Stuart Kaplan of Greenwich, Connecticut, complete with a
box labelled 'Le Grand Jeu de Cartes, Soixante-Dix-Huit Tarots, pour Dire
la Bonne Aventure'. 6 The label goes on to advertise a book, L'Art de tirer
les Cartes et les Tarots, 'ou !'explication de ce jeu', as obtainable from
Mongie aine, boulevard Italien, 10. It is this which makes it possible to
date the pack. Mongie moved to the boulevard des Italiens in 1824; his last
catalogues date from 1830. The book advertised on the box is one publish-
ed in 1826, L 'Art de tirer les cartes et les tarots, ou Cartomancie fram;aise,
egyptienne, italienne et allemande (The Art of Reading Cards and Tarots,
or French, Egyptian, Italian and German Cartomancy) by Aldegonde
Perenna, Polish sibyl, edited by Collin de Plancy. Although this book does
not illustrate the cards, it uses as names for them those used in the new
legends added in this version, and advertises them as obtainable from the
publisher, Mongie the elder; it was obviously intended to accompany the
pack. Almost the whole section of the book devoted to the Egyptian Tarots
is reprinted in an unattributed pamphlet entitled Grand Etteilla issued by
Grimaud with the version of Grand Etteilla I that they have been produc-
ing for many years.
Collin de Plancy (1794-1887) was a remarkable literary figure. Born at
Plancy, and widely but falsely reputed to be the nephew of Danton, his real
name was Jacques-Albin-Simon Collin. He went to Paris in 1812, where
in 1821 he purchased a bookshop, which, unlike others of the time, did not
function as a publisher. He also wrote a number of books, many of them
published by Mongie, consistently expressing a vehement hostility to
religion and superstition, between which he did not distinguish. In 1830,
he became bankrupt, as a result of the failure of his book business and of
unwise property speculations; he then retired to Belgtu.m. He returned to
France in 1837, and went to live at Plancy, where he founded another
publishing house under the name of the Societe de Saint-Victor. During
his absence from France he had become a fervent Catholic, and for the rest
of his very long life he was the equally prolific author of books, many of
them under a variety of pseudonyms such as Croquelardon and Saint-Al-
bin, expressing opinions diametrically opposite to those of his earlier
writings.
In 1818 he had published a two-volume Dictionnaire infernal, ou Re-
cherches et anecdotes sur les Demons, les Esprits, les Fantomes, etc., etc.
(Infernal Dictionary, or Investigations and Anecdotes on Demons, Spirits,
Phantoms). This was intended as a mighty blow against superstition, and
comprised entries in alphabetical order, including one on cartomancy
(though there were none for Tarots, the Book of Thoth, Etteilla or Court
146 A Wicked Pack of Cards
de Gebelin). 7 The article on cartomancy begins with the remark that all
fortune-tellers think they can confer respectability upon their 'chimaeras'
by ascribing an immense antiquity to them; that is why Eteilla [sic] tells
us that reading the cards dates, not from their invention, but from the
game of the thirty-three batons of Alpha, a Greek soothsayer who took
refuge in Spain (a statement derived from the anonymous work Etteilla ou
l'Ari de lire dans les caries of 1791). The article goes on to describe a system
of cartomancy with the 32-card piquet pack, and ends by telling with relish
three anecdotes about false predictions made by tireuses de caries, includ-
ing one about the future husband of a young man who had gone to the
consultation disguised as a girl.
In the book of 1826, only the section about Tarot cartomancy is ascribed
to the Polish sibyl: the first part, about fortune-telling with ordinary
French cards, is by Collin de Plancy himself. It begins with an adaptation
of the article from the Dictionnaire infernal. This includes the remark
about what Etteilla (spelled correctly this time) had asserted concerning
Alpha, and adds that it unfortunately lacks all evidential basis; but it
omits the anecdotes about false predictions, for Collin is no longer combat-
ing superstition, but pandering to it. He next refers to a book on
cartomancy published in 1802, L'Oracle parfait (The Complete Oracle), by
Albert d'Alby,8 of which he says that, although it may not deserve the-same
confidence as Etteilla, its interpretations of the cards are interesting.
Having explained d'Alby's lay-out of the cards five at a time in the form of
a cross, Collin proceeds to repeat, virtually word for word, some dozen
pages of the Oracle parfait on the meanings of the individual cards. The
section ends by saying that the author (Collin) has not wished to leave the
beautiful ladies who consult the cards, but disbelieve in God, ignorant of
anything concerning the sublime science of cartomancy. They are never-
theless warned that this great means of lifting the curtain that conceals
the future from us sometimes fails: this is not the case with tarots, which
never lie.
In his introduction to the volume, Collin·shows little enough confidence
in Etteilla, declaring that the 1,200 pages of his two large volumes contain
nothing but astrological fantasies. By contrast, the precious volume which
he had had translated is at least of an incontestable clarity. Together with
his own sketch of cartomancy with ordinary cards, he offers it to the ladies,
who will now be able to tell their own and their friends' fortunes. In a
somewhat feeble sop to his conscience, he remarks that the publication
will therefore harm only the professional prophetesses; that accords with
his constant aim, to spread light and combat sorcerers.
The study of the history of magic is generally bedevilled by the use of
pseudonyms, but this is pre-eminently true of XIX-century France. The
name 'Aldegonde Perenna' is not at all plausible as a Polish name, and is
plainly a pseudonym. It covers the identity of Gabrielle de Paban, a cousin
of Collin de Plancy, born in Lyons in 1793; Collin de Plancy did not need
 7. The Tradition of Etteilla 147
to have her treatise translated at all. She wrote a number of books, often
under the name 'Mme Gabrielle de P***', including another work on
divination, L'Art de dire la bonne aventure dans la main, ou la Chiroman-
cie des bohemiennes (The Art of Telling Fortunes from the Hand, or the
Chiromancy of the Gypsies), by Gabrielle Perenna, sibylle proven~ale
(Paris, 1818).
The bulk of Perenna's treatise on the Tarots is taken up with exposition
of the meanings of the seventy-eight cards in turn, in themselves and
when adjacent to certain others, preceded by instructions for the lay-out.
The treatise finishes with a brief exposition of cartomancy with German
Tarots. Meanings are given for the trumps (assuming an animal Tarot
pack) and for the Cavaliers; the other suit cards are to be interpreted as
in cartomancy with ordinary French cards.

Grand Etteilla II and III

In their fundamental work on fortune-telling cards, Wahrsagekarten,
Detlef Hoffmann and Erika Kroppenstedt distinguished three principal
phases in the evolution of the 'Egyptian' Tarots, which they labelled Grand
Etteilla I, II and III. 9 Grand Etteilla I was Etteilla's own pack and its
immediate descendants. Grand Etteilla II came out in 1838, or a trifle
earlier, under the name 'Grand livre de Thot', and was the work of Simon
Blocquel (1780-1863). Blocquel was a publisher at Lille, who worked in
collaboration with his father-in-law Jean-Baptiste Castiaux, and produced
a great quantity of popular booklets, habitually using anagrammatic
pseudonyms such as Blismon, Z. Lismon, Zlismon, Buqcellos, Milbons and
Monblis. The evidence for his invention of Grand Etteilla II and of the date
of that invention consists in a book published by Blocquel at Lille in 1838,
Le Grand Etteilla, ou l'Art de tirer les cartes, with illustrations of all the
cards. The author is given as Julia Orsini, Sibylle du faubourg Saint-Ger-
main, who claims to be expounding the method used by Mlle Le Normand;
the use of the title 'Sibylle du faubourg Saint-dermain' is a piece of
exceptional effrontery, since it was normally applied to Mlle Le Normand
herself. 10 The name 'Julia Orsini' has usually been taken as yet another
pseudonym for Blocquel; but at least one later writer on cartomancy took
it as the name of a genuine professional fortune-teller. 11 'Julia Orsini', if a
pseudonym, is one of a very different kind from the absurd anagrams
usually favoured by Blocquel. Undoubtedly Le Grand Etteilla was com-
posed in co-operation with Blocquel, and served to advertise his new
version of Etteilla's cards; but the balance of probability is in favour of
Julia Orsini's having been a real individual.
Grand Etteilla II was engraved on wood, and did not diverge greatly
from its prototype. The Coins have become wreaths enclosing a quatrefoil,
and, in every suit, each of the lower panels on the numeral cards contains
a vignette bearing no relation to Etteilla's interpretations. Among the first
148 A Wicked Pack of Cards
twenty-one cards, 1, 10, 12, 15 and 21 have been completely redesigned.
The aureole has been removed from card 1. On 10, Temperance is leading
an elephant. On 12, Prudence is represented more traditionally, holding
in her right hand a mirror down whose handle a snake slithers, and in her
left a book. On 15, the priest has been replaced by a wizard, with a manikin
standing on the table before him. On 21, the chariot has become a four-
wheeled carriage, with a canopy ornamented with crescents; on the
carriage stands a bearded man of sinister appearance. The inscriptions at
top and bottom still indicate the significance of each card, upright or
reversed, as on Grand Etteilla I; but, in addition, each bears at either side
another inscription indicating its subject or denomination. Neither the
trumps nor the suit cards of Grand Etteilla I had had names, but only
numbers, though Mongie's version had made an attempt to correct that.
Grand Etteilla II reverted to tradition in this one respect, that it restored
names to them once more. The names given to the suit cards were wholly
straightforward. Those allotted to the first twenty-one cards and the last,
rendered into English, were as follows. 1: Chaos; 2: Light; 3: the Plants;
4: the Sky; 5: Man and the Quadrupeds; 6: the Stars; 7: the Birds and
Fishes; 8: Rest; 9: Justice; 10: Temperance; 11: Strength; 12: Prudence; 13:
the High Priest; 14: the Devil; 15: the Magician or the Mountebank
(Bateleur); 16: the Last Judgement; 17: Death; 18: the Capuchin; 19: the
Tower struck by Lightning; 20: the Wheel of Fortune; 21: the African
Despot; 78: Madness or the Alchemist (with O at top centre). Nine of the
trumps have now completely lost the subjects depicted on the correspond-
ing cards of the Tarot de Marseille.
Julia Orsini begins her book with some remarks about the origin of
playing cards. All the learned attribute this, she says, to Gringonneur, the
painter who made some cards for Charles VI in 1392; but in about 1780
Etteilla ascribed the invention of Tarots, or the book of Thoth, to the
primitive Egyptians. She remarks, with reasonable accuracy, that playing
cards became a popular amusement in Europe at the end of the XIV
century, and adds that Court de Gebelin anticipated Etteilla's theories.
Having spoken of Mlle Le Normand, she describes Grand Etteilla II, as
designed by Z. Lismon. She then quotes (p. 41) from Etteilla's Sept nuances
de la philosophie d'Hermes (Seven Grades of the Hermetic Philosophy),
giving as reference p. 240 of the manuscript. The passage quoted discusses
the three types of Tarots. After contemptuously dismissing the German
ones, it says of the Italian Tarots that they 'ought not to be considered as
a Tarot pack, since there are in fact only twenty-six of them ... which bear
Egyptian emblems; the other fifty-two are ordinary cards. When an ama-
teur wishes to obtain a Tarot pack', it continues, 'he ought (i) to choose
from those produced by French or Arab manufacturers; (ii) to ensure that
each of the 78 cards displays the figure belonging to it ... ; (iii) he ought also
to ensure that on the others are drawn the number of Batons, of Cups, etc.,
which determines its rank, and, further, that there is inscribed their
 la. Antoine Court de Gebelin in 1784 (Bibliotheque
Nationale de France, Estarnpes).

lb. Plates ill and V from A. Court de Gebelin, Man.de primitif, vol. Vill, 1781 (Bibliotheque
Nationale de France, Imprimes).
2-3. Above andfacing page: Some cards from the original edition of Etteilla's Tarot, published in 1789 (T. Depaulis Collection).
 t fnt1t1Ad I l'f11!,I ri'A,/(!(/ti (} f!Hf>H'1<'
;,.-i•v,•c/t1 / '1Wi-)
1

'1{?:''Mtl,'t' fl,r(' ,{(',tM~ ¢U • U/l ('~,v •.t,,p,.( IP_«r,t

~ )
t ~,A.411 el t>~ He' ~lt 1fief ~ I~ /1'~ f}<"'« J _)
t/NHJtrV1"'
lnMitE'tnl d.t"('A.i,t d.- l1ty 'u:-?1'/,1,;,,,/,,f,;;.,;.,r"'r/"
Au,,,k ~ );, 1.·noT "" ·rouT. ·

' 1'1''!•' •

4. Ettellla at work, frontispiece from Cours theori,que et pratique du livre du Thot, 1790
(Bibliotheque Nati_onalede France, lmprim~s).
 ,._.,,,
......~l.... x,
8-.,._. ,,,,,_. :i.
.. ..
·~
.............
............,v:,~. •.,• 1!:!J!::!!
. "
,.-,,,
Nf-t,~·
' ~

,,,,,..,. ro. ,;J::

·n
~
....
iP
II Cl~

iil I ' ,,,,.,,,,,:.;,

l·
• • • ~: l·
..f .·l.
f..• • 1~ i .. t1
¥1 • .l ~ .~ t~~
}i1 ~,,
·i;J '.Z lli>::..tio: .,~
--
..ll~.
~
~··;
·~
... ..
.1· ~

~
"}

· ~~
.~:!!.
~
"'~
~
.
........ A; ·--,~·~·11
."'1." ·,•;.rr

5. 'Petit Etteilla', original edition published by Etteilla in 1791 (Bodleian Library, Oxford, Douce
Collection). .
 6. Mlle Le Normand in jail, frontispiece from M.-A. Le Normand, Souvenirs de la Belgique: cent
jours d'iriforturws, Paris, 1822 (Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Estampes).
7. Caxds from the Jeu de la Princesse Tarot, published by Watilliaux, Paris, c. 1880, but designed
c. 1843 (courtesy Editions Dusserre , Paris) .
8. Anonymous hand-drawn Tarot cards showing the influence of Court de Gebelin, c. 1840 (United
St.ates Playing Card Company Collection, Cincinnati) .
 .J
J
•
Jl

9a. Cards from Grand Etteilla II (Musee franc;ais de la Carte a jouer, Issy-les-Moulineaux).

9b . Cards from Grand Etteilla ill (Musee franc;ais de la Carte ajouer, Issy-les-Moulineaux) .
 lOa. Eliphas Levi (photo: James Hyatt).

lOb. Two 'cles' from E. Levi, Dogrrw et rituel de l.a haut,e magie, Paris, 1856 (Bibliotheque
Nationale de France, Imprimes).
11. Paul Christian in 1846 (Bibliotheque Nati.onale de France, Estampes) .

I
12. Cards from Edmond's Tarot, c. 1865, published by Grimaud in 1966 as 'Grand Tarot Belline'
(United States Playing Card Company Collection, Cincinnati).
 •

.
1\1.le Dr ENCittJSSE (PapuS)
~ledecin de rHvpital Saint~Jacques.
0
13. Dr G~rard Encausse (Pa.pus) as a young physician, c. 1895 (Bibliotheque Nationale de France,
Esta.ropes).
14. Cards from Les 22 Arcanes du Tarot Kabbalisti,que, designed by Oswald Wnth in 1889
(Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Estampes).

,.
 +4 D 5* {J(X

1f.
,
\/
f'mtMS

lil.htf fj
.Iv.....
6
ltliLi
Q
s,lj(ttrr Lt'f.
2011! t,..., to
,UP'rtb

!.,,.....
I.tit, 1........ -.
L'Art'lltt
L• l'unttia
l.r 'ld'lit,t 1!111Qtf11( •;:::. "")
u \tll111'1>F.mu:
1.1Rt.Ut1t11
-~
QI
l~ huflfl
ti Dn~1/Ntiffllt·~~
t, L11r1ttr

H
ruti!ll
* 8~ l't
r.......
M
ht\CAJI
15
n 0
Hun1
"(
s..,••1,.
'
ltuan
tr
IIUW.l
~ Lmu
s.......... L~ Stu11UT M
HI(( ,17DO !t A.
£,mii~ 1........ .J...:.\
r>
itO"IEflt
~S.,i,i't*
...'\f
Millf, 'fvl,
Ltlf'f,.,,.t • Ol&v
-""'"""
f.ttr11£\
l1;•1•

tt11l•mb11rua , t ..... h•nr.m:,.IJllda'lf

Rtr>n,r,.. i.. r...,.... 1.41qr
.. Rnlll.'i&IIU
JMTlfl
ul~Mas

15 -

15. Cards from the Papus Tarot, designed by J.-G. Goulinat and published as plates to Papus 's Le
Tarot divinatoire, Paris, 1909 (courtesy Editions Dusserre, Paris).
16. Plates from R. Falcorutier, Les XXII la:rrwshermetiques du tarot divinatoire, Paris, 1896,
drawings by M.-0. Wegener (BibliotMque Nationale de France, Imprim~s).
 7. The Tradition of Etteilla 149
number in the sequence and their principal signification, upright or
reversed'. To this quotation Julia Orsini attaches another recommenda-
tion of the cards of Z. Lismon. Les sept nuances, whose full title Julia
Orsini has given incorrectly, was a printed book, which does not have 240
pages, and she is unlikely to have had access to any of Etteilla's manu-
scripts. None of this would matter greatly if the quotation were not
entirely spurious; nothing of the sort is contained in Les sept nuances.
Etteilla was well aware that 'Italian' Tarots were produced by French
cardmakers, and that the suit cards were not 'ordinary' ones, in the sense
of having French suit-signs.
Next, a lay-out is described, involving complicated operations. It begins
with the distribution of six piles of seven cards each, the cards being placed
one by one on successive piles. Each pile is then redistributed among seven
piles of six cards each: it is not remarked that these two operations have
together the same effect as if the first six cards had been placed in the first
pile, the next six in the second, and so on. Eventually six rows of seven
cards each are laid face up, and the remaining cards dealt out into six piles
of different sizes.
The cartomantic literature is highly derivative. Although Julia Orsini
is professing to expound the method of Mlle Le Normand, no source was
available for that: almost everything in her book is copied from Etteilla
and the Interpretes. So it is with her explanations of the individual cards,
her table of synonyms, her list of the hundred most usual questions posed
by consultants and her royal game of human life. She ends by reprinting
one of the earliest published descriptions of a Tarot game, that contained
in the Maison academique desjeux of 1659: although she alters the names
of the cards to those of Grand Etteilla II, she adds that the cards used for
cartomancy differ from those used for card games.
The third in the sequence of avatars of Etteilla's pack recognised by
Hoffmann and Kroppenstedt is Grand Etteilla III, known in its day as the
Grand jeu de l'Oracle des Dames. 12 On the bas.is of an example in the
Rothschild Collection at the Louvre, it has been dated to about 1865.
Grand Etteilla II went out of production soon after 1900, unable to
compete with its two rivals. The Grand Oracle des Dames - Grand Etteilla
III - was designed by G. Regamey, printed by chromolithography by
Hangard-Mauge and published in Paris by M.-F. Delarue, Blocquel's
son-in-law and the Parisian stockist for the publications of Blocquel and
Castiaux. The inscriptions, at top, bottom and sides, are exactly the same
as in Grand Etteilla II, and consequently the subjects are also the same;
on card 5, however, there are no longer the symbols of the four Evangelists,
but four genuine quadrupeds - clockwise from top right, a lion, a horse, a
bull and an elephant. Etteilla's designs have, however, been transformed
beyond recognition, with the aim of achieving a neo-Gothic style. Grand
Etteilla III was highly popular for a time, but does not seem to have
survived the First World War.
150 A Wicked Pack of Cards

The jeu de la princesse Tarot

Another offspring of Grand Etteilla I was originally called simply the
'grandjeu de tarots egyptien'. In 1843 Lorambert, under the name Johan-
nes Trismegiste, published with Jules Laisne, as part of a four-volume
Bibliotheque du destin (Library of Fate) or Encyclopedie des sciences
occultes (Encyclopaedia of the Occult Sciences), a work called L 'Art de tirer
les cartes, revelations completes sur les destinees au moyen des cartes et des
tarots, d'apres les methodes les plus certaines (The Art of Reading the
Cards, complete instructions on fortune-telling by means of cards and
tarots, according to the most reliable methods); this had illustrations
(reversed left to right) of all the cards of this 'grand jeu'. Etteilla had
declared Tarot cards to have originated in ancient Egypt, but it was now
widely known what Egyptian art looked like, and neither Grand Etteilla I
nor Grand Etteilla II appeared at all Egyptian in style. The new pack was
an attempt to correct this deficiency: although the structure of Grand
Etteilla I was retained, all the designs were altered to produce an ancient
Egyptian appearance. Thus card 1 showed an ancient Egyptian man with
headdress and bare chest, holding a staff topped by a ball supported by a
flower, while card 8 depicted a young girl surrounded by instruments of
divination, skull and crossbones, hourglass, snake, candle and dagger;
most of the court figures had acquired ancient Egyptian personalities. As
in Grand Etteilla II and III, the cards had titles, this time inscribed at the
bottom, as in the Tarot de Marseille, rather than at the sides; cards 1 and
8 are simply named 'the man who consults' and 'the woman who consults'
respectively, card 78 is straightforwardly labelled 'the Fool', and the King
of Coins is Sesostris. Some of the cards, for instance the Aces of Batons
and of Cups, bear the same inner inscriptions as those in Mongie's version
of Grand Etteilla I. 13
L 'Art de tirer les cartes was reprinted unchanged in 1850; but in 1864
there appeared a new edition of the pack, called, at first sight surprisingly,
the 'jeu de la princesse Tarot' .14 The designs of the cards remained the
same, but a completely new set of inscriptions gave the trumps, court
cards and Aces quite new names, of a more resolutely ancient Egyptian
character: thus card 1 was called 'King Thoth', 3 'Anubis', and 8 'the
Princess Tarot'. The text of the accompanying book describes the Princess
Tarot as a great prophetess of Thebes and of Memphis. Production of the
jeu de la princesse Tarot, still under that name, was subsequently taken
over by Charles Watilliaux, whose firm, active from 1874 to 1908, special-
ised in board games and playing cards for children. Papus commended the
pack for its 'very accurate rendering of the minor Arcana', that is, of the
suit cards. 15 It probably continued to be produced until the end of the
century.
The method of cartomancy expounded by Johannes Trismegiste
stresses the significance of rencontres, pairs of adjacent cards whose
 7. The Tradition of Etteilla 151
numerical values sum to 77, or (with less significance) to any other
multiple of seven; but if card 1 chances to be the very first in the lay-out,
this is an immensely favourable portent, and the reading needs to be
pursued no further.

Four occult books

In December 1841, Lavigne, a Parisian publisher specialising in occult
works, brought out Le Livre rouge (The Red Book) by Hortensius Flamel,
followed, in May 1842, by Le Livre d'or (The Golden Book) by the same
author. This was the same 'Hortensius Flamel' as the writer who was, in
1843, to compose the commentary on the alleged Dernieres propheties of
Mlle Le Normand. Le Livre rouge and Le Livre d'or are inconsiderable
works, in small format, and give every sign of having been hastily cobbled
together. The sub-title of Le Livre rouge advertises it as a compendium of
'Magisme', of the occult sciences and of Hermetic philosophy, as ex-
pounded by numerous authorities: Hermes Trismegistus, Pythagoras,
Cleopatra, Artephius, Mary the Egyptian, Albert the Great, Paracelsus,
Cornelius Agrippa, Cardano, Mesmer and Charles Fourrier. This Charles
Fourrier, referred to with this misspelling throughout the book, is the
celebrated early socialist thinker Charles Fourier (1772-1837), who indeed
had leanings towards the occult.
Le Liv re rouge is divided into five books. Book I offers brief accounts of
the life and doctrine of most of the 'adepts' mentioned in the sub-title. Book
II discusses whether the alchemists' 'Great Work' of transmuting base
metal into gold can be (literally) accomplished; it returns a resounding
'Yes' to this question, listing a number of individuals who actually suc-
ceeded in the feat. Book III is entitled 'Asch Mezareph', and claims to be a
translation from Hebrew and Chaldean manuscripts; it will be discussed
further below. Book IV is devoted to astrology; Chapter I launches into a
quotation of several pages from Charles Fourier. A suspicion that the
quotation is spurious would be misplaced: some sentences are omitted
without indication, and some words wrongly rendered, but it is quite
authentic. 16 The remaining eight chapters of Book IV expound a detailed
theory of astrology. Book V completes this disordered whole with a series
of recipes for various spells, attributed to various adepts. These are for
varying purposes; among those ascribed to Albert the Great are one for
causing a barren woman to conceive, and another for possessing a particu-
lar woman in one's dreams (she will dream the same night of the same
event). All are ridiculous, many impracticable, some disgusting. Almost at
the end is a detailed instruction for making a talisman, attributed to
Charles Fourier, for warding off gunshot wounds.
The book appears to be a mere pot-boiler; but Book Ill, devoted to the
Asch Mezareph [see Introduction, 2.4], is nevertheless the result of some
hard work. It can have made little sense to the average reader, especially
152 A Wicked Pack of Cards
since he would be unable to read the words printed in Hebrew letters. In
1714 an English writer, whose identity was disguised as 'a Lover of
Philalethes', had painstakingly collected the passages translated into
Latin from the Asch [Aesh] Mezareph in the Kabbala denudata, arranged
them in sequence as he conceived the original treatise to have been,
translated them into English and published the result. 17 Book III of Le
Livre rouge is the equivalent in French. It does not use the English work,
however; rather, it arranges the same material in a completely different
order. Although in the last paragraph of Book III the author states that
the book 'was in my hands for twelve months', this is plainly false: the
claim to have translated it from Hebrew manuscripts cannot justly be
made on his behalf, but only on that of von Rosenroth. It remains that
considerable labour must have underlain the compilation of Book III,
wasted as this must have been on most of the readers of the book.
Le Livre d'or is an even more feeble compilation than Le Livre rouge,
professing in its sub-title to survey 'all the divinatory sciences', but in fact
largely devoted to chiromancy. Book I briefly surveys eighteen methods of
divination practised in antiquity; like its predecessor, the book makes no
mention of the Tarot or of cartomancy of any kind. Book II expounds two
methods of chiromancy from the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, those
of Rodolph Goglemius and of Jean Belot, while Book III deals with the
divinatory interpretation of dreams. The remaining seven Books expound
in great detail a new system of chiromancy of the author's own devising.
In the first week of 1843, Lavigne, jointly with another publisher,
Aubert, brought out the short anonymous work, mentioned in the previous
chapter, entitled Memoires et propheties du petit homme rouge, par une
sybille, depuis la Saint-Barthelemy jusqu'a la nuit des tems (Memoirs and
Prophecies of the Little Red Man, by a Sybil [sic], from the Massacre of St.
Bartholomew until the Dawn of Time [sic]). As there remarked, the title
echoes one of the least impressive works of prophecy by Mlle Le Normand,
Le petit homme rouge au chateau dee Tuileries (Paris, 1831), alluding to
the legend of the little red man who protected Napoleon. It also echoes Mlle
Le Normand's habit of referring to herself as a sibyl, in the titles of her
books and elsewhere. It may therefore have been intended to deceive
unwary buyers into believing it to be a work by the famous clairvoyante.
The Bibliotheque Nationale, although listing the book as anonymous,
assigns it, in its author catalogue, to Eugene Bareste. Bareste (1814-61)
was a rather odd literary figure, who in 1834 had published a Biographie
des hommes du peuple (Biography of Men of the People) and in 1842-3
produced a translation of both poems of Homer. He was an enthusiast for
the prophecies of Nostradamus, of whom he had in 1840 written a life, also
published by Lavigne, with an interpretation of the prophecies; 18 and in
the same year he had founded the surprisingly successful review, the
Almanach prophetique. It seems somewhat unlikely that Bareste should
have deserted his hero Nostradamus for the little red man of the Tuileries,
 7. The Tradition of Etteilla 153
and he is not otherwise known to have engaged in anonymous publication.
The vulgar mistake in the spelling of'sibylle' as 'sybille' suggests, however,
an author less than highly literate. It is probable, therefore, that the
Bibliotheque Nationale is mistaken, and that Bareste was not the author,
since he was certainly a literate man. Unluckily, it is impossible to judge
from the work itself, since the only copy ofit known to us has been missing
from the Bibliotheque Nationale for several years.
In 1845 Lavigne brought out a new book, Le Grand Liv re du Destin (The
Big Book of Fate), by A Frederic de la Grange, as one of a series ofgrands
livres the firm was publishing (such as the Grand Livre des Jew: (of
Games)). It is beyond question that the names 'Hortensius Flamel' and
'Frederic de la Grange' denote one and the same writer; for large parts of
Le Grand Livre du Destin repeat, in the same or slightly different words,
much of the content of the Livres rouge and d'or, including the talisman of
Charles Fourrier (still misspelled). The correspondence is particularly
close between chapter II of the last (unnumbered) Book but one of Le
Grand Livre du Destin, entitled 'L'Art de la Magie Noire' ('The Art of Black
Magic'), and Book I of Le Livre rouge. Chapter II is called 'The Principal
Masters of the Occult Sciences', and deals with many of those described in
Book I of the work ofHortensius Flamel; the descriptions are very similar,
and often word for word the same. 19
There is also much new matter in Le Grand Livre du Destin. The later
work includes a whole Book of forty-three pages devoted to fortune-telling
with cards. In this Book, the author makes use of two daring devices: the
spurious quotation, and the circumstantial historical narrative made up
out of whole cloth. With one exception, it is difficult to name any other
writer who uses these devices so brazenly as de la Grange does here. Most
of the writers of books of this genre are exceedingly unoriginal; they
repeat, in slightly different words, what they have read in previous books
of the kind. By contrast, de la Grange shows himself an originator: it is
from his invention that some of the alleged .facts stated by subsequent
writers derived.
Chapter II of the Book on cartomancy gives a history of the practice,
fictitious from beginning to end. The art of divining from cards is stated to
have flourished in the courts of Henri II, Charles IX, Henri III and Henri
IV. Louis XIV consulted a famous cartomancer, Marie Ambruget, who
lived in the rue Saint-Jacques; the author goes into great detail about her
disposal of the 6,000 livres granted her by the King for her successful
prophecy of the French victory at Denain in 1712. Next comes a tailor
named Fiasson, who lived in the rue Saint-Honore and told fortunes by
means of playing cards. A very circumstantial story is narrated of a visit
to Fiasson by the due d'Orleans, incognito, six months before the death of
Louis XIV. It is largely told in the form of a long quotation from the
Memoirs of the comte de Noce, published at the Hague in 1733. The duke
visited Fiasson accompanied by the chevalier de Brivazac and Mariette, a
154 A Wicked Pack of Cards
girl from the Opera. Fiasson prophesied to Mariette that she would die a
shameful death, and to Brivazac that he would be eaten, but to the duke
that he would be as good as King. The duke indeed became Regent on
Louis XIV's death; the other two died as Fiasson had foretold.
Not only is there no atom of truth in this entire pseudo-history, but no
such book as the Memoires of the comte de Noce appears ever to have
existed. Much was to be heard from later writers about Marie Ambruget,
Fiasson and their prophecies. We saw in the last chapter that, only two
years later, these historical fantasies were reproduced by Mlle A. Lelievre
in her book, Justifications des sciences divinatoires (Justifications of the
Divinatory Sciences), of 1847.
The spurious history is followed by a sketch of Mlle Le Normand's life;
her date of birth is given as 1768 rather than 1772, in accordance with the
assertion of Du Bois. No mention is made of Mme Clement or any other
successor to the great sibyl; but a contemporary of hers, Moreau, is
described as telling fortunes for the bourgeoisie while she was performing
the same service for the aristocracy. He charged low prices, readily gave
credit and died poor, unlike his illustrious contemporary. Although his
first name is never given, this Moreau, referred to as a famous man in
some later cartomantic works, one of which professes to expound his
method, 20 seems to have been a genuine Parisian cartomancer, credited
with having been consulted by Napoleon. 21
Chapter VII of de la Grange's Book on cartomancy opens with precisely
the same spurious quotation from Etteilla's Les sept nuances de l'oeuvre
philosophique-hermetique of 1786 as that given by Julia Orsini, from
whom de la Grange had evidently derived it: the date and full title of the
book are correctly given, however, with no page number for the passage.
Whether de la Grange had looked it up and found it to be spurious, or
whether he had not bothered, there is no way of knowing. The passage
is quoted in order to prompt the reader to acquire a set of Egyptian
Tarots; probably Grand Etteilla II, if•we are to judge by the titles of the
cards given in Chapter VIII, in which a detailed explanation is given of
every card.

Who was Hortensius Flamel?

'Aldegonde Perenna', Julia Orsini, Mme Clement, Mlle Lelievre and
Frederic de la Grange all belonged to the tradition of Etteilla. We have
seen that Frederic de la Grange is to be identified with Hortensius Flamel:
but whose identity did these two pseudonyms conceal? There have been
very various conjectures.
A theory was advanced, perhaps in the first instance by one A.
Chuquet, 22 that 'Hortensius Flamel' was a pen-name of Alphonse-Louis
Constant, who wrote from 1855 onwards under the name Eliphas Levi and
is probably the most important of all the characters who figure in our
 7. The Tradition of Etteilla 155
history. This theory was half-accepted by the marquis Stanislas de Guaita,
an important figure in late XIX-century French occultism, and, in Britain,
gained credence among members of the Order of the Golden Dawn. 23 A.E.
Waite stated in print that 'there is reason for believing' that Levi was
responsible for the Livres rouge and d'or. 24 The theory was adopted by
Lucien Bodin, 25 and on his authority accepted by Albert Caillet in his
Manual bibliographique des sciences psychiques ou occultes (Bibliographic
Manual of the Occult or Psychic Sciences, 1912).26 It is probably from this
source that it has been received by a great many librarians: those search-
ing for the Livre rouge or the Liv re d'or are advised to consult the catalogue
under the name Constant. 27 Apart from Caillet, however, hardly any of the
proponents of this theory have noticed Hortensius Flamel's contribution
to La sibylle du XIXe siecle: dernieres propheties of 1843, and none has
noticed that the same author must have been responsible for the Grand
Livre du Destin.
The theory has virtually nothing to recommend it, however. As pointed
out by Stanislas de Guaita in a comment reproduced by Caillet, the style
is utterly unlike Constant's, which was very distinctive. The two books are
feeble compositions, and badly organised at that, which Constant could
not have perpetrated at any stage of his career. In 1843 he was serving as
deacon at Evreux, and can hardly be thought to have been spending his
leisure time commenting on supposed prophecies by Mlle Le Normand, or
writing puffs for Mme Clement. Moreover, in 1841 he had not yet devel-
oped an interest in the occult, and probably knew very little about it. He
was at that time occupied with social and religious questions; serving eight
months in prison in 1841-2 for publishing his Bible de la liberte, he can
have had little time for reassembling and translating the Aesh Mezareph.
De Guaita indeed makes this a ground in favour of attributing Le Livre
rouge to him, saying that, as Eliphas Levi, he republished his translation
of the Cabalistic treatise at the end of his Clef des grands mysteres of
1861.28 This is inaccurate, however; although t.evi, too, pretends to have
had the original Hebrew text in his hands, his translation is quite different
from that of the Livre rouge.
In the comment quoted by Caillet, de Guaita put forward an even more
implausible suggestion: Jean-Marie Ragon de Bettignies (1781-1862).
Ragon was a Freemason who published several books on Freemasonry
between 1853 and 1862. De Guaita asserts, as a ground for his attribution,
that 'entire pages of' Ragon's book Orthodoxie ma,;onnique (Masonic
Orthodoxy, Paris, 1853) 'are transcribed' from Le Livre rouge; but this
seems to be an extraordinary error, since there is no correspondence
whatever between the two books.
A more credible candidate is the playwright and novelist Jules-Edouard
Alboise du Pujol. We saw in the last chapter that the biography of Mlle Le
Normand contained in La sibylle du XIXe siecle with the Dernieres pro-
pheties corresponds very closely with the letter sent by Alboise to Le
156 A Wicked Pack of Cards
Tam-Tam. It seems very likely, therefore, that Alboise wrote the biogra-
phy; there was surely a connection, since Lange-Levy, who printed La
sibylle du XIXe siecle, was also the appointed printer of Le Tam-Tam.
Indeed, the biography of Mlle Le Normand in the Grand Liv re du Destin,
although adopting 1768 as the date of her birth, acknowledges that the
details have in large part been borrowed from 'a notice published in the
form of a letter by one of our most distinguished writers' (p. 160): was
Alboise indulging in self-advertisement here? Furthermore, Jules-
Edouard Alboise du Pujol had a brother, a serious teacher of mathematics,
successively a school principal, inspector of schools and finally chief
education officer, who was christened Marc-Antoine-Hortensius. 29 Was it
from the name of this brother that Hortensius Flamel took his first name?
The theory is enticing, but not, in the end, convincing. The biography in
La sibylle du XIXe siecle is not attributed to Hortensius Flamel, who is
credited only with the commentary on the prophecies. Doubtless Alboise
and Flamel/de la Grange were close; but flattery is as plausible as self-ad-
vertisement. Alboise was clearly anxious to maintain the reputation of his
wife's aunt Mlle Le Normand; but it is not readily believed that he should
have taken the trouble to compose three pseudonymous works on the
occult, or have had the competence or the interest to translate the Aesh
Mezareph. Especially is it unlikely since he had collaborated in writing a
play, La tireuse de cartes (The Cartomancer), produced in 1831 and 1832,
heavily satirising women fortune-tellers; its preface says, 'This play was
written to free from the superstition of the cards the populace of our small
towns and villages'. 30
The most likely candidate for the authorship of the three books and of
the commentary on the prophecies was given by Paul Chacomac in his
biography of Eliphas Levi.31 There he firmly identifies both 'Hortensius
Flamel' and 'Frederic de la Grange' as among the many pseudonyms of
Jean-Baptiste Pitois. Pitois did indeed make use of a remarkable number
of pseudonyms, of which the favourite was 'Paul Christian'; though Cha-
comac offers no evidence, all the others that he lists, with one exception,
certainly hid the identity of Pitois. The one exception of course reduces his
credibility. It is 'une Sybille', presumably in reference to the lost work
Memoires et propheties du petit homme rouge, depuis la Saint-Barthelemy
jusqu'a la nuit des tems 'par une sybille', that had appeared at the
beginning of 1843. The reason for doubting that Pitois was its author is
the same as that for resisting its ascription to Eugene Bareste: it cannot
have been the work of a highly literate author, and Pitois, like Bareste,
was highly literate. But, despite this mistake, it seems very probable that
Chacomac was right about all the rest. It might be urged against this that,
unlike 'Hortensius Flamel', few of the pseudonyms used by Pitois were
obvious pen-names; but one exception, 'Lussides', among those certainly
to be attributed to him, is enough to counter this objection.
The authorship of the works published under the names of Hortensius
 7. The Tradition of Etteilla 157
Flamel and Frederic de la Grange does not fit at all well with what we
know of the characters of Eliphas Levi, Jean-Marie Ragon or Alboise du
Pujol; but it fits that of Pitois very satisfactorily. Among the authors of the
manuals of divination, the publishers who wrote under pseudonyms must
be presumed to have aimed simply at making money; but the professional
fortune-tellers probably took themselves with more or less seriousness.
Jean-Baptiste Pitois (1811-77),32 who was to have a great influence upon
Tarot occultism, was a writer who fell into neither of these categories. As
an occultist, he was that rare thing among those encountered in these
pages, a whole-hearted charlatan. The difficulty was remarked upon
above of naming any other writer who uses so brazenly the devices
employed by de la Grange in the Grand Livre du Destin: the fake quota-
tion, and the circumstantial but wholly fictitious historical narrative.
There is one, however, whom it is easy to name: Pitois. His most celebrated
occultist work, the Histoire de la magie (History of Magic), published
under the name of Paul Christian in 1870, is liberally endowed with
examples of the two daring devices. Chacornac was surely right to identify
both Frederic de la Grange and Hortensius Flamel as Pitois.

Jean-Baptiste Pitois
To say that Pitois was a charlatan in his capacity of occultist is not to say
that he was an all-round charlatan. Far from it: he was a successful
journalist, translator and literary man, who published nearly eighty books
and translations, as well as editing various journals for short periods. He
was not a very good writer: his style was high-flown and his books often
quirky. None of them can have enjoyed any signal success, and neither his
real name nor his pen-name of Paul Christian would be likely to be
remembered now but for his contributions to occultism. He certainly never
mastered any of the tricks of the trade needed to produce a best-seller; but
the sheer quantity of his output must have sustained him throughout his
life in decent comfort.
'Paul Christian' was, indeed, something more than a pen-name. Not
only did Pitois publish nothing whatever under his own name, using 'Paul
Christian' for his very earliest writings, but he came to use it in private
life also. It was the name by which most of his acquaintances and friends
knew him and addressed him; and his son Paul Marie-Bernard was always
known as Paul Christian/Us. He had, neverthless, a great love for the use
of pseudonyms. The sources for his life are exiguous: no biography of him
has ever been published, or is likely to be. Some autobiographical remarks
- one must hope reliable - are to be found in various of his writings. A
rambling and uncompleted series of articles was published under the
misleading title 'Le vrai spiritualisme et ses precurseurs' ('True Spiritual-
ism and its Precursors') in the spiritualist monthly La Lumiere for late
1893 and early 1894;33 the journal was edited by Lucie Grange, and was
158 A Wicked Pack of Cards
also a publishing house for occultist works, including the only known book
by the younger Paul Christian, La Reine Zinzarah: Comment on devient
sorcier (Queen Zinzarah: how to become a sorcerer, 1894). The articles are
unsigned, but attributed in the journal's index to P. Christian fils. Paul
Chacomac devoted a few pages to Pitois in his life ofEliphas Levi,34 as did
Christopher Mcintosh in a book with a wider sweep. 35 Finally, a biographi-
cal note by Ross Nichols prefaces the English translation of Christian's
Histoire de la Magie. 36 Essential facts are missing from these sources: the
name of Pitois's wife, when his son was born, whether there were other
children.
Jean-Baptiste Pitois was born on 15 May 1811 at Remiremont in the
Vosges. He was, it seems, illegitimate; Chacomac speculates that his
father's surname was Christian. He was the grandson of a custodian of
forests and the nephew of the publisher Pitois-Levrault. He attended,
first, a convent school at Harcourt, taught by the local cure, who was
chaplain to the nuns, and then the school run by the Clercs de la Chapelle
Royale in Paris. In 1828 he entered the famous monastery of La Trappe,
taking, he tells us, the name in religion of Marie-Bernard; deciding he had
no vocation to the Trappist life, he left after a year without taking his
vows, but remained a devout Catholic all his life. He went instead to
Strasbourg, where another uncle was Rector of the Academy, to complete
his studies there.
At some point in the next few years he went to Martinique, where he
agitated against slavery. 37 From there, according to La Lumiere, he went
to Spain, where, the article vaguely says, he took part in the dangers of a
war of partisans (presumably the reactionary Car list insurrection of 1833-
40); since it later intimates that he was of a pacifist disposition, it is
unlikely that he engaged in any fighting. According to La Lumiere, he had
safely returned to Paris by 1836, being employed on the staff of the Revue
Germanique from then until 1838, and becoming editor of L'Eclair in that
year, and of the Gazette des salons &om 1839 to 1840.
From this beginning of his journalistic career, he used the name Paul
Christian, by which we may hereafter refer to him. He made the acquain-
tance of Charles Nodier (1783-1844), chief Librarian of the Bibliotheque
de !'Arsenal and a distinguished literary figure, and in 1839 was appointed
Librarian for the Ministry of Public Instruction. From 1837 to 1840
Nodier, in collaboration with Auguste Renier and Champin, published a
series of 102 booklets, appearing at brief intervals, under the general title
Paris historique: Promenade dans les rues de Paris (Historic Paris: a Walk
in the Streets of Paris). These were then issued together in book form,
Christian being asked to contribute a resume of the history of Paris; in his
bibliographies from 1845 onwards, however, he always listed this book as
a work of his own, written in collaboration with Nodier. It was not that he
needed an extra book to add to the impressive total of his publications: he
wanted the cachet of having collaborated with a member of the Academie
 7. The Tradition of Etteilla 159
fran1raise. It is said, by Ross Nichols for instance, that it was Nodier who
aroused Christian's interest in the occult. If so, there is no trace, in the
titles of any of the vast number of books written by him, of any such
interest on Nodier's part; Nodier was an author so prolific as to make
Christian appear, beside him, the merest idler.
Christian's own account is quite different. His task under the Ministry
was to catalogue a huge number of old books in the departmental libraries,
many of them duplicates acquired during the Revolution from the sup-
pressed monasteries. In the course of this work, he came upon the 1582
edition of Auger Ferrier's Des jugemens astronomiques sur les nativitez
(Astronomical Judgements based on Birthdates), dedicated to Catherine
de Medici, Queen of France. Impressed that a physician could write about,
and a queen read about, astrology, his whole attitude to the occult sciences
altered. To take this at face value is to attribute to the twenty-eight-year-
old Christian a remarkable na'ivete; but there is little reason to think that,
at this or any later time, he entertained any serious belief in the occult. It
is true that, from 1856 onwards, he professed to do so: but at this earlier
stage of his career, he kept the dealings of Paul Christian with the occult
closely guarded from public view.
It is this that makes it plausible that so prolific a writer should, in 1841,
have published Le Livre rouge under a pseudonym. That Alboise du Pujol
or even Ragon should have translated the Aesh Mezareph is extremely
improbable; that Paul Christian should have inserted such a translation
into an otherwise hastily compiled compendium is quite likely. Although
there is little reason to think that he believed in the occult, he was
undoubtedly interested by it; in his work for the libraries, he may easily
have come upon Knorr von Rosenroth's Kabbala denudata, and have felt
the challenge to reconstruct the Aesh Mezareph, unaware of the work of
his XVIII-century English predecessor.
From 1839 to 1841 Christian found time to publish several volumes of
translations from Johann Christoph Schmid;<in 1842 translations of Boc-
caccio, of Ossian, of Machiavelli and of Young's Night Thoughts, with
introductory essays; and in 1843 a translation of tales from Hoffmann and
an introduction to an edition of Helvetius's De l'Esprit. In 1840 he publish-
ed on his own account a volume of historical studies ofrevolutions in Paris
and a two-volume history of the French clergy. Between 1839 and 1843 he
also composed more than a dozen educational works for the Ministry. If
our supposition is correct, he also found time to compose the three works
of'Hortensius Flamel'.
In 1844 he published-with Lavigne- a collection of marvellous stories
from many countries. In that year he spent some months in North Africa
as an official non-combatant reporter to Marshal Bugeaud's expedition to
consolidate the French conquests. La Lumiere extracts, from his diary, a
somewhat tall story of his falling into a quicksand, when out riding on his
own. With only one arm free, he was about to be decapitated by a ferocious
160 A Wicked Pack of Cards
Kabyle when he unintentionally shot the man dead with a pistol he
believed unloaded, but which a friend had, without telling him, thought it
prudent to load; he was then luckily rescued from the quicksand by a
passing detachment of French soldiers. Having received two bullet
wounds, he was back in France by September, writing the preface to the
first of no less than five books, published from 1845 to 1847, about the
glories of French colonialism in Algeria and Morocco. In the first of these
years, according to our conjecture, he also published, under a pseudonym
used only once, the Grand Livre du Destin.
The prodigious literary output of Paul Christian, under that name,
continued unabated. A Histoire des pirates et corsaires de l'Ocean (History
of Pirates and Corsairs of the Ocean) came out in four volumes from 1846
to 1850, and Dieu et France: Agonie de la Revolution (God and France:
Agony of the Revolution) in 1850. From 1850 to 1852 Christian was
political editor of the Moniteur du Soir, and in 1853 he published aHistoire
de la Terreur (History of the Terror).
Christian's career as an occultist divides rather sharply in two at about
this point, as a result of encountering Eliphas Levi. It was in the later
phase that he made a significant contribution to Tarot occultism; this can
be appreciated only in the light of the transformation it underwent at
Levi's hands. A study of the second half of Paul Christian's career will
therefore be postponed to Chapter 9, after we have surveyed the work of
Eliphas Levi.

Edmond
In 1854 Mme Eugenie Bonnejoy Perignon, author of several biographical
and political works, not herself a magician of any kind but with a leaning
towards the occult, revealed that Mlle Le Normand's own choice of a
successor, vouchsafed after her death, was none of the lady claimants, but
a man. This was in a work entitled Inspirations prophetiques au tombeau
de Mlle Le Normand (Prophetic Inspirations at the Tomb of Mlle Le
Normand, Toul, 1854). The first half is occupied by a life of Mlle Le
Normand, very similar at many points to that in La sibylle du XIXe siecle.
The second half recounts a vision of Mlle Le Normand which the author
had at her tomb at some unspecified date. She asked the shade of the great
sibyl who would replace her in this world. 'Here is my successor', replied
the spirit, and, transported in an instant to a beautiful spot, Mme
Perignon beheld a handsome young man clad in a long robe and holding
Egyptian Tarots in his hands. 'He is called Edmond', Mlle Le Normand
declared, 'and his name will be as famous as my own'. Somewhat naively,
Mme Perignon appends Edmond's address in a footnote.
This prophecy proved no more accurate than many of those Mlle Le
Normand had made in her lifetime. Edmond Billaudot (1829-81), who
always advertised his services under his first name alone, was no more
 7. The Tradition of Etteilla 161
than a rather ordinary practitioner, and, although Antonio Magus as-
serted that he was the only cartomancer to attain a true celebrity in the
period from 1860 to 1868, it was a very restricted celebrity. 38 Edmond's
original address was at the rue Fontaine-Saint-Georges, 30, and Magus
delicately tells us that his having 'established the temple where he deliv-
ered his oracles on the heights of the Breda quarter ... at first attracted a
female clientele of a certain category'. This did not, he adds, prevent the
haute bourgeoisie from the financial quarters and even the aristocracy of
the faubourg Saint-Germain from frequently visiting him. In 1860, Levi
described his encounter with Edmond, a tall stout man dressed in black,
who used a black studio for his consultations. 39
Edmond wrote a few books, including La Chiromancie d'Edmond (Ed-
mond's Chiromancy, Amiens, 1868). In his booklet Manuel de cartomancie
a l'usage des gens du monde (Manual of Cartomancy according to the
Practice of Society), dated 1855, but presumably earlier, he referred to the
'grandjeu des Tharoths', proposing to write a book about it 'for the greater
· glory ofCartonomancy'. The intention was fulfilled inL'Urne du destin, ou
l'Avenir devoile (The Urn of Destiny, or the Future Unveiled), published in
1854 and largely devoted to describing a method of cartomancy with
Grand Etteilla I. Like Mme Clement, Edmond makes use of the twelve
houses of the Zodiac, but in a very clear way. Having shuffled the cards
and had the consultant cut them, he distributes them into twelve piles of
six or seven cards each. Each pile represents a house, and each house a
range of subjects: thus the third governs brothers, sisters, cousins, judges
and prelates. The reading consists in examining each pile in turn and
interpreting the cards in relation to the subjects governed by that house:
the meanings of all seventy-eight cards, upright or reversed, are then
expounded. A tout le monde (To Everybody), published in 1856, is a book
of eighteen large pages, with a portrait of Edmond as frontispiece: it shows
a rather plump, youngish man with a moustache, wearing a full-sleeved
robe and a square hat. The book is devoted to anecdotes, and de la Grange's
story about Fiasson appears once more, ostensibly quoted from the
Memoires of the comte de Noce, published at the Hague in 1733. The
quotation is close enough to show reliance on de la Grange (or a common
source), but substantially abbreviated; Mariette now merely dies in hospi-
tal before the age of 30, rather than of a shameful disease. A tiny work of
thirteen pages, L'Avenir (The Future), published in 1872, is essentially an
advertisement. It shows that Edmond, who now styles himself, somewhat
like Etteilla, a 'professor of celestial mathematics', has changed his ad-
dress to the rue Fran~ois ler, 50, near the Champs Elysees; he can be
consulted from October to May between 1 and 4 p.m. except on Sundays
and holidays, or at Chamonix every year from 18 July to 15 August. A
story, found in works by other writers, is told about Barbezieux, a minister
of war under Louis XIV who died young, having a note among the papers
found after his death predicting the year in which it would occur: the
162 A Wicked Pack of Cards
prediction was due to a famous astrologer and monk Father Alexis. This,
with a story about Louis XV consulting a practitioner of Tarot cartomancy
at the instance of Mme de Pompadour, is repeated from the book of 1856.
The memory of Edmond is kept alive by two cartomantic packs publish-
ed by Grimaud under the names Oracle Belline and Grand Tarot Belline,
of which only the latter is a Tarot pack, while the 'Oracle' is a 52-card
fortune-telling pack consisting of numbered cards without rank or suit-
sign.40 These packs are named after Marcel Belline, a professional
cartomancer who still works in Paris at rue Fontaine, 45, that is, in the
same street as Edmond had lived. 41 They reproduce ones hand-drawn in
pen and ink by Edmond for his own use; these were discovered by Belline,
who passed them to Grimaud to put on the market. Belline donated the
originals to the Musee des Arts et Traditions populaires in Paris, where
they are now to be seen. These cards must come from the later period of
his Edmond's career, from 1863 at the earliest, since they owe little to
Etteilla, and much to the later interpretations of Paul Christian. 42 Further
discussion of the pack may therefore also be postponed to Chapter 9.

The later manuals

The production of books on cartomancy, mostly quite short, co~tinued
unabated until late in the century, testifying to the continued use of
Egyptian Tarots for reading the cards. One whose author took himself very
seriously was the Petit manuel du Devin et du Sorcier by Nathaniel
Moulth, published in 1859, of small format but over 500 pages long. On the
first page of his Introduction, Moulth refers to his grandfather, 'the famous
astrologer Thomas Moulth', of whom he later says (pp. 331-2) that he was
the friend and rival of Etteilla; and in the last paragraph of his Introduc-
tion (p. xii) he describes himself as the son and grandson of magicians, and
declares that he can command spirits, foretell the future, read the cards,
observe the influence of the stars,.discover hidden treasure and perform a
thousand other marvels. 43 Roundly controverting Etteilla's theory of the
Egyptian origin of Tarot cards, he pronounces himself, by his avocation as
magician and cartomancer, compelled to speak the truth (p. 290), and asks
sarcastically how the ancient Egyptians could make cards when they had
no paper, but only papyrus, and why the book of Thoth should have pages
when their books had the form of scrolls. He conjectures instead that
tarots came into existence at the same time as ordinary playing cards,
which he supposes to have been in 1392. He nevertheless accepts Etteilla's
account of the origins of cartomancy, which he says (p. 238) did not exist
before 1750; repeating the anonymous Etteilla, ou l'art de lire dans les
cartes of 1791, he says that its first practitioners were confined in the
hospitals of Bicetre or the Salpetriere. Before Etteilla, the technique was
simply to draw the cards one by one; but in 1753 Etteilla- whose pupil he
asserts Mlle Le Normand to have been - devised the procedure of laying
 7. The Tradition of Etteilla 163
out the cards and foretelling the future from the combination of their
values.
Like Frederic de la Grange's book and many others, Moulth's Petit
manuel starts with a long list of methods of divination, each briefly
described. There is then a chapter on astrology, and another on the
interpretation of dreams. The long chapter III is devoted to cartomancy
with an ordinary French 32-card pack, to which it is held to be essential
to add a blank card to represent the consultant. Etteilla's method is first
expounded, and then variants attributed to Pinetti, Veneficiani, Mlle Le
Normand and Moreau, to whom is ascribed the manner of laying out the
cards in the form of a cross.
Chapter IV is devoted to the 'grandjeu', i.e. the Tarot pack. Moulth first
gives the cartomantic meanings of the individual cards, upright and
reversed; the names used are exactly those of the first version of Loram-
bert's Egyptianised pack (with alternative names for the Aces). He then
discusses rencontres (combinations of adjacent cards) and lays great stress
on those whose numbers add up to 77: the Fool for this purpose ranks as
0. He now expounds a complicated lay-out, as deriving from Etteilla. Other
methods are then explained, including that of Edmond, which is accu-
rately described even though it had not previously been put into print.
Moulth finishes with chapters on divination by coffee grounds, by
chiromancy and by the lines on the forehead, and with a final section on
'black magic'. This explains how to cast spells and make talismans and
philtres, but all for very innocent purposes.
Moulth's Petit manuel is written in a spirit of professionalism: a believer
in and practitioner of magic was making a serious effort to state the truth
as coherently and soberly as possible. Blocquel's next publication on the
subject, Les recreations de la cartomancie (The Recreations of Cartomancy)
by Mlle Lemarchand, which appeared in 1868, was a very different matter.
In a disarming preface, the author says that everyone knows nowadays
that there are no sorcerers, and that consequently it is not given to anyone
to predict the future by whatever means. However, she goes on, there are
still some people who treat cartomancy purely and simply as an entertain-
ment, and it is to them that her little book is addressed.
The book is illustrated by the cards of the Grand Oracle des Dames
(Grand Etteilla III), and the author expounds, with acknowledgements, a
simplified form of the method of Julia Orsini.
The next contribution of any importance was L'Art de tirer les cartes,
published in 1874 by Garnier freres. Many library catalogues identify the
author 'Antonio Magus' with Mgr. Pierre Baret, a missionary in the East
who, under the nom-de-plume 'Magus', wrote two books in the 1890s on
conjuring tricks; it is unlikely that Antonio Magus was the same man. The
book starts with the usual list of methods of divination, extending over 136
pages. Chapter II sketches the history of cartomancy, in which de la
Grange's Marie Ambruget and Fiasson make their accustomed appear-
164 A Wicked Pack of Cards
ances. It and Chapter IV consist largely of anecdotes, Chapter III being
devoted to contemporary cartomancy, Mme Clement, Mlle Lelievre and
Julia Orsini being singled out by name, and Edmond declared to be the
only cartomancer to achieve genuine fame. After treating in Chapter V of
reussites (patience games used to answer a question according as the
patience comes out or not), and in Chapter VI of cartomancy with ordinary
cards, the author turns to thegrandjeu, or book of Thoth. He recommends
readers to make their own packs, using an ordinary 52-card pack for the
suit cards other than the Cavaliers; the book contains illustrations of all
the cards of the Tarot pack, in a style generally resembling Grand Etteilla
Ill, but probably not reproducing any actual pack, and accompanying
them with illustrations of the corresponding ordinary cards when these
exist. The names used are, with two minor exceptions, those of Grand
Etteilla II or III. The meanings of individual cards are explained, and
there is a list of synonyms; the rencontres recognised are those of two or
more of a kind, and a preponderance of cards of any one suit, but not those
adding to 77 or any other multiple of 7. The cartomantic method is
precisely that of Julia Orsini.
Esmael's book of 1875, from the same publisher, is a mere abridged
version of Antonio Magus. The section on types of divination and the
anecdotal chapters are omitted, and a new introduction added. Chapter II
of Antonio Magus's book becomes Esmael's Chapter I, with two new
paragraphs at the beginning and one omitted at the end; for the rest, the
text is exactly the same, including the illustrations, even down to the
page-breaks.
The series concludes with an extremely derivative work, by 'Astaroth',
published in 1881 by Lefevre. The author begins by ascribing the invention
of playing cards, in the form of tarots, to the ancient Egyptians, and their
diffusion to Europe to the Gypsies. Having mentioned Court de Gebelin
and his death at a magnetic tub,. and Etteilla, who first promoted the art
of cartomancy, Astaroth, like all the rest, spends much time on Mlle Le
Normand, saying that she replaced the tarots by the Piquet pack for
fortune-telling purposes. Antonio Magus's remarks about Edmond and
other French cartomancers of the XIX century are then repeated, and,
following them, the statement of Collin de Plancy that Etteilla was the
first to do more than draw one card at a time, and that previous practitio-
ners were confined to Bicetre and the Salpetriere. After professing to
expound Mlle Le Normand's method of using the 32-card pack, the author
devotes some fifteen pages to Tarot cartomancy; the method described is
that of Julia Orsini. The same names, with some slight variations, are
used for cards 1 to 21 as by Antonio Magus. The author gives special
names, not referring to rank or suit, to all the suit cards (with the odd
exception of the Cavalier of Batons), some of historical individuals or gods,
some of assorted objects or qualities. The book concludes with a chapter
 7. The Tradition of Etteilla 165
on the interpretation of dreams and brief descriptions of other methods of
divination.
The seeds of the later development of the tradition founded by Etteilla
were already present in his work. Etteilla was a professional fortune-teller
who wanted to be a magus, a professor of the hautes sciences. The obscurity
and disorder of his writings made it impossible, however, that anyone
should extract from them a coherent theory of magic: his work was
plundered only to extract a technique of divination with the cards. His
radical revision of the Tarot pack had the effect that he failed to found a
tradition of cartomancy by the use of Tarot cards, as these were ordinarily
understood. It became a tradition of cartomancy with 'Egyptian' Tarots,
which were nothing but a special form of pack, among several, devised
specifically for fortune-telling. Etteilla's version of the Tarot pack under-
went an autonomous evolution. The designers of its successors did not go
back to the traditional Tarot cards that Etteilla had 'corrected'; they
appealed only to his interpretations or to their own imaginations when
they wanted to give to their designs a mediaeval or a more recognisably
Egyptian flavour. The Egyptian Tarots therefore came to diverge ever
farther from traditional Tarot cards, their connection with which became
almost impossible for anyone to discern who did not know the history of
the matter. The diviner's art had ceased to be a mystery; it had degener-
ated into an agreeable pastime for the ladies.
 CHAPTERS

The Second Founder:Eliphas Levi

The historical importance of Eliphas Levi

It seems unlikely that, but for Court de Gebelin, Etteilla would ever have
thought of the Tarot pack as the 'Book of Thoth' or of using it for divination,
let alone as the basis for elaborate occult theories. Conversely, had it not
been for Etteilla, Court de Gebelin's speculations about the Tarot would
most likely have been forgotten, buried in the eighth large tome of his
unfinished treatise on the supposed ancient civilisation. For all his high-
flown theories, Etteilla's main objective was cartomancy: the tradition
founded by him lost its pretensions to be an aspect of high magic, and
petered out in a parlour entertainment. If there had been no new impetus,
we should not today associate the Tarot with the occult. A descendant of
Etteilla's Tarot pack would probably still be in existence, just as a carto-
mantic pack attributed to Mlle Le Normand is still in existence. The pack
might still be labelled 'Egyptian Tarots', but it would be no more than just
another set of fortune-telling cards, providing a diversion for a iete or an
amusement for the drawing-room. Certainly Etteilla's writings, even less
readable or capable of being taken seriously than Court de Gebelin's,
would rest in the obscurity of oblivion.
Not that no one after Court de Gebelin would have succumbed to the
lure of deciphering the iconography of the Tarot pack. As the symbolism
familiar at the time of the Renaissance recedes from us, these images
strike those who come across them as ever more perplexing: here and
there a few are gripped by the desire to discover their interpretation.
Without a new impetus, however, this would have been the hobby of a tiny
minority; and it would not be entangled in everybody's mind with the
occult. With no such new impetus, we should not have a Tarot section in
our bookshops, full of an assortment of newly designed Tarot packs and of
books explaining the symbolism of the cards and how to read them; nor
should we have stalls in the streets of Florence where practitioners of the
art of Tarot reading solicit the custom of passers-by. You, the reader,
might very well never have heard of the Tarot, and no such book as this
would ever have been written.
The man who provided the new impetus called himself Eliphas Levi; his
real name was Alphonse-Louis Constant. He lived from 1810 to 1875, and
 8. The Second Founder: Eliphas Levi 167
his life divided rather sharply into two parts, the second of them lasting
for only twenty-three of the sixty-five years that he lived. The first part
was a paradigm of what is known as a 'checkered career', during which he
wrote and published much - poetry, radical socialist pamphlets, religious
effusions - principally under his true name. We cannot understand the
man ifwe know nothing of his earlier life; but his influence on the history
of occultism - to use a term which he was one of the earliest to employ -
is due to his work during the second phase of his life, which may be dated
from 1852 to his death in 1875. In 1852 or a little earlier, he became
absorbed in the occult, and, as a writer and a practitioner, he devoted the
rest of his life to it. Believing that the Jews were the primary source of
magical teaching, he He braised his name to 'Eliphas Levi Zahed', but the
'Zahed' was very seldom used. It was under the appellation of 'Eliphas
Levi' that he henceforward published his books and functioned as a
magus. A short, stocky figure, he assumed a quasi-monastic habit, and
lived in an apartment cluttered with magical bric-a-brac.
As a writer on occult subjects Levi earned great renown about a decade
after his death. Although he had had many contacts with celebrated
literary figures, by whom he was well regarded, his books enjoyed no more
than a modest success during his lifetime; by the time of his death, he had
been very largely forgotten by all but a very few. Yet within circles
interested in the occult, he had become a celebrity of the highest rank well
before the century ended.
It was by no means only as a proponent of the occult interpretation of
the Tarot that he was renowned, but, in the words of his first biographer, 1
as a renovator or reviver of occultism in general. In what we may call 'the
modern era' - say the 120 years since Levi's death - magic has assumed a
great variety of forms, among them theosophy, which derives a large
inspiration from Hinduism and was first promoted by the Theosophical
Society, founded in the year of Levi's death, 1875. Other Oriental influ-
ences, such as Zen Buddhism and the I Ching, have informed later
manifestations. Spiritualism, or spiritism, as its first promoter in France,
Allan Kardec 2 (1804-69), preferred to call it, had its origin in the United
States in 1848, and reached Europe in 1852-3. Levi greatly disapproved of
it, but died long before it came to enjoy its greatest vogue, immediately
after the First World War.
Yet throughout the period the predominant version of magic has been
what is known as 'the Western tradition', or, more recently, 'the Western
mysteries'. The Western tradition of magic draws neither from Oriental
religion nor from the underground cults practised, or allegedly practised,
by witches; it is essentially a legacy to us from the Renaissance. Its sources
were older than the Renaissance, most of them far older; but, as Antoine
Faivre has observed, 3 it was in the Renaissance that the disparate sources
began to be synthesised into a unified body of occult sciences. The synthe-
sis was not perfect. Thus although Pico della Mirandola introduced the
168 A Wicked Pack of Cards
Cabala to a Christian audience [see Introduction, 2.4], he was a fervent
opponent of astrology, as involving a denial of human free will. Even
Cornelius Agrippa's compendium of magic of 1531 omitted alchemy, which
for the most part remained isolated from the other occult sciences.
The advance of natural science rendered ever less credible the theories
underlying magic, which was driven to the intellectual margins and
became ever more the province of the irrationalist, the eccentric and the
charlatan. In the late XVIII century, occultism had most characteristically
manifested itself in a variety of secret orders, above all in the Masonic
lodges [see Introduction, 3.2]. The most original contribution came from
Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815). His notion of animal magnetism, a
subtle fluid pervading the cosmos that can be directed by the human will,
became an important addition to the stock of magical ideas. As the
universal magnetic agent or astral light, Levi made it central to his entire
magical theory and the explanation of all magical phenomena. He attrib-
uted the idea to Saint-Martin and to Paracelsus and the alchemists; to
Mesmer he initially gave rather little credit (his Histoire de la magie of
1860 was much more generous - Mesmer was as great as Prometheus).
In the first half of the XIX century, high magic fell into decay. Profes-
sional cartomancers and those practising other forms of fortune-telling
had prospered as never before. There was still a popular appetite for
talismans and spells, above all for prediction of the future; but the tradi-
tion of the occult sciences that had come down from the Renaissance and
offered a conception of the working of the cosmos appeared at last to have
withered. Its place was taken by disreputable heterodox sects such as that
founded in 1839 by Pierre-Michel-Eugene Vintras (1807-75). Never him-
self ordained a priest, and excommunicated in 1841, his speciality was the
consecration of Hosts which miraculously bled; but his sect also had a
political platform, supporting the claim to the throne of France of Charles
Edouard Naundorff, who gave himself out to be the son of Louis XVI.
Occultism was thus in a moribund condition when Levi started to
revivify it by his books about it. The astonishing fact is that his work
formed the narrow channel through which the whole Western tradition of
magic flowed to the modern era. As the titles of his first two books on the
subject indicate, Levi was an exponent of the high magic. What is the 'high
magic' of which Levi wrote, as opposed to the lower forms of magic? In
Richard Cavendish's illuminating definition, it is 'an attempt to gain so
consummate an understanding and mastery of oneself and the environ-
ment as to transcend all human limitations and become superhuman or
divine'. 4 Those who thus aspire by their own efforts to become like gods
disdain that power to work marvels which alone interests the practitioners
oflow magic, though they do not deny that the power exists. Levi therefore
differentiated himself as sharply as possible from the professional fortune-
tellers, for whom he expressed contempt. He was concerned to expound a
theory incorporating the work of all the Western writers on magic and
 8. The Second Founder: Eliphas Levi 169
constituting a complete world-view. Though he was not completely iso-
lated as a writer on occult subjects, it was he who revived the Western
tradition of occultism and gave it a new impetus. It was not until after his
death, in the 1880s, that the revival acquired any great energy. When it
did, it was from Levi's writings that its devotees first learned the rudi-
ments of high magic; it was Levi who appeared to all of them to be the great
master.
A first glance at his books may render this mysterious. The style is
florid and bombastic; the scholarship is slapdash; the doctrine expounded
is at best cloudy. How could writing such as this have so profound an
impact? Levi was able to revivify occultism because he was not patently
eccentric, fanatical or unbalanced, nor associated with any esoteric, let
alone disreputable, group. He had no interest in founding or joining secret
orders purporting to transmit to their members a closely guarded wisdom
handed down to initiates through the ages and known only to them; nor
did he recommend his readers to join them. Quite the contrary: he pro-
fessed to explain all and to reveal all. He did at one time become a
Freemason, indeed, but rapidly became dissatisfied with the craft and
soon abandoned it. His writing was undemanding, moreover, at least on
the surface; his readers were not asked to memorise complex tables of
correspondences or master any intricate theories. No obligation was laid
on them to engage in an austere self-discipline, save temporarily if they
wanted to engage in one of the magical practices Levi described. They were
called on neither to give up nor to adopt Christian belief and practice. To
anyone thirsty for occult knowledge, Levi's work was a gushing spring in
a dry land. He had no rival: nothing was being written that could compete
with his books - those of Paul Christian were far too idiosyncratic to do so,
and those of Henri Delaage too obviously mediocre. Suffused with magical
symbolism and allusions, Levi's writings had little appeal to rational
minds or to those well informed about history or science; but they slaked
the thirst for the occult as nothing else at the time could do.
Levi completed the task, begun in the Renaissance, of synthesising the
various ingredients of the Western tradition of magic; it was he who finally
made it a single tradition. There was little originality in his ideas; but this
very lack of originality was itself a strength: if he had had any radically
unfamiliar thesis to propound, he would to that extent have fallen short of
the aim of making known an ancient tradition of which the public at large
was ignorant. He did not present one or another branch of occult science
- say astrology or the Cabala: a second reason for his success was that he
expounded it all. He never wrote a treatise on the Hermetic Books, on the
Cabala or on the Tarot. He did not even expound seriatim the branches of
the high magic of which he wrote, with separate chapters or sections on
the diverse occult sciences and doctrines: he made a synthesis. In his
writings, the Cabala, alchemy, Hermetism, astrology, magnetism and
even a little black magic from the grimoires are inextricably intertwined.
170 A Wicked Pack of Cards
You could learn about all of magic from reading Levi; however selec-
tively you tried to read him, you could not learn about anything less
than all of it.
Among the diverse ingredients forming the mish-mash that constituted
Levi's magical system was the Tarot. This was not, of course, wholly
original: Etteilla had placed it in the centre of his theory of the high
sciences, and it was surely his eccentric writings that put it into Levi's
head to incorporate the Tarot into his system of magic. The students of
occult science in the Renaissance, on the other hand, would have been
astonished to see that pack of cards elevated to the rank of a fundamental
source of magical imagery and doctrine.
Etteilla had left those who came after him and wished so to elevate the
Tarot an inescapable choice. They could accept his thorough reordering of
the trumps, and replacement of certain of the trump subjects, but only at
the price of appearing as his followers; or they could retain the traditional
order and traditional subjects, but only by repudiating his ideas alto-
gether. Levi took the second course. It was not only that he had no desire
to figure as anyone's follower, and especially not that of an uneducated
tradesman who could not even write decent French. It was that the
tradition Etteilla had founded had dwindled into a mere technique of
cartomancy. Despite his high-flown theories, Etteilla had remained a
professional fortune-teller. Cartomancy had undisguisedly been the
ultimate aim of his theorising, and the tradition he had founded had
driven ever more determinedly in that direction, shedding the theories as
it did so.
For Levi, however, the Tarot was primarily a source of magical symbol-
ism, its use as an instrument of divination a mere distraction. If the Tarot
was to be successfully incorporated into a theory of high magic, it must
therefore be wrested from the tradition of Etteilla. Its 'Egyptian' version,
used by all the contemporary cartomancers, must be replaced by a more
traditional one. The traditional order of the trumps must be restored, and
likewise all the traditional images. These images could be allowed to have
been deformed in detail by the cardmakers, but not so far as to change the
subjects depicted or render a traditional Tarot pack unusable for occult
purposes.
The traditional form of the Tarot pack that Levi knew was the Tarot de
Marseille, the pattern for it that had been standard in France for at least
two centuries. Although he, like Etteilla, accused the cardmakers of
ignorant mistakes, his conception of the designs of the Tarot cards was
based on the Tarot de Marseille, which, in accordance with the termino-
logy used in France at that time, he called 'the Italian Tarot'; he knew of
the 'German' (that is, French-suited) Tarot, but not of any other pattern
with the original Italian suit-signs. It was the order of the trumps in the
Tarot de Marseille, different from that in some other patterns for the Tarot
pack, that Levi took to be the order of the Tarot trumps; and it was the
 8. The Second Founder: Eliphas Levi 171
designs of the trumps in the Tarot de Marseille, likewise different from
those in other patterns, that he lightly modified to accord with his inter-
pretations.
For Etteilla personally Levi expressed contempt. Calling him 'the fa-
ther of modern cartomancers', he mistakenly described him as a
'hairdresser' or a 'barber', and judged his books, which, with some justice,
he characterised as 'obscure, wearisome and barbarous in style', to 'have
degraded the ancient work discovered by Court de Gebelin into the domain
of vulgar Magic and fortune-telling by cards'; 'his endowments', Levi tells
us, 'were insufficient for a Magus and more than were needed for a skilful
and accredited diviner of the vulgar order'. Could the disdain of the
devotee of high magic for the practitioner of low magic have been more
mordantly expressed? Though 'on the threshold of discovering everything
that is concealed' in the Tarot, Levi tells us, Etteilla was 'destined to die
at the gate of the sanctuary without ever penetrating behind the veil'; 5 no
wonder, then, that he succeeded in producing only a 'misconstrued and
mutilated Tarot'. 6
The attitude of the high magician towards low magic was precisely that
of Levi's to divination by means of the Tarot. It could be used, to very great
effect, for that purpose. 'The Tarot, that miraculous work which inspired
all the sacred books of antiquity, is the most perfect instrument of divina-
tion', he tells us. 7 Indeed, 'an imprisoned person with no other book than
the Tarot, ifhe knew how to use it, could in a few years acquire universal
knowledge, and would be able to speak on all subjects with unequalled
learning and inexhaustible eloquence'. 8 It is a pity that this fact is not
known to our scientists: instead of squandering millions on space tele-
scopes and particle accelerators, they could discover all they wanted to
know for the expenditure of some £10 or so. Divination was, however, for
Levi in itself a paltry thing, unworthy of one dedicated to the great aim of
the haute magie.
What made it possible to integrate a pack of playing cards into magical
theory was that magic is thin in doctrinal content, but dense with symbol-
ism. The leading ideas are few and of high generality. Perhaps the most
fundamental is that of the multiple correspondences between human,
natural and heavenly things; and it is at this point that the symbols
multiply and assume their immense importance. It is difficult to say what
truths the Tarot teaches, or that it teaches any at all: the varied truths
elicited from it have first all been read into it. But that it is rich in symbols
nobody could deny. These symbols were interwoven by Levi into the
complex fabric of his magical system. Once so interwoven, no one with a
leaning towards the occult had any desire to disentangle them again.
To achieve this interweaving, it was necessary to connect the Tarot
images with magical notions from some other source. Etteilla had done
this by interpreting the Tarot as illustrating the Hermetic Books. Given
his belief in the immense antiquity of Hermes or Thoth and the books
172 A Wicked Pack of Cards
ascribed to him and in the thesis of Court de Gebelin that the Tarot had
originated in ancient Egypt, this had been wholly reasonable.
If Levi was to disengage the Tarot from the tradition of Etteilla, he
needed to find a different means of integrating the Tarot into the general
theory of magic. He lighted on such a means by reviving the idea Court de
Gebelin had hinted at, and de Mellet had pursued, that the twenty-two
trumps (including the Fool) corresponded with the twenty-two letters of
the Hebrew alphabet. Since the Cabala contained much mysticism about
the letters of the Hebrew alphabet, the Tarot trumps could in this way be
entwined with Cabalistic theory.
Etteilla's idea had fitted perfectly his own belief about the origin of the
Tarot. It did not fit the actual facts of its origin, which occurred decades
before the Hermetic writings were recovered in the West [see Introduction,
1.4]. Levi's association of the Tarot with the Cabala - accepted by almost
all occultists after him - fitted the true facts even more badly: that Jewish
system of mystical theology was first made known to the Christian public
in 1486 [see Introduction, 2.4]. Levi did not know the true facts any more
than Etteilla had done, but, like him, believed that the Tarot had origi-
nated in remote antiquity. His thesis that it was an expression of
Cabalistic ideas conflicted with any coherent theory of that origin, how-
ever. He made the preposterous claim that the Tarot was known to all
nations of the ancient world; but, even so, it must first have been devised
by one of them. If the Cabala was its inspiration, that nation must have
been the Jewish one, not the Egyptian. Yet, if so, how could its images be
accounted for? The Jews held representational images in horror, as forbid-
den by the First Commandment, and especially depictions of the human
form. If Cabalists had devised a pack of cards, they would have placed
Hebrew letters on them, in their own right or as numerals: they would not
have depicted the Devil, Death, the Sun or virtues in the form of women.
This was the fundamental impossibility that vitiated Levi's theory of the
Tarot, even on its own terms; but it did not shake the faith of his later
followers any more than it had shaken his.
The Tarot was not, for Levi, to be considered on its own, but only as
intertwined with all the rest. But it was an essential component of the
melange; without the Tarot, he claimed, the Cabala was unintelligible.
But, likewise, the Tarot could not be understood save by reference to the
Cabala. The two formed for him an indissoluble unity. Such a union
between them had never been created before: it would have astonished
Cabalists and card players alike.
'The marvellous book of the Tarot', Levi declared, 'is of all books the
most primitive, the key of prophecies and dogmas, in a word, the inspira-
tion of inspired works.' 9 It was this, 'lost for centuries, but recovered by us',
that had enabled him 'to understand the enigmas of every sphinx and to
penetrate all sanctuaries'; 10 Levi was not a modest man. The grandiosity
of the language and the extravagance of the claims are characteristic, and
 8. The Second Founder: Eliphas Levi 173
help to explain the fascination of his writings for those prepared to
entertain such assertions.
At first glance, there is no difficulty about the way to establish a
correspondence between the trumps and the letters of the Hebrew alpha-
bet: one simply lists the trumps in order in one column and the Hebrew
letters in another by the side of it. In fact, the question was to be the source
of much mystification by later occultists. There are two problems, the
second the cause of all the trouble. First, in which order should the
numbered trumps be listed? Court de Gebelin and de Mellet had agreed
that they should be read in descending numerical sequence; Levi reversed
this and took them, much more naturally, in ascending sequence, with the
first letter Aleph therefore associated with trump I, not with trump XXL
But, then, where should the Fool be placed? In the (Italian-suited) Belgian
Tarot, which by then had long been out of use, it is numbered XXII, but
Levi was probably unfamiliar with that. In the Piedmontese Tarot, it is
numbered 0, and in the Tarot de Marseille it is not numbered at all. Levi's
eccentric solution was to place it between the last two trumps, the Judge-
ment (XX)and the World (XXI);often he actually numbered the Fool XXI
and renumbered the World XXII. He can hardly have foreseen the oppor-
tunity his decision would give to a later school - the Golden Dawn and its
successors - to claim secret knowledge that his 'attribution' of Hebrew
letters to the trumps had been erroneous.
Since Etteilla could not be cited as an authority or accounted an
authentic link in the chain of those who had transmitted the tradition,
Levi had to make out that the occult significance of the Tarot had been
recognised by older writers on magical subjects. This he did with great
assurance, asserting that 'the tradition of this secret has never been
interrupted from the first ages of the Cabala to our own times'. 11 His
claims are uniformly spurious; many are b~sed on the mere fact of a book's
having twenty-one or twenty-two chapters, which he takes as a concealed
reference to the trumps (with or without the Fool). Examples are books by
Louis Claude de Saint-Martin and by Girolamo Cardano, and even the
Apocalypse of St John (Book of Revelation). 12 An alleged allusion to the
Tarot to which Levi repeatedly refers 13 is what he calls a diagram of
Guillaume Postel, 14 which he reproduces thus, saying that it can be read
as either ROTA or TAROT:

R
174 A Wicked Pack of Cards
As A.E. Waite pointed out, the diagram does not appear in the original
edition of 1547, but is the work of A.V. Frankenberg, the editor of the
Amsterdam edition published in 1646. It is there appended to a note
headed 'The Editor's Key to the Author's Key', and is in fact extremely
complex. It shows a key, on the wards of which is written:

D E U S
HOMO

R OT A

On the ring of the key are the letters ROTA, arranged as in Levi's version
of the diagram, but with no cross between them; the diagram has many
other features. Without doubt, Frankenberg intended only the reading
ROTA, and had no thought of the word TAROT. Levi could cite no authentic
instances of occultists from before the XVIII century who had so much as
alluded to the Tarot, since there had been none; but, in their eagerness to
suppose that they were being made privy to secrets handed down through
many centuries, readers disposed to believe Levi's theories were ready to
accept his assurances that such instances were manifold.
It was Levi who made the Tarot a prime ingredient in magical lore; it
is to him that we owe its widespread acceptance as a means of discovering
hidden truths and as a document of the occult. Precisely because he
integrated it so thoroughly, one must work hard to extricate from his
writings a separable doctrine of the Tarot. It is by the integration of the
Tarot with other elements of magical imagery that we can identify later
occultism of the 'Western' type as deriving, directly or indirectly, from
Levi; and almost all modern oc.cultism admits the Tarot as a source of
magical imagery and a basis of magical theory. It is that, above all, which
shows that Levi's writings indeed formed the channel through which the
Western tradition of magic flowed down to modern times.

Alphonse-Louis Constant
The parents of the child who grew up to become the celebrated Eliphas
Levi were poor people: Jean-Joseph Constant, a shoemaker, and his wife
Jeanne-Agnes, nee Beaucourt; both were practising Catholics, if not espe-
cially devout ones. Alphonse-Louis was born in Paris, in St-Germain-des-
Pres, on 8 February 1810, and was baptised two days later. He attended a
school for poor children run by the abbe Hubault Malmaison who, im-
pressed by his piety, encouraged him to believe he had a vocation for the
priesthood; he accordingly entered the junior seminary of Saint-Nicolas du
Chardonnet at the age of fifteen. There he made an excellent student, and
learned Hebrew as well as Greek and Latin. The principal, the abbe
 8. The Second Founder: Eliphas Levi 175
Frere-Colonna (1786-1858), was an expert on Mesmer's theory of magnet-
ism, which he judged to be of diabolical inspiration, and cherished the
prospect of a coming Age of the Holy Spirit. The young Constant hero-wor-
shipped him; he was later greatly shocked when in 1834 the abbe was
dismissed from his post. In 1830 Constant entered the major seminary at
Issy for two years of philosophy; in the next year his father died. He
hesitated whether to continue with his studies for the priesthood, but
resolved to do so, and in 1832 went for his instruction in theology to the
famous seminary of Saint-Sulpice. He quickly came to detest the institu-
tion as a place of oppressive discipline and cold hypocrisy, whose inmates
were spied on and spied on one another. His intense religious fervour was
not dampened by this, however; it was stimulated by the writings of
Monsignor Olier, from which he perhaps first acquired his ardent devotion
to the Blessed Virgin. He persevered with his vocation, being ordained
subdeacon in 1833 and thereby undertaking lifelong celibacy.
By attending the junior seminary, Constant had lived, from an early
stage of adolescence, in an environment devoid of contact with the other
sex, expecting, before he could properly realise what it meant, to proceed
to a life of perpetual celibacy; what followed is not to be greatly wondered
at. After becoming subdeacon, Constant was put in charge of a catechism
class for young girls. After two years of this he experienced Cupid's arrow
for the first time in his life: he conceived a passion for a very young girl in
the class, Adele Allenbach, and she responded with affection for him. Alain
Mercier, no doubt in view of subsequent events, voices a doubt whether
the liaison was as innocent as Constant himself later alleged; 15 but such
scepticism, directed at a pious young man with as yet no experience of
women, is unlikely to be justified. Constant went on to be ordained deacon
in December 1835: but he confesses that his relations with Adele had
begun to be a topic of parish gossip. When, in May 1836, he was informed
that he was to be ordained a priest in eight days' time, he told his spiritual
director that he had conceived an amorous affection for this child. His
director ruled that he could not be ordained until his heart was cured ofit,
and he left the seminary without becoming a priest.
Constant was a passionate man, and a deeply religious one. The only
religious body he ever conceived of belonging to was the Catholic Church;
it never occurred to him to treat joining any other as a serious possibility,
even though, in some phases, he voiced a view of some other religions, or,
sometimes, of all other religions, as equally valid paths to God. The views
of the Church he expressed in his writings are highly contradictory. This
has confused the commentators, who argue about whether or not he had,
at one period or another, returned to the faith of his youth. The fact is that
throughout his life, from his time at Saint-Sulpice onwards, he wrestled
agonisingly with that faith. Many aspects of it continued to exert on him
a powerful attraction; he was bound to it too closely ever to renounce it
irrevocably. At the same time, other aspects distressed and repelled him,
176 A Wicked Pack of Cards
and evoked from him, in certain moods, outcries of execration. Already at
Saint-Sulpice he had developed doubts about the idea of eternal damna-
tion, of men or devils, which he could not reconcile with the mercy of God.
Subsequently, other matters, such as the burnings of heretics that had
occurred in past centuries, came to nag at him. But he never wavered in
his reverence for Christ and his Mother; the Church, even though he often
railed at her, remained his home, and he appears to have received the last
sacraments on his death-bed. Throughout the period from his leaving
Saint-Sulpice to his adoption of the career of a Magus, he remained
obsessed with religion. True, he became a passionate advocate of radical
socialism; but his books about it are as much about religion as about
socialism, indeed more about religion than about socialism: the two things
were inextricably linked in his mind.
The immediate outcome of his departure from the seminary was that
his widowed mother committed suicide, prompted by her chagrin at her
son's failure, her poverty, her ill health and her loneliness. Constant was
now an orphan and a spoiled priest. What should he do? He had been
trained only to be a priest; he was not qualified for anything else. He had
talen,ts both as a writer and as a draughtsman, and after a while found
how to use them to obtain a living; but at first he scraped a livelihood in
miserable ways. He spent his first year since leaving Saint-Sulpice as a
master at a boarding school, and the second as an actor in a company
touring the provinces. Returning to Paris in 1838, he eked out a living by
his gift for drawing, making illustrations for a small monthly magazine.
In Paris he made two important contacts: the famous novelist Honore de
Balzac, and Flora Tristan, the grandmother of Paul Gauguin. Flora Tris-
tan, born in 1803 and separated from her husband, was an ardent
propagandist for socialism and an early feminist: from her Constant
imbibed a fervent political radicalism, and, with it, a reinforcement of that
species of feminism to which lie already inclined. He also renewed his
acquaintance with a former schoolfellow named Alphonse Esquiros, an-
other political radical but one with a strong bent towards mysticism. With
him, Levi collaborated in 1839 on a periodical entitled Les Belles Femmes
de Paris (Beautiful Women of Paris), for which he drew silhouettes of Flora
Tristan, Madame de Girardin and, among others, his first love Adele
Allenbach.
In July of that year he resolved to serve the Church in a new capacity,
and entered the celebrated Benedictine monastery of Solesmes. Although
while there he published his first book, a work of Marian devotion called
Le Rosier de Mai (The May Rose-Tree), and read the works of Madame
Guyon, the experiment was not a success; he disliked the abbot and the
monks, and left at the end of a year. Back in Paris once more, he was
driven by poverty to take a post as usher at a clerical school at Juilly, while
writing to the recently appointed archbishop of Paris, Mgr Affre, in the
hope of more congenial employment.
 8. The Second Founder: Eliphas Levi 177
In the meantime, however, he had given expression to his newly ac-
quired radicalism in a booklet called La Bible de la liberte (The Bible of
Liberty). This appeared in print in 1841, and was immediately seized by
the authorities, as he must have known it would be, since he had left the
proofs in full view at the school, where he was aware that his papers were
inspected: indeed, a priest had attempted to bribe him to withdraw the
book from publication, thereby putting it beyond doubt that its contents
were known. He was arrested in April and tried for sedition and for having
travestied Holy Scripture; found guilty, he was fined 300 francs and
sentenced to prison for eight months, where his lot was somewhat amelio-
rated at the intercession of Flora Tristan.
Because the booklet was seized an hour after publication, copies of it
are extremely difficult to find. 16 It indulged in considerable violence of
expression; but so far as can be judged, there was little enough in it to
threaten either Church or State. He denounced the institution of private
property, saying that until property is abolished slavery will not have
disappeared from the world. He also said that the kings of this corrupt
world are children of the devil, and their power the power of hell; but it is
not by vituperation of this sort that thrones are overturned. He was
equally eloquent about the corruption of the Church: 'the saturnalia of the
Caesars were followed by the orgies of the Popes, and the pyres of the
Inquisition were kindled on the still smoking ashes of the first martyrs.'
Without doubt The Bible of Liberty was written in a mood, not only of
fervent social radicalism, but of temporary revulsion against the Church.
In the same year, presumably while he was in prison, there appeared the
abbe Constant's Doctrines religieuses et sociales (Religious and Social
Teachings). Though reaffirming the contents of The Bible of Liberty, this
book, though full of eloquence, is far less fiery in tone; its confused message
echoes the conflict within Constant's own soul. He argues that the belief
in a God distinct and separate from the world is allied to the support of
absolute despotisms; liberty, equality and fraternity can be preached only
by those who acknowledge that God is immanent in the world. The
eternity of evil is a monstrous dream of dualism, which restricts God's love
by an eternal hatred, and his omnipotence by a rebellion never ended but
continually punished. Not only the Bible, but the Vedas, the Koran and
other sacred books are divinely inspired. The emancipation of women is
the most important question occupying contemporary thinkers. To the
question whether he is a communist, Constant replies that he is a Chris-
tian, on the side of the oppressed against the oppressors, but opposed to
false liberal doctrines which invoke a spirit of hatred and vengeance. In
attributing infallibility to himself, the Pope has proclaimed himself God
and has tried to absorb the entire Church into himself. Nevertheless, it is
by religion alone that we shall be saved, and the principles of religion are
to be found only in Catholicism; but Catholicism is to be transformed by
178 A Wicked Pack of Cards
absorbing the doctrines of liberty, equality and fraternity announced by
the 'the great, the holy, the sublime French revolution'.
Constant records 17 that in prison he endured the sarcasm of a fellow-
Socialist, who jeered at him for believing in God; this aroused in him an
intense religious reaction. It must have been in consequence of this that
his emergence from prison saw him attempting to serve the Church once
more. When he came out, he obtained a commission to execute paintings
for the parish church of Choisy-le-Roi, which he did successfully, living at
the presbytery while carrying out the work. At Choisy, he began a book
called The Mother of God (published in 1844). He also formed a friendship
with the assistant headmistress of the local girls' school, one Mademoiselle
Eugenie C. 1s
When the work of decorating the parish church was finished, the Bishop
ofEvreux in Normandy, Mgr Olivier, at the instance of Mgr Affre, invited
Constant to serve as deacon there, with preaching as one of his duties, on
condition that he adopted his mother's maiden name of Beaucourt in order
to conceal the scandal of his trial and imprisonment. This post he took up
in February 1843, and pleased both bishop and people with the eloquence
of his sermons. However, a local newspaper discovered and publicised his
identity with the Alphonse-Louis Constant who had served a term in
prison for· writing a seditious book; although he published in a different
local paper an abject retractation of The Bible of Liberty, and although the
bishop sought to protect him, and even urged him, without success, to be
ordained a priest, the situation became insupportable, and he left Evreux
at the end of February 1844.
Shortly before his departure, La Mere de Dieu (The Mother of God) had
appeared in print. It displeased Mgr Olivier, who refused to allow it to be
sold in Catholic bookshops in his diocese. It is indeed an extraordinary
work. It opens with the declaration, signed 'Alphonse Constant, Deacon',
that the author protests his complete submission to the holy Catholic
Church, to whose judgement the book must be subject. The first part is a
rhapsodic but largely conventional treatise on the Blessed Virgin; Cons-
tant accepts as historical the legends of the Protevangelium, 19 and makes
an extraordinary confusion between St James the Greater, son of Zebedee,
and St James the brother of the Lord. The second part is in strong contrast;
entitled 'The Last Judgement', it begins with an account of a vision
experienced by Constant in prison, and continues with apocalyptic scenes.
Constant puts into the mouth of Christ the words, 'Did I not proclaim to
you, in the name of God my Father, the liberty, equality and fraternity of
men?', and has the wretched say to him, 'Our pontiffs were the servitors
of the kings, and our priests the servitors of the pontiffs.' The third and
final part of the book, entitled 'The New World', is a Utopian description
of the world after the Judgement. It is certainly very odd: at one point Pius
VII's tiara is changed into a crown of thorns, the Pope receives the
stigmata and gives Communion to Christ himself.
 8. The Second Founder: Eliphas Levi 179
Although he had offended the civil authorities and twice refused the
priesthood, Constant had publicly retracted views untenable by a Catholic
and appeared a loyal son of the Church. This was confirmed by his Le Liv re
des Larmes (The Book of Tears), which announced itself as an essay in the
reconciliation of the Catholic Church with modern philosophy. In this,
Constant once more disavowed The Bible of Liberty, but repeated that the
thought of Christ is summed up in the three words 'Liberty, equality,
fraternity'. Apart from this resolute affirmation of liberal Catholicism in
the sense of Lamennais, the book contains various expressions of dissent
from rigid orthodoxy: the eternity of hell is called in doubt, the scapular is
judged superstitious, and the celibacy of the clergy is questioned; the
Church is said to be in process of transforming herself into a universal
society. But, for all that, Constant declares that no one has more respect
than he for the decisions of Rome. !fo all appearance, he was still a loyal,
though not docile, Catholic.
Events were soon to take a different turn. In the autumn of 1844, he
had become tutor to the two children of Madame Legrand, who lived at
Guitrancourt. He returned to Paris a year later, published a collection of
songs and illustrated two of Alexandre Dumas's books, one of them the
famous Count of Monte-Cristo. He also edited a manuscript, L'Emancipa-
tion de la femme (The Emancipation of Woman) by Flora Tristan, who had
died in 1844. In all this time, he kept up his friendship with Eugenie C.,
paying her regular visits; on their afternoon walks, they were often
accompanied by a favourite pupil of Eugenie's, Noemie Cadiot. In the eyes
of the Church, he was debarred from marrying Eugenie or anyone else,
since he had taken major orders and was committed to celibacy; in the
event, the question of marrying her did not arise. According to Paul
Chacornac (1926), they became lovers during the winter of 1845-6. But
despite having made Eugenie his mistress, Constant had, unknown to her,
conceived a passion for the far younger Noemie, and she for him; they
carried on a correspondence with each other of which Eugenie was un-
aware. After Noemie had left school at the age of eighteen, she left her
parents to live with Constant at his apartment in Paris. Her indignant
father demanded that Constant marry her, on pain of having a case
brought against him for seducing a minor. The couple accordingly con-
tracted a civil marriage on 13 July 1846; on 29 September Eugenie C. gave
birth to Constant's son, whom he never saw as long as his marriage to
Noemie lasted.
The two newly-weds were afflicted by extreme poverty: Noemie's par-
ents refused a dowry, and her husband had no regular employment. In
1846 there appeared, under the name of Alphonse-Louis Constant, a
curious religious work entitled The Last Incarnation, consisting of a series
of 'evangelical legends of the XIX century', including one concerning a
second incarnation of Christ. There also appeared an anonymous pam-
phlet, La Voix de la famine (The Voice of Hunger), an outcry against the
180 A Wicked Pack of Cards
desperate poverty of the workers. Several commentators 20 have, with some
justice, questioned whether Constant was in fact its author: it lists 'the
neo-Catholic communism of the abbe Constant' among the things that not
everyone understands, and attacks the Jews, whom Constant consistently
admired. He was, however, brought to trial for having written it, and, for
whatever reason, answered simply, 'Yes, sir', when asked in court ifhe had
done so; he was sentenced to a year's imprisonment. Noemie's intercession
got the sentence reduced to six months; Constant came out of prison in
August 1847, and in September their daughter Marie was born.
During the year of the revolution, 1848, Constant and his wife plunged
into political activity, founding a radical club, the Club de la Montagne,
and a radical journal, the Tribun du peuple, in March of that year.
Constant published what was to be, and what he intended to be, his last
book on social questions, under the title Le Testament de la liberte. It is,
as usual, much occupied with religious matters, and Levi's syncretist
tendencies manifestthemselves strongly: Christianity, Brahmanism, 'the
hieroglyphic cult of Osiris' and other religions are said to be nothing but
'successive outer coverings of one and the same religious truth'. In the
conclusion, Levi refers proudly to his previous writings, including The
Bible of Liberty, and, using the authorial 'we', sententiously declares, 'Our
social work is now completed, and we ask for it neither indulgence nor
severity .... We have fulfilled a duty, and we find that sufficient reward.'
In January 1849 the Ministry of the Interior commissioned from him a
large religious painting for the church at Cenac in the Dordogne; in
January 1850 he received a similar commission for the church at Sylvanes
in Aveyron. Towards the end of that year he made the acquaintance of the
abbe Migne, and at his instance composed a Dictionnaire de la litterature
chretienne (Dictionary of Christian Literature), which appeared in the
following year; this was the last book he was to publish under the name
Constant. Meanwhile, his wife had been taking lessons in sculpture, and
began a career as a sculptress and writer under the pseudonym Claude
Vignon. She wrote some articles for various journals, including the Revue
progressive, founded by the Marquis de Montferrier; in October 1853 she
abruptly left her husband. The following year there was a legal separation
between them, and towards the end of the year their daughter Marie died,
aged seven. In later life, Constant's feelings were very bitter towards
Noemie, whom he blamed for the little girl's death, saying that Noemie did
not know how to look after a child. Long after, in January 1865, the
marriage was legally annulled, on the ground that under the Concordat
those in holy orders could not contract marriage. In 1872 Noemie married
a politician, Maurice Rouvier; but Constant never married again, nor
formed a liaison of any kind with any other woman.
By 1852 Constant had begun to develop a new interest. In that year he
met Paul Christian, Hoene Wronski and others interested in the occult
sciences, and a fascination with the subject took possession of his mind. In
 8. The Second Founder: Eliphas Levi 181
the following year, that in which Noemie left him, he began to use his new
signature of Eliphas Levi; and in 1854 his career as a roagus began in
earnest. It had surely been a premonition that he would devote the rest of
his life to this new interest that had prompted him to state in 1848 - of all
unlikely years to abandon an interest in politics - that he had written his
last work on social questions. His first writings on magic were published
in 1854-5, and display a wide reading in the subject; that reading must
have gone back more than a couple of years. As late as August 1853,
indeed, in a journal article entitled 'The pretended occult sciences', Con-
stant firmly declared, 'We do not believe in the occult sciences'; but in less
than a year he had committed himself to them. Even commentators highly
sympathetic to him have toyed with the conclusion that he often insin-
cerely represented himself as thinking whatever it suited his immediate
purposes to be thought to believe. They have failed to allow for the internal
struggles that swung him this way and that. By 1854, this particular
struggle had been resolved: he was launched on the path to becoming 'the
renewer of occultism in France'.

The theory and practice of magic

In 1854 Constant, whom we must henceforth call Eliphas Levi, paid a visit
to England, where he resumed acquaintance with Eugenie C., who had
settled there. He also made contact with Edward Bulwer-Lytton, a suc-
cessful novelist who had written a novel with a magical theme and was
President of the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia, a tepid occult society. He
furthermore performed, in solitude, a ceremony invoking the spirit of
Apollonius ofTyana, of which he subsequently gave a full account. Clearly,
Levi was by this date fully conversant with magical operations and willing
to engage in them.
His first book on the occult, Dogme de la haute magie (1854-5), publish-
ed under the name of Eliphas Levi, came out in fascicules, of only five
hundred copies apiece, in 1854 and 1855. It was followed in 1855 by Rituel
de la haute magie, intended from the outset as the second volume of a
single two-volume work, and the two books were published together, dated
1856, as a work in two volumes. Each of the two books is divided into
twenty-two chapters, to correspond with the twenty-two letters of the
Hebrew alphabet and the twenty-two Keys of the Tarot. The two-volume
work was translated into English by A.E. Waite in 1896, with a revised
edition in 1923. Levi remained an authority on and a practitioner of the
'high magic' for the remainder of his life, publishing other books on the
subject and leaving behind yet others published after his death in 1875;
but it is primarily on his authorship of Dogme et rituel de la haute magie
that his fame as an occultist rests.
Mercier (1974) argues for the continuity of the ideas of the magus with
those of Alphonse-Louis Constant during the period up to 1850. To readers
182 A Wicked Pack of Cards
of Dogme et rituel, this contention has an air of paradox: the salient
impression is of an astounding discontinuity. Admittedly, anyone who had
followed Constant's career and writings up to 1848 would have become
accustomed to violent oscillations in opinion and attitude; it is neverthe-
less astonishing that the former passionate but errant Catholic and
radical socialist could so abruptly have assumed the mantle of a sage who
pontificated on 'science', meaning thereby the teachings of alchemists and
other practitioners of the occult. The new name of 'Eliphas Levi' - not
merely a pen-name, but a personal appellation - signals what appears a
radical change of personality. The old preoccupations seem to have van-
ished. Levi shows no trace of Constant's concern for social justice: he who
had put the slogan of the First Republic, 'Liberty, equality, fraternity', in
the mouth of Christ, and advocated a Catholicism suffused with the spirit
of the Revolution, could now write:
Men, whose zeal was greater than their science, carried away by the popular
maxims of the Gospel, came to believe in the primitive and absolute equality
of men ... To preach equality to what is beneath, without instructing it how
to rise upward, is this not condemning us to descend ourselves? ... To restore
tottering and distracted society, the hierarchy and initiation must be again
established. 21

Though Levi often mentions religion in Dogme et rituel, it no longer

appears to excite him; though there are formal expressions of respect for
the Church, he no longer wrestles with the Catholic faith as he had
unceasingly done before. Formerly, he had alternated between reviling the
Church and avowing his filial devotion to her; now he does neither. He who
once venerated the Mother of God could now equate her with pagan
divinities such as Isis and Venus-Urania; the sceptic who had decried the
scapular as superstitious now accounted it a 'true talisman', comparable
to the pentagram. 22
Where does the truth lie? Levi's new preoccupation gave him peace. It
had some of the romance of religion without troubling him by uncertain-
ties about what he did and did not believe and where he stood vis-a-vis the
institutional Church. He could pursue these new researches without
anxiety about external events or putting himself in further danger of
imprisonment. His former life had worked out badly. He had failed the
Church, or, perhaps, the Church had failed him. He had lost the wife
together with whom he had struggled against poverty and for whose sake
he had deserted his mistress and the mother of his son. He had lost his
daughter by her and had been estranged from his son. He had attained no
fame by his writings, and was not even acknowledged as a leader or a
thinker of any importance by fellow radicals. In this new field, in which
there were hardly any contemporary experts to rival him, he could assume
the status of a master without being challenged. It is not, of course, that
 8. The Second Founder: Eliphas Levi 183
he calculated these effects; but they serve to explain how his career could
take so sharp and unpredictable a turn.
The old concerns lay dormant, however. In his last years, Levi's belief
in magic became ever more ethereal, and, as it did so, the anguish caused
by his inability either whole-heartedly to believe or whole-heartedly to
disbelieve returned. The radical socialism indeed seems to have evapo-
rated when he became an occultist. There is no reason to think that his
desire for the unity of mankind or for the reform ofreligion abated, however;
and in one respect, his hankerings after religious unity, his new subject
chimed well with his earlier visions. The study of the occult directed his
attention more closely to Judaism, in the form of the Cabala, and to Hindu
and Egyptian mythology; and this linked his magical studies with the
syncretistic vision manifested in certain of his writings under his true name.
From passages such as the following, Dogme et rituel gives the impres-
sion to the reader of being the fruit oflong years of study:
Having spent many years in consulting and comparing all the most authen-
tic Grimoires and magical Rituals, we have succeeded, not without labour,
in reconstituting the Ceremonial of universal and primeval Magic.

No book is lost; as a fact, writings go invariably precisely where they should

go .... We have proved this a hundred times in the course of our magical
initiation; the rarest books have offered themselves without seeking as soon
as they became indispensable. Thus have we recovered intact that universal
science which so many learned persons have regarded as engulfed by a
number of successive cataclysms; thus have we entered the great magical
chain which began with Hermes or Enoch and will end only with the
world. 23

Levi laid great stress on the necessity of initiation, and regarded

himself as having undergone it. This did not consist, as some of his later
followers vainly supposed, in induction into any secret society, but simply
in the study of the magical texts of the past. By the time that, clad in
magical robes and wearing a crown of vervain, he evoked the spirit of
Apollonius during his visit to England of 1854, he must have regarded
himself as an adept; so the study that made him one must have taken place
in the few preceding years. In those years, he read, or at least scanned, a
huge amount of occult literature. To the inexpert reader, his learning
appears impressive; but in the notes to his translation, A.E. Waite demon-
strated how flimsy much ofit was. He made repeated errors, and can only
have glanced at some of the works to which he refers; the most egregious
of his mistakes, to regard the Talmud as infused with Cabalistic ideas,
suggests that he had not read those writings at all. This is hardly surpris-
ing: the short time that he had, starting in 1852 or even in 1849, in which
to make himself master of a voluminous and obscure literature would not
suffice anyone to acquire the erudition to which his writings pretend.
184 A Wicked Pack of Cards
The principal sources of Levi's doctrines are alchemy, the Cabala and
the Tarot; astrology plays a very restricted part, and Hermes Trismegistus
is cited principally as the author of the Emerald Table [see Introduction,
1.6], which Levi takes as actually having been written by that legendary
sage. 24
Levi's equivocal attitude to alchemy perfectly illustrates the ambiguity
of his whole presentation of magic in his magnum opus of 1856. In the first
book he declares that 'if we would read [the writings of the alchemists]
with profit and understanding, we must take them first of all as allegorical
in their entirety'; but h~ then adds obscurely that we may 'then descend
from allegories to realities' by means of the correspondences between that
which is above and that which is below.25 This qualification is easily
overlooked; if it is, Levi appears to be cautiously endorsing the interpreta-
tion according to which the transmutation of base metals into gold was
never intended as a gross material transaction, but only as a metaphor for
a spiritual transformation. Although the alchemists indisputably em-
ployed much figurative language in their writings, this reading cannot be
sustained. 26
Levi's second book shows, however, that that had not been his meaning.
He there plainly asserts the possibility of making the purest gold by
alchemical operations, provided that one has first mastered the religious
and philosophical aspects of the Great Work; he cites Ramon Lull, Nicolas
Flame! and Henry Khunrath as all having achieved this feat. 27 But,
although he professes to have made their secret public, his account would
leave no reader with an inkling of how to proceed to achieve the same
result.
Levi has a single explanation of all magical phenomena: the Astral
Light or Great Magical Agent. This is a subtle fluid pervading the uni-
verse, which, he tells us, has four physical manifestations: 'caloric, light,
electricity, magnetism'. 28 It has, however, more important properties that
are not purely physical, or, at least; do not form part of the subject-matter
of physics: it can be affected by the human will and can act upon the
human imagination. Thus, for example, the true ring of invisibility does
not consist in any effect upon the body of the agent or on the light it
reflects, but in his manipulation of the Astral Light to operate upon the
minds of those present so as to make them incapable of seeing him. 29 Our
thoughts and desires leave abiding traces in the Astral Light, which, when
others gain access to them, give rise to phenomena of clairvoyance; the
astral bodies which all possess are, on death, absorbed into the Astral
Light, and can be evoked on performance of the correct ritual. Levi claims
to have evoked in this way the spirits, not only of Apollonius, but also of
Plotinus, Synesius, Paracelsus, Cardano and Agrippa. 30
The tone of Dogme et rituel conveys to the reader the impre,ssion of
having sat at the feet of a master. He has been given glimpses of many
diverse magical operations, he has been dazzled by complex imagery, and
 8. The Second Founder: Eliphas Levi 185
he has been assured that all can be explained. But, when he reflects, he
has not really learned very much. He has been presented with the Astral
Light by which to explain all magical operations; but the concept is so
vague that he does not really know what it is or how it functions. A few
magical rites have been described to him, but he has received no system-
atic instruction in practical magic. He has heard much of the Cabala, but
not enough to enable him to expound it to anyone. He has been told that
base substances can be transmuted into gold, but he does not know how to
do it; he knows that the more important goal of alchemy is a spiritual one,
but he does not know how to attain it. He has been taught to interpret
Tarot cards, taken one by one, but not to use them. In short, he has not
been trained, but tantalised. The writings of Eliphas Levi were to be an
inexhaustible mine for his successors towards the end of the century who
were willing to supply what Levi failed to provide; but, until then, they
formed rather thin fare for anyone who wanted more than suggestive
verbiage. Levi succeeded in making magic a serious study, in itself a
remarkable feat in the mid-XIX century; operators of a different kind -
ones, perhaps, with a less equivocal attitude - were needed before the
practice, rather than just the theory, was renewed in earnest.

Levi's theory of the Tarot

Levi accepted the tenets of Court de Gebelin and the comte de Mellet that
the Tarot conveys the lore of dynastic Egypt and deserves to be called the
Book of Thoth. He was far more interested, however, in pursuing their
suggestion that the twenty-two Tarot trumps correspond to the twenty-
two letters of the Hebrew alphabet, for these letters came equipped with
mystical significance conferred on them by the Jewish Cabalists [see
Introduction, 2.2, 2.4].
In the plain suits, Levi gives scant attention to the court cards. He
writes that a couplet will suffice to explain them:
KING, QUEEN, KNIGHT, ESQUIRE
The married pair, the youth, the child, the race;
Thy path by these to Unity retrace. 31

Thus we are enjoined to meditate upon the Tarot: it symbolises the

diversity of human experience, but will somehow impress upon us the
origin of all things in God (the One, Unity). Levi's couplet does not explain
how the roles of the two spouses would differ from each other, or from
those of the two youngsters, in the four suits. Cabalists could have
imagined such symbols, but no reason is given why the family unit should
belong to a royal court, nor why artists wishing to depict youths and
children should resort to representations of knights and valets.
We know that European court cards derive from those used in the
186 A Wicked Pack of Cards
Mamluk culture. In the Mamluk suits, the court figures were three male
officials. To these were added a Queen in the Tarot pack. 32 No individual
or clique devised the structure of standard packs of cards: they evolved
throughout centuries and in various cultures. Occultists do not acknow-
ledge these facts: they prefer to believe that the trumps and suits were
designed together and governed by one symbolic programme.
Levi maintained that the emblems for the four suits correspond to the
four cherubim. The latter he in turn associated with the four parts of the
Assyrian sphinx and with various quaternities attractive to occultists.
Most importantly, he enlisted the four letters of the Tetragrammaton, the
Name of God in the Old Testament; this, considered too sacred for any but
the High Priest to utter, was spelled without vowels, in the traditional
Hebrew manner, as YHVH, that is, Yod-He-Vau-He.33 Levi never listed his
tetrads side by side, but their parallels are fairly consistent:

Suit-signs Cherub/ sphinx Zodiac Elements Essences Divine Name

Batons lion Leo fire sulphur Yod
Cups man Aquarius water mercury He
Swords eagle Scorpio air azoth Vau
Coins bull Taurus earth salt He

Most of these parallels can be defended by ingenious recourse to the

mystical Cabala, to the popular magic termed 'practical Cabala' or to
Western occultism in general. For instance, the four fixed signs of the
Zodiac had long been associated with Ezekiel's four cherubim or with the
four 'living creatures' stationed at God's throne in the Book of Revelation. 34
When Etteilla portrayed the four creatures on his fifth card (equivalent to
trump XXI, the World), he labelled the eagle as Scorpio and the others
likewise as expected. He also implied the four elements in his four suits.
In the latter respect, Levi transposed the attributions to Batons and Coins.
But the discrepancy is a moot point: the suit-signs actually have no
elemental symbolism outside the reveries of Etteilla, Levi and other
occultists. The elements are commonly symbolised, as in alchemy and fine
art, but not by the tetrad of suit-signs. Nor does that tetrad occur in
concert with conventional sphinxes, zodiacal signs or Cabalistic letters.
Levi's correspondences have some coherence - with the exception of the
very signs that he found central to the system.
Mediaeval Cabalists imagined the sephiroth [see Introduction, 2.2] as a
diagram of ten lights or spheres, arranged symmetrically and in a hierar-
chy; the diagram became known in Cabalism as the Tree of Life. The
highest sphere is connected to the ineffable Godhead, and the lowest to the
material world - a concept probably borrowed from the Platonists. The ten
sephiroth received traditional names. Levi uses: (1) Crown, (2) Wisdom,
(3) Intelligence, (4) Mercy, (5) Justice, (6) Beauty, (7) Conquest, (8) Tri-
 8. The Second Founder: Eliphas Levi 187
umph, (9) Foundation and (10) Kingdom. He aligned these themes with
the numeral cards of the suits, from Ace to 10.
If the Latin suit-signs of Batons, Cups, Swords and Coins had any
symbolic meanings, they probably depended on Mamluk heraldry, or on
other iconography from further east, and not on the Jewish Cabala. Levi
lacked a reliable history of playing cards, but he should have recognised
that the structure of playing-card packs is inappropriate for conveying
Cabalistic systems. If the ten sephiroth are perfect in their symbolism and
imply supernal powers, how could a Cabalist justifiably disrupt the order
by adding court cards, and why would these represent mere men and
women? Furthermore, the sequence of numeral cards is expressed by the
number of suit-signs (one on the Ace, a pair on the 2, etc.). This is not what
a Cabalist would do in symbolising the ten sephiroth. He would need,
rather, to inscribe the appropriate name or letter on each card (in Hebrew,
numerical values are expressed by letters). Numerical indices are virtu-
ally non-existent on early playing cards, however: 35 and they never consist
of Hebrew letters. Once more, Levi's theory is devoid of evidence.
There is no record of Levi's having studied with Jewish Cabalists. His
Cabalism seems to have come entirely from books: those with the most
influence on him were pseudo-cabalistic commentaries. In respect of the
Tarot trumps, Levi's sources narrow virtually to one, Kircher's Oedipus
Aegyptiacus (1652-4).36 Readers should refer to the table of Kircher's
correspondences to the Hebrew letter given on page 16; in this the plane-
tary spheres are arranged according to their supposed distance above the
earth, from remote Saturn to the Moon as the closest. Levi adjoined
correspondences with the Tarot trumps,Aleph with trump I and so on, and
used Kircher's hierarchy of spheres for the trumps from XI upwards. Of
the twenty-two letters, five have special shapes ('final forms') when they
stand at the end of words; hence Kircher endows certain letters with two
successive spheres. Levi did not associate different trumps with the two
forms, but he did install two planets in trump XIII (Death), which corre-
sponds to Mem, and is 'the heaven of Jupiter and Mars'; it means
'domination and force' because of the temperaments of those planetary
gods. Levi ignored Venus in relation to Temperance (trump XIV), citing
only the 'heaven of the Sun'. By a happy coincidence, Etteilla had already
modified the Tarot de Marseille design of Temperance, developing the
flower on the angel's forehead into a sun-disc. Kircher's planetary corre-
spondence explains why Levi's Devil (XV)has the caduceus of Mercury in
lieu of a navel. Levi oddly assigned the Fool to the penultimate letter Shin,
making Tau belong to the World (XX.I).Perhaps he wanted to avoid placing
the Fool first or last, for these positions align with Kircher's Seraphim and
microcosm, subjects not well symbolised by a vagabond or madman;
instead he associated the Fool with 'the flesh', perhaps equated with the
'animality' specified by Kircher.
Levi's symbolism is incongruous. The Sun and Moon trumps (XIX and
188 A Wicked Pack of Cards
XVIII), for instance, are not allowed to mesh with the appropriate heav-
ens. The highest orbit (Saturn's) and the lowest (the Moon's) would never
be recognised in their respective trumps, the Hanged Man (XII) and the
Tower (XVI). The trumps of highest ranks in the pack of cards have
become the lowest ranks in the cosmic hierarchy: perhaps Levi would have
done better after all to retain the descending numerical ranking in which
de Mellet and Court de Gebelin had ordered them.
Levi explicitly linked the Juggler (trump I) with the first sephira
(Crown) and Love (VI) with the sixth sephira (Beauty). Other possibilities
are neglected in favour of simple number symbolism: thus the first four
trumps imply respectively unity, duality, the Ternary, the Quaternary.
These terms prompted Levi to add supporting details: the Juggler's 'first
matter' (the 'ele~ental' suit-signs on his table), the Popess's bifurcated
crown (prompted by Court de Gebelin's theory), the Empress as the
personification of'spirituality, immortality and the Queen of Heaven', the
Emperor on a cubic throne with its square base. The Pope is supposed to
be Quinary because of the five heads to be seen on the Tarot de Marseille
version of the card: three are human, but the other two are capitals of
columns!
Levi's books include plates illustrating his original conceptions of the
Wheel (surmounted by a sphinx), the Devil (as the 'baphometic' goat of the
Templars) and the Chariot (pulled by sphinxes and emblazoned with the
Hindu lingam) (see plate 10). Many other details of the designs of particu-
lar cards suggested by him have persisted as standard features of occultist
and cartomantic Tarot packs: the beatific Hanged Man; the Emperor's
cubic throne; the Popess, or High Priestess, costumed as Isis; the large
hats worn by Fortitude and the Juggler formed into the sign of infinity;
the suit-signs lying on the Juggler's table. Some of the names of the
Hebrew letters are pronounced like words for various objects or activities
(the homonyms in the table in the Introduction, 2.4). Kircher gives inter-
pretations of them all, and these are scattered through Levi's discussions,
mostly for the first ten trumps. The homonyms of the first ten letters
translate as: doctrine, house, plenitude, door, behold, hook, weapons, life,
good, strong men. The Juggler, elevated to the status of magus as in
Etteilla's version, professes the 'doctrine' of Hermetism. Levi cleverly
imagined the Juggler as imitating the shape of the letter Aleph, which has
two appendages like the Juggler's arms, one raised and one lowered. This
gesture, for Levi, expresses a Hermetic dictum, 'As above, so below'. Beth
is the word for 'house' in Hebrew. Levi inflates it into a sanctuary for the
Popess: she becomes the Secret Church, Gnosis, the Cabala. Perhaps
Levi's Empress expresses 'plenitude' by her pregnancy, for he sees her as
the woman in St John's vision of the Apocalypse. Daleth means 'door'
(Latinporta); Levi accordingly makes the Emperor the orientalporte. By
this he means the Ottoman Turkish government, called the Sublime Porte
in reference to the palace gate where justice was rendered. Levi's Pope
 8. The Second Founder: Eliphas Levi 189
says, 'Behold', and so becomes the archetype of the teacher. The 'hook'
which devolves on the Love card does not occur in the subject depicted nor
in any reasonable name for it. Levi is forced to take Vau as a metaphor:
the loving couple are linked emotionally, as a hook may link physically. In
some Tarot packs, the rider in the Chariot does carry a weapon (Zain); but
when Levi designed a new Chariot, he strangely neglected to arm the rider
after all. Justice, in Levi's system, is 'life'. The Hermit must automatically
be 'good'. Rather than Kircher's term 'strong men', Levi reads 'phallus' for
Yod. He therefore makes the Wheel symbolic of 'manly honour, virile
fecundity, the sceptre of the Father'.
The homonyms of the names of the letters do not convincingly explain
the symbolism of the trumps. If the Popess were really meant to represent
Beth as a house, the designer could surely have provided a more graphic
building, and he would have avoided confusing us with the structures
framing other figures such as the Pope and Justice. Levi thought that the
Empress was supernatural, for in the Tarot de Marseille she has wings.
They are actually distortions of a Renaissance throne, its high back
obscured by drapery. Unfortunately for Levi, Tarot Emperors do not
normally sit before gates, and the reference to the Turkish 'Porte' is a
far-fetched pun, not possible in antiquity and surely not permissible
among Jewish Cabalists. The word 'life' does not instantly inspire visions
of Justice, nor is 'good' necessarily illustrated by a hermit, still less 'manly
honour' by a wheel.
Levi never reveals the system behind his interpretations, but his de-
pendence on Kircher can be ferreted out of Levi's Rituel de la haute magie
by consulting Kircher's book.37 In Levi's La Clef des grands mysteres (The
Key to the Great Mysteries, 1861), however, he still co-ordinated Tarot
trumps with Hebrew letters, but bestowed on the letters entirely new
astrological correspondences. He now appealed, not to Kircher, but to the
ancient Sepher Yetzirah. Since Papus, Levi's influential successor, fol-
lowed this later scheme of his rather than lris earlier one, we postpone
exposition of it until Chapter 11.
The general symbolism of the Tarot is not Cabalistic, nor even Jewish.
The Pope and the Last Judgement are obviously Christian, as are the
crosses given the Empress and Emperor in the Tarot de Marseille. Levi
added further details from Hindu and Egyptian symbolism: these too
would have been offensive to Jewish Cabalists. At the same time, the
symbols mentioned in the books of the Cabala - the halls of Heaven, the
face of God, the primordial Adam, the seal of Solomon - are absent from
the Tarot. And what are we to suppose happened to the Tarot among its
supposed Cabalist inventors? Cabalistic literature is notable for its many
commentaries, yet we find no texts describing the Tarot, nor any that
would have inspired it. The Tarot has not descended through Jewish
culture, nor do Jewish Cabalists today recognise the cards as a resurrected
relic of their faith. 38 This should come as no surprise. The strict Cabalist
190 A Wicked Pack of Cards
shunned all representational figures as 'graven images'. Far from medi-
tating on figure cards, he would have abhorred them.
Levi's theory is historically untenable. The Tarot arose, around 1425,
among Italian Christians who knew nothing of the Cabala; it did not
converge with the Cabala until the Romantic period, which began in the
generation of Court de Gebelin and ended in the generation of Eliphas
Levi. Even then, the 'Cabalism' that was applied was the highly Christian-
ised and syncretic variety promoted by Athanasius Kircher and his like.
Neither the Cabala nor the Tarot originated in remote antiquity. They did
not originate together. They do not express the same doctrine or employ
the same symbolism.
Levi cannot have l:>eeninterested in preserving or restoring the Cabala
of the Jews. He was participating in a younger tradition, the 'Christian
Cabala' [see Introduction, 2.4]. It had begun with Pico della Mirandola, at
a date when humanist scholars were reviving a variety of exotic philo-
sophies and mystical religions, most of them, including Cabalism,
developments of Platonism. Renaissance scholars lacked this historical
perspective: they believed that Plato had been the heir of Hermes, and
Hermes perhaps the heir of Moses. According to this wishful thinking, one
archetypal religion was the ultimate source of all known religions. Renais-
sance intellectuals hoped to restore the ancient theology. Their dream,
down through history, echoed along narrow but continuous corridors.
Toward the end of the XVIII century, Court de Gebelin had merely
transferred the old dream of an archetypal religion to an archetypal
society, his monde primitif. One ofits descendants he held to be Egypt, and
one of Egypt's artefacts he held to be the Tarot. Levi's century advanced
greatly in deciphering ancient scripts and analysing the texts, unearthing
lost civilisations and connecting their ideas to each other and to the
modem world. Levi, however, like the vast majority of occultists, naively
continued in the Renaissance mode. Like Pico, Levi was a Christian with
radical and mystical ideas that allied him to radicals and mystics in other
religions; he too sought to blend his intuitions with the revelations of other
religions - as he understood them without benefit of scholarship.
Levi's dream was ambitious. Pico had studied the past to restore a
unified theology; Court de Gebelin had studied the past to understand a
primordial civilisation: Levi combined these ideas and extended them. He
wanted to draw on the best of the past to build a unified civilisation for the
future. Given his stance as a Catholic reformer and syncretist, he probably
felt no obligation to enquire into any primitive Cabala, but was more than
happy to accept the easy and attractive versions that came to him already
filtered through centuries of Christian appropriation. Levi adopted this
'Cabalism' because he believed that it could be the means of reconciling
Christianity and Judaism. Thinking that it had once been a widespread
faith, his vision of a future of political, social and religious accord led him
to hope that it could be revived and made universal.
 8. The Second Founder: Eliphas Levi 191
Levi never fulfilled his intention of designing a rectified Tarot; but he
made lasting contributions to all subsequent occultist theories of the
Tarot, and to all later occultist versions of the cards. The fundamental one
was his achievement in integrating the Tarot into the Western magical
tradition, as received by all his successors. His means of doing so, by a
Cabalistic interpretation of the cards, and, above all, by associating the
letters of the Hebrew alphabet with the trumps, was inherited by all
followers of that tradition. Levi was a r-eviverof occultism, and the founder
of the occult Tarot in the form it has taken from his time to the present.
Nevertheless, his theory failed on its own terms. Etteilla's theory had at
least been coherent: Levi's was not. If the Cabala was the key to the
symbolism of the Tarot, then the Tarot must have been, not an Egyptian,
but a Jewish invention, whereas the use of such symbolism conflicts with
everything that is known about the Jewish attitude to religion, let alone
that of the Cabalists. This is the fundamental error that vitiates all Levi's
theorising about the Tarot. It ought to have been apparent to all his
readers, however eager they may have been to accept some means of
incorporating the Tarot into magical theory. Instead, for many decades it
remained a basic dogma of occultists that the Tarot was to be interpreted
in terms of the Cabala, however diverse the means of accomplishing such
an interpretation.

The magical career of Eliphas Levi

From 1856 onwards, Eliphas Levi lived the life of a magus, indeed of a
professional magician. Living alone in an apartment filled with magical
impedimenta, dressed in a quasi-monastic habit, he gave lessons in magic
and the Cabala, constructed talismans and carried out magical operations.
He published a number of other works on magic. Probably the most
successful of his subsequent works was that he published next, the His-
toire de la magie (History of Magic), in seven books of seven chapters each,
which came out in 1860. Levi's intention was quite serious, but the book
is completely unreliable, recounting as fact legends and occultist specula-
tions. Hermes Trismegistus, at one place identified with Enoch, personally
composed the Emerald Tablet, though the Pimander, Asclepius, etc., were
works of the 'Alexandrian School'. The Tarot was of Jewish origin, but
disclosed to the Gypsies by some imprudent Cabalist. The doctrine of the
Astral Light remains in place, but Levi now discourages practical magic
and expressly submits to the judgement of the Catholic hierarchy. Early
in the following year he joined a Masonic lodge, but his membership did
not last the year. He also paid a second brief visit to London, where he
called on Eugene Vintras, whom he had already ridiculed in the Histoire;
the encounter confirmed his bad impression of the head of the heretical
sect. In 1861, after his return to Paris, another book was published, La
Clef des grands mysteres (The Key to the Great Mysteries), announced as
192 A Wicked Pack of Cards
the final part of a 'complete course' in magic, of which the Dogme et rituel
and the Histoire were the first two parts. In it, Levi elaborated the theory
of the Astral Light and expatiated on the Cabala; but, apart from some
scaring personal anecdotes concerning Vintras and the Grimoire of
Honorius, he says little directly about magic as such, and the work never
had the success of his first three books on the subject.
In 1862 there appeared Fables et symboles (Stories and Images), the
first of two very disparate volumes by Levi, united under the title La
Philosophie occulte. The second and more substantial volume, La Science
des esprits (The Science of Spirits, 1865), did not appear until the year in
which his marriage to Noemie was legally annulled. In Part II of that book,
Levi addresses an objection to his theory of the Tarot by the marquis Jules
Eudes de Mirville, to whom he had made frequent references in his Dogme
et rituel. From 1854 to 1868 Mirville published a series of books on
spiritualism (which he called spiritisme or pneumatologie); he believed
strongly in the genuineness of the phenomena, but tried to prove them to
be effected by diabolic agency. Mirville had spotted the fundamental flaw
in Levi's theory, and objected that the pagan images Levi discerns in the
Tarot do not fit its supposedly Jewish origin. To this Levi returns a very
confused answer. The Tarot, he says, existed in India, in Egypt and even
in China at the same time as the Hebrews possessed it. The ideas are
Jewish, but the symbols are pagan, closely related to Egyptian hieroglyph-
ics and to Indian mysticism. What has actually come down to us is the
Samaritan Tarot, he declares; he probably borrowed this extraordinary
idea from Paul Christian's L'homme rouge des Tuileries of 1863. The final
Part V of La Science des esprits consists of a number of 'legends' repeated
word for word from Constant's La derniere Incarnation (The Last Incarna-
tion, 1846): this signals the beginning of the reintegration of the former
personality of Constant with the later personality of Levi. Though he
continued to write, this was the last book of Levi's to be published in his
lifetime.
The last years of Eliphas Levi's life were increasingly sad. In 1866 his
friend Madame de Balzac, the widow of the great novelist, died. In 1868,
he composed yet another book, Le grand arcane, ou l'occultisme devoile
(The Great Secret, or Occultism Unveiled), which was to be published only
posthumously in 1898, but of which he says in his Introduction that it is
the last and most important of his books on occult science. In the following
year, his health began to decline and to grow progressively worse until his
death. He continued to live in Paris during the dreadful days of the
Franco-Prussian War and the siege of Paris. His last five years were
largely passed in isolation. He was befriended by a young woman who had
been a pupil of his, Judith Gautier, the beautiful daughter of the poet
Theophile Gautier and wife of another poet, Ca tulle Mendes; but most of
the celebrated men whom he had known, such as Alexandre Dumas pere,
had died, and the vogue for the occult was in abeyance. In the last year of
 8. The Second Founder: Eliphas Levi 193
his life, 1875, he composed a brief final work, Le Catechisme de la paix (The
Catechism of Peace, published in 1896): on the last day of May he died.
Le grand arcane shows him still cleaving to the doctrine of the Astral
Light, but no longer confident in the traditional operations of magic; it is
little more than nominally an occultist work. The great secret, which he
describes as unique and incommunicable, is defined as having for its object
to put divine power at the service of the will of man. Later he speaks of the
great secrets as being the attainment of equilibrium points - between life
and death, day and night, science and faith, order and liberty, man and
woman, will and passion; the great secret of high magic is the equilibrium
point between relative and absolute. There is much concern with religion
in the book: Levi has returned to the preoccupation with those questions
that had dominated him during his previous avatar as Constant. The most
radical of the remarks he here makes on the subject is 'God is in man: that
is to say, there is no other God but human intelligence'. In one chapter, he
suddenly abandons the generalities of which the book is principally com-
posed to give detailed instructions for making the ring of Solomon,
composed of seven metals and engraved with the occult signs of the seven
planets. Having done so, however, he remarks that a scapular is a talis-
man more invincible than the ring of Solomon, and adds the same about a
crucifix or a rosary: and what, he asks, are all the ancient talismans
compared to a consecrated Host? The attitude to magic he had at this stage
come to have is well conveyed by his comparison of it to the pebble with
which some Franciscans made soup (adding a few vegetables as flavour-
ing).
His very last work, Le Catechisme de la paix, finishes by stating that it
has not been written for the 'profane multitude', but only for his disciples.
It contains nothing of the occult, but is a return to the manner of the social
pamphlets published under the name of Constant; but the doctrine is very
much less radical, and includes a strong defence of the right to property.
The Church is vehemently attacked; it has no right to call itself universal,
being exclusively Roman. Levi still recognises the beauty of much Chris-
tian belief, but continues to be repelled by the ideas of the Devil and of
eternal punishment: 'I want my child to dream, but not to have horrifying
nightmares: the Devil is not the bluebird and the fear of hell is not the
pearl fairy.' These words must have been penned shortly before this errant
deacon received on his deathbed the last sacraments of the Church in
which he had been ordained so long ago.
 CHAPTER9

From Ghost Writer to Magus:

Paul Christian

TheinfluenceofLevi
It was in about 1852, according to Paul Chacornac, that Paul Christian
met Eliphas Levi; having become a neighbour of his, he took lessons from
him in astrology and the Tarot. Chacornac asserts that he retained a high
regard for Levi until the end of his life; but Ross Nichols, on the basis of
an unpublished manuscript by Christian seen by him, reports that Chris-
tian came to dislike Levi.1 However this may be, some influence, to be
dated between 1845 and 1856, utterly changed Christian's attitude to the
occult. He developed his own, highly idiosyncratic, system of astrology. He
shook off his attachment to the tradition of Etteilla concerning the Tarot,
which he henceforward ignored; he joined Eliphas Levi in the return to the
Tarot de Marseille, restoring its trump order and, while modifying its
images, leaving them identifiable; for only so could the traditional Tarot
be claimed as a deposit of ancient wisdom, rather than a mere basis for
reconstructing what had been created in antiquity. Christian still main-
tained its origin in ancient Egypt, indeed its invention by Hermes Tris-
megistus; in his writings he made no overt reference to the Cabala, the
Hebrew alphabet or the Tetragrammaton, although he did once, inconsis-
tently, declare it to be a Samaritan in~ention. Like Levi, he ceased to view
magic as a mere assemblage of techniques of divination, and came to see
it as a unified doctrine, of which the Tarot was an integral part, inter-
twined with the rest, rather than a mere instrument for predicting the
future. His official means of integrating it was through astrology, of which
he developed a highly eccentric version. The occult became more respect-
able in his eyes, and he abandoned the practice of writing only pseudony-
mously about it: his later occultist books - the only ones to have achieved
any lasting influence - were written under his acknowledged name of Paul
Christian.
This total change of course demands some explanation, presumably an
encounter, personal or literary, with some proponent of high magic, and of
a variety of it which integrated the Tarot with its other elements. With
whom could this have been if not with Eliphas Levi? Who else fits the
description of the man responsible? So, once more, Chacornac's undocu-
 9. From Ghost Writer to Magus: Paul Christian 195
mented assertion possesses the highest intrinsic plausibility. This is not
at all to say that Christian acquired any more genuine belief in the occult
than had previously been his. On the contrary, he continued, as we shall
see, to act on the assumption that to readers of books on the occult one
might lie without disturbance to one's conscience. When he included in his
Histoire de la magie so much that he could not but have known to be false,
being baseless inventions of his own, what reason is there to suppose that
he believed the rest? One whose Catholicism was not ambiguous like
Levi's, but fervent and unswervingly orthodox, could scarcely combine
with it a serious adherence to the doctrines of high magic.

Christian's prophecy
In 1853 Christian married an Italian lady. Louis-Napoleon had become
the Emperor Napoleon III in November 1852, and in January 1853 he
married his Empress, Eugenie. On 3 April 1854 Christian sent to the
Palace a double ode he had loyally composed. One half formed an ode
addressed to the Emperor, the other half one addressed to the Empress:
each exactly matched the other in form, and they were so composed that
the last word of each pair of corresponding lines was the same. On 19 April
a brief letter of thanks on behalf of the Empress was sent to Christian by
Ph. de Saint-Albin, librarian at the Palais-Royal. The double poemcis
ingenious, but in other respects uninspired; but the ode to the Empress
concludes with a prediction. France was then embroiled in the Crimean
War; the Empress had not yet presented her husband with an heir (or even
conceived one). A concluding stanza of Christian's ode to her runs:
Les astres ont predit qu'a l'appel des clairons,
Le premier-ne de l'Aigle entrera dans l'histoire:
Sous un dais couronne de l'encens des canons
11aura pour berceau le char de la Victoire~

(The stars have predicted that, to the sound of bugles, I The first-born son of
the Eagle will enter history: I Below a dais crowned with the smoke of the
cannons I He will have for cradle the chariot of Victory.)

The last two lines of an envoi to Her Majesty the Empress run:
De ma prediction gardez le souvenir,
Car j'ai vu dans les cieux l'ange de l'Avenir.

(Keep my prediction in your memory, I For I have seen in the heavens the
angel of the Future.)

Christian had made a double prediction, with a strong hint that it was
achieved by means ofastrology: that the war would end in victory, and that
196 A Wicked Pack of Cards
by that time the Empress would have a son. In a loyal ode, he could hardly
have prophesied defeat for France, or barrenness for Eugenie; but he did
not have to prophesy at all. Both predictions were fulfilled. The war ended
in 1856 in victory for the allies, and Napoleon III enjoyed a diplomatic
triumph over the Tsar at the Treaty of Paris; and, on 16 March, 1856, the
Empress was delivered of a son, Eugene-Louis-Jean-Joseph, who in 1879
was to be killed fighting in the Zulu War. Christian did not publish his
double ode at the time when he sent it to their Imperial Majesties. It would
have been more impressive ifhe had: anyone can, after all, make as many
predictions as he likes, ifhe publishes, after the event, only those that are
fulfilled; if the predictions contained in them had not been fulfilled,
Christian would doubtless never have published the double poem at all. In
the event, he published it in 1856 under the title Carmen sibyllinum, with
some introductory remarks. These remarks serve to render the prophecy
as dramatic as possible. When it was made, Christian says, France did not
know that her fortune held for her, in so short a time, the joys of a double
Te Deum. 'In the midst of this anxiety, two men alone read the future like
an open book. The first contemplated, in the light of his genius, the plans
dictated by his providential mission. The second, in the silence of a night
sprinkled with stars, meditated the algebra of the heavens. Suddenly,
events were embodied in a swift vision; he passed them in review, praying
for his country. - Returned to the calm of his thought, he perceived that
he had just traced, with a feverish hand, a network of geometrical figures,
labelled with numerals and stellar symbols. He subjected these diagrams
and figures to calculations in accordance with the rules of Chaldean
astromancy; he then translated them into the pages that follow.' Christian
then concludes his introductory observations by arguing, by appeal to
historical authorities, that foretelling the future by astrology - the science
of the Magi - is not contrary to religion.
Such is Christian's vivid account of his prophetic trance, and his astro-
logical interpretation ofit, on the night of 3 April 1854. It is a little strange
that the poem that resulted contains only one prophetic stanza; but
Christian was to revert more than once to this alleged triumph of his
divinatory art. As for the first of the two men, he is plainly the Emperor
himself; but, in view of the disaster of the Franco-Prussian War which
toppled him from the throne, we may doubt that he read the future like an
open book.

Dom Marie-Bernard
From 1855 to 1857 there appeared in eight volumes of 400-odd pages each
a substantial work of piety entitled Les Heros du Christianisme, by a
Trappist monk, Dom Marie-Bernard. The work was edited by Paul Chris-
tian, who, in the fifty-page introduction that opens the first volume,
recounted the life of the author. Dom Marie-Bernard was born near
 9. From Ghost Writer to Magus: Paul Christian 197
Remiremont in 1762, entered La Trappe in 1784, left France for Wootton
in England in 1791, began his magnum opus in 1794, finished it in 1805
and died at Wootton in the following year. His papers were sold, but
eventually came into the hands of a friend of Christian's, the nephew of
dom Marie-Bernard, who asked him to edit and publish the book.
In an epilogue to the final volume, Christian quotes several reviewers
as casting doubts on the authorship and even the existence of Dom
Marie-Bernard, but hesitantly in face of the editor's categorical state-
ments. He then acknowledges their suspicions to be quite justified: he
himself had written the whole book, and the pretended author was a mere
fiction. He does not say this in any spirit of confession, however: his tone
is not apologetic, but defiant. It does not matter who wrote a book, he says,
and in any case he had dropped a hint by remarking that his own name in
religion, as a Trappist novice, had been Marie-Bernard. He had done his
readers no harm, he claims: obviously he did not count lying to them as
harming them. A pseudonym is an accepted literary device: an author is
not understood as promising that his true name is that which appears on
the title-page. But a fictitious author, with a complete fictitious biography,
is a device ordinarily allowed only in what is confessedly fiction.
In the years 1859 and 1860, Paul Christian continued his career as a
writer of works of Catholic piety by publishing seven little books, each of
120-odd pages, on the seven sacraments, in a series called the Bibliotheque
de tout le monde (Everybody's Library). In 1862 he brought out a volume
of Histoires hero'iques des Fran,;ais (Heroic Tales of the French), as told to
His Highness the Prince Imperial Napoleon-Eugene, then six years old.
The next year he published a romantic novel, L'Esprit du Chateau de
Xhenemont (The Spirit of Xhenemont Castle), in a series called Les romans
honnetes; the author's name was given simply as 'Christian'. The year
1863 is more significant for us, however, as being that of the publication
of his first occultist work under the name of Paul Christian. In it, he
reverted to the legend of the little red man of the :ruileries who advised
Napoleon I: the book was called L'homme rouge des Tuileries.

L'homme rouge des Tuileries

L'homme rouge is concerned primarily with astrology, viewed very explic-
itly as a means of foretelling the future. At the head of the Preface stands
a quotation from Levi's Dogme de la haute magie. Christian opens the
Preface by recounting a conversation between himself and Balzac. He then
proceeds to retell the triumph of his double prediction, reproducing with a
few changes the purple passage from his introduction to Carmen sibyl-
linum. In the year 1854, he says, 'France did not know that fortune held
for her, after a brief interval, the joys of a double Te Deum'. In the midst
of this anxiety, 'two men alone in Paris read the future like an open book.
For these two men, there was no invisible world. The invisible exists only
198 A Wicked Pack of Cards
in proportion to the sensitivity of our organs. The first of these men,
taciturn as an eagle in his eyrie, contemplated, in the light of his genius,
the plans dictated by his mission of glory. The second, a solitary Magus,
grown old in the study of the infinite, meditated the algebra of the
heavens. Suddenly, events were embodied in a swift vision. The Magus
passed them in review, and prayed for his country. The arcana of the great
Isis-Urania, evoked by the sacred rites of ancient Egypt, showed him a
crowned cradle, borne by six victories, and the sidereal dates which traced
the path of the days thus announced glistened long upon the mantle of the
night. This revelation of the birth of a son who did not yet exist save in the
mind of God was addressed on 3 April 1854 to Her Majesty the Empress.
The gracious Sovereign deigned to cause her thanks to be addressed to the
author, and, at dawn on 16 March 1856, a hundred-and-one-gun salute
resounded to this cradle promised by occult science to the hopes of
France.' 2 Paul Chacornac, commenting on this passage, 3 identifies the
solitary Magus as Christian himself, but absurdly takes the taciturn eagle
to be Eliphas Levi. Christopher Mcintosh, even more absurdly, reverses
the identification, making Levi the solitary Magus and Christian the
taciturn eagle. 4 It is obvious from the context that Chacornac is right to
understand the solitary Magus to be Christian, whose loyal ode with its
prophetic stanza was indeed submitted to the Empress, and to whom her
thanks were transmitted. It should have been equally obvious, however,
that the taciturn eagle was intended to be the Emperor Napoleon III,
referred to as the eagle in Carmen sibyllinum: however respectful we
might suppose Christian to have been to his mentor Eliphas Levi, it would
surely have been preposterous to speak of his 'mission of glory'.
The text of L'homme rouge takes the form of a narrative concerning an
aged Benedictine monk, Dom Bonaventure Guyon, who is a devotee of the
occult, who converses with Napoleon and whose red cloak gives rise to the
legend of the little red man who haunted the Tuileries. Guyon owns a
manuscript containing occult lore, and about half of the book is occupied
by the text of this manuscript. The text expounds the idiosyncratic system
of astrology that Christian had developed. Into this system is interwoven
much numerology, the Hermetic theory of the thirty-six decans [see Intro-
duction, 1.2] and, above all, the Tarot. Certain of the ideas about the Tarot
expressed in the two occultist works published under the name of Paul
Christian were to exert almost as much influence on later Tarot occultism
as those of Eliphas Levi. The peculiarity of those two books, however,
among occultist works which treat of the subject, is that they scarcely ever
mention the Tarot by name.
The supposed manuscript ofMaitre Guyon opens with an account of the
symbol of the Rosy Cross, stated to have been known to ancient magi and
to have been devised by 'Hermes-Thoth', that is, once again, Hermes
Trismegistus. This consists of a circle and a cross formed by vertical and
horizontal lines through its centre and projecting just beyond it at both
 9. From Ghost Writer to Magus: Paul Christian 199
ends, together with the two diameters bisecting the right angles of the
cross, a concentric circle of half the diameter, eight other circles of the
same size as the smaller one with centres at the mid-points of the eight
radii shown of the large circle, the nine small circles being numbered from
1 to 9, and, round the large circle at the ends of the two oblique diameters,
the letters INRI. The manuscript explains that the ancient magi inscribed
these letters around this very geometrical rose because each contains a
mystery of the divine name. The first, Jamin or I, symbolises the active
principle of creation or generation; the second, Nain or N, the passive such
principle; the third, Iron or R, symbolises the eternal transformation of the
forms of life; and the fourth, being the same as the first, has the same
symbolic meaning as it: their circular arrangement represents the perpet-
ual motion which creates the infinitude of possible beings. Eliphas Levi,
too, while assigning much arbitrary symbolism to the four letters of the
Tetragrammaton (the name of God as written in the Hebrew of the Old
Testament), had invested the sequence INRI (normally taken as the
initials of the Latin superscription on the Cross of Christ) with a primor-
dial and cosmic significance. It is a noteworthy feature of the occult
writings Paul Christian published under that name that, in them, unlike
virtually every other of his colleagues, he never once refers to letters of the
Hebrew alphabet. After the disquisition on the letters I N RI, the manu-
script states that 'the same idea is represented by the numbers of the four
terms of the creation of all things': 1 represents the creative spirit, 2
represents matter, 3 represents the union of matter and spirit, and 4 the
created form. The summation of these numbers produces 'the symbolic
decad: 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 =10.'
The ten circles of the Rosy Cross - the nine smaller circles and the large
one - are then discussed individually, and, when we come to the large one,
the tenth or outer circle of the Rosy Cross, the Tarot makes its first
appearance, but not under that name, nor as playing cards or anything
resembling them. The outer circle is, we are told, divided into seventy-
eight symbolic houses (loges), of which the 'keys' are then given in detail.
These are numbered from I to LXXVII, with O standing between XX and
XXI: 0 of course corresponds to the Fool, and I to XXI to the trumps, while
XXII to LXXVII correspond to the suit cards. This consecutive numbering
of the entire sequence is of course in line with Etteilla's practice; but the
use of Roman rather than Arabic numerals is a break with the tradition
he inaugurated, as is the arrangement of the trumps in the Tarot de
Marseille order. The suits are arranged in the order Batons, which Chris-
tian calls 'Sceptres' (Sceptres), Cups, Swords, which he calls 'Blades'
(Glaives), and Coins, to which he gives the name 'Shekels' (Sicles); within
each suit, the court figures come first, beginning with the King, followed
by the numerals from Ace to 10. Instead of the usual names for the court
figures, Christian uses 'Master' (Maltre), 'Mistress' (Maitresse), 'Warrior'
(Combattant) and 'Slave' (Esclave).
200 A Wicked Pack of Cards
The names given to the trumps are very far from being those standard
either in the Tarot de Marseille or in the Egyptian Tarots of Etteilla's
tradition; with a very few variations, they are used consistently both in
L'homme rouge and in the Histoire de la magie. With the principal vari-
ants used by Christian in either book in brackets, they are as follows. I: the
Magus; II: the Gate of the Sanctuary (of the occult Sanctuary); III: Isis-
Urania; IV: the Cubic Stone; V: the Master of the Mysteries (of the
Arcana); VI: the Two Roads; VII: the Chariot of Osiris; VIII: Themis (the
Scales and Blade); IX: the Veiled Lamp; X: the Sphinx; XI: the Muzzled
Lion (the Tamed Lion); XII: the Sacrifice; XIII: the Skeleton Reaper (the
Reaper, the Scythe); XIV: the Two Urns (the Genius of the Sun); XV: Ty-
phon; XVI: the Beheaded Tower (the Lightning-Struck Tower); XVII: the
Star of the Magi; XVIII: the Twilight; XIX: the Blazing Light; XX: the
Awakening of the Dead (the Genius of the Dead); 0: the Crocodile; and
XXI: the Crown of the Magi. Many of these will be recognised as based on
the familiar iconography of the Tarot de Marseille version of the card;
others, such as VI, X, XVII and XXI, as reflecting ideas of Court de Gebelin,
Etteilla or Eliphas Levi. Some derive from notions peculiar to Paul Chris-
tian; notable among these is the re-naming of the Fool as 'the Crocodile'.
Christian envisaged the Fool, not as pursued by a mere dog, as depicted
in the Tarot de Marseille card, but, in a manner better suited to a dweller
on the banks of the Nile, as ambushed by a crocodile. This is how it is
described in the manuscript of Maitre Guyon, namely as a man walking
unawares towards a lurking crocodile: for the manuscript contains a
description of the 'hieroglyph' associated with each of the symbolic houses.
These descriptions constitute in practice a set of instructions for the design
of a Tarot pack in accordance with Christian's conceptions; they are not,
of course, so presented. In particular, house I is represented by a Magus
holding a sceptre, and standing in front of a cubic stone on which are a
blade, a cup and a shekel. The idea here applied that the Bateleur has one
of four suit-symbols in his hand and the remaining three laid out before
him was borrowed from Levi; it has been standard in all occultist versions
of the Tarot pack, save those deriving from Etteilla, ever since.
To each of the seventy-eight houses is associated a numerical value,
distinct from its sequential number, a letter from the 22-letter 'Egyptian
hieratic alphabet' and a threefold significance, one in the Divine World,
another in the Intellectual World and a third in the Physical World. Thus
to trump I, the Magus, is assigned the numerical value 1 and the hieratic
letter Athoim; in the Divine World, it signifies absolute Being, in the
Intellectual World unity and in the Physical World man.
At this stage, astrological topics proper are introduced and treated at
length; in the course of this, each planet is assigned a circle, divided into
seventy-eight parts, which are listed and with each of which is associated
by name one of the seventy-eight Tarot 'arcana'. In all this time, and
throughout the supposed manuscript of Guyon, the word 'Tarot' is not used
 9. From Ghost Writer to Magus: Paul Christian 201
and nothing is said to give anyone quite unaware of the Tarot pack the
least idea that such a thing as a pack of playing cards is involved. After
the text of the manuscript is concluded, the narrative is resumed, and, in
the course of it, we are instructed in a practical method of casting horo-
scopes to make specific predictions, based on the theory expounded in the
manuscript, as well as a means of making predictions by purely numero-
logical methods; in both, as in the astrological theory, the symbolic
meanings ascribed to the seventy-eight houses- that is, to what we know
to be the seventy-eight cards of the Tarot - play a crucial role. We also
learn of the book engraved by Hermes-Thoth on seventy-eight leaves of
gold (lames d'or), arranged in a great circle and in the possession of the
priests of Memphis; each had written on it a number and a letter, together
with symbolic figures and signs of the zodiac, the planets, the thirty-six
decans and the 360 genii, the significance of each constituting an Arcanum
or secret. 5 These seventy-eight lames constitute the supreme instrument
of all divination. Later, Dom Guyon takes from his pocket a box containing
'a poor little copy of the seventy-eight lames of the Book of Hermes'; this
magic breviary, he says, is known by the Rabbis as the Samaritan Tarot
or Oracle, because it was invented in Samaria after the fall of Jerusalem
by some Jewish priests who escaped the Babylonian captivity. 6 This is the
first time the word 'Tarot' has occurred in the book (it is used once more).
It may also be the source of Levi's assertion in his Science des esprits that
the Tarot was of Samaritan origin. We are told that the types of the four
sacred objects which form the suit-signs were kept in the Ark together
with the Tables of the Law, and that they have mysterious senses, Scep-
tres representing the active, and Cups the passive, generative principle,
Swords the union (copulation) of the two principles and Shekels genera-
tion accomplished in all the orders of life.
The manuscript of Maitre Guyon occupies pages 81 to 294 of L'homme
rouge. There follows a long section of over a hundred pages entitled
'Mysteres de !'horoscope', with numerous examples. The book concludes
with an Epilogue, which begins with a conversation that supposedly took
place a few weeks after the Revolution of 1848 between Paul Christian
himself and General Du Bourg. In the course of this, Christian praises the
astrological method of the XVII-century astrologer Auger Ferrier and
declares himself a practitioner of it; and on this basis he makes a prophecy
that Louis Napoleon will become Emperor. Upon the enthusiastic re-
sponse of the General, Christian modestly replies, 'If I am a prophet, it is
only as a proxy for Auger Ferrier', and adds, 'Let us try at all times to
satisfy you, with the aid of the Samaritan Tarot'. It is only in the five-page
Conclusion that we are given the basic meanings of the '22 first Arcana of
the 10th circle of the Rosy Cross' (known to us as the Tarot trumps). These
are as follows; the expressions in brackets are the emendations made by
Christian in his subsequent Histoire of 1870. I: Will; II: Knowledge; III:
Action; IV: Realisation; V: Inspiration (Occult Inspiration); VI: Test; VII:
202 A Wicked Pack of Cards
Victory; VIII: Equilibrium; IX: Wisdom (Prudence); X: Fortune;
XI: Strength; XII: Sacrifice (Violent Death); XIII: Transformation; XIV:
Initiative; XV: Fate; XVI: Ruin; XVII: Hope; XVIII: Deception; XIX: Hap-
piness (Earthly Happiness); XX: Renewal; 0: Expiation; and XXI: Reward.
L'homme rouge des Tuileries was too eccentric a work to achieve much
success at the time of its publication; after Christian's death, when copies
had become hard to find, it became much sought after. It contains all that
is distinctive in Christian's contribution to Tarot occultism. This was
twofold. On the one hand, Christian attempted to integrate the Tarot into
general magical theory not, like Levi, by means of the Cabala, to which he
paid scarcely any attention, but through astrology: his highly individual
astrological system was throughout interwoven with the Tarot. Secondly,
again unlike Levi, he provided a detailed revisualisation of the Tarot
images. Following Levi, he retained (or reverted to) the Tarot de Marseille
order of the trumps, inserting the Fool between the XX and the XXI, as
Levi had done (a fact which incontrovertibly demonstrates Levi's influence
on him); but he reinterpreted their subjects, and provided an explicit guide
to their pictorial representation, as Levi had wholly failed to do. The
astrological system found a few later imitators, but was too specific and
diverged too far from tradition to be widely adopted; it could not be
borrowed from, but had to be swallowed whole or not at all. By contrast,
his revision of the Tarot images came to be widely influential: naturally
so, since there was no other source, save Etteilla and his followers, for
versions of them rethought in an occultist spirit. Some of his terminology,
too, entered the mainstream of the occultist vocabulary: his term.'arcana'
became henceforward a standard occultist term for Tarot cards, which, in
French, were also sometimes known, after Christian, as lames (metal
plates) -a term found in his book of 1863, though not in that of 1870.

Edmond
At least one application of Christian's rejnterpretation was made in his
lifetime, by the professional practitioner of cartomancy and chiromancy,
Edmond Billaudot (1829-81), whom we met in Chapter 7. A reproduction
of a pack drawn by Edmond by hand in pen and ink is marketed by
Grimaud as the Grand Tarot Belline. 7 An extra card asserts that Edmond
was summoned to the Tuileries by Napoleon III, who was anxious to know
his future, and that Edmond used his hand-drawn cards for his predic-
tions. Another extra card reproduces a manuscript passage about human
will, ending with the declaration that there is no absolute predestination.
This reproduces an extract from a notebook of Edmond's, still extant,
containing 'philosophical thoughts'. 8
Edmond began the practice of Tarot cartomancy using Grand Etteilla
I. 9 The Tarot Belline testifies to his conversion to the principles of Paul
Christian: its nomenclature and numbering are precisely those of
 9. From Ghost Writer to Magus: Paul Christian 203
L'homme rouge. It must therefore have been created by him after 1863,
when that book was published, and, if the story about Napoleon III is true,
before 1870. The drawing is somewhat naive and whimsical in character.
The designs, of the court cards and Aces as well as the trumps, are
essentially those of the Tarot de Marseille, with variations. The numerals,
in the top right-hand corner, are Arabic. The Crocodile, numbered as O and
corresponding to the Fool, shows no dog but two lurking crocodiles. The
Magus ( 1) shows an imposing robed and bearded figure holding a staff and
standing by a cubic stone on which are a sword, a coin and a cup. The Gate
of the Sanctuary (2) shows a Popess, wearing a double tiara surmounted
by a crescent, and seated between two pillars, one red and one green.
Isis-Urania (3) holds a sceptre and a shield displaying an eagle, but rests
her feet on a crescent moon and wears an Egyptian headdress. The Master
of the Arcana (5) wears a similar tiara and blesses two kings, not cardi-
nals. The Chariot of Osiris (7) is drawn by two sphinxes, one red, one
green. The Sacrifice (12) has two birds descending towards the hanged
man. The Crown of the Magi (21) has large symbols of the four Evangelists
in the four corners, but, between them, a large square enclosing a crown
instead of the figure within the oval wreath. The Masters of the four suits
(equivalent to Kings) all hold stars bearing symbols of zodiacal signs: Leo
for Sceptres, Taurus for Cups, Aquarius for Blades and Scorpio for Shek-
els.
The suit cards are numbered consecutively from 22 (Master of the
Sceptre) to 77 (Ten Shekels). The designs of the numeral cards deviate
considerably further from the Tarot de Marseille than do the trumps and
court cards. On the 'two Cups' (41), the two dragon-heads appear at the
top, but not stemming from the cups, which are enclosed in a circle. A
human head protrudes from the top cup on the 'three Cups' (42). The
Sceptres and Blades (= Batons and Swords) are arranged in varying
configurations. The Shekels all bear fleurs-de-lys; the 'two Shekels' (69)
has no S-shaped scroll. Each of the seventy-eight cards has a narrow lower
panel giving its name, hand-written. Below this is a much deeper panel,
with a detailed manuscript explanation of the cartomantic significance of
the card. Each card has also a narrow top panel, with its number in the
sequence on the right, and on the left a Roman letter or letters correspond-
ing to the associated letter of the sacred alphabet and its numerical value.
The trumps also have, in the centre of the upper panel, words or phrases
indicating their principal cartomantic meanings, exactly as in the list
quoted above from the Conclusion of L'homme rouge, not using any of the
revised versions given in the Histoire de la magie; there could not be a
clearer proof that Edmond was relying only on the earlier book. The suit
cards have instead planetary and zodiacal symbols, also with indications
of cartomantic significance.
204 A Wicked Pack of Cards

Lussides
In 1864, 1866 and 1867 Paul Christian published further translations of
J.C. Schmid. 10 From 1865 to 1866 he returned to journalism once more as
the editor of the Moniteur Catholique. In 1866 he published a second novel
in the series Les romans honnetes under the name Charles Moreau. This
was set in ancient Egypt and entitled Fulla l'Egyptienne; the pen-name
was not much of a disguise, since it was followed on the title-page by
'Christian' in brackets and then 'author of L'Esprit du Chateau de
Xhenemont'. In 1868 Christian published an article in the Almanach
prophetique that had been founded by Eugene Bareste and was at that
time edited by Henri Plon. The article was entitled 'Horoscope de
Napoleon ler', and was signed 'Lussides'; but, since it refers to and quotes
extensively from L'homme rouge, and is all about Maitre Bonaventure
Guyon, Christian's authorship - affirmed by Chacornac - is obvious. The
article tells of an encounter between Napoleon and Guyon, in which the
latter predicts a number of important events in Napoleon's life by means
involving complex numerological calculations. Guyon states that in 1773
he predicted to Monsieur de Rohan the destiny of Louis XVI, and that he
proceeded to make an assiduous study of the 'arcana of the great Hermes-
Thoth'. This little contribution is quite negligible save as showing that
Christian was still dabbling in the occult.

Christian's Histoire de la magie

In 1869 Christian was editor of the Messager du Centre. Then, in 1870, he
published his most celebrated occultist work, a rival to Levi's Histoire de
la magie of ten years earlier, entitled Histoire de la magie, du monde
surnaturel et de la fatalite a travers les temps et les peuples. This book did
attain a certain celebrity, and became required reading among those
attracted by the occult; an English translation was issued in 1952.11
The book is undoubtedly a very odd one. It is in no sense a systematic
history, but a rambling disquisition, with copious historical discussion,
and many anecdotes. It covers certain matters in detail, and ignores
others, such as alchemy, altogether; in so far as it is a history of magic, it
is a history of popular magic, not of the sophisticated variety that some-
times attracts intellectuals. Divided into seven Books, it opens by
recounting, falsely, how in 1839 Christian had completed, with Charles
Nodier of the Academie Fran~aise, a book on the antiquities of Paris; we
saw in Chapter 7 that in fact he had merely added a historical resume to
a work composed by Nodier and two others. Chapters 1 to 3 of Book I
continue in autobiographical vein, recalling a conversation between No-
dier and Christian at Nodier's house, Christian's work as librarian for the
Ministry of Public Instruction, and his discovery of Auger Ferrier's Juge-
mens astronomiques and other astrological works. Chapter 4 defends
 9. From Ghost Writer to Magus: Paul Christian 205
divinatory practices as consonant with the Catholic religion. After a
detour through India and Persia, we come in Chapter 9 to ancient Egypt,
a society divided, according to Christian, into three classes: the Magi, who
were priests and administrators; the warriors; and, below them, the
merchants and labourers. The original lawgiver to the Magi was Hermes-
Thoth, as Christian always refers to Hermes Trismegistus. In Chapters 10
to 12, we are given a highly inaccurate account of the Hermetic Books,
with no doubt cast on their pretended antiquity, followed by a sketch of
the astrological system of the Magi and the hierarchy of spirits as revealed
to Hermes-Thoth. Book I concludes, in Chapter 13, with a further protest
that magic is compatible with Catholic belief, with appeals to Joseph de
Maistre and to Balzac, whose acquaintance with Christian is emphasised.
Book II contains the two most impudent pieces of invention in Chris-
tian's Histoire. 'Iamblichus, who lived in the first half of the fourth century
A.D.', Christian states at the end of Chapter 1, 'has left us a treatise on the
Egyptian mysteries, in which are related the principal scenes of the
initiation tests'; a footnote reference is given to a bilingual edition (in
Greek and Latin) published in Oxford in 1678 of Iamblichus's celebrated
On the Mysteries. 12 Chapters 2 to 5 are then taken up with a detailed
account of these initiation tests conducted by the Magi, which begin inside
the Sphinx and continue in chambers within the Great Pyramid. This
passage, which extends over more than thirty pages, cannot be read save
as a report of a description given in Iamblichus's famous work, and many
unsuspecting readers must have so taken it. In fact, it is Christian's
invention from start to finish; not one word corresponds to anything to be
found in On the Mysteries. Christian may have borrowed some details from
the imaginary ancient Egyptian initiation tests and ceremonies in the late
XVIII-century German work Crata Repoa [see Introduction, 3.2];13 his
description owes nothing to its purported source Iamblichus.
In the course of these tests, Christian's initiate undergoes many awe-
some and sometimes terrifying experiences. At one point, he is presented
with two goblets, of which he is told that one contains a deadly poison, and
commanded to drink from one of them without hesitatibn (they are in fact
both harmless); at another, beautiful maidens, the daughters of the Magi,
attempt to entice him, but he must make no response (this episode comes
from the Crata Repoa). The most important feature of the initiation is the
use made of the Tarot images. In L'homme rouge of 1863, Christian had
interwoven the Tarot with his own special astrological system. The system
could not so much as be stated without reference to the Tarot 'arcana'; but
it was quite unnecessary to know that they had ever formed a pack of
cards. In Christian's Histoire, this system of astrology is expounded once
more in great detail. Furthermore, almost all the matter concerning the
Tarot contained in L'homme rouge is reproduced in the Histoire. This time,
however, the word 'Tarot' does not occur a single time in the entire book.14
Nor is there any mention of a pack of cards, or even of a book, whether of
206 A Wicked Pack of Cards
leaves of gold or otherwise; in Book V, Chapter 7, Christian, in a passing
remark, expresses scorn for cartomancy, which is otherwise left unmen-
tioned. The problem was, therefore, how first to introduce the Tarot
arcana. Christian solved it by incorporating them into his ancient Egyp-
tian initiation process.
At one stage in the initiation procedure, Christian tells us, still appar-
ently quoting from Iamblichus, the postulant climbs down an iron ladder,
with seventy-eight rungs, and enters a hall on either side of which are
twelve statues, and, between each pair of statues, a painting. These
twenty-two paintings, he is told, are Arcana or symbolic hieroglyphs; the
Science of Will, the principle of all wisdom and source of all power, is
contained in them. Each corresponds to a 'letter of the sacred language'
and to a number, and each expresses a reality of the divine world, a reality
of the intellectual world and a reality of the physical world. The secret
meanings of these twenty-two Arcana are then expounded to him. This
teaching, which the unwary reader will presume to be reproduced from
Iamblichus, is set out in detail in Book II, Chapter 3 of the Histoire: the
twenty-two symbolic paintings are listed, with their names, their sequen-
tial numbers and numerical values, their associated letters, their
threefold significations and a description of the appearance of each one.
This list in fact coincides, with minor variations, with the first twenty-two
items on the list of the seventy-eight keys of the houses of the tenth circle
given in L'homme rouge; that is to say, they correspond to the Tarot
trumps, with the Fool, as conceived by Christian. As before, the Crocodile,
with sequential number 0, is placed between XX and XXI; numerical
values from 1 to 9 are assigned to symbols I to IX, from 10 to 90, in steps
of 10 at a time, to symbols X to XVIII, and from 100 to 400, in steps of 100
at a time, to symbols XIX, XX, 0 and XXI respectively. The names of the
letters of the sacred alphabet have in some cases been altered from those
of the 'hieratic letters' in the earlier book, and the alphabet itself is
illustrated on a later page as 'the alphabet of the Magi'. 15 Christian of
course knew nothing of Egyptian hieratic script, and the alphabet is
merely a magic or cypher alphabet, more or. less corresponding to the
Hebrew alphabet. 16
A trusting reader, who knew about Tarot cards, and read Christian's
Histoire de la magie without having read his earlier book, would receive
from this chapter the most persuasive corroboration of the theory of the
great antiquity, and ancient Egyptian origin, of the Tarot images. For,
throughout the book, Christian himself manifests no awareness of the
existence of the Tarot pack; and yet here he is reporting, from the text of
a neoplatonist author of the early Christian era, a description of those
images, as encountered by an initiate into the Egyptian mysteries. It
matters comparatively little whether Iamblichus's account was accurate
or not: it testifies to the existence of the Tarot images at least as early as
Iamblichus himself, and so confounds those who claim them to be the
 9. From Ghost Writer to Magus: Paul Christian 207
products of the Italian Renaissance. Probably many trusting readers of
this chapter of Christian's book have argued thus and so had their faith in
the legend of the ancient Egyptian origin of the Tarot confirmed. And yet
it supplies no confirmation at all, for Iamblichus wrote nothing of the kind:
all is the fantasy of Paul Christian, unscrupulously fathered by him on the
ancient writer.
Chapters 6 and 7 of Book II of the Histoire are devoted to the Freema-
sons, who are treated derisively; Christian rejects with contempt their
claim to be the heirs of the Magi. And yet he proceeds to exhibit the highest
respect for the most notorious Masonic charlatan of all, Cagliostro. The
remaining Chapters 8 to 12 are all devoted to another apocryphal story,
which Christian professes in Chapter 12 to have extracted from the
manuscript Memoires of Court de Gebelin. The story concerns a meeting
supposed to have taken place on 10 May 1785, ofleading French Freema-
sons, presided over by Court de Gebelin, to interrogate Cagliostro. The
Philalethes indeed held in Paris, from 19 February to 26 May 1785, a
Convention of Freemasons from different countries and systems; but
neither Court de Gebelin nor Cagliostro was present at it. Cagliostro had
indeed been invited; but, having first demanded that the Philalethes
destroy their archives, of which they were extremely proud, he made
another excuse for not attending. 17 As for Court de Gebelin, the date given
by Christian for the meeting is enough to invalidate his highly circumstan-
tial narrative, for Court de Gebelin, though indeed an important member
of the Philalethes, died on 12 May 1784. Court de Gebelin's Memoires,
claimed by Paul Christian as the source of his information, are, as
A.E. Waite stigmatised them, completely mythical: 18 another bare-faced
invention of Christian's.
At the meeting, as Christian reports it, Cagliostro first expatiated on
the creation by Hermes-Thoth of the Rosy-Cross, worn by the Magi, as a
symbolic expression of the divine idea. Originally, he says, the letters
INRI (lo:ithi, Na'in, Rosith, lo'ithi in the sacred language) were placed
between the arms of the cross; later, to prevent profanation, the Magi
replaced these by a man, a bull, a lion and an eagle - the s:reatures of which
the Sphinx is composed. Cagliostro then proceeds to explain a preposter-
ous method of divination, which Christian later calls onomatomancy or the
Praenestine oracles, and which evidently fascinated him. It consists of
taking a sentence of three or four lines, say one describing a particular
individual, and constructing a lengthy anagram from it, using all but a
handful of the letters. The anagram will be a sentence predicting the
destiny of the person in question. A Latin phrase or verse is then con-
structed, the initial letters of the words being the unused or 'mute' letters
in the original sentence; this will amplify the prediction. Christian reports
Cagliostro as giving a tedious catalogue of historical examples, and finish-
ing by predicting by this means the fates of Louis XVI and
Marie-Antoinette, adding as an afterthought that of Madame de Lamballe,
208 A Wicked Pack of Cards
whom he had made Mistress of Honour in his 'Egyptian' Masonic Temple.
The assembled Masons are dumbfounded; but, despite Court de Gebelin's
urging co-operation with Cagliostro, they decide against it. 19
Christian's book of 1863 had had the form of a work of fiction; but his
Histoire of 1870 is presented as a serious piece of historical writing. 20
Christian therefore presumably expected his readers to take the state-
ments made in it as facts; or, ifhe did not, he took no precautions against
their doing so. Yet here, in a single Book, he tells two outrageous lies, not
merely by the way, but each extended over several chapters. The work
contains a number of other factual inaccuracies; who is to say whether
they are mistakes or deliberate falsifications? It is impossible to suppose
that Paul Christian, in his occultist writings under that name, cared any
more about the truth of what he wrote than he had done in those published
under pseudonyms. He is the clearest example, in this field, of a deliberate
charlatan.
Why did he do it? He cannot have written either L'homme rouge or the
Histoire de la magie merely for the royalties: he could easily produce books
with far less trouble than that. A good deal of the Histoire Christian must
have been able to throw together without much work, but that is far from
true of all of it; besides, hastily turning out a book may explain a mwtitude
of mistakes, but it does not explain two elaborately contrived ,fictions.
Christian must have enjoyed deceiving people; he did it when there was
no further object in doing so. The astrological system, expounded again in
full in the book of 1870, demanded great ingenuity for its construction, and
is tedious to read about unless the reader appreciates ingenious construc-
tions. The anagrammatic method of divination, ludicrous as a technique,
likewise required dexterity of the crossword-puzzle type for devising the
many examples occurring in the book, which must have cost Christian a
great deal of labour. Clearly these were the two principal enthusiasms
that spurred him to compose the book. To suppose that he actually
believed that the future could be predicted by astrology or by anagrams
would be naive.
Books III to VofChristian'sHistoire de la m..agieattempt, in a desultory
way, to justify the book's title. Book III is largely devoted to the oracles
and Sibyls of antiquity; one chapter treats of Druidism, and another of
Apollonius of Tyana. In Chapters 8 and 9 we are introduced to Pierre Le
Clerc, a soothsayer of the Revolutionary period, alleged to have been
consulted by Charlotte Corday, Robespierre, Napoleon and others. Accord-
ing to Christian, Le Clerc practised the anagrammatic method of
prediction favoured by Cagliostro, and we are treated to many more
examples of this, which must have started to pall on every reader. Book
IV surveys magic from the beginning of the Christian era to the end of the
Middle Ages. It is mostly concerned with such matters as talismans and
the evocation of evil spirits; nothing is said about astrology or alchemy. It
contains numerous sarcastic remarks about the Church, not precisely
 9. From Ghost Writer to Magus: Paul Christian 209
heretical, but certainly offensive to the pious ears that would have listened
appreciatively to Christian's devotional writings. It ends with the remark
that witchcraft has nothing to do with magic; this deprives the author of
an excuse for the inclusion of Book V, which is largely to do with witch-
craft. Chapter 2 of Book V contains some forty recipes for magic potions.
Chapters 3 to 6 survey various methods of divination, about which Chris-
tian expresses scepticism; cartomancy is not included, and divination by
coffee grounds is scoffed at. Chapter 7 relates Paracelsus's instructions for
the creation of a homunculus by the use of human semen; Christian voices
regret that the instructions are defective. He then launches into a long
series of detailed rules for casting spells for various purposes, which lasts
until Chapter 9, treating of the magical properties of precious stones.
Further chapters deal with pacts with the Devil and with the Grimoires;
aspersions about the Church, and Popes in particular, are scattered
throughout this Book also. Book Vis undoubtedly the most distasteful part
of the whole compilation, and that which most closely resembles the
Grand Liv re du Destin of Frederic de la Grange of 1845.
The remaining two Books, VI and VII, cast aside all pretence of being
historical; they form a detailed and highly technical exposition of Chris-
tian's system of astrology. This is in very close accord with the exposition
in L'homme rouge. Once more, each planet is associated with a 'fatidic
circle' (cerclefatidique); each such circle contains seventy-eight arcana, for
which Christian uses much the same nomenclature as in L'homme rouge,
with very slight variations. We know, of course, that these seventy-eight
arcana correspond to the seventy-eight cards of the Tarot pack; but
Christian betrays no hint of any such awareness.
The 'fatidic circle' allegedly foretells a subject's destiny. Christian
begins with the subject's date of birth, registered numerically and ana-
lysed into units, tens and hundreds. These are 'fatidic numbers', to be
located in a table that converts them into planets and signs of the zodiac.
Christian also uses the subject's name and official titles. These must be
rendered into Latin and translated into numbers by a curious method
involving the 'Alphabet of the Magi': fatidic numbers and astrological data
again result. All the data are entered into a horoscope chart and inter-
preted.

Fatidic numbers
The fatidic circle is Christian's invention. His combination of astrology and
numerology does not improve on either of them but mutually contami-
nates them. Moreover, an essentially random group of numbers cannot
lead reliably to a configuration of planets and zodiacal signs as they would
occur in nature. The 'horoscope' is entirely likely to omit some planets and
signs while duplicating others. Christian tries to forestall these problems,
but confusion arises. The student cannot arrive at the desired chart
210 A Wicked Pack of Cards
anyway, because, although they occupy more than fifteen pages, Chris-
tian's instructions are arbitrary, contradictory and fragmentary.
Although Christian hardly ever mentioned the Tarot or the Cabala by
name, his theory involves both of them. For his fatidic numbers, he uses
those denoted by Arabic numerals in the following table: but he sometimes
uses those shown on the left, sometimes those shown on the right; those
on the right are the actual values of the Hebrew letters, which explains
Christian's need for units, tens and hundreds.
Number Batons Swords Trump Number Corres-
of card ponding
number
(1) ACE ACE Aleph (1)
(2) Moon Moon II Beth (2)
(3) Venus Venus III Gimel (3)
(4) Jupiter Jupiter IV Daleth (4)
(5) Aries II Aries III v He (5)
(6) Taurus III Taurus I VI Vau (6)
(7) Gemini I Gemini II VII Zain (7)
(8) Cancer I Cancer III VIII Heth (8)
(9) Leo II Leol IX Teth (9)
(10) Virgo III Virgo II x Yod (10)

Cups Coins

(1) Mars Mars XI Kaph (20)

(2) Libra I Libra III XII Lamed (30)
(3) THE REAPER THE REAPER XIII Mem (40)
(4) Scorpio II Scorpio I XIV Nun (50)
(5) Sagittarius III Sagittarius II xv Samekh (60)
(6) Capricorn I Capricorn III XVI Ayin (70)
(7) Mercury Mercury ·xvu Pe (80)
(8) Aquarius II Aquarius I XVIII Tzaddi (90)
(9) Pisces III Pisces II XIX Qoph (100)

(10) Saturn Saturn xx Resh (200)

The numeral cards derive their astrological correspondences from the

parallel list of trumps. Christian is relying on Levi's Clef des grands
mysteres, which modifies the Sepher Yetzirah to give astrological roles to
the letters and so to the trumps; but he extends the astrology to the
numeral cards and thereby invites duplication. He alleviates this among
the zodiacal signs: he pretends that each si~ is divided into thirds,
specified by three different cards. The triple division of the signs has a
 9. From Ghost Writer to Magus: Paul Christian 211
precedent in the decans of Egyptian astrology. When the cycle of thirty-six
decans is superimposed on the zodiac, three decans are made to lie exactly
within each of the twelve signs. In the above table, therefore, the numerals
I, II and III can be read as 'first decan', 'second decan' and 'third decan'.
Our tabulation will be seen to lack twelve decans. Christian assigned
them to court cards. But, since four remaining court cards then demanded
similar employment, he gave the Kings the status of 'royal stars', the
brightest luminaries in the fixed signs, thus:

Batons Cups Swords Coins

King [Regulus] (9) [Aldebaran] (6) [Sadalmelik] (90) [Antares] (50)
Queen Aries I (5) Cancer II (8) Libra II (30) Capricorn II (70)
Knight Taurus II (6) Leo III (9) Scorpio III (50) Aquarius III (90)
Jack Gemini III (7) Virgo I (10) Sagittarius I (60) Pisces I (100)

The fatidic numbers (shown above in parentheses) are not entirely

arbitrary, for they co-ordinate with the previous lists. But ambiguity is
rife. Suppose our calculations produce 50 as a significant sum. Does our
horoscope then contain Antares or all of Scorpio or only one of its decans?
Christian leaves the answer quite unclear.
Our presentation, for all its intricacies, is a simplified version of Chris-
tian's method. He actually presents the above tables in seven variations:
all the decans are occupied by planets, differing in position according to
the year of the subject's birth. (He refers us to yet another table.) These
occupying planets are surely excessive: the planets already occur in the
basic lists, once among the trumps and twice among the numeral cards.
Christian seems to have wanted a system by which numbers could
mutate into celestial powers. The Cabalistic letters were tacitly presumed
to do this. They, more than the Tarot, supply the numbers for constructing
the artificial horoscope. Moreover, neither the desired astrology nor the
Hebrew alphabet is congruent with the structure of the Tarot pack. Levi
had conscripted the twenty-two Hebrew letters into conferring astrological
symbolism on the twenty-two cards distinctive to tlie Tarot. But this
number is not applicable to common suit cards. Christian was forced to
alter the very Cabalism he was surreptitiously. promoting. Only twenty
levels can be found in the double tier of numeral cards as shown above.
Two letters must drop out of the system; Christian chose Shin and Tau.
With them go two cards: the Fool and the World. The latter should have
been regarded as a great loss, for it was supposedly allied with the power
of the sun, highly important in most horoscopes. In the Sepher Yetzirah,
the letters Aleph, Mem and Shin are given as the mystical sources of air,
water and fire [see Introduction, 2.2]. When Christian eliminated Shin, he
also eliminated fire; he then decided to drop the other elements, too. In
order to fill part of the void, Trump XIII (the Reaper) was allowed to extend
212 A Wicked Pack of Cards
its name to the 3s of Cups and Coins. Had Christian been consistent,
trump I (the Magus) would have shared his title with the Aces of Batons
and Swords. But, then, Christian was no lover of consistency. In any event,
no sensible astrologer would construct a horoscope that accommodated a
'reaper', an 'ace' or even a 'magus'.

The occult accomplishment of Paul Christian

The year in which Christian published his Histoire de la magie was, of
course, also the year of Napoleon Ill's catastrophic defeat in the Franco-
Prussian War and his consequent abdication. For Christian, who had
sincerely adulated Louis Napoleon, it was an especially bitter tragedy. It
formed the subject-matter of one last book he wrote, Histoire de la guerre
avec la Prusse et des deux sieges de Paris 1870-1 (History of the War with
Prussia and the two Sieges of Paris), published in two volumes in 1872.
After this, his health deteriorated: Jean-Baptiste Pitois, who had called
himself Paul Christian, died at Lyons on 12 July 1877. According to Ross
Nichols, 21 he left behind him an unpublished manuscript, dated February
to June 1871, in the form ofletters to a 'pupil', Jacques Charrot. The letters
relate to 'onomantic astrology', presumably a conflation of the two tech-
niques of divination, anagrammatic and astrological, which he favoured.
The method is illustrated by horoscopes of various individuals, including
Eliphas Levi and Edmond. The letters complain of his poor health, and speak
of his intention to found a Faculty of Occult Sciences; he was no doubt
perfectly well aware that no university would accept such a foundation.
Eliphas Levi and Paul Christian were almost exact contemporaries. For
all the flimsiness of Levi's argumentation, the unreliability of his histori-
cal claims, the rank absurdity of many of his assertions, his sincerity is
beyond question; it conferred upon his work a certain magisterial author-
ity. Christian's sincerity, by contrast, is utterly dubious. To suppose that
he believed what he wrote is to view him as having deluded himself by
sustained and detailed fantasies to an unparalleled degree; and there are
no grounds for supposing that. The massive s.cale of his fabrications, and
the lack of conviction in his writings, render his contributions to occult
theory wholly insubstantial. That is why Levi became the founder of the
whole modern rendering of the Western tradition of magic, while Chris-
tian's work is no more than a curious cul-de-sac.
By connecting it with the Cabala, Eliphas Levi succeeded in welding the
Tarot indissolubly into that amalgam of notions from disparate sources
that was to present itself to future aspirants to occult knowledge as the
Western magical tradition. Paul Christian, once weaned by Levi from his
attachment to the heritage of Etteilla, attempted an alternative means of
integrating the Tarot into magical theory, through his heterodox system
of astrology; for he displayed no overt interest in the Cabala, and the
Hebrew alphabet makes no explicit appearance in either of his two major
 9. From Ghost Writer to Magus: Paul Christian 213
occultist books. He was, however, incapable of accomplishing so grand an
innovation. Levi's principle of associating the letters of the Hebrew alpha-
bet with the Tarot trumps was simple and easily grasped; the details of
the consequent melange of the Tarot and the Cabala could be left to be
acquired later. Christian's interweaving of the Tarot with astrology, on the
other hand, was governed by no such single guiding idea; to grasp it at all,
it was necessary to master a whole complex system. It is accordingly
unsurprising that it had very little influence.
Christian utterly lacked Levi's authority; he never looked anything but
a dilettante, so wayward and eccentric did his writings on magic appear.
In detail, however, he bequeathed much more to subsequent occultist
interpretation of the Tarot cards than Levi did, precisely because there
was so extraordinarily little detail concerning them in Levi's books. Chris-
tian's reconstructions of the Tarot images were repeated by many later
writers, and realised pictorially by many later designers of Tarot packs;
some of his nomenclature was also copied, and his introduction of the word
'arcana' was decisive. Doubtless that would have satisfied him. If, as we
are supposing, his intention was to dupe the gullible, then, if any part of
his theorising was accepted, that would have been enough to constitute
success.
 CHAPTER 10

Among the Gypsies:

Jean-Alexandre Vaillant

The Gypsies
The most notable example of the occultists' lack of historical sense is the
connection which they came to maintain between Tarot cards and the
Gypsies. This thesis was to be embodied in the very title of the famous book
Le Tarot des Bohemiens (The Tarot of the Gypsies, frequently mistrans-
lated 'The Tarot of the Bohemians') published by Papus in 1889; it was
affirmed in that book as well as in his Traite methodique de science occulte
(Methodical Treatise of Occult Science) of 1891. The suggestion first
appeared in print in a passing remark of Court de Gebelin, but no one
seems to have followed him in this particular speculation. Indeed, in 1784
Immanuel Breitkopf published an essay on the history of playing cards,
entitled Versuch, den Ursprung der Spielkarten ... zu erforschen (Attempt
to Investigate ... the Origin of Playing Cards). In this great work, which
was the first book to be devoted to the topic, Breitkopf subjected Court de
Gebelin's theories to a remorseless critical examination; while making
many telling points against him, he attributed to him the theory that
playing cards were introduced into Europe by the Gypsies, and refuted it
by the observation that they were known in Europe before the Gypsies
arrived. The theory thus criticised by Breitkopf was not Court de Gebelin's
principal theory, but was suggested by him only parenthetically in intro-
ducing the supplementary essay by the comte de Mellet. The first writer
plainly to have advanced that theory seems to have been Boiteau d'Ambly
in his Les Cartes a jouer et la cartomancie (Playing Cards and Carto-
mancy, Paris, 1854). Boiteau was not an occultist, but a scholar with
serious intentions; but he had been influenced by Court de Gebelin and by
Etteilla, to both of whom he refers extensively, and he supposed the Tarot
pack to have been originally invented for fortune-telling. He also believed,
as Court de Gebelin had done, that it was the earliest type of playing-card
pack known in Europe, and that the ordinary pack had been derived from
it by subtraction.
Boiteau believed that playing cards had originated in India, a hypo-
thesis that was defended in our own time by Hellmut Rosenfeld; it followed
that, somehow, they had reached Europe from India. But how? Boiteau
 10. Among the Gypsies: Jean-Alexandre Vaillant 215
was firmly of the opinion that playing cards were unknown in the me-
diaeval Islamic world; we know today that he was wrong about this, but
he had no evidence against his view save a single statement variously
rendered in the three surviving Chronicles of Viterbo. How, then, before
the Portuguese ships sailed to India, could playing cards have been
transmitted from India to Europe without passing through the Islamic
world? Boiteau did not, like Court de Gebelin, suppose the Gypsies to have
been of Egyptian origin. He knew that they had come from India; and he
conceived the ingenious hypothesis that it was they who had brought
playing cards from India to Europe, without revealing them to the Mus-
lims through whose lands they had passed on the way. He did not offer any
positive evidence for this conjecture; but, after all, given his presupposi-
tions, it appeared to be the only hypothesis that could explain the facts.
Boiteau was not a very good scholar, and his theory is radically con-
fused. Ordinary playing cards are older in Europe than Tarot cards, and
Boiteau had no sound reason for believing otherwise. Given that he did
believe otherwise, however, it must have been the Tarot pack that the
Gypsies brought from India to Europe; and he explicitly drew this conse-
quence, despite the fact that nothing resembling the Tarot pack has ever
been known in India. Moreover, Boiteau's theory could not evade the crux
about timing to which Breitkopf had drawn attention seventy years pre-
viously. The Gypsies first appeared in Western Europe in 1417, reaching
Italy in 1422 and France in 1427. It would, therefore, be chronologically
consistent to suppose them to have introduced the Tarot pack, of which we
have no evidence from before 1440, but not playing cards in general, since
they were known in Catalonia by 1370. The Gypsies cannot be credited
with the introduction of playing cards in general, since they arrived too
late; and, if this is conceded, there is no merit to the theory that they
introduced the Tarot pack, since there is no evidence that it was ever
known outside Europe.
The inconsistencies of Boiteau's theory were pressed by another French
scholar, Romain Merlin, in his Origine des cartes ajouer (Origin of Playing
Cards, Paris, 1869); but his attack came far too late to prevent the
incorporation of the Gypsy theory into the growing body of occultist
doctrine concerning the Tarot pack. In 1857, three years after the publica-
tion of Boiteau's work, there appeared a book about the Gypsies which
gave full endorsement to that theory: J.-A. Vaillant's Les Romes.

Jean-Alexandre Vaillant
Jean-Alexandre Vaillant (1804-86) was a Frenchman who devoted his life
principally to championing the cause of Roumanian nationalism, unity
and liberty. 1 He began his career, not as a writer, but as a schoolteacher.
He did not have the training of a scholar, and was not even very well
educated; and he never converted himself into a genuine scholar. Not only
216 A Wicked Pack of Cards
are his writings uncompromisingly partisan, but his inadequate stock of
general knowledge betrayed him into error, and his naivete into flimsily
based and sometimes wild judgements. He was a romantic, an apostle of
liberalism and the ideals of the French Revolution and also of national
self-determination, indeed of nationalism as such. He was also deeply
susceptible to the appeal of particular peoples, with whom he fell in love:
all his life he was devoted to the Roumanians, but the Gypsies and,
somewhat inconsistently, the Turks also won his fervent admiration.
Much of his energy was consumed in ill-judged political activity, chiefly
the publication of polemical pamphlets, which for the most part had little
effect save to create personal difficulties for himself: although preoccupied
with politics, he plainly lacked all political judgement, either practical or
theoretical; he had no idea how to go about influencing the course of
events, and his political proposals were vitiated by naivete of outlook and
a habit of uncritical allegiance to certain individuals and an equally
uncritical enmity towards others. But he also had very considerable gifts
as a linguist; and, besides his ephemeral writings on topical issues, he
produced extended studies of the languages and history of the peoples that
attracted him.
Vaillant's life was not, on the whole, a happy one: he never achieved
much recognition, and his career was punctuated by a series of misfor-
tunes, many of them brought about by his own ill-considered aetions. As a
result, he developed a paranoid streak, thinking himself the victim of
unjust and malignant persecution, and nurturing a venomous hatred for
those he regarded as responsible. He was a man of diverse moods, actuated
sometimes by idealism, sometimes by bitterness; sometimes guided by a
sober and sincere love of truth, sometimes prone to flights of wild fantasy.
All these moods are displayed in his writing, which, taken as a whole,
reveals a personality with strands so diverse as to appear almost schizo-
phrenic. Some of it consists of lucid and dispassionate historical or
philological exposition; some of agreeable personal narrative and anec-
dote; some of passionate denunciation of injustice; some of vitriolic
diatribes; and some of fantastic speculation that seems hardly sane. Les
Romes is agood example of this, for, in that book, several of the diverse
styles occur side by side; indeed, anyone who read the book, knowing
nothing about Vaillant, could be forgiven for supposing it the result of a
collaboration between two ill-matched individuals. Of these, he would
think, one, who may be called proto-Vaillant, has written most of chapters
5 to 13, which give a factual account of the history of the Gypsies in Europe
since 1417, with particular reference to Moldavia and Wallachia: he writes
soberly but with strong feeling about the injustices inflicted on the Rom-
any people; he gives the impression ofreliability, and can be moving in his
descriptions of the persecutions of the Gypsies and his plea for tolerance.
The other partner in this strange collaboration, whom our puzzled reader
might label deutero-Vaillant, has contributed the Avant-Propos and chap-
 10. Among the Gypsies: Jean-Alexandre Vaillant 217
ters 1 to 4, which purport to describe the earlier history of the Gypsies in
their original home in India and during their intermediate wanderings; he
also makes occasional appearances in the later chapters. He indulges in
unrestrained fantasy, and seems totally unbalanced: no rational reader
would be disposed to place the slightest trust in anything he says. Only by
learning something of the rest ofVaillant's work and career do we begin
to see how it is possible that a single individual could have written all of
this extraordinary book.
Vaillant spent his early adult life in the Principalities of Moldavia and
Wallachia, mostly in Bucharest, engaged mainly in school-teaching, an
enthusiastic advocate of the study of French language and culture as a
means of transmitting liberal ideals. His first publication, in 1832, was
Hymne a la gloire (Hymn to Glory), a poem extolling Napoleon, liberalism
and the Greek revolt against the Turks. He then published a Grammaire
vallaque in 1836, a Vocabulaire fran<;ais-roumain et roumain-franr;ais in
1839 and a Grammaire roumane in 1840, and thus became one of the
earliest students of the Roumanian language, arguing for its descent from
Latin, as was then apparently necessary. He also conceived an interest in
the Gypsies, many of whom were at that time actual slaves on the estates
of the nobility. In 1841 he was implicated in a political conspiracy, and
banished from the Principalities: from that year until 1845 he lived in -
Paris, making an unsuccessful attempt in 1842 to re-enter Wallachia,
which earned him a short spell of imprisonment. During those years, he
published a number of pamphlets on the Eastern question and the politics
of the Principalities, as well as various articles on Roumanian subjects in
the Revue de l'Orient. The most interesting from our point of view was his
first publication on the Gypsies, under the title 'Origines, langage et
croyances des Ro-muni, Zind-Romes et Zind-cali (Bohemiens, Egyptiens,
Gypsi, Gitanos, etc.)' ('The origin, language and beliefs of the Gypsies'),
which appeared in 1844;2 it is a serious, sober article, in the manner of
proto-Vaillant, chiefly devoted to the Indian origin of the Gypsies. In 1843,
he published anonymously Le Carru-boi",which purported to be a transla-
tion of a Roumanian romance, but as actually a fantastic allegory of the
history of the Roumanian people. In 1844-5, he published his magnum
opus, La Romanie (Roumania), an admirably lucid and informative work
in three volumes, of which the first two deal with Roumanian history and
the third with Roumanian language, literature and other matters, with a
little personal reminiscence; Vaillant appears to have been the first to
have used something like the modern name in French, 'Roumanie', for the
land, then usually referred to as 'Moldo-Vallachie'. By 1845, partly owing
to the publication costs of La Romanie, he was heavily in debt, and
unsuccessfully applied to the Ministry of Public Instruction for a subven-
tion to undertake three projects, one of which was a study of the history
and language of the Gypsies.
From the end of 1845 until the middle of 1848, Vaillant, having again
218 A Wicked Pack of Cards
failed to gain entry to the Principalities, was in Constantinople, and there
conceived a passionate admiration of the Turks: he was in high favour with
the Sultan, to whom he addressed flattering verses and whom he pre-
sented with a manuscript treatise on the Turkish language. However, in
1848, he again destroyed his own chances by acting as the leader of an
agitation against the French Embassy for failing to fly the Republican flag;
so, when he applied to the Sultan for help in visiting Asia to pursue his
studies of the early history of the Gypsies, he was regretfully refused, and
had to return to Paris. There he remained until 1857, save for an unsuc-
cessful visit to London in the winter of 1848-9. From 1849 to 1851, he was
reduced to utter destitution, and nearly starved: it is unclear what rescued
him from this condition. Nevertheless, these years were highly productive.
Between 1848 and 1850 he wrote articles in the Revue de l'Orient on
Roumania, on Turkish grammar and on the Ottoman Empire. In 1851 he
published some translations of Roumanian poems entitled Poesies de la
langue d'or (Poems of the Golden Tongue).
Much more importantly, 1851 was the year in which deutero-Vaillant
made his first appearance in print. There appeared in this year what were
announced as being the first two booklets, of about thirty pages each, out
of a projected twenty-five, which, when completed, would form a volume
of800 pages entitled La Bible de la Science bohemienne; twenty-two of the
booklets would contain text, and the remaining three 'signs) figures and
maps', the whole to be accompanied by one large geographical map and
two very large 'cosmogonic' ones. All this is announced in the first booklet;
but happily no more were published after the first two. The Bible de la
Science bohemienne had an immensely long sub-title, proclaiming it based
on the teachings of the Gypsy Narad, son of Nun, and the two published
booklets had a further long title, again referring to Narad (see Biblio-
graphy).
The first booklet comprises twelve chapters of the Bible bohemienne,
divided into unnumbered verses in semi-Biblical style. These make great
use of a device employed ad nauseam in the parts of Les Romes that can
be assigned to deutero-Vaillant: the association of words of similar sound
from different languages and with different meanings. Here is a typical
specimen:
Car ce missa, cette messe dont la masse de marguillier est l'embleme, n'est
autre que la massa, masse ou niveau des eaux sur laquelle a ete tracee I'assa
ou verge de Moi'se, embleme du messie.

Roughly translated:
For this.Mass [missa in Latin, messe in French], of which the churchwarden's
mace is the emblem, is no other than the massa, mass or level of the waters
on which was traced the assa or rod of Moses, emblem of the Messiah.
 10. Among the Gypsies: Jean-Alexandre Vaillant 219
Massa and assa are Hebrew words, but Vaillant gives the reader no help
in identifying the languages to which his italicised words belong.
The message of the booklet is in part a Satanist one, in the sense that
it teaches that the Jews, followed by the Christians, have perverted the
Indian deity Sat-an into an image of evil, whereas in fact he 'is the Spirit
who is self-sufficient', and this spirit is God.
The second booklet provides what is at first a welcome rest from pages
of matter like that quoted above. After announcing that the Hebrew Bible
is the Wisdom that hides the light, whereas the Bible bohemienne or Gypsy
Bible is the Truth that burns up Wisdom, Vaillant supplies a section
headed 'The Traveller'. This is written in the first person, and tells an
unlikely story. 'In the first year of the reign of Abdul-Mejid, Emperor of
the Turks', it begins, referring to the year 1839, 'at the time when the
plague was ravaging Bulgaria, I travelled on horseback over this ancient
part of Thrace. I was searching for the Gypsies [Bohemiens], whom I had
already seen in other provinces and of whom I had undertaken to write the
history.' He found them everywhere, he tells us, and recorded their
customs, dances, songs and stories. However, 'with the exception of certain
of their traditions about the shape of the earth, the Loves of Lina and Sor,
the Moon and the Sun, I found nothing which could clearly reveal to me
their origins'.
On 8 October 1839, he was on his way from Varna to Shumla when two
Romany men [romi] rode up to him and begged him to come and save their
dying father. He goes with them, and finds the old man, whose name is
Narad, and who addresses him as 'Hakim'. Narad hovers on the edge of
death for days, but then recovers sufficiently to deliver a lecture upon the
traditions of his people and the science bohemienne. This lecture is repro-
duced and lasts for twenty-seven pages; and at this point the narrative,
hitherto credible, loses all plausibility. The old man, Narad, speaks of
Galileo, Clement of Alexandria, Calvin and many other historical figures;
he indulges extensively in Vaillant's idiosyncratic type of word-play; he
states that in India 'Sat' is one of the three names of God and that Sat-an
is the only God; he tells of the passage of his people through 'Pal-istan,
land of ... Baal' and 'Kana-an, land of the Anak-in'; and-he is eloquent
about Equality, the science of socialism.
Something remarkable must have happened to Vaillant while he was
in Constantinople. He developed a split personality; and the secondary
personality, which we have called deutero-Vaillant, was obsessed by fan-
tastic ideas, of whose nature and probable source we can glean more from
Les Romes. Meanwhile, his primary personality continued to function as
usual. In the years 1853-7 he published many pamphlets on the Eastern
question. Roumanian independence had to be won both from the ancient
Ottoman hegemony and from the more recent dominance of Tsarist Rus-
sia; but Vaillant, for all his commitment to Roumanian liberty, took an
unequivocal stance in the conflict between those two powers. In Turkie et
220 A Wicked Pack of Cards
Russie, published in 1854 and dedicated to the Sultan, he extolled the
Turkish nation as the vanguard of civilisation and virtue and, very oddly,
as imbued with the sentiment of equality; but he denounced pan-Slavism,
and for Russia itself he could scarcely find words harsh enough, saying
that there you could find many serfs but could hardly find a man. Then, in
1857, Vaillant published the work that chiefly concerns us: Les Romes,
Histoire vraie des vrais bohemiens.
In Les Romes, the old Vaillant - proto-Vaillant - is still decidedly
present. Those parts of the book that we imagined a puzzled reader
ascribing to this first personality resemble La Romanie in their agreeable
style and the sincere indignation against injustice that informs them. In
the other parts of the book, however, the author makes a string of wild
assertions, often without the backing of any evidence at all, and never with
evidence of an ordinary kind. It is usually impossible to discover even
which century he is talking about. He apparently believes in the efficacy
of magical practices. The method of this secondary personality, deutero-
Vaillant, is that which we have already seen in operation in La Bible de la
science bohemienne. It is precisely the reverse of etymological. The practi-
tioner of this method juxtaposes clusters of words from different languages
that have a roughly similar sound, usually without saying what languages
they come from. He never once enquires whether the words thus.juxta-
posed can be shown to have a common origin: instead, he takes the mere
fact of their similarity of sound as proof that, not merely the words
themselves, but the peoples, places or objects for which they stand are
connected. This is then treated as a historical technique; the history of the
Romany people before their arrival in Europe is reconstructed by this
means alone. It is only to be expected that the outcome is highly surpris-
ing.
Vaillant, in his secondary persona, obviously believed that he had, by
this method, possessed himself of a means of discovering truths un-
guessed. On the last two pages of Les Romes, he waxes lyrical about 'the
word', that key to wisdom, saying that 'the naked beauty of the word is the
evident sign of the light of the earth and of the intelligence of man'. Indeed,
the immediately preceding and virtually untranslatable passage gives a
good idea of the quality of his verbal associations. He tells us that he had
learned the secret of this great method of discovery from a wise man at the
Ottoman court. That court was, of course, then generally.known as the
Porte ('gate' or 'door' in French); and, speaking of his mentor, Vaillant
says, 'ce sage de la Porte, der-vis persan, door's-wise anglais, qui m'en a
livre la clef et devele [?misprint for 'revele'] la parole, ... cette clef de la
porte de la sagesse'. (The italics are Vaillant's: a lame rendering might be
'this wise man of the Porte, 'dervish' in Persian, 'door's-wise' in English,
who gave me the key and revealed for me the word, ... that key to the gate
of wisdom'.) Here, translated as faithfully as seems possible, is a typical
passage. 3
 10. Among the Gypsies: Jean-Alexandre Vaillant 221
The Anaki ... had composed the Cabala, that is, the signs, letters or figures
... which perfectly expressed things and facts ... One would almost say that
Kabul was one of their cities and that the Anaki had hidden the Cabala in
it, as, later, under their name of Anak-ins, they hid it in the Ka'ba of Arabia.
For if ... Abrahm built that square cabin [cabane],that cubic house, ... before
him Brahma had created ... the Tantara or zodiac of the earth, from whose
square or cube, the type of all perfection, was made the goddess Cyb-ele.

We hope that readers will not have been too distracted by the c-b associa-
tions to notice that between the names of Abraham and Brahma. The
reader of Les Romes had to plough through 182 pages of tedious nonsense
of this kind before he came to the level-headed contributions ofproto-Vail-
lant.
Deutero-Vaillant also engages in some reinterpretation of the Old
Testament. For instance, Moses did not say, 'In the beginning, God created
the heavens and the earth', but, 'Isis the mother gave birth to the elements
and the air of the heavens and the earth'. 4 The characters of the Bible have
to be understood allegorically, as a representation of the science of the
stars. 5
Presumably there really was at the Sultan's court some cracked old
man, with a knowledge of languages, who initiated Vaillant into the
technique of associating words by their sounds alone. It must have taken
possession ofVaillant as a revelation, and caused a dissociation, of which
he remained unaware, of that part of his intelligence which accepted it
from its original core, which continued to function rationally. Once the
new mental entity had split off from the core, it was no longer under the
control ofVaillant's reason, and could absorb and develop irrational ideas
of all kinds. Only such a diagnosis can explain the otherwise baffling
mixture that constitutes Les Romes.
The main thesis of deutero-Vaillant in that book is that three peoples,
the Zath, the Meydes and the Bodhas, later known as the Pali, the Medes
and the Bhutanis (Boutains), lived together peacefully in remote antiquity
in the north of India, occupying a territory stretching from Kabul to Agra,
which constituted the garden of Adon or Eden. Together, these three
peoples were the creators of science, as a result of which the Indians
named them Janak and the Tartars named them Anaki ('perfect'): it is
from them that science, and with it civilisation, have spread over the
whole earth. The fundamental science, which constitutes their principal
contribution, is that of astronomy, on which depend the arts ofagriculture,
medicine, navigation and architecture. The dissemination of this vital
knowledge was in large part due to the subsequent wanderings of the
Romanies, who are to be identified with the Zath, though intermingled
with the Meydes and the Bodhas; we thus owe the civilisations of the
Middle East and of the Mediterranean principally to the migrations in
very early times of the people known later as Gypsies. They are to be
identified with the Phoenicians and also with the Pelasgians; their name
222 A Wicked Pack of Cards
of Anaki gave rise to that of Canaan, and that of Pali to the name Palestine
or Palis-tan.

It is because they have always journeyed that science was created, and ...
they carried it with them from India since remotest antiquity . . . Their
pythons, thinkers or learned men, filled Canaan, Egypt and Greece; their
curi, men ofletters or militants of science, civilised Colchis and Crete, Italy
and the Gauls; every Saxon for whom 'talk' and 'tell' mean 'say' and 'recount'
can easily understand that their oracles Telkas and Telmas are descended
from these Telchines of Colchis, who gave to Greece its first civilisation ....
It is from them that Englishwomen take their quality of lady, an expression
for the sex of Eve ... whose modesty was expressed among the Greeks by
Ladon and whose immodesty was expressed by Leda. 6

They invented the cults of Diana and of Apollo; subsequently, their myth
of Isa-Kris'ten or Kesu Chris'ten, a sun god introduced in India in the
eleventh century B.C., gave rise to the myth of Jesus Christ. 7
The importance ofVaillant for our story is that he is repeatedly cited by
occultists as an authority for saying that the Gypsies have always had a
knowledge of the Tarot pack and used it for divination, and that they
introduced it into Europe. Vaillant's discussion of the Tarot pack occurs in
his Chapter 12, entitled 'Anecdotes' and recounting some of his personal
experiences. The first part of the chapter belongs to the proto-Vaillant part
of the book: it represents Vaillant in his travel-book vein of chatty remi-
niscence, and is largely taken up with a long story, narrated to him by a
Roumanian Gypsy called Stancio, concerning two changelings, one a
prince and the other of Gypsy birth. At the end of this occurs the one,
extremely flimsy, piece of evidence offered by Vaillant for the Gypsy
knowledge of the Tarot pack: while he and Stancio were talking in Stan-
cio's house, Stancio's wife Jana had been seated at a table, playing with
some cards. This happened twenty years before the time of writing, when
Vaillant was as yet unacquainted with the Tarot pack, but he had sub-
sequently come to realise that the cards Jana was using were Tarot cards.
Vaillant does not say that Jana was telling fortunes with the cards; in any
case, the reliability of a report from twenty years previously, at a time
when Vaillant could not have recognised a Tarot pack ifhe had seen one,
is low. They might have been cards from some other type of pack with
Italian suit-signs, such as a Trappola pack, especially as Vaillant displays
no awareness that the Italian suits are used for any kind of cards other
than tarots. 8 The probability is nevertheless that Jana was genuinely
playing with Tarot cards: the game of Tarot is still played in Roumania,
while Trappola is not known to have been. These were settled Gypsies,
however, living in a house, and it would be surprising if they had not
adopted some of the customs of the non-Gypsy population; as a reason for
thinking Jana's use of Tarot cards a ground for associating those cards
particularly with the Gypsies, the episode is utterly insubstantial.
 10. Among the Gypsies: Jean-Alexandre Vaillant 223
At this point in the chapter, deutero-Vaillant abruptly takes over, and
rhapsodises about Tarot cards. There had been some references to the
word 'tarot' or 'taro' in the first four chapters; for instance, 'it was from
that sphere' (the 'Sphere of the world') 'whose light is truth, whose zodiac
is the book which contains it, and whose stars are the figures and letters
which name it, that theAnak borrowed their tara, the Gypsies their tarot,
the Phoenicians their As-tharoth, the Egyptians their Athor and the
Hebrews their Thorah'. 9 But, from these passages, anyone unaware what
the Tarot was would suppose it to be some kind of astronomical system.
Now, acknowledged as a pack of cards, it is stated to be a 'synthesis of all
that made up the faith of the ancient peoples'; its figures, though modified
in various ways over the course of time, are manifestly allegorical and
conform to the civil, philosophical and religious doctrines of antiquity.
Modelled on the astral wheel of Athor, who is also Ashtaroth, it 'resembles
the Indian ot-tara', and may be considered to be of Indo-Tartar origin,
though that origin is lost in the mists of time. Altered in various ways by
the different ancient peoples among whom it spread, it was one of their
books of occult science, and must have been known to the Romans, perhaps
from the earliest days of the Republic. It is the synthesis of the harmony
between men and the stars, and was, throughout time, the book of divina-
tory art.
Vaillant then comes on to a detailed description of the Tarot pack,
which, he says, is principally founded on the numbers 3, 4 and 7. The four
suits correspond to the four seasons; the fourteen cards of each suit to the
seven days and seven nights of a week; the nine numeral cards, from 2 to
10 in each suit, to the nine months of human and of stellar gestation; the
ten numeral cards of each suit to a decade of months; and the thirty-six
numeral cards from 2 to 10 in all four suits to the thirty-six decans of the
year. Cups or pohara correspond to 'les arcs ou arches du temps, les vases
ou vaisseaux du ciel'; literally, to 'the arcs or arches of time, the vases or
vessels of the sky', but any reader who is able to is invited to improve on
this translation. Coins correspond to stars. Swords or spathis correspond
to flames or rays. Batons or pal correspond to shadows, stones, trees and
plants. Vaillant then goes on to state particular correspondences for the
Ace, 2, 3 and 9 of Cups, the Ace, 3 and 9 of Coins, and the Aces of Swords
and Batons; some of these, especially the association of the 2 of Cups with
the cow and so with Isis, seem to be based on the Aluette pack, an ordinary
Spanish-suited pack used in France for the game of Aluette, in which the
2 of Cups is adorned with a cow. The Aluette pack has no particular
connection with Tarot cards; the confusion between the two can be traced
to Court de Gebelin. Vaillant then discusses the court cards and the
trumps, some of them in detail. Card 78 is the Fool, and is equivalent to
zero, which reduces the number of cards to seventy-seven, composed of
seventy temporal elements and the six days of creation (sic).
Vaillant refers to Monde primitif, and it is evident that much of what
224 A Wicked Pack of Cards
he says is derived from that book. It is also plain, from his description of
the pack, that he was familiar with some form of Tarot pack made in the
tradition of Etteilla. This is clear from the assumption that all seventy-
eight cards are consecutively numbered, and from his reference to the Fool
as 'card 78', from his allusion to the days of creation, and from his mention
of one card (the Devil) as representing force majeure and to another (the
Chariot) as depicting le triomphateur (the Triumphant Man). On the other
hand, to those trump cards that he discusses individually he assigns
numbers as in the Tarot de Marseille; moreover, his description of the
Moon card fits the Tarot de Marseille design, but not that on the corre-
sponding card in any of the packs descended from Etteilla's. It is thus
likely that he had also seen Tarot de Marseille cards; it is just possible,
alternatively, that he was acquainted with a hybrid pack, like certain of
those produced in Italy. It is not unlikely, further, that he had read
Boiteau's book of 1854, which may have been the source from which he
learned about Court de Gebelin and which gave him the idea of the Indian
origin of Tarot, cards and their association with the Gypsies. He had
certainly seen Eliphas Levi's Dogme et rituel de la haute magie, since he
wrote a lengthy review of it under the title 'Magie et sagie'. 10 This review
was in the manner of deutero-Vaillant, replete with the familiar puns and
word-play. It does not mention the Tarot, but affirms that there is a true
and powerful science of magic, which it accuses Levi of confusing with the
false science Vaillant calls 'sagie'.
In a manner very similar to Levi, Vaillant concludes that 'the Tarot
antedates Moses' and that it 'goes back to the origin of the centuries, to the
epoch when the zodiac was devised'; it had therefore been in existence for
6,600 years. 'Such is this tarot of the Gypsies', he continues, 'from which
by antilogy the Hebrews made the torah or law of Jehovah. Far from being
a game, as it is nowadays, it is a book, a serious book, the book of symbols
and emblems, of analogies and of connections between men and the stars,
the book of destiny, with the aid of which the sorcerer unveiled the
mysteries of fate.' Its symbolism and composition, and the practice of
telling fortunes with it, caused Christians to regard it as magical and to
proscribe it. 'It is thus that, as faith in its word was lost, the tarot became
a game, and its tablets were modified according to the taste of the peoples
and the spirit of the age .... Under Charles V, called the Good, St Bernard
of Siena condemned to the flames the cards, called triumphal, of the game
oftriomphe that was already played in honour of the triumphant Osiris or
Ormuzd, one of the cards of the tarot', and on in the same vein.
In the last sentence quoted, Vaillant, misled by Court de Gebelin, is
referring to Charles V of France, who died in 1378, and to a famous bonfire
of frivolities, including playing cards and dice, staged in Bologna by St
Bernardine of Siena (not St Bernard) in 1423. There is some unreliable
evidence that Tarot cards were among the gaming instruments burned in
this bonfire; whether or not that was so, Vaillant is hopelessly confused. 11
 10. Among the Gypsies: Jean-Alexandre Vaillant 225
As evidence that the Tarot pack is peculiarly the heritage of the
Gypsies, nothing could be flimsier than the minuscule observation made
by proto-Vaillant. The lengthy disquisition upon the Tarot then made by
deutero-Vaillant is in the general style of occultist writings, by which he
had clearly been influenced. With one exception, it contains nothing but
generalities. Despite his favourable references to magic and his explicit
association of the Tarot pack with divinatory practices, Vaillant is princi-
pally concerned to interpret the 'manifestly allegorical' figures on the
cards as representing a system of astronomy. His attempt has scarcely any
greater plausibility than the more far-fetched interpretations of main-
stream occultist writers. Yet it is on that interpretation that his historical
assertions rest: since it has an astronomical meaning, its invention must
be attributed to that great first civilisation in India which Vaillant credits
with the original discovery of astronomy, and it must be associated with
that people, the Gypsies, who, departing from India and wandering over
the earth, brought science and civilisation to the rest of mankind.
The one exception consists in the names that Vaillant gives for the suits
of Cups, Swords and Batons, viz. pohara, spathis and pal; which, from the
context, are presumably to be taken as being in plural form; he gives no
special name for the Coins suit. He does not say to which language they
belong, nor does he indicate that they were in use among Gypsies in
Roumania or elsewhere; in discussing the various suits, he simply gives
these names, between commas, after the usual French ones, leaving the
reader to make what he will of them. Words similar to all three exist in
Roumanian, Magyar and Polish; they derive, respectively, from German
Becher and Latin spatha and palus. ln their singular forms, they are, in
Roumanian, pahar, spada and par; in Magyar, pohar (plural pohara),
spade andpalca; in Polish,puchar, szpada and pal (plural pale). It will be
seen that the forms given by Vaillant, whether taken as singular or plural,
do not together precisely fit any of these languages; especially the form
spathis, with its terminals, does not do so. Vaillant's treatment of words
in Les Romes is, however, cavalier in the extreme, so that we should not
set much store by this. Ifwe assume, what Vaillant does not say, that he
got them from some Gypsies, they must have been borrowings from one or
more of these languages, slightly corrupted in the case of spathis; they are
certainly not ancient Romany words, but would argue an acquaintance, on
the part of those Gypsies in Roumania with whom Vaillant had been in
contact, with cards with Italian or Spanish suit-signs. Now, at the date at
which Vaillant was writing, Tarot cards were no longer familiar to players
in Central or Eastern Europe in a form with Italian suit-signs; they had
long been adapted to a version with the Frerich suit-signs of Hearts,
Spades, etc. Hence, if the cards with Italian suit-signs known to these
Gypsies were Tarot cards, there would be a ground for thinking that their
original form with Italian suit-symbols had been preserved amongst those
people at a time when it was no longer known to the non-Gypsies sur-
226 A Wicked Pack of Cards
rounding them. There is, however, no reason to assume that they were
Tarot cards. As already mentioned, a form of 36-card pack with Italian
suit-signs, the Trappola pack, was still well known in Central Europe. The
game played with it was known in Czech as spady. It and related games
were particularly popular in Austria, Bohemia and Silesia, and the cards
could therefore have been known to itinerant Gypsies. Indeed, there is a
particular reason to think that the pack with which Vaillant's Gypsy
informants were familiar was not a Tarot pack, but a Trappola pack (or
other ordinary pack with Italian suit-signs): namely that Vaillant does not
cite any unfamiliar name for the series of trump cards. Rather, like Court
de Gebelin, he calls them atouts, the ordinary French term for 'trumps',
used by Tarot players and Bridge players alike to this day.
The possible significance of the special names used by Vaillant for three
of the suits is not remarked on by Vaillant himself; he simply cites these
names, without comment. He does not even state that they are words
especially in use amongst Gypsies; that is a natural inference, but his
authority cannot be claimed for it.
It seems clear that Vaillant had practically no information, ifany, about
any Gypsy use of the Tarot cards. He had been intoxicated by the theories
of Court de Gebelin and of Eliphas Levi, and by the mysterious aspect of
some Egyptian Tarot pack; and he had eagerly leapt to the conclusien - or,
more likely, had eagerly accepted Boiteau's claim - that the pack was of
Indian origin and was, in a special way, the property of the Gypsies, for
whom he had so vivid a romantic admiration.
It is tragic that Les Romes, which would otherwise have been a powerful
plea that the Gypsies should be treated with respect and compassion,
should have been discredited by the effusions of deutero-Vaillant that
disfigure it: Vaillant's name is now remembered only for this book, and
that only by occultists, who are anxious to be able to appeal to the
testimony of an authority on the Gypsies that the Tarot pack is associated
with them. More generally, it is tragic that Vaillant should have suffered
from some form of split personality, at least at the intellectual level, which
must have set in during his stay in Constantinople; for, though his
opinions had often been absurd and he had frequently been carried away
by his enthusiasms, he had done serious and useful work.
Indeed, he remained capable of such work, as one later book shows.
From 1857 to early 1860 he was once more in the Principalities: a friend
and supporter of Prince Gregory Ghica of Moldavia, who had abdicated the
Moldavian throne in 1856, and who died the next year in France, he went
on behalf of the Prince's widow to safeguard her inheritance. His efforts
were unsuccessful, probably not through his fault; but he appears to have
lost interest in his mission, and to have become again involved in internal
politics. In 1859 he was sued by the Princess in the courts for failure to
carry out work for which he had been paid, and was ordered to repay her
a large sum; seriously ill and obsessed with a neurotic fear of being
 10. Among the Gypsies: Jean-Alexandre Vaillant 227
poisoned, he conceived a deadly hatred for her. Back in Paris in 1860, he
published a Memoire justificatif contre la Princesse veuve Ghyka (nee
Leroy) (Justificatory Memoir against the Princess Ghyka). In the next year,
1861, he published a Romany grammar, Grammaire, dialogues et vocabu-
laire de la langue rommane des Sigans, republished in 1868 as
Grammaire, dialogues et vocabulaire de la langue des Bohemiens ou
Cigains. This contained a letter to Garibaldi, as the liberator of Italy and
a veteran Roumanophile, as a somewhat irrelevant appendix; it also
contained a Preface in which, under the disguise of a life of the 'sagus-baro
Viteaz', living at the time of the Ostrogoths, Vaillant wrote his auto-
biography as a victim of intrigues and persecutions.
In the same year, 1861, Vaillant published a book entitled Clefmagique
de la fiction et du fait. This is in the form of a catechism in three Parts of
six chapters each. Many of deutero-Vaillant's familiar opinions are ex-
pressed, including the unorthodox reading of the first verse of Genesis, the
understanding of'Satan' as denoting the spirit sufficient unto himself and
the tracing of Jesus Christ to an Indian myth oflsa-Chris'ten. Vaillant's
secondary personality has plainly not been reintegrated into the main one;
but there are signs that the process has begun. The method of 'la parole'
('the word') - the association of disparate words by sound alone - is still
much in evidence. The universe was not created out of nothing, we are told,
but has always existed, although it remains proper to say that God created
the world; Christ is an allegorical figure, and is in fact nothing other than
the Sun. Alchemy and astrology rested on false principles and have been
replaced by chemistry and astronomy; present-day religion and wisdom
also rest on false principles and will likewise be replaced. Part III is largely
devoted to social matters, and gives a list of thirty-nine commandments of
'socionomy'. These include the obligation to treat all men, of any race,
colour or nation, as equal, to preserve one's virginity until marriage and
to bury the dead rather than cremating or embalming them. The book has
a preface by Henri Disdier, who says that the Bible must be interpreted
from a Hermetic standpoint; the preface is followed by a series of quota-
tions, including one from Court de Gebelin: 'No real knowledge can exist
without the science of etymology.'
After the publication of Les Romes, Eliphas Levi was quick to adopt the
new dogma of the association of Tarot cards with the Gypsies. Absent from
his Dogme of 1854-5, and virtually absent from his Rituel of 1855,12 the
dogma is firmly entrenched in Levi's Histoire de la magie of 1860, where
a whole chapter is devoted to the Gypsies, complete with an extensive
quotation from Les Romes. Levi denied, however, that the gypsies had
invented the Tarot; rather, they had filched it from Jewish Cabalists. He
took a less favourable view ofVaillant's Clef magique, saying in a letter to
a colleague that Vaillant 'would be an initiate ifhe were not a profaner: he
wants to strip the great Isis of her veil'. He added, however, that Vaillant
knew a great deal, and that, although 'one of our opponents' (a judgement
228 A Wicked Pack of Cards
based on Vaillant's review of Levi's Dogme et rituel), his work was 'of the
greatest importance for us'. 13
With the two Principalities united under one ruler, Vaillant returned
to Roumania in 1862, and remained there until about 1869. His services
to the Roumanian people were at last recognised by the award of a State
pension in 1864, which, however, was paid somewhat irregularly. He gave
free public lectures on ancient history; his only publication during those
years seems to have been La Lanterne magique (The Magic Lantern) in
1868, a poem of 83 pages on Roumanian political and social questions,
containing some vehement personal attacks on individuals who had dis-
pleased him. In about 1869, he returned to Paris, and lived there until his
death in 1886: an old blind widower, living with his adopted daughter and
forgotten in all the circles of Roumanian exiles and sympathisers where
once he was well known, his one consolation was that, after the estab-
lishment of the Roumanian Kingdom in 1881, he was awarded the Cross
of Commander of the Crown of Roumania.

The Gypsies and the Tarot

After Levi's acceptance in Histoire de la magie (1860) of the theory
associating the Tarot with the Gypsies, the theory became a dogma and
an integral part of the occultist faith concerning the Tarot .. It is clear
enough why the idea made so strong an appeal to occultists. Not only are
the Gypsies widely credited with psychic powers and esoteric knowledge,
a belief which they do their best to foster: but the ascription to them of a
continuous tradition in the magical use of Tarot cards helped to fill the
void created by the absence of any mention before 1781 of its occult
meaning or cartomantic properties. If the Tarot is the repository of funda-
mental knowledge about the universe and a powerful instrument for the
discovery of truth, it is strange indeed that the fact should have gone
unrecorded for so many centuries. If, however, during all that time, the
secret remained known only to a mysterious people concerning whom the
written records are so obligingly sparse, then the lack of documentary
testimony becomes very much easier to explain.
The fact is, however, that there is virtually no evidence for Gypsies'
telling fortunes with Tarot cards, or indeed with playing cards of any kind,
from before the XX century. From their first arrival in Europe, Gypsies
have made money by telling fortunes: but their favoured method was
always palmistry. An Act was passed against the Gypsies in England in
1530, under Henry VIII, as in many other countries, for they have been
the victims of as cruel and as persistent persecution in Europe as the Jews.
This Act accuses them of having 'used great, subtil, & crafty means to
deceive the People, bearing them in hand, that they by Palmestry could
tell Mens & Womens Fortunes', but says nothing of cartomancy. Henry
Cornelius Agrippa of Nettesheim, a famous occultist, wrote of them in
 10. Among the Gypsies: Jean-Alexandre Vaillant 229
1531 that 'they amuse men by telling fortunes by chiromancy, begging
provisions by these frauds'; 14 again, no other method of divination is
credited to them. Martin Crusius, likewise, writing in 1596, quotes a work
of Caspar Hedio of 1537 as saying that theJ make ridiculous prophecies
for money by means of chiromancy; 15 while Etienne Pasquier, also writing
in 1596, quotes a manuscript diary of the early XV century as recording
the arrival of the Gypsies in France in 1427, and as speaking of there being
amongst them 'sorceresses who look at people's hands and tell them what
has happened and what is going to happen to them'. 16 A dissertation
concerning the Gypsies presented to the Faculty of Philosophy at Leipzig
University in 1652, vehemently hostile to them, and concluding that they
should not be tolerated, mentions the practice of chiromancy by Gypsy
women, but again says nothing about playing cards of any kind. 17 The
earliest scholarly work on the Gypsies, H.M.G. Grellmann's Die Zigeuner
of 1783, speaks as usual of chiromancy on the part of Gypsy women, and
also of Gypsy cures of sick or bewitched cattle, detection of thefts, use of
nostrums and so on, but is entirely silent about cartomancy or card play .18
J. Hoyland's Historical Survey of the Customs, Habits and Present State of
the Gipsies of 1816 mentions palmistry but not playing cards; and in the
whole of the works of George Borrow - The Zincali (1841), The Bible in
Spain (1843), Lavengro (1851), The Romany Rye (1857), all concerned with
the Gypsies, and Romano Lavo-Lil (1873), a Romany word-book to which
is appended an account of Gypsy fortune-telling - there is not a single
allusion either to Tarot or to cartomancy. F.H. Groome's 'The Gypsies', in
National Life and Thought, edited by W. Sheowring and C.W. Thies and
published in London in 1891, likewise speaks of palmistry but not of
playing cards; and cartomancy goes unmentioned in two scholarly studies
of Gypsy folk-lore and magic by Heinrich von Wlislocki, Volksglaube und
religioser Brauch der Zigeuner (The Folk-belief and Religious Customs of
the Gypsies) and Aus dem inneren Leben der Zigeuner (From the Inner Life
of the Gypsies), published in Gottingen in 1891 and 1892. In another work
of the same date, Gypsy Sorcery and Fortune Telling (London, 1891), by
Charles Godfrey Leland, President of the Gipsy-Lore Society, there is a
single passage from the opening of the book in which it looks as though we
have, at last, hit upon evidence of Gypsy cartomancy: 'in 1886', he wrote,
'I learned from a girl in Florence two invocations (in Italian) which she was
accustomed to repeat before telling fortunes by cards'; but then he adds,
'This girl ... looked Etruscan with a touch of gypsy blood' (sic).19 Of course,
we do not expect every investigator to discover everything; but, were the
use of Tarot cards or the practice of telling fortunes with cards truly among
the Gypsies' most cherished traditions, it would be singular indeed that
none of these observers should have noticed it.
There is, admittedly, a little testimony to the opposite effect: but, apart
from Vaillant, all ofit, with one exception, dates from the XX century. The
sole exception is Adriano Colocci's Gli Zingari (The Gypsies), published in
230 A Wicked Pack of Cards
Turin in 1889. Colocci attached little importance to the matter, relegating
his account ofit to a footnote. 20 Nor is he an independent witness: he refers
both to Court de Gebelin and to Vaillant, and follows Vaillant very closely,
repeating his statement that the suits represent the four seasons, the nine
cards from 2 to 10 in each suit the nine months of human gestation, and
the thirty-six cards of these denominations in all four suits the thirty-six
decans. His list of the trumps is copied from Vaillant, and he even repeats
Vaillant's blunder about St Bernardine under Charles V (though he does
say 'St Bernardine' and not 'St Bernard'). He does not ascribe an immense
age to Tarot cards, but asserts that the Gypsies introduced them into
Europe. He gives the Gypsy name for the pack as taroth, and for the suits
as rup, pohara, spathis and pal. All but rup, which is the ordinary Romany
word for 'coin' (cognate with rupiah= rupee), were presumably copied from
Vaillant; it would be remarkable ifltalian Gypsies were using for 'Cup' a
word derived from Magyar. In any case, the fact that Gypsies in Italy had
words for the Italian suit-signs is no proof that they had any knowledge of
Tarot cards; and Colocci gives no generic Romany name for the trumps.
Colocci's remarks are all generalities, and supply no concrete evidence for
the use of Tarot cards by Gypsies: his testimony can surely count for very
little.
The earliest XX-century evidence comes from a somewhat partisan
source, J.W. Brodie-Innes, a leading member of the Hermetic Order of the
Golden Dawn. In an article in The Occult Review for 1919, he says: 21

As a fact, however, when gypsies lay the cards for the fortune of an inquirer
it is the ordinary pack that is used .... The only evidence on this head that
has come under my observation was from a woman of pure Romani blood,
whom I knew many years ago, a Mrs Lee .... She once showed me an old
tattered and much thumbed Tarot pack, of the ordinary Italian design, and
told me that these were the cards she used among her own people,but never
for Georgios.She also gave me the principles of interpretation .... The last
time I saw Mrs Lee was some twenty years ago at Yetholm .... What she told
me of the Tarot was well known to ... the late Mrs Florence Farr Emery, who
herself claimed Romani descent.

Mrs Emery (Florence Farr) was an actress who was also a prominent
member of the Order of the Golden Dawn, but can hardly rank as a reliable
witness in such matters. The passage quoted lays claim to a practice by
Gypsies of using Tarot cards for divination among themselves since the
turn of the century, and by implication since longer than that. If there
were such a practice, it is understandable that non-Gypsies would seldom
hear of it, though that hardly accounts for ignorance of it on the part of
someone like George Borrow. We may accept Brodie-Innes's testimony as
showing that, from the beginning of the XX century, some Gypsies were
aware of Tarot cards and their use in divination; it is no evidence that the
practice was either widespread or long established among them, still less
 10. Among the Gypsies: Jean-Alexandre Vaillant 231
that the Tarot was in any sense peculiarly the property of the Gypsies or
was introduced by them.
All other XX-century references to Gypsy use of Tarot cards date from
after the Second World War. A typical example occurs in a book by
Jean-Paul Clebert of 1961. He remarks that the Gypsies 'never have
recourse to palmistry for themselves. It remains an occupation and is
addressed exclusively to non-Gypsies, to the gadje', and says that they 'use
the tarot cards as material support for predictions and divination' and
'have used tarots for a very long time'. 'It is difficult to say which pack of
cards was first used', he remarks; 'between the Egyptian tarot, in which
Solomon, Moses and Judas reigned, and the Marseilles tarot, whose
symbols are occidental, the Gypsies have been able to make their own
choice'. Clebert is plainly referring to an Egyptian Tarot of the type
described by Aldegonde Perenna and produced by Pierre Mongie l'aine.
His next sentence explodes the thesis that the Gypsies introduced the
Tarot pack into Europe: 'it does not look', he says, 'as though they had an
original pack of cards of their own'. He goes on to describe 'the standard
way of drawing the tarots, the one in common use among Gypsy fortune-
tellers'. Having done so, he adds a comment which, although he does not
realise it, tells us plainly from what source this ancient Gypsy tradition is
derived: 'this method', he informs us, 'is called the Etteilla'. 22
More sophisticated is Walter Starkie, whose book, In Sara's Tents,
published in 1953, has an appendix on the Tarot which cites Vaillant,
Court de Gebelin, Colocci and a number of occultist writers. In this
appendix, he remarks that Gypsies love to bamboozle gorgios (non-Gyp-
sies) by describing the Tarot pack as the last surviving book of the ancient
Egyptians. In the main text, Starkie recounts the employment of Tarot
cards to tell fortunes by a Mme Cassandra in Provence. 'You won't find
Tarot cards in every Gypsy fair,' Mme Cassandra tells him, 'for not many
voyantes have ever seen them in their lives.' She informs him that the pack
she is using was given her by her mother, who used it for fifty years for
fortune-telling: 'When I was a child in Temesvar [Timisoara], my mother
used to teach me the prophecies on these very cards.' 23 Mme Cassandra
then launches on a long discourse on Tarot cards, which matches very
exactly the words of Vaillant in Les Romes. 24 It seems unlikely that a
Gypsy fortune-teller should have committed to memory large tracts of a
somewhat obscure book, or that Walter Starkie, who knew that book,
should not have spotted her plagiarism. More probably, it was Starkie who
availed himself of Vaillant's text to recreate the words of a Gypsy wise
woman. In any case, we have no way of knowing that he was not one of the
gorgios who are bamboozled.
There is, indeed, no call to dispute that in the XX century some Gypsies
have told fortunes by means of Tarot cards. If you made or supplemented
your living by fortune-telling, and then discovered among your clients a
widespread belief that a particular pack of cards possessed magical prop-
232 A Wicked Pack of Cards
erties, and had long been used by you and your people to tell fortunes,
would you not live up to that belief, encourage it and perhaps reinforce it
with fanciful tales? The question is not whether Tarot cards and their use
in cartomancy are now peculiarly associated with the Gypsies: it is
whether the Gypsy use of those cards is the cause or the effect of the
widespread belief in their use of them. The belief was first expressed in
1781, and began to gain currency after 1854: apart from the one dubious
instance ofVaillant's Iana, we have been unable to find any single concrete
piece of evidence for the truth of the belief from before the XX century. The
truth of the matter is probably best summarised by Martin Block in his
Zigeuner of 1936, when he says that Gypsy women 'do not ... tell fortunes
among themselves, but with a non-Gypsy before them ... they make a good
attempt at revealing such of fate's secrets as are written in the eyes, the
features or the hands of their clients. The telling of fortunes from the noise
in a sea-shell, from coffee grounds or from cards is practised in places
where people are more ready to attribute secret powers to things than to
persons'. 25 Gypsy use of the Tarot reflects, not their own, but their clients',
belief in its divinatory powers.
The thesis of a special connection of the Gypsies with Tarot cards has a
life only in symbiosis with the myth that those cards are cartomantic in
origin. If Tarot cartomancy were really an ancient tradition among the
Gypsies, we should expect testimony to its existence, not only from before
the XIX century, but also in parts of the world, such as Spain, or England
until recently, in which the Tarot pack has been unknown among the
general population; and this is exactly what we do not find. It is striking
that, apart from Brodie-Innes and Clebert, the few writers on the Gypsies
who mention Tarot cards all acknowledge their dependence on Court de
Gebelin and on Vaillant. What finally overthrows the theory, however, is
its failure to explain who made the cards and how. In his preposterous
book of 1954 on the Tarot pack as used by the Gypsies, Basil Ivan Rakoczi
tells us that the Gypsy 'evolved the plan of a set of pasteboard cards, few
in number, which could easily be concealed about his person. These would
pass as the objects for a game of chance, should they be discovered .... Into
these cards the Gypsy's whole stock of emblematic wisdom and his secret
science of numbers were condensed. They held, under veils, astrological,
alchemical and necromantic keys, which only he knew how to use. These
cards taught at one and the same time, through their symbols, the highest
philosophy known to the wise and the darkest arts known to the black
magician.' 26 This sounds like a very thorough case of the bamboozlement
of a gorgio, but it does raise the pertinent question: if the Gypsies brought
Tarot cards to Europe, of what material did they make them, and why and
when did the tradition of cardmaking die out amongst them? It is easy
enough to imagine a Gypsy stuffing a pack of cards into his jacket; but, in
the XV century, paper was a relatively expensive material; hand-painted
cards are slow and costly to produce, and ones printed by wood block
 10. Among the Gypsies: Jean-Alexandre Vaillant 233
demand a workshop that is not so readily concealed. 'We have only the
Gypsy's word for it', Rakoczi admits, 27 'that the symbols in our surviving,
mutilated, sentimentalised or otherwise travestied [Tarot] cards derive
directly from those he carried into Western Europe.' We might place more
reliance on this assurance if even one or two specimens of Gypsy Tarot
cards could be produced: but who has ever seen such a thing? Even if the
Gypsies only disseminated the Tarot pack to different parts of Europe
after it had been invented by others, they must themselves have produced
the cards; and, if so, where are any Gypsy packs to be found? When Mme
Cassandra admitted that few Gypsy voyantes had ever seen a Tarot pack,
she gave the game away: the dependence, in this matter, is of Gypsy upon
gorgio, and not the other way about.
 CHAPTER 11

Papus and his Circle

The Secret Orders

It was some time before Eliphas Levi's revival of occultism took full effect.
After his death in 1875, there was a lull, lasting about a decade, in magical
activity and the production of books on magic. An intense renewal of
occultist activity occurred, simultaneously in France and Britain, in the
late 1880s. Many people participated in this, all, to varying degrees,
influenced by Levi, though few were old enough to have known him and
none had actually done so. Some were, through his writings, fervent
disciples, others absorbed his ideas at second hand; but all accepted the
Tarot as a major component of magical lore.
Although the participants in this new phase of occultism owed a great
deal of their magical doctrine to Levi, they differed from him radically in
their practice of magic. They reverted to the style of the XVIII century:
secret magical orders proliferated once more. It was under the aegis of
such orders, rather than in isolation, that magic was now practised, and
they, rather than books on the occult, were believed to be the principal
vehicle for transmitting the esoteric wisdom of the ancients to modern
times. None of the orders had any actual continuity with those that had
flourished at the end of the XVIII century, let alone earlier, but almost all
laid claim to being the heirs of ancient societies. By far the most successful
of these newly created secret orders, and that which had the most lasting
influence, was the Order of the Golden Dawn, founded in Britain in 1888;
but magical orders blossomed in France also.
Among the many French occultists who flourished in the quarter-
century before the First World War, the leading figure was Dr Gerard-
Anaclet-Vincent Encausse (1865-1916). He was born at La Corufia in
Spain on 13 July 1865, son of a fertile though unconventionill medical
inventor, Louis Encausse (1834-1907), and a Spanish mother, Irene nee
Perez-Vierra, who died in 1904. In 1868 the Encausse family settled in
Paris, where Louis founded a bathing 'Institute'. Although Gerard En-
causse failed his baccalaureat (the equivalent of A levels), he was admitted
to study medicine in 1885. It was during the years 1885-92 that he
established the base of his activities. 1 Alongside his medical studies, he
frequented the Bibliotheque Nationale where he soon discovered occultist
 11. Papus and his Circle 235
literature, reading Eliphas Levi, Paul Christian and Hoene Wronski
among others. His interest centred on magnetism and hypnosis; he stud-
ied the works of Charcot and particularly those of Charcot's student J.-B.
Luys. 2
It was on Encausse that the mantle of Eliphas Levi fell. The two men
differed totally in character. Despite knowing some interesting and distin-
guished people, Levi was, or at least became, an essentially solitary man;
in the later part of his life, Baron Spedalieri was his only real friend.
Encausse, by contrast, was immensely gregarious, and anxious to be on
good terms with everyone. Levi had little use for associations of any kind;
Encausse had a passion for secret societies and fringe Masonic lodges, and
joined a great many of them. The earliest such societies to be established
in France in the later XIX century were importations from across the
Atlantic. The Theosophical Society was not very secret, nor, indeed, a true
representative of the Western occult tradition. It had been founded in New
York in 1875 by Mme Helena-Petrovna Blavatsky (1831-91). It set up a
lodge in London in 1883, and in the next year was imported from there to
Paris, where the Isis lodge was founded by Mme Blavatsky herself and her
assistant Colonel Olcott. Rene Caille and Camille Flammarion were
among the first French members of the Theosophical Society.
Gerard Encausse joined the Isis lodge in 1887; this was probably the
first occult society of which he became a member. 3 It was in its bulletin Le
Lotus that he styled himself 'Papus' for the first time, an appellation he
was henceforward to use in all his occultist writings. He idolised Eliphas
Levi; the name 'Papus', signifying 'physician', had been given by Levi as
that of one of the 'genii of the first hour' in a Supplement to his Rituel de
la haute magie. This Supplement formed a commentary on the Nucte-
meron of Apollonius of Tyana. 4 In this, therefore, Encausse was playing
Hugand to Levi's Etteilla.
Levi had taken up the study of magic only in mid-career, and, having
done so, claimed in his books to have made great discoveries; he acted the
part of a magus, affecting a quasi-monastic habit and filling his apartment
with objects that advertised his avocation. Papus devoted himself to magic
soon after the age of 20; those who, acquainted with his reputation or his
writings, met him for the first time invariably remarked that he presented
the appearance, not of a magus, but of a bon vivant. Once he had taken up
the study of magic, Levi had had no other profession than magician aqd
writer on magic: Papus's magical career, like that of his close friend Dr
Emmanuel Lalande (1868-1926), whose name in magic was 'Marc Haven',
ran concurrently with his medical studies and practice as a physician. Levi
wrote comparatively few books on magic, and did not publish all of them,
whereas, from 1887 onwards, there flowed from Papus's pen a spate of
books, ranging from brief pamphlets to vast encyclopaedic treatises, on
multifarious aspects of the occult, together with some works on medical
and practical topics: astonishingly, 260 titles are credited to him in his
236 A Wicked Pack of Cards
fifty-one years of life. This would be a barely credible output for one who
occupied himself solely with writing, which he was far from doing: he
founded and contributed to journals, participated actively in numerous
societies, and practised medicine. Levi's writings reflect his tortured
wrestlings with his own uncertainties. Early in life, Encausse underwent
a conversion from scientific materialism to whole-hearted belief in the
occult, aft.er which he appears to have entertained no doubts about it
whatever. Where Levi's books often rambled or were tantalisingly vague,
Papus had a gift for systematic and methodical exposition. Yet, though
Levi cannot be credited with a great many original ideas beyond that of
linking the Tarot with the Cabala, his writings are plainly the outcome of
reflection, whereas those of Papus are seldom more than the systematic
working out of already given theories.
His literary output began early. In 1884 he published his first work, a
booklet of 51 pages entitled Hypotheses, which, according to the life by his
son Philippe of 1932, expressed what he later described as the evolutionist
materialism he had imbibed from his teachers. 5 He quickly experienced a
revulsion from scientific materialism, however, in favour of the occult
sciences, about which he learned, not only from his reading, but from new
friends such as Alfred Faucheux (1838-1921), a civil servant who called
himself 'Fran~ois-Charles Barlet' in esoteric milieux. Papus was what
Americans call 'a quick study', and in 1887 he began his publications on
the occult. In L'occultisme contemporain, which appeared in that year,
reference was made to Stanislas de Guaita and to the marquis Joseph-
Alexandre Saint-Yves d'Alveydre (1842-1909). Although, according to An-
dre and Beaufils in their biography (1995), he had at that time only a hazy
notion ofHebrew, 6 Papus published in Le Lotus a rather faulty translation
of the Sepher Yetzirah. His Traite elementaire de science occulte came out
in 1888.
The French Theosophical Society was soon embroiled in quarrels. The
Isis lodge was dissolved, and a new lodge was founded under the name
'Hermes' in 1888; Papus became its 'corresponding secretary'. This was
also the year when Gerard Encausse was called up for his military service,
which he did in Paris under rather pleasant conditions. From 1888 to 1891
he divided his time between the barracks, the Faculty of Medicine, the
Hermes lodge meetings and the foundation of occultist groups and jour-
nals, and wrote no less than ten books, not to mention articles and talks
given to different societies. It was probably at this time that he became a
member of the Hermetic Brotherhood of Luxor, an international group
dedicated to practical magic. Barlet was the group's representative in
France, and doubtless induced Papus to join. The Hermetic Brotherhood
was opposed to the Theosophical Society, from which Papus stood aloof
from 1889, and with which he finally broke in 1890.7
One of Pa pus's great achievements was the founding of a journal called
L'lnitiation, whose first issue was published in October 1888. In early
 11. Papus and his Circle 237
1889 L'Initiation published a manifesto with several signatures, among
them 'Pa pus, S. ·.I.·.'. This was the first time that Pa pus had used these
initials: they stood for 'Superieur Inconnu' (Unknown Superior), meaning
the head of the Martinist Order. This order, which followed the teaching
of Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin (1743-1803), was in fact effectively de-
funct, but in 1889 Papus, with a number of associates, reconstituted it. 8
He was elected its Grand Master for life in 1891.
It was Papus's immense energy that earned him the primacy among his
fellow-occultists: he was far more active than they, and even more prolific
a writer than any of them. What, above all, earned him the prime place
among practitioners of the occult was the much greater renown he
achieved outside occultist circles than any of the others. It does not appear
that any of his colleagues resented his supremacy, with the exception of
Peladan, who did not acknowledge it. Nor was Papus at pains to claim it.
On the contrary, he recognised other men as his masters: as his intellec-
tual master, Saint-Yves d'Alveydre, of aristocratic appearance despite his
impoverished childhood; and, as his spiritual master, the Maitre Philippe
de Lyon (Nizier-Anthelme Philippe, 1849-1905), also known as Monsieur
Philippe, who was a devout believer in Jesus Christ, practised thauma-
turgy and magnetic cures and looked like a peasant.

Rosicrucians
Papus played a salient part in one of the most important of the new secret
orders, the Ordre Kabbalistique de la Rose-Croix (Cabalistic Order of the
Rosy Cross), established in 1888, which became the embodiment ofRosi-
crucianism in France [see Introduction, 3.1]. The foundation of this body
was the work of the short-lived marquis Stanislas de Guaita (1861-97).9
The other founder members of the Order were: Papus, who occupied the
position of Delegate General; Josephin Peladan (1859-1918), who from
this year adopted the title of Sar, allegedly meaning 'King' in Assyrian,
and was one of the few members of this circle of occultists to gain a general
reputation in literary and artistic circles; 10 Barlet, who in 1897 succeeded
de Guaita as head of the Cabalistic Order; Marc Haven, author of a life of
Cagliostro, whose book Le Tarot: l'alphabet hebra'ique et les nombres (The
Tarot: the Hebrew Alphabet and the Numbers), a thoroughly Cabalistic
treatise, was published posthumously at Lyons in 1937; Paul Adam (1862-
1920), who wrote an immense number of books, practised Tarot carto:
mancy, and wrote, 'The Tarot has inspired me every day, and suggested
many of my writings'; and finally the abbe Charles Melinge, a Catholic
priest who styled himself the abbe Alta and translated the Enneads of
Plotinus.
In December 1889 Papus provided himself with his most efficient
organisation, the Groupe Independant d'Etudes Esoteriques (Independent
Group for Esoteric Studies), which soon became an inexhaustible reserve
238 A Wicked Pack of Cards
of candidates for his more secret (Martinist and Rosicrucian) orders. In the
next year, Lucien Chamuel opened his Librairie du Merveilleux in the rue
de Trevise, a bookshop which specialised in books on Freemasonry, spiri-
tualism, theosophy and occultism; Papus joined only in 1891, once sure
that the business was profitable. 11 In 1890 he conceived a new monthly
journal, Le Voile d'Isis (Isis's Veil), designed to complement L'Initiation.
Stanislas de Guaita, the founder of the Cabalistic Order and another
fervent admirer of Eliphas Levi, was the focus of a number of quarrels
between different occultist factions. He was also the subject of much
newspaper sensationalism, being dubbed by journalists le tenebreux mar-
quis (the sombre Marquis). His principal contribution to Tarot occultism
was to sponsor the production of a newly designed set of Tarot cards. In
his Rituel de la haute magie, Eliphas Levi had written, 'An important work
still remains to be done - the publication of a really complete and well-
executed exemplar' of the Tarot pack, and had added, 'We shall perhaps
undertake the task'. 12 He had not carried out this intention, however. In
the spring of 1887, de Guaita met Oswald Wirth (1860-1943). Wirth was
a Swiss who began his career as a practitioner of hypnotic healing, and
had been a Freemason since 1884. De Guaita introduced his new friend to
occultism; although slightly the younger, de Guaita was the dominant
character of the two, and Wirth continued all his life to regard himself as
his disciple. Learning, on his very first meeting with Wirth, that he was
an amateur artist, de Guaita suggested to him that he should fulfil Levi's
unrealised project of'restoring the twenty-two Arcana of the Tarot to their
hieroglyphic purity'. Wirth accepted the charge; having no previous know-
ledge of the Tarot, he was guided by de Guaita's instructions. In this way,
he designed a set consisting only of the twenty-two 'major Arcana'; pub-
lished in 1889, it was limited to 350 copies, under the title Les 22 Arcanes
du Tarot Kabbalistique, with a subtitle 'Designed for the use of initiates
by Oswald Wirth in accordance with the indications of Stanislas de
Guaita'. It will be noticed that the occultists of this period had adopted
Paul Christian's term 'Arcana', never used by Levi. Indeed, although they
did not praise Christian as they praised Levi, and in fact seldom referred
explicitly to him, their Tarot iconography was greatly indebted to his
work.
Wirth's was the first published set of occult Tarot cards other than those
deriving from Etteilla. Each card bore its Arabic numeral, from 1 to 21, its
name, and its Hebrew letter, in accordance with Eliphas Levi's attribu-
tion; the Fool was unnumbered, but assigned the penultimate letter Shin.
The names of the cards were given just as in the Tarot de Marseille, save
that trump 16 was labelled le Feu du Ciel (the Fire of Heaven) instead of
la Maison Dieu (the House of God) and trump 13 bore the title la Mort
(Death) instead of being left untitled as in most Tarot de Marseille packs;
the Fool was called le Fou. The designs of the cards followed the Tarot de
Marseille fairly closely, but with numerous alterations to accommodate
 11. Papus and his Circle 239
occultist ideas. Thus the four suit-signs were shown on the Bateleur
(trump 1); in partial accordance with Paul Christian's iconography for the
card, a crocodile appeared on the Fool; and, in agreement with Levi's
conceptions, the Chariot (trump 7) was drawn, not by horses, but by
sphinxes, a pair of serpents were entwined round the base of the Wheel of
Fortune (10), and the Devil (15) was given a goat's head. After these cards
were published, Wirth undertook, with de Guaita's approval, to design an
improved version of them; but in the event, this was not published until
1926, long after de Guaita's death. 13 In this, the title la Maison Dieu was
restored to trump 16, and trump 13. left untitled; the designs were not
greatly altered. Both of Wirth's versions may seem subtly repellent to
some, but this is obviously a matter of taste.
In the same year, 1889, as that in which his first set ofTarot designs
was published, Wirth contributed an 'Essay on the Astronomical Tarot' to
Papus's book Le Tarot des Bohemiens, despite de Guaita's avowed disbelief
in astrology. In this, Wirth supplied a diagram to illustrate the disposition
of the Tarot symbols in the spurious initiation ceremony described by Paul
Christian, and claimed that 'the Tarot, considered as a whole, is pre-emi-
nently the Sacred Book of occult initiation'. He remarked that 'the major
Arcana of the Tarot are disfigured reproductions of a primitive model
dating from the earliest times'; to judge from Wirth's restitution of them,
the disfigurement was remarkably slight, in view of the vast lapse of time
involved. The essay concludes by associating each of the 'major Arcana'
with constellations, both those of the zodiac and those outside it.
Peladan's Le Vice supreme, the first in a series of novels called La
Decadence latine that was to run to twenty volumes, came out in the same
year, 1884, as the more famous 'decadent' novel A Rebours (Against the
Grain) by Joris-Karl Huysmans (1848-1907). Peladan's book was much
admired by de Guaita, who met its author in that year. He and de Guaita
were for several years close friends, and in writing to one another signed
themselves Merodack (Peladan) and Nebo (de Guaita), the names of
characters in Peladan's novels; de Guaita played the role of disciple to
Peladan's master. 14 In the course of time, however, some friction occurred
between the two men. This was due not merely to Peladan's belief in
astrology, but more to his dislike of Freemasonry, and particularly of
Oswald Wirth. Above all, it was due to the fact that, despite his occultism,
Peladan firmly adhered to the Catholic faith. It was this that prompted
him in 1890 to publish an article in L'Initiation dissociating himself from •
the Cabalistic Order of the Rosy Cross, and to found a separate Order of
the Catholic Rose Cross, the Temple and the Grail.
Peladan, if not a poseur, was certainly a flamboyant exhibitionist. A
novelist and dramatist, he was neither painter nor composer, but acted as
an impresario of artists and musicians. His brand of Rosicrucianism was
one of its most remarkable avatars; in his eyes, it involved the vigorous
propagation of a symbolist aesthetic. He organised, not only a Rose+Croix
240 A Wicked Pack of Cards
theatre, but Rose+Croix concerts, in which his friend Erik Satie partici-
pated, and, in 1892 and 1893, Salons de la Rose+Croix, at which symbolist
artists exhibited. 15 All this was too much for de Guaita, and in 1893 he
issued a document excommunicating Peladan, who was declared 'a schis-
matic and apostate Rosicrucian'. The deed of excommunication, in which
Peladan 'and his so-called Catholic Rose Cross' were denounced 'before the
tribunal of public opinion', was signed by de Guaita as Director of the
Supreme Council of the Rose+Cross, by Papus as Delegate General, and
by Barlet as Arbiter; but de Guaita, who delighted in a quarrel, was clearly
the instigator. Pa pus, a charitable man, who liked to be on good terms with
all fellow-students of the occult, as well as an uncritical one, ready to
believe anything that any occultist asserted, later regretted his part in the
affair. It is doubtful whether public opinion took much notice of Peladan's
condemnation.
In 1886 de Guaita began a series of books entitled collectively Essais
des sciences maudites (Essays in the Accursed Sciences; perhaps in the
Forbidden Sciences would look better in English); he was always good at
titles. The first book in the series, Au seuil du mystere (On the Threshold
of the Mystery), appeared in 1886; an enlarged edition followed in 1890.
This was primarily a survey of contemporary occultism, with some histori-
cal material. De Guaita mentions the Tarot only in passing, callingit 'that
admirable initiatory book, long prostituted to the vilest uses', 16 and voicing
deep admiration for Papus's Le Tarot des Bohemiens. The next book in the
series, announced in 1888, was to be Le Serpent de la Genese (The Serpent
of Genesis), a study of evil in many aspects and manifestations, including
diabolism; but, as de Guaita worked on it, it grew and grew, until he
decided to divide it into three volumes. Each volume was to correspond
with one of the three Tarot septenaries, or set of seven consecutive trumps;
each was to be divided into seven chapters, one for each card in the
septenary. The first volume of the Serpent de la Genese, constituting the
second of the Essais des sciences maudites, came out in 1891 under the
title Le Temple de Satan. The chapters correspond to trumps I to VII; but
although each chapter is headed by the name of the card (as in the Tarot
de Marseille) and a Hebrew letter, in accordance with Levi's attribution,
together with a list of the card's significations or analogical rapports, as
understood by de Guaita, the book contains very little either about the
Tarot in general or about the individual cards. In the plan of the whole
work given at the beginning of the book, the Tarot pack is spoken of as the
book of Thoth, and the significations of all the twenty-two Arcana are
listed; but in the body of the book only three pages, containing nothing
original, are devoted to the Tarot as a whole.
The chief interest of Le Temple de Satan lies in the bitter attack
contained in Chapter VI, extending over eighty pages, on that branch of
the sect founded by Pierre-Michel Vintras that acknowledged as its head
the abbe Joseph-Antoine Boullan. Boullan, who had been born in 1824 and
 11. Papus and his Circle 241
ordained priest in 1848, had already pursued a disreputable career when
he met Vintras in the last year of his life, 1875. With a disciple, Adele
Chevalier, he had planned to found a mixed religious congregation. There
were rumours of obscene and sacrilegious practices, which erupted into
open scandal when, in 1860, Adele Chevalier gave birth to a child, who
soon died. Gossip alleged infanticide, which was never proved; but Boullan
and Adele were arraigned in court for fraudulent practices, and each
sentenced to three years' imprisonment. When Vintras died in December
1875, Boullan, who professed to be a reincarnation of St John the Baptist,
laid claim to be his successor; some members of the sect acknowledged the
claim, while others repudiated it. Rumours of Boullan's engaging in
blasphemous ceremonies involving black magic and sexual intercourse
were rife. When Stanislas de Guaita first met Oswald Wirth in 1887, they
discovered that, during. the preceding year, each of them, unknown to the
other, had been initiated into the sect and attended its rites, with the
deliberate intention of gathering evidence against it. Together, they
launched a campaign against Boullan and his sect: de Guaita's denuncia-
tion in Le Temple de Satan was the continuation of that campaign. Boullan
found a defender in the novelist J.-K. Huysmans, who in 1891 published a
novel, La-Bas (Down There), in which Boullan figures sympathetically as
the magician Dr Johannes. Boullan died suddenly in 1893. Huysmans
thereupon accused de Guaita in print of murdering Boullan by means of
magical spells. In answer, de Guaita challenged Huysmans to a duel, but
Huysmans retracted before the duel could be fought.
The second volume of Le Serpent de la Genese, which constituted the
third of the Essais des sciences maudites, came out in 1897, entitled La
Clef de la magie noire (The Key to Black Magic); its seven chapters
correspond to trumps VIII to XIV. The book contains rather more direct
discussion of the symbolism and occult significance of the individual cards
than had the previous volume, but this still does not amount to a great
deal. The third volume was to have been called Le Probleme du mal (The
Problem of Evil). It was again to have had seven chapters, corresponding
to trumps XV to XX and the Fool (numbered 0), placed as in Levi's
arrangement; an epilogue would have corresponded to trump XXI. But de
Guaita did not live to see it in print. 17 In the year that La Clef de la magie
noire appeared, he died, of an overdose of drugs, at the age of thirty-six.
The story got about that his last words had been, 'I die a victim of my work',
on which a sinister interpretation was placed. According to Oswald Wirth,
however, his last words were, 'I see! I see!'
The books of Stanislas de Guaita were not widely read. His individual
interpretations of the Tarot cards exerted little influence, and, closely as
he followed Levi, he seems not to have had much of a general theory of the
Tarot of his own to offer. But his disciple Oswald Wirth went on to become
one of the leading Freemasons in France. In 1926, he belatedly issued his
revised designs for the Tarot trumps under the name Le Tarot des
242 A Wicked Pack of Cards
imagiers du moyen age (The Tarot of the Mediaeval Artists); the following
year he published a book of the same title, illustrated by the new designs.
In this he spoke of Stanislas de Guaita as having inspired the book, and
as having spiritually aided him in its preparation, despite his having been
dead for thirty years. Wirth repudiates the theory, advocated by Court de
Gebelin, Etteilla and Paul Christian, of the Egyptian origin of the Tarot;
he quotes Eliphas Levi with strong approval, and, following him, attrib-
utes to Guillaume Postel allusions to the Tarot. Le Tarot des imagiers is a
virtual encyclopaedia of Tarot occultism. Its elaborate discussion of the
alleged symbolism of the Tarot is arranged very systematically in succes-
sive sections: numerological interpretation; interpretation in terms of the
Cabala; astrological interpretation; alchemical interpretation; divinatory
significations; the Tarot as a representation of cosmogony; the Tarot as
representing initiation into the occult; the correspondence between Ma-
sonic symbols and those of the Tarot; and methods of divination by means
of the Tarot. Almost every occultist speculation can be found, methodically
tabulated, in its pages. In 1931, Wirth returned once more to the subject
with a book entitled Introduction a l'etude du Tarot (Introduction to the
Study of the Tarot). He had a disciple in Paul Marteau, who was until 1963
head of the cardmaking firm of Grimaud. In 1930, he had a Tarot de
Marseille pack reissued by the firm, with the intention that it be used for
cartomantic purposes. His book Le tarot de Marseille was plJ.blished in
1949; in it, he expounded the symbolism of each 'lame'. It was in fact
Marteau who gave currency to the term 'the Tarot de Marseille' to denote
the standard pattern now universally known by that name.

The Tarot of the Gypsies

The Ahathoor Temple of the Golden Dawn in Paris was consecrated in
January 1894. One of those who joined it was Papus, in March 1895; he
did not remain a member for long, resigning before he went beyond the
Neophyte grade. Eugene Jacob, whose name in magic was Ely Star,joined
in August 1896, and had reached the 3° =8° grade by November, and the
5° = 6° grade by February 1898. Mme Jenny Jacob, who joined in Nov-
ember 1896, was a professional cartomancer, while Eugene made his
living by the sale of magical amulets and a dubious medical practice; in
1914 he served a short term in prison for fraud. 18
In 1888 Star published a book on astrology, Les Mysteres deJ'horoscope.
This was a profoundly unoriginal work, borrowed almost entirely from the
astrological writings of Paul Christian; even the title was lifted from that
of a section of L'homme rouge des Tuileries. Ely Star diverged from
Christian principally in his willingness to refer to the Tarot by name. In
introducing the 'fatidic circles' for the various planets, with their Tarot
attributions, he says that these circles, which 'go back to the remotest
antiquity', are simply an appropriation of the 'Hermetic Tarot' which 'the
 11. Papus and his Circle 243
modern Hierophant' Eliphas Levi called 'the Bible of Mankind'. 19 The book
represents what may be the first appearance in print of what has sub-
sequently been standard occultist terminology, the terms 'major Arcana'
for the trumps and 'minor Arcana' for the suit cards; 'arcana' was Chris-
tian's word, but the qualifications 'major' and 'minor' had not been used by
him. They are unlikely to have been Star's invention, however, since they
appear in the book by Papus published in the next year, and had therefore
probably been established before Star's book was written. Star devoted a
fifty-page section of his book to the Tarot, under that name: the names
used for the suits, the court cards and the trumps are all Christian's, and
precisely the same descriptions are given of them, with their associated
numbers, letters and triple significations, as by Christian. Star's only
divergence from Christian here lies in the sequential numbering: instead
of giving the number Oto the Crocodile (Christian's equivalent of the Fool)
and placing it between the major Arcana XX and XXI, Star places it after
the XXI, numbering it XXII and increasing the numbers of the minor
Arcana (the suit cards) each by one, to end with LXXVIII. Star remarks
that there is no comparison possible between 'this Hermetic marvel' thus
described and 'the so-called "tarots" devised by Etteilla, which are still
used today for fortune-telling'; 20 the Egyptian Tarots ofEtteilla's heritage
were still a menace to occultists of the school of Levi and Christian. Star
concludes by tabulating the names of the major Arcana in the 'Hermetic
Tarot', that is, Christian's names for them, alongside those of what he calls
the 'Tarot de Besan~on'. 21 For the latter he chiefly uses the standard
names from the Tarot de Marseille; but some occultist nomenclature has
crept in, as in the names 'the Kether or Crown' for trump XXI, 'the
Sacrifice' for trump XII, 'the Triumphant Man' for trump VII and 'Man
between Vice and Virtue' for trump VI.
In 1889 Papus brought out his masterpiece, Le Tarot des Bohemiens. 22
The book is of great importance, as being the first systematic interpreta-
tion of the Tarot on its own by any follower of Levi. It was illustrated by
cards of the Tarot de Marseille, discreetly embellished with Hebrew
letters, and also, for the major Arcana, by cards from Oswald Wirth's
designs, published in the same year. Papus uses the terms 'major Arcana'
and 'minor Arcana'; the cards in general he calls lames, meaning metal
plates (presumably ones bearing the Tarot images as on Etteilla's concep-
tion), but employs the traditional names of the suits, the court figures and
the trumps, calling the Fool 'le Mat', as does the Tarot de Marseille cijrd
with which he illustrates it. He accepts an ancient Egyptian origin for the
Tarot: 'it is the book of Thoth Hermes Trismegistus', he declares, but then
goes further: 'it is the book of Adam, it is the book of the primitive
Revelation of the ancient civilisations'. In tracing the Tarot back to Adam,
he ensured the record in claims for its antiquity.
Le Tarot des Bohemiens is divided into three Parts, of which the first
two give the substance of Papus's interpretation, and the third deals with
244 A Wicked Pack of Cards
subsidiary matters. His principal instrument for interpreting the Tarot
was a doctrine of the cosmic wheel, previously enunciated in his book of
1888. He first expounds the doctrine numerologically, then applies it to the
Divine Name and finally, with tortuous complexity, uses it to explicate the
Tarot. Papus, following Levi, regards the Cross as forming the spokes of a
wheel, the numbers 1 to 4 being associated with its arms thus:

Papus explains that there are two operations which enable one to discover
the esoteric value of a number, and thereby to understand the secrets of
antiquity. The first he calls 'theosophic reduction'. The procedure. is well
known to schoolchildren, and consists in repeatedly adding the digits of
the number until a number from 1 to 9 is obtained: the outcome is 9 if the
original number was divisible by 9, or otherwise its remainder when
divided by 9.23 The second operation Papus calls 'theosophic addition': it
consists in adding all the whole numbers from 1 to the number in question.
Thus the theosophic sum of 4 is 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10, and the theosophic sum
of 5 is 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15.24 By using these two operations, Papus says,
we find that the numbers 4, 7, 10, ... may all be equated with 1. Thus, as
we saw, the theosophic sum of 4 is 10, which reduces theosophically to l;
in other words, the remainder of 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 when divided by 9 is 1.
Similarly, the theosophic sums of 7 and 10 are 28 and 55 respectively,
which again both reduce theosophically to 1. This, then, is what we may
call 'Papus's little theorem'. Stated in his terminology, it is: if a number
leaves the remainder 1 when divided by 3, its theosophic sum reduces
theosophically to 1.25
Hence, Papus continues, all the numbers go round in a cycle of three: 5,
8, 11, ... are all equivalent to 2, and 6, 9, 12, ... are all equiv9i.lent to 3. If
'equivalence' here means the same as before, Papus is attempting to
generalise his theorem: what we may call his 'great theorem' states in
addition that if a number leaves a remainder 2 when divided by 3, its
theosophic sum reduces theosophically to 2, and, if it is divisible by 3, its
theosophic sum reduces theosophically to 3. Unfortunately, the argument
is fallacious: Papus's great theorem does not hold. The theosophic sum of
5, for example, is 15, which reduces theosophically to 6, not to 2; the
 11. Papus and his Circle 245
theosophic sum of 8 is 36, which reduces theosophically to 9; and the
theosophic sum of 9 is 45, which again reduces theosophically to 9, not to
3.
This is a very bad start. The numerological basis of the entire doctrine
of the cosmic wheel rests upon an arithmetical fallacy. It is in any case
obscure why the fundamental diagram should take the form of a cross,
rather than an inverted Y, so that, in rotation around the circumference,
the number 4 would coincide with the number 1.
Papus claims that the number 1 represents the active principle of unity,
the number 2 the passive principle of opposition, and the number 3 the
neuter principle of the action of opposition upon the unity; oblivious of his
numerological error, he states that the number 4 represents a return to
unity, and the infinite sequence of positive integers represents the unend-
ing cyclical repetition of this process. He then proceeds to operate, like the
Cabalists, with the Tetragrammaton, the Name of God which, written
without vowels, is YHVH in Roman script; the Hebrew letters are Yod, He
and Vau. To apply the scheme of the cosmic wheel to the Divine Name,
Papus associates Yod with the number 1, the first He with the number 2,
Vau with the number 3 and the second He with the number 4. These
allocations would have been more convincing if the last letter of the Divine
Name had been the same as the first, not the second; Paul Christian, in
putting forward a similar idea, avoided the difficulty by basing it, not on
the Tetragrammaton, but on the sequence INRI. Papus ignores the imper-
fect fit, remarking only on the importance of there being only three distinct
letters in the Divine Name. The correspondence between the letters of the
Name and the first four numbers explains, according to Papus, why
Pythagoras, who, he says, had been initiated in Egypt into the mysteries
of the Sacred Name Yod-He-Vau-He, replaced it in his esoteric teachings
by the sequence 1-2-3-4; it is not explained what use the Egyptians were
making of the name, written in Hebrew letters, of the One God of the Jews.
In the Divine Name and in the equivalent numerical sequence, Papus tells
us, Yod or 1 is the positive and generative term, He or 2 the negative and
generant term (that out of which generation is effected), Vau or 3 the
neutral and generated term, and the second He or 4 the term of transition.
This universal law, he says, was symbolised in antiquity by the Cross; it
is a widespread custom among occultists to assert of Christian symbols
that they are far older than Christianity.
Only after this scheme has been painstakingly set out does Papus tun1,
in Chapter V, to apply it to Tarot cards. He aims to extend to the entire
pack Eliphas Levi's idea that the four suits correspond to the four letters
of the Tetragrammaton, so that such a correspondence - in fact a double
such correspondence - may be attributed to each individual card. Follow-
ing Levi, he makes the suits correspond to the letters of the Divine Name,
or to the numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4, in the order Batons, Cups, Swords and
Coins; appealing to an obvious sexual symbolism invoked by both Levi and
246 A Wicked Pack of Cards
Christian, he takes Batons to represent the male or active principle, Cups
the female or passive principle, and Swords the union of the two. Within
each suit, the cards correspond as shown below:

1 Yod King Ace 4 7

2He Queen 2 5 8
3 Vau Knight 3 6 9
4He Jack (4) (7) 10

The Jack and 10 are terms of transition, the Jack from the court cards to
the numeral cards, the 10 to the next suit or, for the 10 of Coins, to the
major Arcana. To obtain three quaternaries from the ten numeral cards,
Papus has to invoke the equivalence of 4 and 7 to 1, so that the 4 and 7
both end one sequence and begin the next; but the second association
overrides the first. Thus every suit card has a double association with one
of the letters of the Divine Name: by its suit to one, and by its rank to
another.
When Papus turns to consider the major Arcana, the correspondences
come as no surprise:

1 Yod 1 4 7 10 13 16 19
2He 2 5 8 11 14 17 20
3 Vau 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
4He (4) (7) (10) (13) (16) (19) 0

(The trumps are here designated by Arabic numerals; 0 is the Fool). Papus
uses the term 'septenary' more subtly than de Guaita: for him trumps 1-7
form the first septenary, 7-13 the second and 13-19 the third; 19 begins a
final ternary, and the circle is closed by 0, the term of transition from the
major to the minor Arcana. The first septenary corresponds as a whole to
Yod, the second to He, and the third to Vau; the final ternary corresponds
to the second He. Thus, as for the minor Arcana, each of the major Arcana
. has a double correspondence to the four letters of the Divine Name: one in
virtue of the septenary or ternary to which it belongs, and one in virtue of
its position in that septenary or ternary.
This summary has passed over many further details; and it is evident
that this whole tortuous system of correspondences is completely arbi-
trary. It is not derived from the Tarot, but imposed on it: no one wishing
to devise a pack of cards exhibiting a double correspondence with the
letters of the Divine Name, or with the numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4, would hit
on one with the structure of the Tarot pack. Equally arbitrary are the
further symbolic meanings with which Papus invests the first three letters
of the Tetragrammaton (the second He is for this purpose disregarded, as
being merely transitional). Papus connects these letters with the idea of
 11. Papus and his Circle 247
the Trinity, as he understands it, equating it both with the Hindu Trimurti
Brahma/Vishnu/Shiva and with the Egyptian trio Osiris/Isis/Horus. The
first of the three letters represents active creation, the second preserva-
tion and the third transformation.
In treating of the major Arcana, Papus adopted a few of Eliphas Levi's
terms, borrowed from Athanasius Kircher's pseudo-cabalism and applied
to some of the Tarot trumps, notably the animal, vegetable and mineral
'kingdoms' for the Fool, Judgement and Sun respectively. Nor did Papus
neglect the association of the major Arcana with the letters of the Hebrew
alphabet as a whole, and with planets and zodiacal signs; and he followed
Levi in placing the Fool between Judgement (20) and the World (21) to
obtain the correspondence with the Hebrew letters. Even if he was, at the
time, unaware of Levi's debt to Kircher, it was soon apparent to him, for,
in his book of 1892 on the Cabala, 26 he quoted Kircher's Oedipus Aegyp-
tiacus on all the relevant points, though in connection with the Cabala
only, not with the Tarot [see Introduction, 2.4].
In theorising about the Tarot trumps, Papus followed Levi's second
scheme, expounded in his Clef des grands mysteres, 27 which uses the
Sepher Yetzirah [see Introduction, 2.2]. That ancient book exists in several
versions: Papus relied on the idiosyncratic one given by Levi. Probably
with an eye to making them correspond with the images on certain
trumps, Levi gave himself permission to install the seven planets as he
chose, provided that each was aligned with a 'double' letter, but remained
silent about the new arrangement, doubtless because it did not accord with
the earlier one that he thought he had found through the Oedipus Aegyp-
tiacus. In Papus's exposition, Levi's later scheme becomes explicit.
Levi and Papus clearly worked backwards, starting with the subjects of
the seven trumps conscripted as planets, and then juggling them as
plausibly as the system allowed. This freedom could not overcome all
deficiencies. There are no obviously solar or lunar trumps available among
those linked to 'double' letters; the trumps explicitly called Sun and Moon
are tied to 'simple' letters, but are deprived of their obvious identities and
forced to correspond to zodiacal signs. The zodiac undergoes no special
manipulation: the signs and 'simple' letters stand in their usual se-
quences, with the usual arbitrary results. As for the elements, Papus does
not cite the Sepher Yetzirah, though its equations are explicit: Aleph = air;
Mem = water; Shin = fire. This number of elements should have troubled
Levi and Papus: in their Tarot symbolism, as in Etteilla's, the suit!l
symbolise elements, and there are four of them, not three. 28
Although Papus certainly applies a modified version of the Sepher Yetzi-
rah, he does not designate it the source of the Tarot trumps. It actually
produces no more than a set of astrological correspondences, which conflict
with the analogues given by Oswald Wirth in the essay by him included by
Papus in Chapter XVI of his book. It was, however, to lead to elaborate
developments in the hands of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn.
248 A Wicked Pack of Cards
Trump Letter Group Planet or Sign
1 Juggler A/,eph matrix
2 Popess Beth DOUBLE MOON
3 Empress Gimel DOUBLE VENUS
4 Emperor Daleth DOUBLE JUPITER
5 Pope He simple Aries
6 Love Vau simple Taurus
7 Chariot Zain simple Gemini
8 Justice Heth simple Cancer
9 Hermit Teth simple Leo
10 Wheel Yod simple Virgo
11 Fortitude Kaph DOUBLE MARS
12 Hanged Man Lamed simple Libra
13 Death Mem matrix
14 Temperance Nun simple Scorpio
15 Devil Samekh simple Sagittarius
16 Tower Ayin simple Capricorn
17 Star Pe DOUBLE MERCURY
18 Moon Tzaddi simple Aquarius
19 Sun Qoph simple Pisces
20 Judgement Resh DOUBLE SATURN
0 Fool Shin matrix
21 World Tau DOUBLE SUN

Only when the correspondences have been expounded does Papus

interpret the individual Tarot trumps. He claims that, once the meaning
of Arcanum 1 is known, the meanings of all the other major Arcana can be
deduced by appeal to the correspondences. Following Paul Christian, he
assigns not one, but three, meanings to each Arcanum: a superlative or
Divine meaning in the Divine World; a comparative or Magic Astral
meaning in the Human World; and a positive or Physical meaning in the
Natural World. Arcanum 1, the Juggler or Mountebank, signifies God the
Father in the Divine World, Man or Adam in the Human World and the
Active Universe in the Natural World. To arrive at the meanings of the
rest, Papus imposes further restrictions. Each of the trump~, from 4
onwards, must be interpreted as deriving from that with a number
smaller by three. Pairs of cards whose numbers add up to 22, such as 1
and 21, 2 and 20, 5 and 17, and so on, must be assigned complementary
meanings. The meaning of a card midway between any other two, as 5
is midway between 4 and 6, and also between 3 and 7, must form a link
between the meanings of the other two. Finally, the meaning of each
 11. Papus and his Circle 249
card must correspond to the symbolic value of the associated letter of the
alphabet.
Even Papus's ingenuity is frustrated by the attempt to allot triple
meanings to the cards satisfying all the constraints that he has laid down.
Thus Arcana 8 (Justice), 9 (the Hermit) and 10 (the Wheel of Fortune) are
said to signify, in the Human World, Justice, Prudence and Magic Power
respectively: in what sense can Prudence be said to form a link between
Justice and Magic Power? In the Divine World, Arcanum 8 is said to
signify the Mother and Arcanum 14 Involution: in what sense are these
complementary? Moreover, the correspondences with the letters of the
Divine Name, even taken together with the other governing principles, are
not in fact sufficient to determine the triple interpretation. Very often, the
meanings Pa pus assigns are plainly derived from the subjects of the cards
or their Tarot de Marseille representations, rather than from the cor-
respondences and other principles, whereas he had claimed to explain
the subjects from those principles and correspondences. Aware only of
the way trump 6 (Love) is depicted in the Tarot de Marseille, he concurs
with Paul Christian and Ely Star in interpreting it as representing a
man choosing between Vice and Virtue: he construes the figure in the
air, not as Eros, but as the spirit of Justice, and his arrow as the arrow of
Punishment, aimed at the woman whom he takes to personify Vice. On the
Wheel of Fortune (10), as Papus sees it, Anubis, the genius of good,
ascends to the right, while Typhon, the genius of evil, descends on the left;
the sphinx balances at the top. The Hanged Man (12) is, for Papus, no
traitor, but a 'young hero ... suspended between two decisions'; the general
meaning of the card is equilibrium, and its triple significances are Charity,
Acquired Experience and Equilibrated Force - an interpretation which
would have astonished any Italian of the XV or XVI century.
Did Papus expect his readers to believe his elaborate theory? He
offers no evidence for it, but simply presents it for acceptance. Admit-
tedly, he followed Levi's baseless ascriptions to Cardano, Postel and
Louis Claude de Saint-Martin of allusions to the Tarot. 29 He even
claimed that 'the Rosicrucians possessed the Tarot', on the strength of
a supposed quotation from what he cites as the Fama Fraternitatis
Roseae Crucis, 'They possess a book from which they can learn every-
thing that is in the books already written and to be written.' 30 Of course,
no genuine reference to the Tarot is insinuated in any of these sources;
but even Papus could not claim that any of them so much as adum-
brated his detailed theory. •
The lack of cited evidence does not, indeed, imply that a reader could
have no ground for believing it. The interpretation might strike him as
explaining the composition and iconography of the Tarot so convincingly
that he would exclaim, 'That must have been what the inventor of the
Tarot pack had in mind!' Papus's theory does not qualify on this score. He
wrongly believed that the ordinary playing-card pack was derived from the
250 A Wicked Pack of Cards
Tarot pack by subtracting the trumps and the Knights. On this view, the
inventor of the Tarot pack would not have been constrained by the prior
structure of the pack, with its four suits and distinction between court
cards and numeral cards: he could have devised whatever structure he
conceived to accord with his symbolic intent. If that intent had been to
elaborate an interpretation of the Hebrew Name of God in accordance with
the doctrine of the cosmic wheel, the Tarot pack, with its 56 suit cards and
22 trumps, including the Fool, would hardly have been the result.
The test of whether a coded text has been correctly deciphered is that it
allows a coherent message to be read. Papus therefore devotes the last
chapter of his Part II to an attempt to decipher the wisdom concealed in
the Tarot. Judged by this criterion, he had failed to find the key. By
reading the major Arcana in sequence according to their triple meanings,
he claims, we obtain a theogony, an androgony and a cosmogony, recount-
ing the evolution of the three different Worlds. The 'theogony' is a
disquisition on the Trinity, which Papus takes to be, not a peculiarly
Christian doctrine, but one shared by many religious traditions. The
Father, for him, symbolises Absolute Activity, the origin of all masculine
creative force; the Son symbolises Absolute Passivity, the origin of all
feminine preserving force, while the Holy Spirit is the origin of all synthe-
sis and blends the first two in Unity. Aside from Papus's having already
taken trumps 1-3 to signify, in the Divine World, the three Persons of the
Trinity, none of this owes anything to the Tarot or to his complicated
interpretation of it.
Papus's androgony and cosmogony are extremely obscure. Both man
and nature are said to be, not God's creations, but emanations from the
two first Persons of the Trinity: 'from the first principle, or the Father,
emanate successively Adam and Nature creating, naturans ... ; from the
second principle, or the Son, emanate Eve and Nature naturata, or recipi-
ent; lastly, the third principle, or the Holy Spirit, serves as a model to the
similar constitution of Adam-Eve, or Humanity and the Universe'. 31
Woman and man are thus emanations of different divine Persons, and this
leads Papus to exalt the family, on which, he says, ancient science founded
the organisation of society, rather than on the individual, as now. 'The
man accomplishing the functions of God the Creator is the FATHER; the
woman accomplishing the work of God the preserver is the MOTHER; lastly
HUMAN LOVE realises the whole Divinity in Humanity. The human family
is therefore the representation of the Divinity upon earth. The Tarot also
teaches us this fact by its minor Arcana (King or father, Queen or mother,
Knight or young man, Jack or child).' 32 The thesis is forced at all points. A
woman's role in procreation hardly seems less creative than the man's; the
man, as the breadwinner, contributes to the family's preservation. As for
the lesson taught by the court figures in a suit in the Tarot pack, those of
an ordinary French pack might be thought to teach it better, since the
Knight is even less convincing as the child of the King and Queen than the
 11. Papus and his Circle 251
Jack. When he comes to cosmogony, Papus announces that 'the Tarot
teaches that the Universe results from the participation of the Human in
the creative actions of the Divine'. 33 It must follow from this that Man is
older than the Universe. In what way does the Tarot supposedly teach this
extraordinary conclusion? Papus's commentaries on trumps 16-19 appear
to embody a Gnostic or Manichean equation of the creation of matter with
the Fall of Man. It is, however, hard to deduce such a doctrine from the
fundamental principles of his interpretation, let alone from the cards
considered apart from those principles. It is apparent that Papus has not
succeeded by means of his interpretation in extracting from the Tarot any
secret doctrine unattainable from other sources.
Part III of the book, devoted to 'Applications of the Tarot', supplies no
better reason to believe the theory. It includes a brief excerpt from de
Guaita and longer contributions from Oswald Wirth on the astrological
significance of the major Arcana and from Barlet on 'The Initiatory Tarot'
and 'The Divine Name in the Tarot'; these are often at variance with
Papus's own theories. Papus quotes two short passages from Vaillant's Les
Romes at the head of Wirth's essay. He believed without question that the
Gypsies brought the Tarot from Egypt to Europe. 34 He had, indeed, been
deeply impressed by Vaillant, and included on the title-page of the book a
quotation from 'Narad, the Gypsy'. Morton placed a translation of this
(attributed to 'Narad, the Bohemian') on the same page of the first edition
of the English translation, but A.E. Waite suppressed it. After a perfunc-
tory chapter on 'The Cabalistic Tarot', which includes three pages about
Etteilla, and a survey of the existing literature on the Tarot, Pa pus turns
to the subject of divination.
His scheme for interpreting the Tarot had not suggested any method of
using the cards for this purpose. He was convinced that it was a primarily
feminine occupation, and introduced the chapter on the subject with
courteous condescension: 'The first part of our study of the Tarot, full of
numbers, of Hebrew letters and of abstract deductions, is not calculated
to attract the attention of ladies .... It is, however, traditional that the
future can be read by means of the Tarot, and our feminine readers will
never forgive me if I ignore their natural curiosity on this point.' He then
explains that, although 'all the writers of antiquity . . . assert that the
Egyptians used the Tarot as a means of predicting the future', they 'used
its astronomical applications only'. By contrast, 'in divination by the Tarot,
as it is usually practised at the present time', Papus says, 'chance and
intuition are the chief instruments'; 'woman's nature, which is essentially
intuitive' is therefore 'well qualified to make these divinations'. Fortu-
nately for them, it is 'unnecessary to read all the preceding abstract
studies' before using the Tarot in this way. Papus then proceeds to give a
series of seven lessons on the use of the Tarot for divination.
As all such instructions must do, Papus's begin with assigning divina-
tory meanings to the cards. Those allotted to the suit cards have little to
252 A Wicked Pack of Cards
do with the interpretations of Part I: for the court figures, we are back in
the realm of dark men who are enemies and fair women who are friends;
for the numeral cards, we have meanings like 'success of the enterprise',
'commencement of a love affair' and 'loss of money'. Each of the major
Arcana is assigned only one meaning. For seven of the 22 cards, this
coincides with its Human significance, according to the main theory, and
for one with its Divine significance; the rest are special to the divinatory
use. There follow three layouts: the first using the major Arcana and a
single suit of minor Arcana separately, the second using the major Arcana
and all the minor Arcana, but still separately, and the third an elaborate
process borrowed from Etteilla, using the whole undivided pack. Plainly,
the intricate theories of Parts I and II do not underlie these instructions
to the ladies for foretelling the future by means of the Tarot. After a
penultimate chapter expounding the Royal Game of Life, borrowed with-
out acknowledgement from Etteilla, explaining how ordinary cards, chess,
dice and dominoes are all derived from Tarot, and mentioning a 'dusty old
manuscript' recording the invention of Tarot cards in ancient Egypt, a
brief final chapter reiterates the claim of the Tarot to be the key to all
occult science. This is Chapter XXII; for, after the manner ofEliphas Levi,
Papus has been careful to provide his book with twenty-two chapters.
It may well seem that Papus did not believe his own theories. Only two
years later, in 1891, he published a huge summa of 1092 pages on the
occult.35 In this, he again reproduced Oswald Wirth's 22 Tarot Arcana; but
they illustrated a brief and perfunctory discussion of the Tarot, hardly
consonant with its being the key to all occult science. But although
occultists would prefer grounds for their theories in order to convince
others, they can convince themselves without grounds. An elaborate the-
ory known only to those who take the trouble to study the occult is
satisfying enough in itself, and, being satisfying, is to be believed; grounds
for thinking it to be true are welcome, but dispensable. The theory can be
claimed to be a key to unlock further doors, but then tacitly ignored when
those doors are to be opened. Papus was not a charlatan. He surely did
believe his own theories, after the fashion of occultists, without the need
for grounds or the compulsion to draw consequences.

The Tarot for fortune-telling once more

By 1892 the Martinist Order was flourishing, thanks to 'honorary initia-
tions', and the Groupe Independant was spreading in the ·provinces. A
special issue of Le Voile d'lsis was published in that year, and 100,000
copies were printed! Its parent publication L'lnitiation was also proving
quite successful, with writers like 'Sedir' (Yvon Le Loup, 1871-1926), Marc
Haven and Fran~ois Jollivet-Castelot. The Cabalistic Order of the Rosy
Cross had fallen somewhat into abeyance, but, still with de Guaita at its
head as 'life Director', was reactivated in 1892, when examinations and
 11. Papus and his Circle 253
ranks were introduced. The Order spread outside France, to Argentina, to
Belgium and to Bohemia, where Gustav Meyrinkjoined it.
Papus, probably at the instigation of his mistress, Anna (Andzia) de
Wolska, known as 'Sophia of Warsaw', with whom he had been living since
about 1888, also became involved in religion, becoming the Bishop of
Toulouse of the Universal Gnostic Church, founded in 1890, under the
name of T. Vincent. 36
Gerard Encausse was not yet a qualified doctor. He finally obtained his
medical doctorate in July 1894 with a doctoral thesis on 'philosophical
anatomy'. He was much in favour of alternative medicine ('dosimetry',
Arabian medicine, homeopathy, etc.); once qualified, he ran a clinic in
Paris and, from 1902, another, which he visited weekly, in Tours. Also in
July 1894 the Tres Haut Synode Gnostique made Papus its Vice-President
and 'coadjuteur Grand Referendaire'; Papus announced the event in Le
Voile d'lsis for January 1895, using his Gnostic name of Vincent. 37 In
February 1895, he married, not his mistress Anna, but Mathilde Theuriet,
nee Inard (1864-?), a widow who already had two children; 38 it was through
her that he met Monsieur Philippe, whom he so admired.
In spite of all his occultist activities, Papus had never been a real
Freemason. In 1895, since he was in conflict with the Grand Orient of
France, he tried instead to enter the Arc-en-Ciel (Rainbow) Lodge of a
fringe Masonic group, the Misra'im Rite, well known to students of the
occult. Since 1881, this had elsewhere been united to the Rite of Memphis,
but the French branch had refused to recognise the union. Many of Papus's
friends, such as Sedir, Marc Haven, Haatan and Henri Chacornac, were
members of the Lodge, and it seemed to be an easy mark. However, there
was strong opposition, and Papus was not elected. As a kind of revenge,
he founded a new Rosicrucian Order, the Fraternitas Thesauri Lucis
(F.T.L.) (Brotherhood of the Treasure of Light), with Marc Haven and
Sedir; it appears still to have been in existence in 1938 and to have
maintained a very high level of secrecy.39 In 1897 Papus founded a very
different organisation, the Union Idealiste Universelle (Universal Idealist
Union), a forerunner of international peace organisations inspired by
Eliphas Levi's Catechisme de la paix. 40
In 1899 he made a new attempt to enter a Masonic order, that of the
Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite; but he was refused again. He finally
wrote to John Yarker in Manchester, who gave him permission, in about
1900, to found in Paris a lodge, named I.N.R.I., of the Swedenborgian Rite
of Primitive and Original Freemasonry, in which he was granted the title
of 'Grand Marshal'. 41 At this time, both the Martinist Order and the
Cabalistic Order of the Rosy Cross were in a state of decline. Papus, who
became deeply involved with the Swedenborgian Rite, left the Martinist
Order in the hands of 'Teder' (Charles Detre, 1855-1918); on de Guaita's
death in 1897, Barlet had succeeded him as head of the Cabalistic Order.
As head of the Martinist Order, Papus visited Russia, where the Order
254 A Wicked Pack of Cards
had gained a notable number of adherents, in the winter of 1899-1900 and
again in January 1901. On the second visit he was accompanied by
Monsieur Philippe; both are supposed to have been presented to the Tsar
and Tsarina. The story of a third visit in 1905 appears to be spurious. 42
Separated from his wife Mathilde since 1902, Gerard Encausse was at that
time living with Jeanne Charlatte ( 1867-1933), the widow of one Monsieur
Robert. In 1906 Jeanne gave birth to their son Philippe, so baptised as a
tribute to Monsieur Philippe of Lyons. 4 a
In 1902 the Arc-en-Ciel Lodge of the Misra'im Rite passed out of
existence, while John Yarker became Grand Hierophant of the combined
Memphis-Misra'im Rite, Theodor Reuss becoming Grand Master for Ger-
many and Austria. In June 1908 Pa pus conceived the scheme of setting up
a Federation Ma~onnique Universelle to thwart the regular Masonic
Rites; he organised an 'International' Masonic Conference in Paris, in
which Reuss was the only non-French participant. The Berlin Grand
Orient granted a charter, signed by Reuss, to found a 'Grand Orient du
Rite Ancien et Primitif de la Ma~onnerie pour la France'. Pa pus and Teder
converted their Swedenborgian lodge into a 'Souverain Sanctuaire', and
were both inaugurated by Reuss into the Rite of Memphis-Misrai:m, of
which a Sovereign Grand Council for France was formed: Papus was
named national Grand Master, with Teder as his adjutant. 44 In 1906, in
exchange for the title of Sovereign Delegate-General of the Martinist
Order for Spain, Papus received a charter from Isidoro Villarino del Villar,
Grand Hierophant of the National Spanish Rite, an offshoot of the Italian
Rite of Memphis-Misrai:m which had passed to the control of the Spanish
Grand Orient. This entitled him to initiate to the three first grades of the
Scottish Rite, which his Swedenborgian I.N.R.I. Lodge did not allow him
to do, and he immediately founded a Lodge called 'Humanidad'. 45 When,
in 1909, Saint-Yves d'Alveydre died in Pau, Papus became Saint-Yves's
legatee and founded a Society of the Friends of Saint-Yves which was
commissioned to protect and develop the patent of the 'Archeometre', the
strange esoteric machine that the marquis had invented. 46
In Le Tarot des Bohemiens, Chapter XIX, Papus had given a list, which
he had striven to make complete, of all the authors who had written about
or alluded to the Tarot. Of the XIX-century ones, the reader has already
met almost all in these pages: Eliphas Levi; (Paul) Christian; J.A. Vail-
lant; Stanislas de Guaita; F.Ch. Barlet; Oswald Wirth; Ely Star; and S.L.
Mathers, one of the Chiefs of the Order of the Golden Dawn. To these
Papus added some who had made a lesser contribution to developing the
Tarot mystique: Josephin Peladan; Madame H.P. Blavatsky, the founder
of the Theosophical Society; Charles de Sivry, who wrote about music, and
had, according to Papus, summarised an extract, bearing on the Gypsy
tradition of the Tarot, from the sacred book of the Opachti tribe, living on
the foothills of the Himalayas; E. Poirot, an occultist who was the publish-
 11. Papus and his Circle 255
er4 of Oswald Wirth's Tarot; and the anonymous author of an article in
7

the American journal The Platonist.

Up to 1889, then, the subject had so far been the preserve of a small
body of students of magic. But that was soon to change in France: from
1890 onwards, the Tarot became a common topic in the growing literature
upon the occult. An example was a book of 400-odd pages setting out
correspondences between Tarot cards and alchemical terms, published,
with a preface by Papus, in 1897 by Fran~ois Jollivet-Castelot, a prolific
writer on alchemy. 48 Others were Jean-Gaston Bourgeat's La Magie of
1895, which associated the four suits of the Tarot with the four elements,
and the same author's Le Tarot: aperfu historique of 1906, which advo-
cated an Indian origin for the Tarot and expounded a method of divination.
For, despite the pontifications of Levi and Papus, the use of the Tarot to
foretell the future had proved its abiding attraction. Etteilla's cartomantic
employment of it had remained a more potent lure than theories of the
Cabala.
The most interesting manifestation of the new vogue was Les XXII
lames hermetiques du Tarot divinatoire (1896), by R. Falconnier, an actor
at the Comedie Fran~aise. 49 The book is dedicated to Alexandre Dumas
fils, 'to whom I owe my first notions ofastrological chiromancy'. It contains
illustrations of the Tarot trumps, said in the subtitle of the book to be
'exactly reconstituted from the sacred texts, in accordance with the tradi-
tion of the Magi of ancient Egypt'; the text informs us that they form a
reconstitution of the twenty-two lames d'or (golden plates) used by Her-
mes Trismegistus for divination in a temple at Thebes, among whose ruins
the figures may still be seen. The designs, which were intended to be cut
out, pasted on to card and coloured, had been executed by the artist
Maurice Otto Wegener, following Falconnier's instructions. They are
Egyptianised versions of those of the Tarot de Marseille: the earliest,
outside the Etteilla tradition, of a long series of pseudo-Egyptian versions
of the Tarot. The cards are adorned with letters from the 'alphabet of the
Magi', but not with numbers, Hebrew letters or names. There has been
some rearrangement of their order, and, in the text, renaming of them.
Trumps I to V are called the Magus, the Sanctuary, Nature, the Victor,
and the Hierophant. Love (VI) is renamed the Test and the Chariot (VII)
is called the Triumph. Trumps IX and X (the Hermit and the Wheel of
Fortune) are called the Sage and the Sphinx; the Hanged Man (XII) is
named the Sacrifice, and the Devil (XV) Typhon. The Tower (XVI) has,
naturally, become the Pyramid, while the Moon is here labelled Night ahd
renumbered XXII. Trump VI having been renamed, the Sun (XVIII) can
now be called Love. The Fool is numbered XXI and renamed the Atheist
(being evidently the fool mentioned in the Psalm as having 'said in his
heart, "There is no God" '). Almost alone of ancient peoples, the Romans
are conceded not to have known the Tarot, on the ground that Cicero failed
to mention it. St Augustine referred to it, however, in a letter to his
256 A Wicked Pack of Cards
mother; Pope Gregory VII went so far as to have a 'translation' made of it.
Falconnier ends his book with an astrological account of the divinatory
meanings of the cards.
Papus's response to the new trend was long in coming; when it came,
he did not resist the trend, but went enthusiastically along with it. In 1909
he published a second book on the Tarot, very different from the one he
had published twenty years before, called Le Tarot diuinatoire. 50 As the
title indicates, the book was entirely concerned to promote Tarot carto-
mancy, which Papus continued to believe was primarily a feminine
predilection. There is, in the Introduction, an echo of the claims made in
the earlier book when the author says, 'The Tarot, ... like the Ars Magna
of Ramon Lull, which is an adaptation of it, 51allows one to resolve the
greatest problems of philosophy. But this is not the side of it that will
interest ladies who feel a curiosity about it.' Aside from this hint, however,
the book contains very little mention of the abstruse matters to which Le
Tarot des Bohemiens had been devoted.
It is, in any case, a very shoddy production. It seems to have been
thrown together in a great hurry, very largely consisting as it does of
accounts of other people's theories, or of actual quotations from them,
together with material repeated word for word from Le Tarot des Bo-
hemiens. It gives the appearance of a work produced in haste in order to
counter Falconnier's book and reassert Papus's authority; but, unless it
had been written long before, this can scarcely be true of one published
thirteen years later. Papus explains that he has written the new book to
combat the absurd but widespread mistake of telling fortunes by the use
of the major Arcana alone (as in fact Falconnier had proposed): to perform
Tarot divination correctly, he maintains, it is essential to use the minor
Arcana as well. Wirth's designs are therefore no longer used in illus-
tration, for they, after all, included only the major Arcana. Instead, there
are appended to the book designs for all 78 cards, described as a complete
reconstitution of the 78 lames of the Egyptian Tarot. The artist is named
as Gabriel Goulinat, who is claimed to have carried them out 'after
Egyptian documents and the personal labours ofEliphas Levi'. 52As with
Falconnier's Les XXll lames hermetiques of 1896, readers are asked to cut
out pieces of cardboard and to stick the designs on them to make actual
cards. 53
Jean-Gabriel Goulinat (1883-1972) was born in Tours, where his family
was under the medical care of Dr Gerard Encausse. Jean-Gabriel was
educated as an artist, being taught by Cormon at the Ecole"des Beaux-
Arts.54Like Wegener's, his Tarot designs are highly Egyptianised; despite
the reference to Levi, the influence of Etteilla is stronger. The cards all
have exceedingly wide margins, filled with a variety of symbols and
phrases. Every card bears an Arabic numeral in the top margin. The major
Arcana are arranged in Levi's order, the Fool bearing the numbering 'O(or
21)' and the World '(21 or) 22'; the numerals from 2 to 9 are accompanied
 11. Papus and his Circle 257
by geometric figures. Each of them has a panel at the foot of the main
design and as part of it, giving the name of the card, exactly as in the Tarot
de Marseille save that Death (13) is named. In the left margin of each
major Arcanum is written a Hebrew letter, with, above it, the correspond-
ing Roman letter (or combination of letters such as Ph or Ts), labelled
'Fran~ais'. Below the Hebrew letter is a Sanskrit letter, and below it an
Egyptian hieroglyph, with its Hieratic equivalent, save on Arcana 11, 15,
20 and O (corresponding to the Hebrew letters Kaph, Samekh, Resh and
Shin). Last of all is a symbol marked 'Archeometre Saint Yves'. 55 In the
bottom margin are written three meanings of the card, spiritual, moral or
alchemical and physical, though these are not identical with those given
in Le Tarot des Bohemiens. Save on Arcana 1, 13 and O (corresponding to
the three 'mother letters' Aleph, Mem and Shin), the right-hand margin
contains the name of a constellation of the zodiac or a planet, its symbol
and, in the former case, the date (always taken to be the 20th of the month)
on which the Sun enters it.
The minor Arcana also bear Arabic numerals in the top margin, in
accordance with Etteilla's system and with an explicit reference to him;
they run from '22 d'Etteila' to '77 d'Etteila'; Etteilla's name is always
misspelled with only one l in all Papus's writings. Although the designs
are Egyptianised, the minor Arcana closely resemble those of Grand
Etteilla I. The numeral cards have the same division into a main section
and a lower panel displaying various symbols. The suit-signs are arranged
in Etteilla's manner; in particular, the Swords are straight daggers, and
neither they nor the Batons intersect. The suit-signs of Coins still bear the
astrological symbols of Grand Etteilla I; those of Cups are particularly
Egyptian in form. On the Aces of all four suits, the suit-sign is held by a
human hand. In the Batons suit, the lower panels contain Etteilla's
'Egyptian' nail-numerals. Those of Swords contain a double circle contain-
ing Hebrew letters or other symbols, and those of Cups a double circle with
mystic signs. Those of Coins have a circle with various symbols, and, often,
an Arabic numeral.
All the minor Arcana have their denominations written in the bottom
margin; in other respects, the margins of the court cards and the numeral
cards are filled differently. On the numeral cards, the top and bottom
margins contain the divinatory meanings assigned in Grand Etteilla I for
the card when upright or reversed. The right margin contains a ten-day
period of the year (a decan), a time of day and a person's age in years; this,
Papus says, is an important innovation. The left margin contains a 'philo-
sophic' meaning intended to form a link with the interpretations of Le
Tarot des Bohemiens. On the court cards, the divinatory meanings are
placed in the right margin. In the left margin is a 'philosophic' meaning,
together with Paul Christian's name for the card. There is also a double
assignment, by rank and suit, of the four letters of the Divine Name, by
means of the French transliteration of the names of the letters. As in Le
258 A Wicked Pack of Cards
Tarot des Bohemiens, the ranks correspond in the order King, Queen,
Knight and Jack, and the suits in the order Batons, Cups, Swords, Coins.
In the Coins suit, the letters are not represented by their transliterated
names in the margin, but shown as Hebrew letters on the Coins held by
the court figures. 56
The text of Papus's Le Tarot divinatoire (1909) has, in the mordant
phrase A.E. Waite applied to the essay in The Platonist noted by Papus in
his earlier work, 'strong titles to negligence'. After two brief chapters
explaining the constitution of the Tarot pack and the governing ideas of
Goulinat's designs, Papus expounds in Chapter III the basic principles of
Tarot divination. He first sets out the divinatory meanings of the major
Arcana, just as in Lesson 3 of Chapter XX of Le Tarot des Bohemiens on
the Divinatory Tarot. The chapter continues with verbatim repetitions of
Lessons 4 and 5, expounding some methods of divination. There follows an
extended quotation from Jean-Gaston Bourgeat's Le Tarot of 1906. This
quotation purports to be itself a quotation, first in the original and then in
translation, from 'a Catalan grimoire', El libro negro, published in Bar-
celona. 57 The passage claims to expound a Gypsy method of divination by
the Tarot; Papus comments at the end that 'This Gypsy method is an
adaptation of the Astrological Houses to the Tarot'. This is followed by a
section of eleven pages headed 'Interpretation of the 32 Cards (after the
celebrated Moreau)'. 58 There are given the cartomantic meanings of the
cards of an ordinary French 32-card pack, thinly disguised by the use of
the names of the Tarot suits; the trumps, the Knights and the cards of each
suit from 2 to 6 are of course left unmentioned. These are followed by
accounts of various methods of'reading the 32 cards'; in that of the 'Italian
method' the suits are openly called by the French names for Diamonds,
Spades, Hearts and Clubs. It is astonishing that Papus could compose his
book in so unashamedly fraudulent a fashion. Chapter III then ends with
a repetition, again word for word, of Lesson 6 (on Etteilla's method of
spreading the Tarot cards) from Le Tarot des Bohemiens.
Chapter N begins by treating of the divinatory significance of combina-
tions of two cards side by side. This again seems to be borrowed from some
source dealing with divination by means of the 32-card pack, since only
cards belonging to it are mentioned (if we allow for the use ofltalian rather
than French suit-names). The complete giveaway is a list of meanings of
individual cards, following the discussion of pairs of cards, since this is
headed 'Partial interpretation of the 32 cards'. The chapter concludes with
a long account of the meanings of three cards of the same tank, if placed
together. This is attributed to Etteilla, but deals only with the ranks Ace,
King, Queen, Jack, 2 and 7 to 10. This chapter of nearly fifty pages must
have been utterly frustrating for any reader genuinely anxious to practise
Tarot cartomancy.
Chapter V deals with the significance of each of the three sections
(cases) in the twelve astral houses. Chapter VI is entitled 'Detailed Study
 11. Papus and his Circle 259
of the Divinatory Meanings of the 78 lames as given by Etteila and
d'Odoucet'; it copies the table of meanings found in the Dictionnaire
synonimique, giving the correspondence between Etteilla's trumps and
those of 'our' Tarot (i.e. that designed by Goulinat following the Tarot de
Marseille order and nomenclature). It is obvious that Le Tarot divinatoire
was thrown together by Papus in the greatest haste and with the least
possible trouble.
The last (seventh) chapter gives even clearer evidence of this than the
rest. It purports to be a historical account of research on the Tarot; the
principal contemporary writers on the subject are said to be Etteilla,
D'Odoucet, Eliphas Levi and Christian. Papus first expounds some nu-
merological theories of Etteilla bearing on the Tarot. There is then a
remarkable short section on Levi, to be described below. This is followed
by a 20-page exposition of the divinatory meanings attached to the Tarot
cards by Paul Christian, using his names for the 22 Arcana. Finally, two
pages are devoted to Papus's own work on the subject. The first promises
a revised version of Le Tarot des Bohemiens, incorporating the diagram,
shown below, that takes up the second of the two pages.
260 A Wicked Pack of Cards
The number 22, which occupies the small central circle, represents the
World (trump XXI in the usual numbering), while 21 represents the Fool;
the other numbers in the inner rings of course represent the other major
Arcana. Papus points out that the number of each lower-numbered Ar-
canum is the 'theosophic sum' of that of the high-numbered one adjacent
to it in the same sector (e.g. 3 is the theosophic sum of 12).
The text of the section on Levi is only five lines long; but the section
contains seven illustrations. Papus explains that there had come into his
possession many of the papers left by Eliphas Levi upon his death. Among
them he found some engravings of Egyptian subjects with manuscript
notes by Levi identifying them as ancient Egyptian Tarots; he reproduces
two of these. He also reproduces five other engravings of Indian subjects. 59
These somewhat crude engravings, after Indian originals, carry Roman
numerals, names written in Devanagari and in Roman script, and some
single Roman capital letters in various places. It should at least be obvious
that they are plates from some book, the single letters referring to a key. 60
In his captions to them Papus makes a quite absurd error: he calls them
collectively 'Tarot Indien'. They are in fact five out of a set of ten illus-
trations, each of one of the incarnations of Vishnu. The full set of
illustrations, tallying exactly with those published by Papus, is to be found
in a work in many volumes of 1723 on world religions by Bernard Picart. 61
They are redrawn from a highly similar set that appeared in Athanasius
Kircher's China illustrata of 1667.62 Picart quotes an extended passage
from Kircher about the ten incarnations, 63 which he then proceeds to
controvert, illustrating the quotation by the engravings in question and
labelling them 'Kircher's illustrations'.
Naturally, none of this has anything whatever to do with the Tarot. No
annotations by Levi appear on the engravings illustrated by Papus, and
there is no reason to suppose that Levi himself imagined them to be part
of an Indian Tarot. It says little for Papus's knowledge or good sense that
he should have believed that he did.64 Levi was no scholar, though he
probably believed himself one and convinced many of his readers that he
was; but Papus was a credulous man who could not even assume the air
of a scholar.
Le Tarot divinatoire was to be the last of Papus's 'big' treatises. But a
flow of booklets, fascicules and other publications flowed from his pen,
some dealing with Martinism, others with bewitchment, reincarnation,
Hebrew script, homeopathy or how to succeed in marriage (Comment faire
un bon mariage, Paris, 1914). In 1911 he left the Gnostic Church (now 'of
France') for the Catholic Gnostic Church, which had split"away from the
parent body in 1908, offering to Jean Bricaud the title of Patriarch.
Bricaud assumed the name of Jean II, and in 1916 proposed to Papus that
his Church should be the official church of the Martinist Order 'as in
Doinel's time'. 65 Papus was occupied with many activities, medical and
occultist; but his health was seriously declining. Diabetes and fatigue were
 11. Papus and his Circle 261
affecting him. In the meantime, the Martinist Order had been on the wane
since 1898. Most of the members were leaving: in 1899 the Belgian
members went over to the Theosophical Society, and in 1904 Jollivet-
Castelot broke with it. Teder's return to France from England in 1907
brought some new strength, and in 1910 three more grades were added to
the existing four; 66 but in 1910-11 Marc Haven retired and Sedir went
away. Since 1909, Papus had left the editorship of Le Voile d'Isis to Sedir,
who had in fact handed it over to Paul Chacornac. 67 In 1913, L'Initiation
changed its title to Mysteria and was entrusted to the Friends of Saint-
Yves.
When the First World War broke out, Gerard Encausse was mobilised,
in August 1914, as First Class Reserve Medical Officer. But he was now
49, and he was not in good shape. Too weak to continue his service in the
trenches, he was demobilised in February 1915 and appointed Chief
Medical Officer of the Paris 5th Section. But he fell ill once more, this time
with tuberculosis. Sent to the Hopital de la Charite, where he had learned
his medicine with Dr Luys, he died there on 25 October 1916. His death
prompted articles in many newspapers such as Le Temps (by Abel Her-
mant), Le Figaro (by A. de Pouvourville), Le Mercure de France, La
Semaine litteraire de Gen.eveand even the Daily Mail. 68
The son of Gerard Encausse, Philippe ne Charlatte (1906-84), later
obtained the right to use his father's surname. Like his father, Philippe
Encausse was a qualified doctor. He wrote two lives of his father in 1932
and 1979, together with works about the occult, such as Sciences occultes,
ou 25 annees d'occultisme occidental (The Occult Sciences; or 25 Years of
Western Occultism, 1949).

*
Eliphas Levi had given occultism an apparent intellectual substance;
Papus systematised the doctrine which Levi had adumbrated. Levi had
integrated the Tarot into occult theory in a manner different from Et-
teilla's; Papus, in Le Tarot des Bohemiens, had systematised that, too,
although he had allowed systematisation to go to his head. Levi and Papus
were the only two French occultist writers to be translated into English
before 1952, when they were joined by Paul Christian. They were both
masters: yet, for British occultists as well as French ones, Levi remained
the great master, Papus only a little master.
The first significant manifestations of Tarot occultism, or of occu)tism
of the school of Levi, in Britain (or anywhere else outside France) were
contemporaneous with the events of this chapter; they occurred princi-
pally in the teachings and practice of a secret order. But for a hundred
years previously the occult Tarot had been an exclusively French pheno-
menon; and, save for an independent practice of cartomancy with the very
different Bolognese version of the Tarot pack, the same is true of the
262 A Wicked Pack of Cards
divinatory Tarot. The occult Tarot, and its extensive use for divination,
were initiated by Etteilla, fired by the historical speculations of Court de
Gebelin. For three-quarters of a century, the esoteric Tarot had been
Etteilla's Egyptian Tarot, until Eliphas Levi had shouldered it aside and
fostered a return to the Tarot de Marseille, or at least to more traditional
forms based on its images and trump order.
Levi had replaced Etteilla's Hermetic Tarot by a Cabalistic Tarot. Yet
he had felt himself unable to repudiate the association of the Tarot with
ancient Egypt, an association strongly maintained by Paul Christian and
endorsed by all the mock-Egyptian Tarots from those of Wegener and
Goulinat onwards. Levi, and Papus after him, had ridiculed the 'per-
ruquier' Etteilla. It was indeed not difficult to make fun of the imperfectly
self-educated tradesman who had aspired to be a magus, but wrote exe-
crable French in his disorganised publications. But they made more fun of
him than he deserved. He had after all commanded the respect of a whole
circle of followers, some of higher social status than he. His influence
lingered, and has not even yet died out, if only in techniques of divination.
His theories were based on false premisses: that the Tarot was invented
in ancient Egypt; and that Hermes Trismegistus was an ancient Egyptian
sage. Yet, given those premisses, his theory was perfectly rational and
coherent. Levi replaced it by connecting the Tarot with the Cabala.· This
was a far more effective means of integrating it with magical doctrines: it
allowed of an association of the cards, not only with the letters of the
Hebrew alphabet and of the Divine Name, but also with the planets, the
zodiac and the elements, and so with astrology and alchemy. Yet it was a
theory absurd on its face: no false hypotheses could render it credible. It
was Etteilla, and not Levi, who had produced the only plausible theory.
Nevertheless, despite its manifest untenability, it was Levi's Cabalistic
interpretation that was to be incorporated into all subsequent magical
lore, and to form the basis of all later occultist theories of the Tarot.
262 A Wicked Pack of Cards
divinatory Tarot. The occult Tarot, and its extensive use for divination,
were initiated by Etteilla, fired by the historical speculations of Court de
Gebelin. For three-quarters of a century, the esoteric Tarot had been
Etteilla's Egyptian Tarot, until Eliphas Levi had shouldered it aside and
fostered a return to the Tarot de Marseille, or at least to more traditional
forms based on its images and trump order.
Levi had replaced Etteilla's Hermetic Tarot by a Cabalistic Tarot. Yet
he had felt himself unable to repudiate the association of the Tarot with
ancient Egypt, an association strongly maintained by Paul Christian and
endorsed by all the mock-Egyptian Tarots from those of Wegener and
Goulinat onwards. Levi, and Papus after him, had ridiculed the 'per-
ruquier' Etteilla. It was indeed not difficult to make fun of the imperfectly
self-educated tradesman who had aspired to be a magus, but wrote exe-
crable French in his disorganised publications. But they made more fun of
him than he deserved. He had after all commanded the respect of a whole
circle of followers, some of higher social status than he. His influence
lingered, and has not even yet died out, if only in techniques of divination.
His theories were based on false premisses: that the Tarot was invented
in ancient Egypt; and that Hermes Trismegistus was an ancient Egyptian
sage. Yet, given those premisses, his theory was perfectly rational and
coherent. Levi replaced it by connecting the Tarot with the Cabala. This
was a far more effective means of integrating it with magical doctrines: it
allowed of an association of the cards, not only with the letters of the
Hebrew alphabet and of the Divine Name, but also with the planets, the
zodiac and the elements, and so with astrology and alchemy. Yet it was a
theory absurd on its face: no false hypotheses could render it credible. It
was Etteilla, and not Levi, who had produced the only plausible theory.
Nevertheless, despite its manifest untenability, it was Levi's Cabalistic
interpretation that was to be incorporated into all subsequent magical
lore, and to form the basis of all later occultist theories of the Tarot.
 Notes

Introduction: Imaginary Magi

1. See Nag Hammadi Codex VI, 6: Discourse on the Eighth and Ninth, given
in James M. Robinson (ed.), The Nag Hammadi Library in English, Leiden, 1978
(reprint San Francisco, 1981), pp. 292-7. See also Greek Magical Papyri IV:886,
VII:551, given in Hans Dieter Betz (ed.), The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation,
Vol. 1, Chicago, 1992, pp. 55, 133. Cf. Festugiere 1950, pp. 287-308.
2. See Wilhelm Gundel, 'Dekane und Dekansternbilder', Studien der Bib-
liothek Warburg, XIX, London and Glueckstadt-Hamburg, 1936.
3. For an English translation, see Manilius, Astronomica, G.P. Goold (trans.),
Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1977 (new edition 1985).
4. For an English translation, see Ptolemy, Tetrabiblos, F. E. Robbins (trans.),
Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1940 (reprint 1980).
5. In the first century, Manilius classified some signs as aquatic and terrene,
but also human and bestial - deriving from the literal interpretation of the images
and not from Greek elements or zodiacal triplicities. The same literalism is seen
in the Centiloquium, a V- or VI-century treatise, wrongly attributed to Ptolemy
and sometimes given incorrectly as the first evidence of zodiacal triplicities asso-
ciated with four elements.
6. Julius Firmicus Maternus, Mathesis I, 9:3. For an English translation, see
Jean Rhys Bram, Ancient Astrology: Theory and Practice, Park Ridge, New Jersey,
1975.
7. For the Physica, see P. Gassendi, Opera, Vol. I, Paris, 1658, pp. 7llff;
summarised in Thorndike 1958, Vol. VII, pp. 44 7-50. See also the translation by 'a
person of quality', The Vanity of Judiciary Astrology, or divination by the stars.
Lately written in Latin by ... P. Gassendus, London, 1659.
8. All editions are superseded by A. D. Nock and A.-J. Festugiere (eds.), Corpus
Hermeticum, Paris, 1946-54.
9. Scott 1924-36, Vol. II, pp. 15-17.
10. See Patrick Boylan, Thoth: the Hermes of Egypt, Dublin, 1922 (reprint
Chicago, 1987), pp. 180-98.
11. Corpus Hermeticum I, par. 6ff; for the translation, see Scott 1924, Vol. I, pp.
117-23.
12. D.P. Walker, Spiritual and Demonic Magic from Ficino to Campanella,
London, 1958 (reprint Notre Dame, Indiana, 1975).
13. For more translations and editions, see G.R.S. Mead, Thrice Greatest
Hermes, London, 1906 (reprint York Beach, Maine, 1992), pp. 6-11, and Copen-
haver 1992, pp. xlix-lvi.
14. Faivre 1995, pp. 62, 189, suggests that Alethophilus was W. von Metternich.
15. Isaac Casaubon, De rebus sacris et ecclesiasticis exercitiones XVI (Sixteen
Exercises on Sacred and Ecclesiastical Matters), London, 1614, p. 56.
264 Notes to pp. 7-11
16. Mircea Eliade, The Forge and the Crucible, London and New York, 1962
(reprint New York, 1971).
17. Copenhaver 1992, p. xxxv. Cf. Festugiere 1950, pp. 197ff.
18. For English translations of Zosimus's text, see F.S. Taylor, 'The Visions of
Zosimus', Ambix 1 (1937), pp. 88-92; Taylor 1949, pp. 60-5, and Jung 1967, pp.
59-65. For interpretations, see Jung 1967, pp. 66-108, and Joseph Campbell and
Richard Roberts, Tarot Revelations, San Anselmo, California, 1987, pp. 125-31.
19. Pagan Neoplatonists were fond offinding multilevel meanings in myths and
poems. Christian exegetes, both ancient and mediaeval, treated Scripture in the
same way. The levels typically were: literal, moral, spiritual and mystical.
20. This concept occurs in the Corpus Hermeticum [IX, 9; XVI, 3) and the
Asclepius: omnia unum esse et unum omnia. The saying goes back to Heraclitus.
Cf. Scott 1926, Vol. III, pp. 9-11.
21. Our language still refers to alcoholic 'spirits', 'mineral spirits', 'spirits of
turpentine' and 'gum spirit' - all terms deriving from the alchemist's belief that
distillation could isolate a chemical's essential character (spiritus).
22. Alchemists may have regarded the body of Osiris as symbolic of their 'prime
matter', the supposed substance to which chemicals had to be reduced before they
could be refined. See E.A. Wallis Budge, Egyptian Magic, London, 1899 (reprint
1988), p. 20.
23. Holmyard 1957, pp. 28-9.
24. Mary Anne Atwood, A Suggestive Inquiry into the Hermetic Mystery, Lon-
don, 1850 (reprint Belfast, 1983).
25. Ethan Allen Hitchcock, Remarks upon Alchymists, and the Supposed.Object
of Their Pursuit, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, 1855, and Remarks upon Alchemy and
the Alchemists, Boston, 1857 (reprint Los Angeles and New York, 1976).
26. Taylor 1949, p. 227. Cf. pp. 159-60. Taylor's use ofHermetism shows a rare
expertise.
27. For introductions to Islamic alchemy, see Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic
Science, Westerham, Kent, 1976, pp. 193-208, and Holmyard 1957, pp. 60-104.
28. It was Dr Eric John Holmyard who, in 1923, directed the attention of
Western scholars to Jabir's treatment of the Emerald Tablet. See Holmyard 1957,
p. 81.
29. Faivre 1995, pp. 92ff.
30. R. Steele and D.W. Singer, 'The Emerald Table', Proceedings of the Royal
Academy of Medicine, 21 (1927), pp. 485-501. Cf. Holmyard 1957, p. 98.
31. See Taylor 1949, p. 88; Julius Ruska, Tabula Smaragdina, Heidelberg,
1926; Titus Burckhardt,Alchemy, London, 1967, pp. 196-201 (translated from the
German: Alchemie, Olten, 1960), and Georg Luck, Arcana Mundi, Baltimore and
London, 1985, pp. 368-9 (with bibliography).
32. Jack Lindsay, The Origins of Alchemy in Greco-Roman Egypt, New York,
1970, p. 185.
33. Holmyard 1957, p. 106. Cf. Thorndike 1923, Vol. I, p. 773.
34. Thorndike 1934, Vol. 3, pp. 43, 47, 134, 637.
35. For example: the Book of Jubilees, the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs,
and late versions of the Life of Adam and Eve. They are translated, along with the
books of Enoch, in James H. Charlesworth (ed.), The Old Testament Pseudepi-
grapha, 2 Vols., New York, 1983, and in H.F.D. Sparks, The Apocryphal Old
Testament, Oxford, 1984. Other references to Enoch are translated in Elizabeth
Clare Prophet (ed.), Forbidden Mysteries of Enoch, Livingston, Montana, 1983,
1992.
36. For a scholarly article on Metatron, see Scholem 1974, pp. 377-81.
 Notes to pp. 11-28 265
37. Faivre 1995, p. 19; Copenhaver 1992, p. xlvi; Scott 1936, Vol. IV, p. 270.
38. Notable titles are Hekhalot Zutartey (Lesser Palace) and Hekhalot Rabbati
(Greater Palace); see Scholem 1974, p. 374-5.
39. Kaplan (A) 1990, p. xvii, preserves the traditional attribution to Akiba by
supposing that oral teachings by the Rabbi provided the nucleus of the Sepher
Yetzirah which was then expanded by others.
40. For a complete translation and commentary, see Kaplan (A.) 1990. On pp.
178-9, he lists seven other versions, each with a different distribution of planets,
weekdays and body parts. Other alternatives appear in the translations by Isidor
Kalish (1877), W. Wynn Westcott (1887) and Knut Stenring (1923).
41. Kircher 1652-4, Vol. III, pp. 224-8.
42. AE. Waite, The Doctrine and Literature of the Kabalah, London, 1902, p.
310; revised ed., The Holy Kabbalah, London, 1929 (reprint Secaucus, New Jersey,
1960, p. 425).
43. Ehregott Daniel Colberg, Das Platonisch-Hermetische Christenthum, be-
greiffend die historische Erzehlung vom Ursprung und vielerley Secten der
heutigen fanatischen Theologie ... , Vol. I, Frankfort and Leipzig, 1690, p. 89.
44. Richter's first name was either Sigmund (see Cavendish 1977, p. 126) or
Samuel (see Faivre 1994, pp. 71, 180). Richter purports to give the laws of the
Rosicrucian Order (summarised by Waite 1924, pp. 403-13).
45. The most detailed account of XVIII-century Freemasonry is the posthumous
work by Le Forestier (see bibliography).
46. According to Michael Howard, The Occult Conspiracy, Rochester, Vermont,
1989, p. 61, Frederick the Great was the founder of the African Architects. But von
Koppen is usually credited: see Waite 1921, Vol. I, p. 9, Vol. II, p. 130; and Faivre
1994, p. 80.
47. For the English translation by John Yarker, see Manly P. Hall, Freemasonry
of the Ancient Egyptians, Los Angeles, 1937 (reprint 1973), pp. 73-101. Yarker used
a French translation by Antoine Bailleu! (Paris, 1821- not, as stated, 1778), made
from the German original (Berlin, 1778).
48. There is a study of this Society by Horst Moller, 'Die Gold- und Rosen-
kreuzer: Struktur, Zielsetzung und Wirkung einer anti-aufkliirischen
Geheimgesellschaft', Wolfenbiitteler Studien zur Aufklarung, Vol. V, part 1, Ge-
heime Gesellschaften, Peter Christian Ludz (ed.), Heidelberg, 1979, pp. 153-202.
49. See further Darnton 1968.

1. Game or Magic?
1. Levi 1923, p. 396; cf. p. 177.
2. Part of the Cary Collection now in the Beinecke Library at Yale University,
and generally known as the 'Visconti di Modrone' pack.
3. Greer & Pollack 1989, pp. 5 and 7.
4. See the title-page of Papus 1889.
5. Williams 1975, pp. 131-2.
6. See G. Bertoni, 'Tarocchi versificati', in his Poesie, leggende, costumanze del
media evo (Poems, Legends and Customs of the Middle Ages), Modena, 1917, p."218,
fn. 3, and G. Campori, 'Le carte da gioco dipinte per gli Estensi nel sec. XV'
('Playing Cards Painted for the d'Este Family in the XV Century'), in Atti e
memorie delle Deputazioni di storia patria per le provincie modenesi e parmensi
(Proceedings and Records of Local History for the Provinces of Modena and
Parma), Vol. 7, 1874, p. 1~6.
7. See M.C. Leber, 'Etudes historiques sur les cartes a jouer' ('Historical
266 Notes to pp. 28-32
Studies on Playing Cards'), in Memoires de la Societe des Antiquaires de France
(Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of France), new series, Vol. 6, 1842, pp.
256-348, and Depaulis 1986, Additif. Leber may have derived the idea from the
abbe Louis du Four de Longuerue, who died in 1733, and whose observations on
the cards were posthumously published in 1754.
8. Published in Menestrier 1704, Vol. II, pp. 174-5.
9. See Depaulis 1986.
10. William Andrew Chatto, Facts and Speculations on the Origins and History
of Playing Cards, London, 1848, and Merlin 1869. The Tarot cards in the Bib-
liotheque Nationale are often referred to as 'Les tarots dits de Charles VI' ('the
so-called Charles VI tarots') as a convenient means of identification, without any
implication that they were really made for that monarch.
11. Borso d'Este reigned from 1450 to 1471, Ercole I from 1471 to 1505. The
earlier set, composed of fifteen cards, is now the property of the Museo Civico,
Catania. The Museo Civico is housed in the Castello Ursino, the restoration of
which has recently been completed after some years. The evidence for the cards'
having been made for one of the d'Este rulers is the shield held by the King of
Swords, which bears the heraldic emblem (impresa) used by them of a carnation
in a diamond ring. The two cards whose design closely resembles those of the
corresponding cards in the 'Charles VI' set are the Hermit and the World. A
minority view is that the 'Charles VI' pack is the work of a Florentine artist; but
there is no dispute that its date must lie between 1460 and 1490.
12. The theory was advanced in Merlin 1869, and refuted in Steele 1900. The
error was to interpret the Italian word naibi, used in the XIV and XV centuries, to
mean 'Tarot cards', whereas it simply meant 'playing cards'.
13. The term 'ordinary pack' will be used throughout to mean a pack divided
into suits and composed exclusively (save possibly for one or two Jokers) of cards
belonging to one or other of those suits, irrespective of the particular suit-signs
used. An 'ordinary pack' thus stands in contrast to a Tarot pack.
14. This is the Visconti di Modrone pack, previously mentioned as probably the
earliest surviving Tarot pack: see note 2.
15. Archivio ducale sforzesco: registri delle missive, Vol. II, Archivio di Stato,
Milan, 1982, p. 4: cited in Kaplan 1986, pp. 4-7.
16. See Franco Pratesi, 'Carte da gioco a Firenze: il primo secolo', The Playing
Card, Vol. XIX, 1990, p. 16.
17. Berti & Vitali 1987, p. 125, no. 42.
18. See W.L. Schreiber, Die altesten Spielkarten, Strasbourg, 1937, pp. 78-9,
and Dummett 1980, pp. 98-9.
19. See Steele 1900, and Ron Decker, 'The Steele Manuscript', The Playing
Card, Vol. XVII, 1989, pp. 73-7.
20. The earlier of the two poems concerning conclaves is about that of 1522
which elected Adrian VI, and was written by Pietro Aretino: see Vittorio Rossi
(ed.), Pasquinate di Pietro Aretino ed anonime per il conclave a l'elezione di
Adriano VI (Pasquinades, Anonymous and by Pietro Aretino, for the Conclave for
the Election of Adrian VI), Palermo, 1891, or Mario dell'Arco (ed.), Pasquino e le
pasquinate (Pasquin and the Pasquinades), Milan, 1957. The second, an imitation
of Aretino's poem, relates to the conclave of 1559, which elected -Pius IV: see
Vittorio Cian, 'Gioviana. Di Paolo Giovio poeta, fra poeti, e di alcune rime sconos-
ciute del sec. XVI' ('Gioviana: On Paolo Giovio, Poet among the Poets, and on some
Unknown XVI-century Verses'), Giornale storico della letteratura italiana (His-
torical Journal of Italian Literature), Vol. XVII, 1890, pp. 338-40, and Depaulis
1986. The verse diatribe is the lnuettiua contra il Giuoco del Taroco by Flavio
 Notes to pp. 32-38 267
Alberto Lollio, a Ferrarese poet. It was included in the volume Rime piacevoli,
Venice, 1550, and is reprinted in part in Singer 1816, Appendix XIII, and in
Dummett 1980, pp. 432-3. The Risposta replying to it is by Vincenzo Imperiali, also
of Ferrara, exists in manuscript but has not been published: see Franco Pratesi,
'Italian Cards: New Discoveries no. 3', The Playing Card, Vol. XV, 1987, pp. 123-31.
21. See the Schweizerdeutsches Worterbuch, Frauenfeld, 1978, s.v. 'Trogge', and
Grimm, Deutsches Worterbuch, Vol. XI, p. 1.
22. Garasse 1622, p. 217. Garasse's book was an attack on Pasquier 1596.
23. Girolamo Bargagli, Dialogo de' Giuochi che nelle vegghie Sanesi si usano di
fare del materiale Intronato, Siena, 1572, giudizio 57. The meaning of the title is
obscure. Franco Pratesi has suggested that 'il materiale Intronato' may be in-
tended as a pseudonym of Bargagli, the 'Intronato' indicating his membership of
the Sienese Accademia degli Intronati (where the last word should perhaps be
understood as meaning 'absent-minded' rather than 'deafened', its usual sense). In
this case the title should be translated Dialogue of Games Customarily Played at
Sienese Gatherings, by 'il Materiale Intronato'.
24. See Le Poesi volgari e latine di M.M. Boiardo (The Italian and Latin Poems
of M.M.B.), ed. Angelo Solerti, Bologna, 1894, pp. 313-38, or Tutte le opere di
Matteo Maria Boiardo (Complete Works of M.M.B.), ed. A. Zottoli, Vol. II, Milan,
1937, pp. 702-16; also M. Dummett, 'Notes on a fifteenth-century pack of cards
from Italy', Journal of the Playing-Card Society, Vol. I, 1973, pp. 1-6, and Dummett
1980, p. 421.
25. For the unpublished and anonymous Discorso, see F. Pratesi, 'Italian Cards:
New Discoveries no. 2', The Playing Card, Vol. XV, 1987, pp. 80-7, and for
Francesco Piscina, Discorso sopra l'ordine delle figure de Tarocchi (Oration on the
Order of the Tarot Figures), Mondovi, 1565, see idem, 'Italian Cards: New Discov-
eries no. 4', ibid., Vol. XVI, 1987, pp. 27-36.
26. The eccentric work Il Caos di Triperuno (The Chaos of Three-for-One) by
Teofilo Folengo, published in Venice in 1527 under the pseudonym Merlin Cocai.
27. De luxe cards with non-standard designs, perhaps by specially commis-
sioned artists, are often also made, and include the early hand-painted tarots; but
these are not, of course, those 'ordinarily used for play'.
28. Under the name 'Primiera bolognese' this form of ordinary pack is still in
use in outlying districts, though not in the city of Bologna itself.
29. There is an indication that Etteilla may have seen a Belgian Tarot pack; but
the significance of its marked differences from the Tarot de Marseille does not
seem to have struck him.
30. In the XIX century, the Bolognese and Sicilian patterns remained in use, as
did the Florentine one in the expanded form known as 'Minchiate'. When Tarot
occultism was born, the Belgian pattern was also still flourishing.
31. Although information was less easy to come by than it now is, the first great
book on the history of playing cards, that by Immanuel Breitkopf, came out in
1784, and the magnificent book by S.W. Singer appeared in 1816: either would
have given the occultists much information that they lacked.
32. The Bolognese and Sicilian Tarot packs, and the Minchiate pack used in
Tuscany, the Papal States and Genoa, all arranged the trumps in variants of a
radically different order. An easily available source such as Tomaso Garzoni' s book
La piazza universale (The Universal Marketplace) of 1585 recorded yet another
order, radically different again and formerly used in Ferrara.
268 Notes to pp. 40-46

2. How Tarot Divination Began

1. These are the cards formerly supposed to have been painted by Gringonneur
for Charles VI of France.
2. This is the original rule, still observed in many Tarot games. A newer mode
of play was invented in the XVIII century, and prevails throughout the former
Habsburg Empire, under which the Fool (German Skus) is the highest trump,
beating the XXI.
3. It was introduced into card play by the Spanish game of Ombre, which in
the XVII and XVIII centuries spread all over Europe and, with its derivatives such
as Quadrille, became the most fashionable card game ever known. The practice of
bidding was then adapted from Ombre and Quadrille for many already existing
trick-taking games, including Tarot games.
4. The Persian game of Ganjifa, carried to India by the Moghuls and still
tenuously surviving there, is a trick-taking game without trumps.
5. The game survives in one of the Swiss valleys under the name 'Kaiserspiel',
and descendants of it in Sweden, Iceland and Greenland.
6. In addition, the only documentary source we have for the Lombard order
gives the Popess as ranking above the Empress, whereas in all French packs,
including that ofVieville, she ranks below her.
7. We know from the Discorso of Francesco Piscina, mentioned in note 25 to
Chapter 1, that the order observed for the trumps in XVI-century Piedmont
coincided with the Lombard one here explained, with two salient exceptions, both
associated with Bologna: the Angel ranks as the highest trump, followea by the
World; and the Pope, Popess, Emperor and Empress are treated as of equal rank.
The first of these two features characterises the practice of Piedmontese Tarot
players to this day, despite their using cards in which the World is numbered 21
and the Angel 20. The second is a feature of Bolognese play, not followed in
Florence or further south: any one of the four cards (known collectively as 'Popes'
in Bologna), played to a trick, is beaten by any other of them, played later to the
same trick. This rule was formerly observed in Savoy, and is observed to the
present day in certain parts of Piedmont.
8. Such chairs are frequent in the Milanese pattern; the tops of their high
backs are curved, sloping down towards the centre. The 'Cary sheet' is an uncut
sheet of cards in the Cary Collection belonging to the Beinecke Library of Yale
University; many of the cards show a clear resemblance to the Tarot de Marseille
designs, which we know to have been derived from the standard pattern used up
to the end of the XVII century in Milan.
9. Petrarch's celebrated poem I Trionfi expressed the same conception in
verse.
10. The most recent example was due to the modern cardmaking firm of
Modiano when they started to manufacture the Sicilian Tarot pack in about
1960.
11. In the Rouen pack, he is clearly depicted as Saturn, god of time; and in many
versions he has the attributes of Time. In Renaissance art, Saturn was associated
with astrologers, philosophers and hermits, which supplies some excuse for· re-
naming him 'the Hermit' and depicting him as a holy man; it remains a
misinterpretation.
12. As were those of Mussolini and his mistress in Milan after the fall of the
Fascist regime.
13. Massive documentation of this practice is provided by the study by Ghe-
 Notes to pp. 48-55 269
rardo Ortalli, La peinture infamante duXIIIe au XV!e siecle, Paris, 1994, a revised
edition of the original Italian version, La Pittura infamante nei secoli XIII-XVI,
Rome, 1979. On p. 78 of the French edition Ortalli expresses the view that the
Hanged Man in the Tarot pack represents a traitor so depicted in such a shame
painting. The first person, to our knowledge, to have proposed this interpretation
of the card was Gertrude Moakley in her pioneering book of 1966, p. 95, at a time
when the the practice of making such 'shame-paintings' had been very little
discussed.
14. The only definite evidence comes from the memoirs of Casanova, whose
peasant mistress in 1765 used to lay out the cards to predict the future, in a
manner that may have as yet been unknown at that date further West (Casanova
1993, Vol. III, pp. 403-4). Seep. 74 of the present book.
US.11Giuoco pratico, anon. [R. Bisteghi], Bologna, 1753, and Istruzioni neces-
sarie per che si volesse imparare il dilettevole giuoco dei Tarocchini, anon. [C.
Pisarri], Bologna, 1754.
16. F. Pratesi, 'Italian Cards: New Discoveries, no. 9', The Playing Card, Vol.
XVII, 1989,pp. 136-45.
17. The order in which they are listed is: King of Coins, Knight of Coins,
Fantesca of Cups, Fante of Batons, Ace of Cups, Star, Ace of Batons, Ace of Swords,
Ace of Coins, Angel, Chariot, World, Knight of Batons, Traitor, Devil, Moon, Sun,
Bagattino, Matto, Love, Knight of Cups, 10 of Swords, 10 of Cups, 10 of Coins,
Force, Fantesca of Coins, Queen of Batons, Queen of Cups, Death, Queen of Coins,
Temperance, King of Swords, King of Cups, King of Batons, Old Man.
18. See Berti & Vitali 1987, no. 118, p. 191. This pack, from the collection of
Renzo Salvade, is the same as that mentioned by Franco Pratesi as shown in an
exhibition at Fiesole in 1988; see F. Pratesi, 'Tarot bolonais et cartomancie', L'.As
de Trefie, no. 37, May 1989, pp. 10-11. As Pratesi states, the hand-written inscrip-
tions are similar, but not identical, to those in the manuscript list; the Star is
labelled roba (belongings), while 'roof tiles' (coppi) appears on the 9, not the 10, of
Cups. By this date, all the cards of the pack were being used for divinatory
purposes.

3. The Founders of Tarot Occultism

1. See Hugues 1872 ,and Court 1885.
2. Rabaut de Saint-Etienne, Lettre sur la vie et Lesecrits de Court de Gebelin,
Paris, 1784.
3. Schmidt 1908. Schmidt acknowledges that much of his evidence for the date
he proposes for Court de Gebelin's birth was discovered by the pastor Emile
Gaidan.
4. Dictionnaire de biographie franr;aise, Vol. IX, Paris, 1960.
5. See Hugues 1872 and Court 1885.
6. Hugues 1872, Vol. 1, p. 351.
7. Hugues 1872, Vol. 1, pp. 215, 353; Court 1885, pp. 193-4.
8. Daniel Robert, 'Court de Gebelin, son cours de religion, les debuts de son
sejour en France (1763-1767)', Annuaire de l'Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes
(sciences religieuses), Vol. 78, 1970-71, pp. 31-63. We are grateful to M Jean-Marie
Lhote for a copy of this article, and for helpful discussions of this problem.
9. Her son was to pay a tribute to her twenty-six years later; see Court de
Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, 1781, p. 9.
10. Cf. Le Forestier 1970, p. 620.
11. Cf. Lhote 1983, pp. 42 and 44.
270 Notes to pp. 55-61
12. See Schmidt 1908, pp. 151-2, Lhote 1983, pp. 41-2, and Viatte 1928, p. 186.
13. Le Forestier 1970, p. 737.
14. Le Forestier 1970, p. 530.
15. Le Forestier 1970, p. 621.
16. See Viatte 1928, Vol. I, pp. 65 and 150-2, Mcintosh 1972, p. 30, and Le
Forestier 1970, p. 624.
17. See Lhote 1983, p. 42. Le Forestier 1970, p. 519, fn. 41, contests this, without
giving any reason; but Faivre 1973, p. 134, accepts it.
18. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. II, 1774, 'Plan general et raisonne', p. 83.
19. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, 1781, p. xix.
20. Abbe Le Gros, Analyse des ouvrages de J ..J. Rousseau, de Geneve, et de M.
Court de Gebelin, auteur du Moncie primitif (Analysis of the Works of J ..J. Rous·
seau of Geneva and of M. Court de Gebelin, Author of the Monde primitif), Paris,
1785.
21. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. II, 1774, 'Allegories Orientales', pp. 147-258.
22. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. V, 1778, 'Dictionnaire etymologique de la
langue franc;oise', col. 776.
23. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. III, 1775, 'Origine du langage et de l'ecri-
ture', p. 410.
24. See Baltrusaitis 1967.
25. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. II, 1774, 'Du genie allegorique et symbolique
des Anciens', p. 165, and 'Plan General et Raisonne', pp. 60-1.
26. Cols. 1118-19.
27. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, 1781, p. 367.
28. Lhote 1983, p. 86.
29. The game of Tarot was described in a brief treatise printed, probably in
Paris, in about 1655: see Depaulis 1984, p. 66. It was also described in editions of
the card-game book La Maison academique from 1659 to 1702. When the series
was resumed in 1718, however, in the form of the Academie universelle des Jeux,
the game of Tarot had been dropped, and was not subsequently reinstated. A
pamphlet published in 1725 by the master cardmakers of Paris against the master
stationers (Bib. Nat., Imp., Fm 12384) mentions 'Tarot cards, which are a peculiar
kind of playing cards whose use is unknown in Paris today'. An edition of 1726 of
Les facetieuses nuits, a translation by Jean Louveau and Pierre de Larivey Cham-
penois of a book of riddles by the Italian author Giovanni Francesco Straparola,
glossed the answer 'the game of Tarot' to one of the riddles by explaining to the
readers 'a kind of card game nowadays obsolete', though in fact the game still
flourished vigorously in Alsace, Burgundy and Provence.
30. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol VIII, 1781, 'Discours preliminaire', p. 6, and
'Vue Generale', p. 12.
31. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, p. 365.
32. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, p. 380.
33. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, p. 365.
34. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, pp. 369 and 381-2.
35. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, pp. 379-80.
36. Lhote 1983, p. 37.
37. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, p. 370.
38. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, pp. 371-2.
39. A solitary exception, among the representations of the virtues on Tarot
trumps, is the depiction of Fortitude by Hercules in combat with the lion; this
occurs on the relevant trump in the so-called Visconti-Sforza pack, painted either
for Francesco Sforza (Duke of Milan from 1450 to 1466), or for his son and
 Notes to pp. 61-74 271
successor Galeazzo Maria Sforza (Duke from 1466 to 1476). The Visconti-Sforza
pack is divided between the Accademia Carrara of Bergamo, the Colleoni family
in the same city and the Pierpont Morgan Library of New York. Six of the cards,
of which Fortitude is one, are by a different (and presumably later) artist from the
rest.
40. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, pp. 370-1, 372-3 and 375.
41. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, pp. 376-7.
42. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, pp. 374-5.
43. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, pp. 373-4.
44. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, pp. 377-8.
45. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, p. 379.
46. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, p. 369.
47. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, pp. 384-5.
48. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, pp. 385-6.
49. Darnton 1968, pp. 116-17.
50. Vibrations lucifiques et sonifiques. See Darnton 1968, pp. 24 and 99, and
Appendix II, pp. 178-9. On p. 99, Darnton unjustly ridicules Carra, having incor-
rectly transcribed 'sonifiques' as 'conifiques'.
51. See Darnton 1968, p. 117, the comte de Resie, Histoire et traite des sciences
occultes (The Occult Sciences: History and Treatise), Vol. 2, Paris, 1857, p. 183, and
Lhote 1983, pp. 66 and 191-5. Alan Gauld's monumental A history of hypnotism,
Cambridge, 1992, contains a good account of the propaganda for Mesmerism
appealing to Court de Gebelin's cure and the tasteless rejoicing of its critics over
his death (pp. 25-6).
52. 'Here lies poor Gebelin,!Who spoke Greek, Hebrew and Latin;/Admire his
heroism, everyone:/He was a martyr to magnetism.' The 'epitaph' is written by
hand on the flyleaf of a copy of Monde primitif in the Bodleian Library in
Oxford.
53. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, p. 6.
54. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, p. 366.
55. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, pp. 393-4.
56. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. IV, 1776, p. xvii.
57. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. III, 1775, p. 524.
58. Dummett 1980, p. 105, fn. 13.
59. Lhote 1983, p. 144. Lhote makes no acknowledgement of the prior identifi-
cation of de Mellet by Briggs, although he cites Dummett 1980 in another
connection on his p. 114.
60. On this subject, see Baltrusaitis 1967.
61. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, pp. 395-6.
62. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, pp. 396-8.
63. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, pp. 398-9.
64. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, p. 399.
65. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, p. 400.
66. Lhote 1983, p. 154.
67. Court de Gebelin 1773-82, Vol. VIII, p. 407.

4. Etteilla: the First Professional Cartomancer

1. Giacomo Casanova, History of my life, first tr(lnslated into EngUsh in
accordance with the original French manuscript by Willa.rd R. Trask, London,
1967-71, Vol. X, ch. 6, pp. 116, 120 (= Casanova 1993, vol. III, pp. 403-4). See also
Hoffmann & Kroppenstedt 1972, pp. 10-11.
272 Notes to pp. 75-80
2. Albert d'Alby, L'oracle parfait, ou maniere de tirer Lescartes (The Complete
Oracle, or A Way to read the Cards), Paris, Blanchon, 1802, which is introduced by
the editor, J.A. Devalembert, as a manuscript written and submitted in 1788 to
royal censorship (see Chapter 7).
3. Menestrier 1704, Vol. II, pp. 175-6. This is the very first historical apprecia·
tion of playing cards.
4. Millet-Saint-Pierre's study first appeared as an article in Bulletin de la
Societe havraise d'Etudes diverses, 1859. The entry in the Dictionnaire de bio-
graphie frarn;aise, Vol. II, 1936, largely relies on it (s.v. 'Alliette'). More recently,
Michael Dummett (Dummett 1980, pp. 105-10) and Eloi'.seMozzani (Mozzani 1988,
ch. 5) have tried to extract more information from a careful reading of Etteilla's
own writings but did not use any archival documents.
5. Arch. Paris, V2E 10639, 12.12.1791.
6. Dummett 1980, p. 106, quoting Fragment sur Les hautes sciences, Paris,
1785, p. 147.
7. Arch. Paris, 8 AZ 483. We do not know when he borrowed this sum.
8. Arch. Paris, 8 AZ 483, nos. 6-28; Arch. Nat. (Paris), Y 14226, 21.12.1769, sv.
'Alliette, veuve Jean-Baptiste'.
9. Arch. Nat. (Paris), Y 14226, 21.12.1769, s.v. 'Alliette, veuve Jean-Baptiste'.
10. Archives of the Bastille (at Bihl. Arsenal, Paris), Mss 12173), 'Alliette' file.
11. Arch. Nat. (Paris),X 48 , 620, 2.12.1758. Until 25, a youth was not allowed to
act as a full responsible adult. In some cases, however, such as the father's death,
a minor (preferably a near-major) could be 'emancipated', i.e. given the right to act
as an adult. This is still current in France.
12. Arch. Paris, DC6 18, f. 150v et DC6 19, ff. 68v-69.
13. Arch. Nat. (Paris), MC, XXN, no. 1023, 4 and 22.11.1791.
14. Arch. Nat. (Paris), MC, V, 915 (1805) and CXII, 889 (1811); Bib.Nat., Impr.,
4° Fm 332 (1826).
15. Etteilla 1786, p. 40; see also Dummett 1980, p. 106.
16. Millet-Saint-Pierre 1859, p. 15. There may actually be a confusion: 'Alexis
Piemontois' is the French pseudonym of Girolamo Ruscelli (1520-1566), an Italian
grammarian, physician, poet, historian and publisher, who wrote a book of'secrets'
(actually cooking and-medical recipes), published in 1552, De' secreti del reverendo
donno Alessio Piemontese, reprinted many times until the XVII century. The book
was even translated into Latin (D. Alexii Pedemontani de Secretis libri sex,
Antwerp, 1560, reprinted up to 1750!), Spanish (Libra de Lossecretos del reverendo
Don Alexo Piamontes, Zaragoza, 1563) and French (Les secrets du seigneur Alexis
Piemontois, Paris, 1564; reprinted up to 1691).
17. Arch. Paris, 8 AZ 483, nos. 6-28.
18. M.M. D'Odoucet, Revolution franr;aise .. , s.l., 1790, fn. p. 45.
19. Journal de Trevoux, November 1770, p. 374.
20. D'Allemagne 1906, I, p. 4 76.
21. Journal de Trevoux, February 1773, p. 371.
22. Halbronn 1993, p. 12.
23. C.-N. Bricaire de La Dixmerie, La comete: conte en l'air, Paris, n.d. (probably
1772 or 1773).
24. J.-S. Ersch, La France litteraire, contenant les auteurs franr;ais de 1771 a
1796, Vol. I, Hamburg, 1797, p. 11: 'Alliette, par anagramme Etteilla, Marchand
d'estampes a Paris.'
25. Pierre Casselle, Le commerce de l'estampe a Paris dans la deuxieme moitie
du XVIIIe siecle, Paris, 1976 (Ecole des Chartes, typed doctoral thesis), s.v.
'Alliette'. Casselle has investigated the Book Office ('la Librairie') archives and
 Notes to pp. 80-87 273
registers, now kept at the Bibliotheque Nationale, Manuscripts Department
(Anisson Collection).
26. Bib.Nat., Mss. Fr 22099, nos. 159 to 166.
27. This 'magical calendar' (Calendarium naturale magicum perpetuum profun-
dissimam rerum secretissimarum contemplationem totiusque philosophiae
cognitionem complectens) actually consists of three sheets, signed 'Authore Johan
Baptista Grosschedel ab Aicha I Io. Theodore de Bry excudeb. I Thico Brahre
inventor 1582'. Two copies are to be found at the Bibliotheque Nationale de France,
Paris (Est., Pc 80, f. 5 I Gr. Fol. and Imp., R 5), another one was offered for sale at
Dorbon's in 1940 (Dorbon 1940, no. 4982). The Calendarium naturale magicum is
listed in Ian Theodor de Bry's oeuvre (F.W.H. Hollstein, Dutch and Flemish
etchings, engravings and woodcuts, c. 1450-1700, IV, Amsterdam, n.d. [c. 1950],
s.v., no. 196a) although I.T. de Bry is the publisher rather than the engraver. It is
very unlikely that Tycho Brahe has anything to do with this 'magical calendar' (cf.
U.S. National Union Catalogue, no. 0541950, quoting W. Norling, Tycho Brahe,
Lund, 1951, p. 341 who expressed doubts about it). Johann Baptist Grosschedel
(or Groschedel, Groszschedel) was an early XVII-century German physician from
Aichach (Bavaria), of whom very little is known save that he published books on
magic in 1609 and 1629. He is the actual designer of the 'magical calendar' which
the National Union Catalogue dates 'c. 1620'. Etteilla says he purchased two of the
sheets at auction in 1775.
28. Etteilla 1787, p. 27. This is a typical example of Etteilla's very confusing
style of digression.
29. Catalogue d'estampes des plus grands ma£tres italiens, fiamands & franr;ois
... de la succession de M. Mariette ... par F. Basan, Paris, 1775.
30. Bib.Nat., Mss, Fr 21918. This signature can easily be compared with
Etteilla's signature, under the name Alliette, on a notarised act (Arch. Nat., MC,
XXIV, 1023, 4.11.1791).
31. Strasbourg City Arch., 5e Livre de Bourgeoisie, VI 286ter, p. 467.
32. Einer ehrsamer Zunft der Stelz. Zun{t-Bilchlein pro anno 1779, Strasbourg,
1779.
33. Etteilla 1785b, pp. 34-5 and fn. 1. Jean-Baptiste Benoist worked until
around 1783 (T. Depaulis, 'Maitres cartiers strasbourgeois', Le Vieux Papier, no.
312 and 313).
34. Einer ehrsamer Zunft der Stelz. Zun{t-Buchlein pro anno 1781, Strasbourg,
1781 (Strasbourg City Arch.).
35. Bib.Nat., Mss, Fr 21986.
36. Etteilla 1770, pp. 73-4.
37. Bib.Nat., Mss, Fr 21986, p. 10, no. 48.
38. Etteilla 1787, pp. 19-20.
39. Bib.Nat., Mss, Fr 22015, f. 182.
40. It is only in Vol. 8 (1781) of his Monde primitif that Court de Gebelin
appears as 'censeur royal' in the title page (no mention is made of it in Vol. 7, 1780).
41. Although it is dated 1785, the book is dedicated to one 'Monsieur Thery de
Vaucresson, esquire' with the date October 1783.
42. Supplement au troisieme cahier de la maniere de se recreer avec le jeu de
cartes nommees tarots, n.d. (19 May 1784), pp. 88-90.
43. For the Pimander, see Introduction, 1.3-1.4.
44. Actually Le Pimandre de Mercure Trismegiste ... traduit de l'exemplaire grec
... par Franr;ois, Monsieur de Foix de Candalle, Bordeaux, 1579. This was the•
second French translation to be published in the XVI century. A first translation
274 Notes to pp. 87-96
had appeared in 1557: Dew: liures de Mercure Trismegiste Hermes ... traduit en
fraru;oys par Gabriel du Preau, Paris, 1557.
45. Halbronn 1993, p. 12 (appendix to the reprint ofEtteilla's quatrieme cahier:
see following note).
46. Maniere de se recreer auec le jeu de cartes nommees tarots; pour seruir de
quatrieme cahier a cet ouurage, Amsterdam and Paris, 1785, p. 18. This fascicule
and its supplement have recently been reprinted in Halbronn 1993.
47. Etteilla 1786 refers to Le Journal de Paris of 8 December 1785 and had
already come out in 1786 as is evidenced in a letter of a disciple to Etteilla of 26
June 1786.
48. On Etteilla's alchemy, see E. Canseliet, 'Le feu purificateur et son messager
apocalyptique', in Alchimie: etudes diuerses de symbolisme hermetique et de pra-
tique philosophale, Paris, 1978 (2nd ed.), pp. 177-92 (from Atlantis, February 1936)
and 'L'alchimie au XVIIIe siecle', Cahiers de la Tour Saint-Jacques, 2-3-4, 1960,
pp. 15-25.
49. More than a dozen books, indeed, were published on palmistry during the
XVII century.
50. Le Forestier 1970, p. 790, quoting the minutes of the meeting.
51. Supplement au premier cahier de la maniere de se recreer avec lejeu de cartes
nommees tarots, Amsterdam and Paris, 1783, p. 124.
52. A pamphlet, published in 1725 by the master cardmakers of Paris against
the master stationers (Bib.Nat., Imp., Fm 12384), mentions 'Tarot cards, which are
a peculiar kind of playing cards whose use is unknown in Paris today'.
53. As Sylvia Mann has observed, this so-called 'Tarot de Besan~on' appears to
have been specific to German-speaking countries.
54. Dummett 1980, p. 110.
55. Millet-Saint-Pierre 1859, p. 15. ,
56. Depaulis 1984, no. 130 quoting Levi 1856, II, p. 279. Eliphas Levi incorrectly
writes cartomancy for cartonomancy. See also Levi 1923, p. 381.
57. City Library of Lyons, Mss 5485, letter no. 674 bis (27.11.1788) and letter
no. 675 (14.03.1789).
58. Bib.Nat., Mss, Fr 21978, p. 335.
59. 'Registre des privileges de la Librairie', Bib.Nat., Mss, Fr 21971, p. 144, no.
165.
60. The whole collection comprises fifteen numbers, of which nine only (nos. 1-8
and 13) are kept at the Bibliotheque Nationale (Imp., Lc2 2456).
61. Arch.Nat. (Paris), G2 185, file no. 16: 'Etat des jeux controles et des produits
operas pendant les trois premiers mois de l'annee 1791.'
62. Bodleian Library, Oxford, Douce Collection, French Box, no. 1. Another very
similar pack of 33 cards was published some years later (1793?) by one 'citoyen'
Saint-Sauveur (Keller 1981, no. FRA 191; Depaulis 1989, no. 98). Interestingly,
Saint-Sauveur's address (rue Nicaise, Maison de la Section des Tuileries, a Paris)
is exactly the same as the address displayed on the title-page of Le petit escamoteur
in 1797 (see below, note 65). The 'Petit Etteilla' was reprinted many times up to
the early XX century. Examples are known by Grimaud c. 1900.
63. L'homme a projets. 1783. Nouvelle edition, A Paris, chez Etteilla fils;
Samson; A Lyon, Hugand, 1791.
64. This little book is extremely rare and only one copy is known in a Parisian
private collection. Here is its bibliographical description: Etteilla, ou fart de lire
dans les cartes ... - s.l. [Paris], 1791. - 45 pp.; front.; 12mo. It is listed in a
catalogue of books held by the book dealer Gueffier jeune in 1820 and printed with
a reprint of Le zodiaque mysteriew:. Some years later, the same book was reissued
 Notes to pp. 98-104 275
- the word cartomancie being systematically substituted for cartonomancie: L'art
de tirer Les cartes, ou moyen de lire dans l'avenir par le rapprochement des
evenemens qui demontrent sans replique l'art chronomancique ... Traduit d'un
manuscrit arabe. -A Paris, n.d. [c. 1800]. - 126 pp.; 12mo.
65. This booklet is sometimes joined to Le petit escamoteur under the title Le
Bohemien and bears Pigoreau's address instead of Deroy's and the date 'an VI'. It
is not without interest to note that the title-page of Le petit escamoteur shows an
address (a Paris, chez l'Auteur, rue Nicaise, Maison de la Section des Tuileries)
where the 'citoyen' Saint-Sauveur published a 'petit Etteilla' pack in the last years
of the XVIII century (see note 62).
66. Le Normand 1814, note 6, pp. 312-13: 'Trente-trois Mtons grecs'. The way
she uses them hardly recalls Etteilla's description (see Chapter 6).
67. F. and E.-A. de Wailly, Nouveau vocabulaire franr;ois, 2nd edition, Paris,
year XIl-1803, where 'Cartomancie' is defined as 'art chimerique de lire dans
l'avenir en tirant les cartes' ('fanciful method for telling the future by card
reading'). Interestingly, the 5th edition (1811) offers a less negative definition:
'Cartomancie <xap-t11c;,papier, cartes; manteia, divination), art de predire en tirant
les cartes' ('method of predicting by card reading').

5. Etteilla's Disciples and Posterity

1. Millet-Saint-Pierre 1859. Millet-Saint-Pierre's study was made possible
through original manuscripts, letters, horoscopes, etc., which he had found 'when
travelling to Marseilles'. 'These papers [he tells us] were found separately filed in
a cardboard box, after the death, years ago, of a man whom I knew well.' His heirs
had afterwards discovered he had been one of the 'fellows of the Book of Thoth'
(Millet-Saint-Pierre 1859, p. 6). Most of these manuscripts were for sale in 1940 at
Librairie Dorbon's (Dorbon 1940, no. 5757), but their present location is unkown.
2. Millet-Saint-Pierre 1859, p. 47.
3. Millet-Saint-Pierre 1859, p. 48.
4. City Library of Lyons, Mss 5485, letter no. 674 bis (27.11.1788).
5. Bib.Nat., Imp., Lb39 6873; Caillet 1912, no. 5530.
6. All this was discovered by Robert Amadou and published by him in 'Al-
chimie et societe secrete', L'Autre Monde, no. 98, 1985 and no. 99, 1986 (Amadou
1985, 1986).
7. Almanach astrologique et philosophique a l'usage des cultivateurs, by the
'associes interpretes du Livre de Thot', Paris, n.d. (year II/ 1794).
8. Millet-St-Pierre 1859, p. 29 ; Caillet 1912, no. 5529.
9. Letter of 7 May 1792, in Millet-Saint-Pierre 1859, p. 48.
10. Letter of 5 March 1792, in Millet-Saint-Pierre 1859, p. 47.
11. Bib.Nat., Imp., 8° S 3305; J. Grand-Carteret, Les almanachs franr;ais
(1600-1895), Paris, 1896, no. 1076. This little almanac was discovered by J.
Halbronn (Halbronn 1993, pp. 36-8).
12. British Library, R.408.(5.). The library dates it 'c. 1795', although it seems
a bit earlier as we shall see in the D'Odoucet section. Delalain [1899] mentions
neither Hugand nor the Imprimerie Celere.
13. City Library of Lyons, Mss 5485, letter no. 687.
14. Mozzani 1988, pp. 150-1.
15. Collection ofDott. Andrea Vitali (Faenza, Italy). See further.
16. Apperr;u sur la nouvelle ecole de magie .. , Paris, 1790, p. 16.
17. Bib.Nat., 8° Lc2429 and Walter 1943, no. 720, where the undated leaflet is
given as 1790.
276 Notes to pp. 104-112
18. Millet-Saint-Pierre 1859, pp. 47-8.
19. British Library, R.408.(3.).
20. Bib.Nat., Impr., 8° Lb42 590; 8° Lb42 592 OU 8° Fm 3674; 8° Ln 27 6128; 8° Lb42
2486.
21. Now 13 rue Bonaparte, in the 6th arrondissement (formerly Hotel de La
Rochefoucault). For details on this magazine, see Walter 1943, no. 1255 and E.
Hatin, Histoire politique et litteraire de la presse en France, 7, Paris, 1861, pp. 368
sq.
22. 'C'est pres des Petits-Augustins I Si grands jadis en faceties I Proche le quai
des Theatins [now quai Voltaire] I Qu'on imprime les Rapsodies.'
23. British Library, R.408.(2.).
24. Bib.Nat., lmpr., 8° Lb43 648; June 1801.
25. Walter 1943, no. 550. The printer has no connection with any ofD'Odoucet's
offices.
26. Delalain [1899].
27. Arch. Nat., AFiv 1504 (= F 7 3761).
28. Depaulis 1989, n° 105.
29. Catalogue des livres tres-bien conditionnes, du cabinet de M. *** [Tal-
leyrand], Paris, De Bure, 1811; Bibliotheca splendidissima: A catalogue of a
superlatively splendid and extensive library, consigned from the continent .. ,
London, Leigh & Sotheby, 1816; Catalogue des livres provenant des bibliotheques
de feu M. le prince de Talleyrand .. , Paris, Precieux:, 1838. All these catalogues are
stored in the Bib.Nat. a series.
30. Arch. Nat., AFiv 1504 (= F 7 3761). A summary is given in E. d'H,uterive
(ed.), La police secrete du !er Empire: bulletins quotidiens adresses par Fouche a
l'empereur. Nouvelle serie, IV, Paris, 1963, n° 870 (where the Dodoucet affair at
Lille is mistakenly put under the 'bulletin du 11 novembre 1808' whereas it is in
the 9 November report).
31. Amadou 1985, 1986.
32. Letter of 10 February 1801 quoted by Amadou 1986, p. 21.
33. E. Perrier, Les bibliophiles et les collectionneurs proven<;aux .. , Marseilles,
1897, pp. 204-5.
34. Amadou 1985, p. 25, who reproduces his very florid bookplate bearing the
name 'CHARLE I GEILLE-SAINT LEGER I DE BONRECUEILLE inv.' See also Dr E. Lalande
(alias Marc Haven) and A.L. Quenaidit, 'Deux: ex-libris ma~onnique et cabalis-
tique', Le Vieux Papier, III, 29, 1905, pp. 89-91.
35. City Library of Lyons, Mss 5485.
36. City Library of Lyons, Mss 5485, pp. 497-504, May 1790 to January 1792.
37. Dictionnaire de biographie franr;aise, Vol. XVIII, 1992, s.v. 'Joubert de La
Salette'.
38. Amadou 1985, pp. 26-7.
39. Amadou 1986, p. 20.
40. Letter of 12 July 1790 in Amadou 1986, p. 20.
41. Dictionnaire synonimique, pp. 13-14.
42. City Library of Lyons, Mss 5485, letter no. 684.
43. Probably Elisabeth, who was sharing Etteilla's life about 1788-90. In its
upper left corner, the 'Sommaire' bears the address 'Rue de la Calandre I pres le
Palais N° 11', which can be located in Paris very easily. (It is now boulevard du
Palais in the Cite.) As La Salette was living in Grenoble, we may suppose it was
Madame Etteilla's address.
44. Jean-Fran~ois Champollion was born in Figeac (Lot) in 1790 and came to
 Notes to pp. 112-118 277
Grenoble in 1801. His Lettre a Monsieur Dacier (1822) is considered as the basis of
the complete deciphering of the Egyptian hieroglyphs. He died in 1832.
45. Ch.-0. Carbonell, L'autre Champollion: Jacques-Joseph Champollion-
Figeac, 1778-1867, Toulouse and Paris, 1984, p. 24. .
46. Michel Dewachter, Champollion: un scribe pour l'Egypte, Paris, 1990
(Decouvertes Gallimard, 96), p. 24 (BNF, Mss, NAF 20327). Other details on
Joubert de La Salette encouraging Champollion are given in Jean Lacouture,
Champollion: une vie de lumieres, Paris, 1988.
47. Aime Champollion-Figeac [son of Jacques-Joseph], Chroniques dauphi-
noises, III, Marseilles, 1973, p. 50 (reprint of the first ed., Vienne, 1880). The
author adds that La Salette bequeathed his library to Jacques-Joseph in 1832.
48. Gesamtverzeichnis des deutschsprachigen Schrifttums. 1700-1910, Vol. 149,
p. 246. We have not seen any copy ofit yet.
49. British Museum, Schreiber Collection, O'Donoghue 1901, G. 298; Kaplan
1986, pp. 401-2.
50. Gesamtverzeichnis des deutschsprachigen Schrifttums. 1700-1910, Vol. 158,
p. 430. One copy is housed at the Deutsches Spielkarten-Museum, Leinfelden-
Echterdingen (Tarot, Tarock, Tarocchi, Leinfelden-Echterdingen, 1988, no. 104).
51. J.-M. Querard, La France litteraire, vol. I, Paris, 1827.
52. British Museum, O'Donoghue catalogue, I. 32; see also Kaplan 1986, p. 354
for a facsimile edition by Solleone of Lissone, 1983.
53. An example from the Cary Collection (Keller 1981, FRA 210) has captions
in Spanish and French.
54. Kaplan 1978, p. 144; Fournier catalogue, 1982, Esp. 560 and 561, etc.
55. Berti, Vitali 1987, no. 138; Fournier catalogue, II, 1988, Ita. 177 (dated
1968!).

6. Mlle Le Normand: Prophet or Sorcerer?

1. 'Dicta' is actually the first name of Mme Dicta Dimitriadis, a professional
clairvoyante, who is also responsible for the latest biography of Mlle Le Normand.
2. Or Lenormand, as some of her biographers spell it. However, Marie-Anne
constantly wrote her own name as two words: Le Normand. It is her spelling which
has been retained here, save in quotations.
3. Mozzani 1988, chapter 15, 'Les tireurs de cartes sous Napoleon', pp. 147 ff.
4. The historical Nicolas Flamel (c. 1330-1418) was a calligrapher who set up
a copying workshop and became appointed by the University of Paris. His large
income allowed him to make generous donations to many institutions. Legends
soon flourished and Flamel's wealth was explained by attributing to him the
powers of an alchemist. The so-called 'Livre des figures hierogliphiques', attrib-
uted to Flamel, was only published in 1612 by one P. Amauld de La Chevallerie
(certainly a pseudonym) in his Trois traictez de la philosophie naturelle. Flamel
had been popularised in the XIX century by Victor Hugo in Notre-Dame de Paris
(1831). For recent clarifications, see N. Wilkins, Nicolas Flamel: des liures et de
l'or, Paris, 1993 and C. Gagnon, Nicolas Flamel sous investigation, Quebec, 1994.
5. Hortentius Hortulus was the name of a Roman orator who rivalled Cicero.
'Hortentius' was also used as a pseudonym in the XVI and XVII centuries and (like
some other Roman names) seems to have been somewhat favoured in France as a
first name between 1790 and 1815.
6. Dictionnaire de biographie fran<;aise,Vol. II, 1936, s.v.
7. For more about Julia Orsini, see next chapter.
8. Du Bois repeated this date, still without proof, in the 'Lenormand' entry that
278 Notes to pp. 119-120
he wrote for the Biographie universelle (Michaud) ancienne et moderne. Nouvelle
edition, Vol. 24, Paris and Leipzig, n.d. (c. 1860).
9. Louise Boyeldieu d'Auvigny wrote the 'Cagliostro' and 'Swedenborg' entries
in the same dictionary. She is also the author of some edifying and very successful
novels between 1844 and 1857, some of them being reprinted twenty-three times
until c. 1900! She is otherwise totally unknown.
10. Nouvelle biographie generale depuis les temps les plus recules jusqu'a nos
jours, Vol. 29, 1859, s.v. 'Lenormand'. De Manne refers to 'private documents'. Du
Bois's claim was probably based on an inaccurate reading of the parish registers
of baptisms: the Le Normands had a first Marie-Anne who was born on 17
September 1768 hut died soon afterwards (Arch. dep. Orne, 3E 2, 001/42*). Our
sibyl is the second daughter who carried the same given name.
11. Many thanks to Alain Champion, of the Archives municipales d'Alen~on,
who has kindly checked these dates. The date of baptism is to be found in register
no. 12E 106. Although she gives the correct date and the exact names of Mlle Le
Normand's parents, D. Dimitriadis says we do not know the precise day of her
birth. She has certainly not seen the actual entry which adds: 'nee ce jour' (born
on the same day). She also mentions the church as Saint-Leonard - instead of
Notre-Dame - and gives the priest's name as Henri Loiseleur, whereas the entry
in the parish book is signed Gautier (Dimitriadis 1990, p. 17).
12. Marquiset does not seem to have been well aware that the letter to Le
Tam-Tam is the basis ofGirault's biography too, but for him, 'as most of the facts
contained in it are forged, one can judge the value of the information given by the
other writers' (Marquiset 1911, p. 9, note 1). .
13. Dimitriadis 1990, pp. 30-3, has chosen to tell version no. 1. The other
biographers are not so precise. Ed. de Manne, in the Nouvelle biographie generale,
says she went to Paris only at the age of 21 (i.e. 1793).
14. Jacques-Rene Hebert was born in Alen~on in 1757. He was guillotined in
March 1794.
15. Cellier du Fayel 1845, p. 10. Francis Girault had already noted that 'she
died a virgin like Newton' (Girault 1843, p. 117).
16. In her fn. 2, p. 46, D. Dimitriadis (1990) refers to La Sibylle a Londres, a
book that she lists among Mlle Le Normand's works with the date 1831. It is very
surprising that no copy has survived and that Caillet does not mention it in his
very comprehensive Manuel bibliographique des sciences psychiques ou occultes
(Caillet 1912). Actually this book was still 'in the press' in 1833, in the list which
Mlle Le Normand advertised in her Ar~t supreme des dieux de l'Olympe en faveur
de Mme la duchesse de Berry et de son fils of that year! Since this is the last of her
publications, the only supposition is that it was never published. Unless she has
seen it in manuscript- which she does not specify- Mme Dimitriadis has probably
indulged here in wishful thinking.
17. Dr Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828), a German physician, was the founder of
phrenology (then called craniology or cranioscopy). He first taught in Vienna then
set up in Paris in 1807 where his theories became extremely fashionable. Although
he had already published two books (Darstellung der Nerven, Weimar, 1802;Lehre
uber die Verrichtungen des Gehirns, 1805), his first exposition in French came out
in 1808 with his Discours d'ouverture lu par M. le Dr Gall a la premiere seance de
son cours public sur la physiologie du cerveau. It is not known whether Mlle Le
Normand could read German.
18. Le Normand 1814, note 210, pp. 553-7.
19. Marquiset 1911, pp. 14-22.
20. Marquiset 1911, p. 25. Notwithstanding, Mme Dimitriadis adds in a foot-
 Notes to pp. 120-124 279
note of her book (Dimitriadis 1990, p. 74) a reference to 'Archives nationales',
regrettably without any serial number.
21. Le Normand 1814, note 112, pp. 452-3.
22. She actually says redactrice ('writer'), which leads us to suppose that she
wrote all the articles.
23. Cellier du Faye} 1845, p. 15; Marquiset 1911, p. 29.
24. Marquiset 1911, p. 43.
25. Marquiset 1911, pp. 29-30, following 'E.B.' in his 'Feuilleton du Globe:
Courrier de la ville', published in Le Globe, 2 July 1843.
26. Le Normand 1817, note 11.
27. Marquiset 1911, pp. 42-3. The letter, actually dated '7 Frimaire year I of the
Empire' (i.e. 28 November 1804), was in an autograph dealer's catalogue in 1870.
It has been purchased in 1988 by the Archives departementales de l'Orne
(Alen\!on),where it is now kept under number lJ 145 ('Lenormand papers').
28. Marquiset 1911, pp. 46-8, quoting Histoire des salons de Paris by the
Duchesse d'Abrantes, Memoires sur l'imperatrice Josephine by Mademoiselle Du-
crest, and Memoires de Mademoiselle Avrillon (actually Avrillion). For a critical
view of the Napoleonic memoirs, see Tulard 1991, no. 5 (Abrantes), 54 (Avrillion)
and 456 (Ducrest). Although written by Mme Bocher, the latter contains 'many
anecdotes proving that the author ... was well informed'.
29. Archives Nationales, AFiv 1502, quoted in Marquiset 1911, p. 49.
30. J.-B. Salgues, Des erreurs et des prejuges repandus dans la societe, II, Paris,
1811, p. xii.
31. V.-E. Jouy, L'hermite de la chaussee d'Antin, Paris, 1813, I, no. XX (30
November 1811), 'Mreurs de l'antichambre', p. 238.
32. Archives Nationales, AFiv 1543, quoted in Marquiset 1911, p. 39.
33. Archives Nationales, AF 7 3765, quoted in Marquiset 1911, p. 50.
34. Delalain [1899), s.v. 'Lenormand'.
35. This seems to have disturbed Mme Dimitriadis who has confused Le
Normand and Lenormant, no. 5 and no. 7 in the rue de Tournon. She presents Mlle
Le Normand as a printer, whereas she is not registered as such (Dimitriadis 1990,
p. 168). But Mlle Le Normand is not mentioned in P. Delalain (ed.), Liste des
imprimeurs-typographes de Paris du ler avril 1811 au 10 septembre 1870, Paris,
[1900). She cannot have published N.-M. Maire's Topographie de Paris in 1813,
since it was Maire (not 'Maize' as misspelled by Mme Dimitriadis) himself who
published his book, in a second edition, from 7 rue de Tournon. Lenormant, who
also printed the Topographie de Paris, operated from the rue de Seine which, in
those days, did not reach the rue de Tournon and was limited to its lower part, i.e.
near the Seine.
36. Maybe the only link with Etteilla's circle. We know that Etteilla had based
his 33-card pack on the 'thirty-three sticks of Alpha'. See the end of Chapter 4,
where Mlle Le Normand's description is quoted.
37. Le Normand 1814, p. 18.
38. See J. Bolte, 'Eine geistliche Auslegung des Kartenspiels', Zeitschrift des
Vereins fur Volkskunde, 1901, pp. 376-406 for a complete survey of the different
versions, in French, English, Spanish, German, Swedish, etc., of this popular
motif. In 1811, one Hadin had published Histoire du jeu de cartes du grenadier
Richard, ou explication du jeu de 52 cartes en forme de livre de prieres (Story of
Grenadier Richard's playing-card pack, or explanation of the 52-card pack in form
of a prayer book), Paris, 1811.
39. Louis du Four de Longuerue, Longueruana, ou Recueil de pensees, de
discours et de conversations de feu M. Louis du Four de Longuerue, Berlin, 1754,
280 Notes to pp. 124-130
discusses the Tarot cards that he had seen in the Gaignieres collection. But,
although he quotes Menestrier's publication of the first French reference to
playing cards (1392), he does not mention Jacquemin Gringonneur explicitly. See
Depaulis 1986, pp. 117-24.
40. Marquiset 1911, pp. 59-63.
41. M.-A. Le Normand, Anniversaire de la mort de l'imperatrice Josephine,
Paris, chez !'auteur, rue de Tournon, n° 5, et a son magasin de librairie, rue du
Petit-Lion-St-Sulpice, n° 1, 1815.
42. Paris, chez l'auteur, rue de Tournon, n° 5, et a son magasin de librairie, rue
du Petit-Bourbon-St-Sulpice, n° 1, 1817; 529 pp. (printed by Lenormant, rue de
Seine).
43. A summary - probably not very unbiased - is given by Marquiset 1911, pp.
67-73.
44. Le Normand 1817, p. 150.
45. A Paris: chez l'auteur, rue de Tournon, n° 5, et a son magasin de librairie,
rue du Petit-Bourbon-St-Sulpice, n° 1, MDCCCXIX.The book must have been printed
in the last quarter of 1819. For the first time, the printer is Mme Jeunehomme-
Cremiere, rue Hautefeuille.
46. Marquiset 1911, pp. 83-91.
47. Tulard 1991, no. 746.
48. Memoires historiques et secrets de l'imperatrice Josephine, Marie-Rose
Tascher de La Pagerie, 2e edition augmentee et suivie de Derniers souvenirs de
Napoleon Bonaparte a l'Ue de Sainte-Helene, Paris, l'auteur-editeur et Dondey-
Dupre pere et fils, 1827, 3 vol. ,
49. Kejsarinnan Josephinas, Napoleons forsta gemdls, efterlemnade egen-
handiga anteckningar till den hemliga historien om sin tid, sinacegna och sin
gemdls lefnadshandelser, Stockholm, 1825.
50. L'Ange protecteur de la France au tombeau de Louis XVIII, Paris, October
1824; L 'Ombre immortelle de Catherine II au tombeau d'Alexandre Ier, Paris, 1
February 1826. See also Marquiset 1911, pp. 114-17.
51. Dimitriadis 1990, pp. 225-8. La Sibylle aLandres is once again referred to.
In the same vein, Mme Dimitriadis informs us, p. 224, that 'Odoucet' dedicated his
work on the Tarot to Mlle Le Normand!
52. Arch. dep. de l'Ome, lJ 145 ('Lenormand papers').
53. Patrick Curry (A Confusion of Prophets: Victorian and Edwardian Astrol-
ogy, London, 1992), who has carefully investigated the circles of English
astrologers of the early XIX century, has not met any mention of Marie-Anne Le
Normand.
54. Cellier du Fayel 1845.
55. Girault 1843, p. 125; Marquiset 1911, pp. 128-9. Mme Dimitriadis, however,
dates the visit back to 1827!
56. A new uprising brewed up in late December 1830 when the Paris population
heard that Charles X's former ministers, who had been sent to court, were
sentenced to life imprisonment only.
57. For all this, Marquiset 1911, pp. 157-72:'Un attrape-nigaud: Olivarius et sa
prophetie.'
58. Paris, Mlle Le Normand, editeur-libraire, et Dondey-Duprey pere et fils,
impr.-libr., 30 juillet 1831.
59. Le petit homme rouge, suivi de trois autres pieces, by Isidor Charville (i.e.
Pierre-Alexandre Lemare), Paris, 1814.
60. For the Memoires et propheties ··~ see Chapter 7; for Christian's book, see
Chapter 9.
 Notes to pp. 131-141 281
61. Paris, Mlle Le Normand, editeur-libraire, et Dondey-Duprey pere et fils,
impr.-libr., 28 fevrier 1833. Marie-Caroline de Bourbon-Siciles, Duchess of Berry
(1798-1870), was Charles X's bustling daughter-in-law and mother of the young
Duke of Bordeaux, the future legitimist pretender, also known as 'comte de
Chambord'. Louis-Henri-Joseph, Prince of Conde, who died in 1830, was the last
descendant of the Conde branch of the Bourbons. Henri Eugene-Philippe-Louis,
Duke of Aumale (1822-97), was the fourth son of Louis-Philippe d'Orleans, the
current king.
62. Marquiset 1911, p. 135.
63. Marquiset 1911, pp. 138-40, and Mozzani 1988, pp. 267-8.
64. Marquiset 1911, p. 150.
65. The prototype of Punch, which for years bore the subtitle of 'the London
Charivari'.
66. Mlle A. Lelievre, Justifications des sciences divinatoires, Paris, 1847, p. 70.
67. According to Girault 1843, p. 129, there was during Mlle Le Normand's
lifetime a plaque at rue de Tournon, 5, reading 'Mademoiselle Le Normand,
Libraire'.
68. Magus 1874, p. 160; cf. Esmael 1875, pp. 9, 14.
69. Le grand livre du destin will be discussed in the next chapter.
70. Mozzani 1988, p. 269.
71. See Mozzani 1988, pp. 269-70, quoting from La pythonisse du XIXe siecle,
Paris, 1846.
72.Mozzani1988,p.268.
73. See the witness statements in Le Normand 1822, pp. 335-52.
74. V.-E. Jouy, L'hermite de la chaussee d'Antin, Paris, 1813, I, no. XX (30
November 1811), 'Mamrs de l'antichambre', p. 239. This is the only reference to
Etteilla and it is not given by M.-A. Le Normand!
75. Quoted in E. Graf, Mythos Tarot: historische Fakten, Ahlerstedt, 1989, pp.
81-4. Apart from the interesting point on the playing cards, the account accurately
follows that given by Hortensius Flame} and Cellier du Fayel.
76. Depaulis 1984, no. 133. For the many cartomantic packs of the early XIX
century, see the next chapter.
77. Hoffmann & Kroppenstedt 1972, no. 48; seep. 112.
78. The 'comtesse de***' has been identified by J.-M. Querard, Les supercheries
litteraires devoilees, III, col. 1115, as Mme Breteau, 'wife of the Parisian bookseller
so named'. This may be true, as a second edition of the first volume was published
by Breteau in 1865. However, in 1843, Breteau was in partnership with Pichery
and their address was 'passage de l'Opera, galerie de l'Horloge, 16'. They were the
publishers of Francis Girault's biography of Mlle Le Normand. One wonders why
Breteau did not put his name on Grand jeu de societe et pratiques secretes de Mlle
Le Normand.
79. A complete pack of these cards is to be found (shelfmark V 8° 7132 Inv.
2776 Res.), with the original five volumes, at the Reserve of the Bibliotheque
Sainte-Genevieve (Paris); the Bibliotheque Nationale de France has the same
collection but the pack of cards is incomplete (Printed Books Department,
R 37607).
80. Hoffmann & Kroppenstedt 1972, no. 49; other copies are in the British
Museum (O'Donoghue 1901, G. 266), in the Frankfurt Historisches Museum (D.
Hoffmann, Spielkarten des Historischen Museums Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt,
1972, no. 115) and in the Cary Collection of the Yale University, New Haven
(Keller 1981, GER 284).
282 Notes to pp. 141-150
81. Hoffmann & Kroppenstedt 1972, nos. 50 to 63, where the earliest 'K.leinen
Lenormandspiele' are dated from the middle of the XIX century.
82. British Museum, O'Donoghue 1901 (Schreiber Collection), G. 192. See
Hoffmann & Kroppenstedt 1972, p. 17.

7. The Tradition of Etteilla

1. D'Allemagne 1906, Vol. I, p. 482, dates this from 1830 onwards. In fact it
goes back to the first decade of the century; but it received a new impetus after
1814, when Mlle Le Normand published her Souvenirs prophetiques d'une sibylle
(Prophetic Reminiscences of a Sibyl).
2. One such was entitled 'La Sibylle des Salons'. Signed and published by the
caricaturist Mansion but designed by his pupil Grandville, it appeared in 1827 in
a form with thirty-three cards (with one card depicting the Sibyl), and in the
following year in an expanded form with fifty-three. See Hoffmann & Krop-
penstedt 1972, no. 40. A similar pack, called 'le Livre du Destin', had only
thirty-two cards; it originated in the middle of the century and was published by
Marteau freres & Boudin; see Hoffmann & Kroppenstedt 1972, no. 41. A version
from the end of the century, called 'le petit Cartomancien', had thirty-six cards,
including the 6s; many of its designs were borrowed from the Sibylle des Salons:
see Hoffmann & Kroppenstedt 1972, no. 42.
3. Depaulis 1984, no. 132, Hoffmann & Kroppenstedt 1972, no. 68, Hoffmann
& Dietrich 1988, no. 105, and Depaulis 1989, nos. 100, 101 and 102.
4. See Depaulis 1989, no. 99. .
5. See Depaulis 1984, no. 133. Jupiter and Juno serve as 'Protector' (no. 2) and
'Protectress' (no. 3), as they had already in the petit Oracle des Dames. The cards
do not have images of ordinary playing cards inset.
8. See Kaplan 1986, pp. 398, 400-1.
7. In the second edition of 1825-6, also published by Mongie, there was an
entry for 'Tarots', copied from Perenna's treatise.
8. And dedicated 'to the fair sex'. The publisher, J.A. Devalembert, writing
from London, explained that it was ready to appear in 1788, but that, although
passed by the royal censor, it was hindered from publication 'by higher authority'
(see Chapter 4, note 2). The author requires the use of three Piquet packs, each
enlarged to thirty-six cards by the addition of a 2 of Hearts, to be inscribed 'la
personne' (meaning the consultant), and a 3 and 4 of Hearts and 4 of Diamonds,
each inscribed with the name of a person in whom the consultant is especially
interested. Even when a generic description such as 'father' is employed, the
procedure involves an extravagant consumption of playing cards.
9. For Grand Etteilla II, see Hoffmann & Kroppenstedt 1972, no. 69, Depaulis
1984, no. 136, and Hoffmann & Dietrich 1988, no. 106.
10. Thus in Le Normand 1827, Vol. I, p. 246, Mme de Beauharnais, the future
Empress, is made to say, 'Allons sur le champ consulter la celebre sibylle du
faubourg St Germain' ('Let us go at once to consult the famous Sibyl of the
faubourg St Germain').
11. Magus 1874, p. 160.
12. Hoffmann & Kroppenstedt 1972, no. 70, Depaulis 1984, no. 137, Hoffmann
& Dietrich 1988, no. 107.
13. See D'Allemagne 1906, Vol. I, p. 483, where the pack is dated 1845.
14. See Depaulis 1984, no. 134; W.H. Willshire, A Descriptive Catalogue of
Playing and Other Cards in the British Museum, London, 1876, F. 85; O'Donoghue
1901, F. 21; Kaplan 1978, p. 143. Willshire lists the names of the cards, some of
 Notes to pp. 150-156 283
them slightly differently; possibly the pack in the British Museum exemplifies a
slightly earlier version. The new pack was accompanied by a new edition of the
book by 'Johannes Trismegiste', published by L. Passard, with the title altered to
L'Art de tirer les cartes fraru;aises, suivi de ['Explication du livre de Thot oujeu de
la Princesse Tarot (The Art of Reading French Playing Cards, followed by the
Explanation of the Book of Thoth or the Pack of the Princess Tarot). The book
illustrated the cards in their new versions, using the new names for them.
15. Papus 1889, ch. IX, p. 94.
16. The passage comes from Note E, 'Sur la Cosmogonie appliquee', of Tome II
of Fourier's Theorie de l'Unite universelle (Theory of Universal Unity), originally
published as Traite de l'association domestique et agricole (Treatise of Domestic
and Agricultural Society) (1822); see Charles Fourier, Oeuvres completes, 2nd
edition, Vol. 4, Paris, 1841, pp. 241-7. In Fourier's astrology, Uranus is included as
a planet, taking the place of the Sun.
17. Aesh Metzareph, or Purifying Fire: a Chymico-Kabalistic treatise collected
from the Kabbala Denudata of Knorr von Rosenroth, by a Lover of Philalethes,
London, 1714. A re-edition of this work was edited in 1894 by W. Wynn Westcott,
under his magical name Sapere Aude, and issued in the series Collectanea Her-
metica edited by him under his secular name.
18. With a very similar title: Propheties, la fin des temps, Paris, 1840.
19. See in particular the sections in the two books on Artephius, Cardano and
Paracelsus.
20. Moulth 1859, pp. 263-8; see also Astaroth 1881, pp. 35-6.
21. The story that Moreau foretold to Napoleon his coming misfortunes is told
in the brief entry in Migne 1848, col. 179, Vol. II, Paris, which describes him as a
chiromancer and gives the date of his death as 1825, and in A.-F. Lecanu, Histoire
de Satan, Paris, 1861, p. 434. Mozzani 1988, p. 154, quotes a long story to the same
effect from E.-L. de Lamoth-Langon, Les Apres-diners de S.A.S. Cambaceres,
second consul, Vol. III, Paris, 1837, pp. 348-60.
22. A. Chuquet collaborated with L. Schauer in editing Louis Claude de Saint-
Martin: la correspondance inedite (Unpublished Correspondence) de L.C. de
Saint-Martin et Kirchberger, Amsterdam and Paris, 1862. The attribution by him
ofFlamel 1841 and 1842 to Eliphas Levi was reported by Stanislas de Guaita, as
quoted by Caillet 1912.
23. The copy ofFlamel 1842 in the Warburg Institute Library, London, bears a
bookplate dated 1893 of Francis William Wright, a member of the Golden Dawn,
and has on the fly-leaf a note by him 'H.F. was Eliphaz Levi'.
24. Levi 1923, p. xxii, fn. 1.
25. Bodin was editor of L'Echo du Monde Occulte (Echo of the Occult World), a
bi-monthly journal for the popularisation of the occult and divinatory sciences
published in Paris, which lasted for less than a year between November 1905 and
March 1906.
26. See numbers 3970-2.
27. Why library catalogues cannot list books under the names of the authors
given on the title-page, even when these are known to be pseudonyms, is a mystery
to non-professionals.
28. This is omitted without comment from later editions and from the English
translation, The Key of the Mysteries, by Aleister Crowley.
29. C. Fierville, Archives des lycees, Paris, 1894. See also Archives bio-
graphiques franr;aises, microfiches published by KG Saur, where he is the only
Alboise du Pujol mentioned! He was born in 1808 and died some time after 1879.
284 Notes to pp. 156-171
30. La tireuse de cartes, by Alboise and Ernest Desprez (pseudonym of E.
Tenaille de Vaulabelle), was published in Paris in 1832. See Mozzani 1988, p. 272.
31. Chacornac 1926, p. 222.
32. A great many library catalogues erroneously list him as Christian Pitois. As
occultists copy other occultists, so librarians copy other librarians; a mistake thus
becomes as contagious as a virus.
33. La Lumiere, Vol. VII, 1893-4, pp. 127-8, 139-41, 151-4, 163-6, 180-3, 199-
201.
34. Chacornac 1926, pp. 220-4.
35. Mcintosh 1972, pp. 128-30.
36. Christian 1952, pp. ix-xiv.
37. Ross Nichols says that he led a slave uprising, but this is romancing.
Chacornac 1926 gives Martinique as the island that he visited, whereas the article
in La Lumiere says Saint-Dominique, but this is much less likely. Santo Domingo
(the Dominican Republic) was absorbed by Haiti in 1822, and regained its
independence only in 1844; slavery did not of course then exist there.
Martinique has been French from 1635 to the present; France abolished slav-
ery only in 1848.
38. Magus 1874, p. 160; cf. Esmael 1875, pp. 9, 14.
39. Levi 1860, Book VII, ch. IV at end. The Breda quarter was an area
stretching from the Place Pigalle along what are now the rue Frochot and the rue
Henri-Monnier, called up to 1905 the rue Breda. The rue Fontaine is quite near.
According to Jacques Hillairet, Dictionnaire historique des rues de Paris, 1985, the
area was 'le quartier general des filles galantes a l'epoque romantique'. .
40. See Hoffmann & Kroppenstedt 1972, nos. 83 and 94, and Hoffmann &
Dietrich 1988, no. 122.
41. Belline's address is still given on an extra card in an edition dated 1989 of
a third pack, the 'Horoscope Belline', published by Grimaud and devised by Belline
himself. See Hoffmann & Kroppenstedt 1972, no. 23. Belline sometimes adopts the
surname 'Forget', under which he figures in an article by B. Poulain about
Edmond's life inL'Yonne Republicaine for 7 August 1981.
42. Hoffmann & Kroppenstedt 1972 take them to be derived from the trump
cards designed and published by Oswald Wirth in 1889, and have difficulty in
reconciling this with the statements that they were used for cartomantic predic-
tions to Napoleon III; but there is no need to postulate any influence from Wirth's
cards.
43. Whether or not Moulth's ancestry has any connection with a book of
Propheties perpetuelles supposedly composed in 1268 in France by Thomas Joseph
Moult, a native of Naples, astronomer and philosopher, edited by his descendant
Charles Joseph Moult and published in 1855, is hard to determine.

8. The Second Founder: Eliphas Levi

1. Chacornac 1926.
2. Kardec's real name was Hippolyte-Leon Rivail. His first book, Le Livre des
Esprits (The Book of Spirits), appeared in 1857.
3. Antoine Faivre, L'Esoterisme, Collection 'Que sais-je?', Paris, 1992, Intro-
duction.
4. Cavendish 1977, p. 12. In giving this definition, Cavendish is not speaking
of the modern period particularly, but of magic throughout its entire history.
5. See Levi 1854-5, ch. XXI, Levi 1855, ch. XXII, Levi 1923, pp. 177-8, 381, for
all the foregoing quotations about Etteilla.
 Notes to pp. 171-184 285
6. Levi 1855, ch. XII; Levi 1923, p. 287.
7. Levi 1854-5, ch. XXI; Levi 1923, p. 177.
8. Levi 1855, ch. XXII; Levi 1923, p. 394.
9. Levi 1854-5, ch. X; Levi 1923, p. 103.
10. Levi 1855, ch. XXII; Levi 1923, p. 378. 1 O 1
11.Levi 1959,p. 142.
12. Saint-Martin 1782, with 22 chapters; Cardano 1550, with 21 Books; Apoca-
lypse of St John, with 22 chapters. The division into chapters was not of course an
original part of any of the books of the Bible.
13. See Levi 1854-5, ch. IV and X, and Levi 1855, ch. XXII: Levi 1923, pp. 56,
101, 382-3, 396.
14. Levi is citing Postel's Absconditorum a Constitutione Mundi Clavis (Key to
Things Hidden from the Foundation of the World), first published in Basle and
Paris in 1547, 2nd edn. Amsterdam, 1646, ed. A.V. Frankenberg.
15. See Mercier 1974, p. 28. Constant's account is contained in the auto-
biographical sketch entitled 'Confession de }'auteur' which serves as a preface to
his L'Assomption de la Femme, Paris, 1841. (The title-page of this book gives the
date of publication as 1841; if that is correct, Constant published three books in a
year of which he spent five months in prison. The autobiographical remarks do not
extend beyond that year; but Buisset 1984, p. 199, gives 1844 as the year in which
L'Assomption de la Femme came out.)
16. Extracts from Constant 1841 are printed at the end of the posthumous Levi
1896. Bowman 1969 and Mercier 1974 both confess their inability to discover a
copy of the complete original text. Froll} this it would seem likely that no copy of
the work has survived; but the Cercle Eliphas Levi advertises it as comprised in
its cahiers 1 to 8, which we have not been able to see. Christiane Buisset, the
founder of the Cercle, quotes extended passages from it in Buisset 1984.
17. In Constant 1845.
18. Chacornac 1926, in referring to her, uses only the initial letter of her
surname.
19. According to M.R. James, The Apocryphal New Testament, Oxford, 1924, it
was Guillaume Postel, referred to with great respect in the works published under
the name of Eliphas Levi, who in the XVI century introduced to Europe the
Protevangelium of James, which dates from the II century; but the stories con-
tained in it of the life of Mary were well known, from the VIII-century compilation
known as the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew, throughout the Middle Ages.
20. E.g. Mercier 1974 and Bowman 1969.
21.Levi 1855,ch.IX;Levi1923,p.271.
22. Levi 1855, ch. VII; Levi 1923, pp. 256-7.
23. Levi 1855, ch. VII and XI; Levi 1923, pp. 249 and 280.
24. This is a typical example of Levi's astonishing credulity: it should probably
be described as a determination to accept all legends and to repudiate all know-
ledge unmasking them as legends. In a later book, Levi 1865, he retailed, as if
factual, the long discredited theory, contained in the Legenda aurea of Jacobus de
Voragine, that St Anne married three times, thereby becoming the grandmother,
not only of Jesus, but of five of the Apostles. In Levi 1854-5 he displayed remark-
able ignorance by claiming to have achieved the quadrature of the circle and
designed a perpetual motion machine (chs. II and IV, Levi 1923, pp. 37 and 57).
These were not passing slips, but were advertised in advance as phases of the
Great Magical Secret (Levi 1854-5, Introduction; Levi 1923, p. 17).
25. Levi 1854-5, ch. XII; Levi 1923, p. 114.
26. See the quotation from Sherwood Taylor in the Introduction, p. 9.
286 Notes to pp. 184-202
27. Levi 1855, ch. XII; Levi 1923, pp. 281-2, 287-8.
28. Levi 1854-5, Chap. IV, Levi 1923, pp. 54-5. In Levi 1861, the Great Magical
Agent is described as 'Magnetised Electricity', whatever that may mean: see Levi
1959,pp. 140-1.
29. Levi 1855, ch. XIV, Levi 1923, pp. 303-5.
30. Levi 1855, end of ch. XI, Levi 1923, p. 280.
31. Levi 1854-5, ch. X; Levi 1923, p. 103.
32. The earliest European playing cards followed the example of the Islamic
cards in having three male figures. In the XV century, there was a vogue in
Germany for packs with four court cards in each suit, the second in rank being a
Queen; but this practice died out, leaving the original three male figures. The
oldest surviving set of Tarot cards, the Visconti di Modrone pack at Yale, had six
court figures in each suit - male and female of each rank. This may possibly have
been the original practice in all Tarot packs, the lower two female figures sub-
sequently being eliminated, leaving only the Queen. The Queen became a regular
member of the court in the ordinary playing-card pack only with the invention of
the French suit-system in about 1470.
33. Rendered JHVH, the Divine Name was formerly vocalised in English as
'Jehovah'.
34. St John's description, though clearly based on Ezekiel's, differs in that each
of the four faces belongs to only one of the four creatures. Ever since St Irenaeus,
Christian imagery has always treated the four creatures as symbols of the four
Evangelists.
35. The exception is the Roman numeral X that usually appears on tbe 10s in
German packs, and the numerals on the Tarot trumps which became_usual, except
in Bologna, towards the end of the XV century. A regular system of indices in
ordinary playing-card packs was adopted in Rome and Sicily in the late XVI
century, but died out at the beginning of the XVIII.
36. It may be that Levi acquired his information, not directly from Kircher's
book, but from the work of an intermediary, the astrologer Lazare-Republicain
Lenain, La Science Cabalistique ou l'art de connaitre les bons genies (Cabalistic
Science or the Art of Knowing Good Genii), Amiens, 1823. Lenain refers favourably
both to D'Odoucet and to Etteilla. The relevance of his book to Levi's theory is
noted in Kaplan 1978, p. 22. For an English summary of Lenain's Cabalism, see
Papus, The Qabalah, Wellingborough, 1977, ch. II, pp. 97-107, an English trans-
lation of his La Cabbale, tradition secrete de l'Occident, Paris, 1892.
37. Kircher 1652-4, Vol. 3, pp. 224-8.
38. See, for example, Scholem 1974, p. 203.

9. From Ghost Writer to Magus: Paul Christian

1. Christian 1952, p. xiv.
2. Christian 1863, pp. 5-6.
3. Chacomac 1926, p. 223.
4. Mcintosh 1972, p. 130.
5. Christian 1863, pp. 299, 300, 315.
6. Christian 1863, p. 390; see also p. 442.
7. Named after the cartomancer Marcel Belline who gave the cards to Gri-
maud for publication. See p. 284, n. 41.
8. The notebook is included among possessions of Edmond, including the
original cards, donated by Belline to the Musee des Arts et Traditions Populaires
in Paris.
 Notes topp. 202-222 287
9. As shown by Edmond 1854.
10. Paul Chacornac states, without giving a reference, that Levi credited
Christian with the authorship of a work of fifteen pages, published in 1864 by
Dentu, called Science occulte: Satan Spirite, by Aureolus Magnus; the attribution
is not endorsed by Chacornac. If Levi really ascribed this work to Paul Christian,
it testifies to quite atrocious judgement on his part, for the booklet is insane. The
author announces that Satan is presently the God of this world, explaining that
there are coups d'etat among the gods as there are among men. He expects his
readers to understand without a translation or transliteration the words with
which he besprinkles his pages in Hebrew and Arabic script, and, most frequently,
in an unidentifiable script which is not Coptic but contains some Coptic letters.
11. Christian 1952.
12. Christian 1870, p. 106, Christian 1952, Vol. I, p. 89.
13. See also Waite 1921, Vol. I, pp. 218-25. Waite says that Grata Repoa was
translated into French by Jean-Marie Ragon de Bettignies in 1821; the translator
was in fact Antoine Bailleul.
14. The mention of the Tarot on p. 464 of Vol. II of Christian 1952 is an
interpolation by the translators; see p. 495 of Christian 1870.
16. Christian 1870, p. 177, Christian 1952, Vol. I, p. 147.
16. Like those given in book V ofTrithemius's Polygraphia, for example.
17. A second Convention was called by the Philalethes, and held in Paris from
8 March to 26 May 1787; it was to this that Etteilla delivered a lecture. For both
Conventions, and the invitation to Cagliostro, see Le Forestier 1970, pp. 784-91.
In Waite 1911, A.E. Waite gave a correct account of this matter (Vol. II, pp. 17 and
435). In Waite 1921, he gave contradictory accounts in different places: see Vol. I,
pp. 89-91, and Vol. II, pp. 71, 91-2 and 351.
18. Waite 1921, Vol. I, p. 90.
19. The tale of Cagliostro's prophecies on this occasion is repeated in Justine
Glass, The Story of Fulfilled Prophecy, London, 1969, pp. 83-5.
20. A.E. Waite says that Christian 'wrote a great romance and called it a history
of magic' (Waite 1911, Vol. II, p. 429).
21. Christian 1952, p. xiv.

10, Among the Gypsies: Jean-Alexandre Vaillant

1. Most of the following account of Vaillant's life and work is derived from
Oltea Cudalbu-Slusanschi, 'Contributions a la biographie et a l'oeuvre de J.A.
Vaillant (1804-1886)', Melanges de l'Ecole Roumaine en France, Vol. XIV, 1937-8,
pp. 1-113. Cudalbu-Slusanschi's account is sympathetic but judicious; he fails,
however, to acknowledge how wild Vaillant's vagaries could be, being unaware of
Vaillant 1851 or 1861, the latter of which he wrongly identifies with the later
Lanterne magique, and apparently not having studied Les R6mes very closely.
2. Revue de l'Orient, Vol. IV, 1844, pp. 127-40.
3. Vaillant 1857, pp. 54-5.
4. Vaillant 1857, p. 113.
5. Vaillant 1857, pp. 16-17.
6. Vaillant 1857, pp. 20-1.
7.Vaillant 1857, pp. 21, 63.
8. The Trappola pack was used in much of Central Europe from the XVII
century until the end of the Second World War for a number of games deriving
from the XVI-century Venetian game ofTrappola, and retained the Italian suit-
symbols used for the cards with which it had originally been played in Venice. It
 288 Notes to pp. 223-232
was an ordinary pack, in the sense of one lacking the special trump cards of the
Tarot pack.
9. Vaillant 1857, p. 126; and see pp. 39, 77, 110, 135 and 141.
. 10. !,aRevue, November 1855, pp. 397-419. The first edition of Levi's Dogme et
rituel, m two volumes, was dated 1856, but they actually appeared in August 1855.
11. The BollandistAeta Sanelorum, Vol XW, Antwerp, 1696, prints three lives
of St Bernardine, all of which mention the bonfire, but only the latest of which,
written after 1472, specifies that Tarot cards were consumed in it.
12. One allusion to it occurs in Levi 1855, in the phrase, 'the Tarot of the
Magi and of the Gypsies': see Levi 1923, p. 375, where bohemiens is wrongly
translated 'Bohemians'. Levi had read Boiteau 1854, to which he refers, Levi
1923, p. 398.
13. Quoted by Chacornac 1926, pp. 207-8.
14. Henrici Cornelii Agrippae ab Nettesheym, De Incertitudine & Vanitate
Scientiarum & Artium, Paris, 1531, chapter 'De Mendicitate', fol. xciii recto:
'gentes ille (sic) quos Cynganos vocant ... ex chiromantica divinatione oblectantes
homines, ijs fraudibus victum mendicant.'
15. Martini Crusii, Annales Suevici, Part III, Frankfurt, 1596, Book VII, ch. V,
p. 384: 'Multa ab eis furta & ... impostura, per chiromantiam & ridiculos (sic)
nummi causa vaticationes, profecta.' Crusius is quoting Caspar Hedio's additions
(Paraleipomena rerum memorabilium), p. 402, to his edition of 1537 of the Chron-
icle of Abbot Burchardus ofUrsperg, which he later translated into German. The
Chronicle itself, though it mentions the Gypsies, says nothing about their telling
fortunes by whatever means. .
18. Pasquier 1596, Book 4, ch. 17, pp. 213H-214A: 'sorcieres qui regardoient es
mains des gens, & disoient ce qu'advenu leur estoit, ou a aduenir.' Pasquier says
(p. 213C) that this is quoted from 'vn vieux liure en forme de papier iournal, par
lequel vn Theologien de Paris ... nous redigea ... tout ce qui aduint de son temps' ..
17. Dissertatio Philosophica de Cingaris in Disputationem proposita Lipsiae iL
M. Jacobo Thomasio ... respondente Johanne-Christophoro Schmid ... anno 1652,
Leipzig, 1671, paragraph 66.
18. Heinrich Moritz Gottlieb Grellmann, Die Zigeuner: ein historischer Versuch
uber die Lebensart und Verfassung, Sitten und Schicksahle dieses Volks in Europa,
nebst ihrem Ursprunge, Dessau and Leipzig, 1783. A second corrected and en-
larged edition was published in Gottingen in 1787. An English translation of the
first edition by Mathew Raper, Dissertation on the Gypsies, was published in
London in 1787, and a French translation, by M.J., of the second edition, Histoire
des Bohemiens, in Paris in 1810. The relevant material is in ch. 7 of the first
Section, and can be found on pp. 35-6 of the English translation.
19. Pp. 43-4.
20. P. 72, fn. 1.
21. J.W. Brodie-Innes, 'The Tarot Cards', The Occult Review, Vol. XXIX, no. 2,
February 1919, pp. 90-8. The article is reprinted in R.A. Gilbert (ed.), The
Sorcerer and his Apprentice, in the Roots of the Golden Dawn series, Aquarian
Press, Wellingborough, 1983, pp. 119-28. The passage quoted will be found on
pp. 122-3.
22. J.-P. Clebert, The Gypsies, translated by Charles Duff, London, 1963, pp.
119-20: the original was published as Les Tziganes in Grenoble in 1961.
23. Starkie 1953, pp. 292-3.
24. Starkie 1953, pp. 294-8.
25. Martin Block, Zigeuner, Leipzig, 1936, trans. by B. Kuczynski and D. Taylor
as Gypsies, London, 1938, p. 161.
 Notes to pp. 232-243 289
26. Rakoczi 1954, pp. 14-15.
27. Rakoczi 1954, pp. 16-17.

11. Papus and his Circle

1. See the biography by his son, Encausse 1932, its revised edition, Encausse
1979, and the more balanced recent biography Andre & Beaufils 1995.
2. Andre & Beaufils 1995, pp. 29-31.
3. Andre & Beaufils, pp. 32-3, express this opinion, saying that 'Gerard's true
entry into the world that he then rather prosaically called the "initiation societies"
is to be dated from 1887, with his reception into the Theosophical Society'.
4. Levi 1968, pp. 415-29; seep. 417.
5. See the article 'Comment je devins mystique' ('How I became a Mystic') in
L'lnitiation, Oct. 1895, quoted in Encausse 1932, pp. 19-25.
6. Andre & Beaufils 1995, pp. 29-31. ·
7. See Andre & Beaufils 1995, pp. 71-4, for Papus's breach with the T.S., and
p. 151 for his membership of the H.B. of L., together with Mariel 1971, pp. 248-9,
and Joscelyn Godwin, Christian Chanel and John P. Deveney, The Hermetic
Brotherhood of Luxor, York Beach, Maine, 1995, pp. 64, 373 and 434.
8. Encausse 1979, pp. 50-1, asserts that, a few months before his death in
1882, the minor occultist Henri Delaage (b. 1825) consecrated the 17-year-old
Gerard Encausse Superieur Inconnu of the Martinist Order; this story is also to be
found in Mariel 1971, s.v. Martinisme. Andre & Beaufils 1995, pp. 56-7, very
reasonably dismiss the story as utterly improbable, remarking on the absence of
any reference to it in Gerard Encausse's diary.
9. For de Guaita's life, see Oswald Wirth, Stanislas de Guaita: souvenirs de
son secretaire (S. de G.: Memoirs of his Secretary), Paris, 1935, and the Preface to
Wirth 1927.
10. Others to do so were Victor-Emile Michelet (1861-1927) and Maurice Barres
( 1862-1923).
11. Andre & Beaufils, pp. 64-5.
12. Levi 1856, Rituel, ch. XXII; Levi 1968, p. 397.
13. The later set was reprinted in 1966, and a full pack, incorporating Wirth's
designs for the 'major Arcana', was issued by Tchou Productions of Paris in about
1975, and subsequently by U.S. Games Systems. For illustrations ofWirth's first
set of cards, see Papus 1910a or Kaplan 1986, p. 393. For illustrations of the later
set, see Kaplan 1990, p. 543, and for illustrations of the complete pack, Kaplan
1978, p. 286.
14. See Mcintosh 1972, pp. 166-8.
15. See Edward Lucie-Smith, Symbolist Art, London, 1972, pp. 109-19, and R.H.
Wilenski, Modern French Painters, New York, 1939, pp. 141-4.
16. S. de Guaita, Essais des sciences maudites, I: Au seuil du mystere, 2nd edn.,
Paris, 1890, p. 91.
17. In 1949, a version of Book III of Le Serpent de la Genese, under the intended
title Le Probleme du mal, was published at Levallois-Perret, under the names of
Stanislas de Guaita and Oswald Wirth as joint authors. Presumably Wirth com-
pleted the book, but chose not to publish it in his lifetime.
18. Howe 1972, p. 295; Gilbert 1986, pp. 126-7.
19. Star 1888, p. 115.
20. Star 1888, p. 282.
21. Star is not referring to the standard pattern nowadays known as the Tarot
290 Notes to pp. 243-253
de Besan~on, whose distinguishing feature is the substitution of Jupiter and Juno
for the Pope and Popess on trumps V and II.
22. The title given to the English version of the book, The Tarot of the Bohemi-
ans, is a mistranslation: Papua had no intention of associating the Tarot with
Bohemia or its inhabitants. The original English translation of 1892, was by A.P.
Morton, a professional translator from French to English; the second edition of
1910 was lightly revised by A.E. Waite. Morton gave the book its English title,
which Waite preserved; but the word 'Bohemiens' was correctly translated 'Gyp-
sies' by Morton in the text of the book.
23. Since the remainder of 10 when divided by 9 is 1, so is that of every power
of 10 such as 100 or 1000; hence the remainder of, say, 40, 400 or 4000 when
divided by 9 must be 4.
24. The well-known formula, not given by Papua, for the sum of all whole
numbers from 1 ton is fn(n + 1). Thus 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = f (4 x 5) and 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
= t (5 x 6).
25. In more usual terminology, if n leaves the remainder 1 when divided by 3,
then 1 + 2 +"... + n leaves the remainder 1 when divided by 9. To prove the theorem,
we need only to check that it holds for n = 1, 4 or 7, since, if n leaves the remainder
1 when divided by 3, it must leave the remainder 1, 4 or 7 when divided by 9. See
Papua 1888, pp. 50-5.
28. Papus, La Kabbale: Tradition secrete de l'Occident, Paris, 1892.
27. See Uvi 1959, pp. 135-7.
28. In the first section of his Chapter X, Papua 1892, p. 97, Papua instead
ascribes to the Sepher Yetzirah an association between the three mother .letters
and his three worlds, divine, human and material. He makes no subsequent use of
this, however.
29. Cardano's 'treatise On Subtlety (1550) is entirely based on the keys of the
Tarot', Papua 1889, p. 305, Papus 1892, p. 297. Postel 'discovered the key to the
Tarot, but did not disclose the secret, in spite of the promise given in the title to
his work, The Key to the Hidden Mysteries (1580)', Papus 1889, p. 306, Papus 1892,
p. 298; characteristically, Papus has unhappily abridged the title, and given the
wrong date of publication (it should be 1547). 'Saint-Martin's book, the Tableau
Naturel des Rapports qui existent entre Dieu, l'Homme et l'Univers, is based upon
the Tarot', Papus 1889, p. 306, Papua 1892, p. 298.
30. Papus of course meant the original Rosicrucians: Papus 1889, p. 306, Papua
1892, p. 298. The Fama appeared in 1614. Papus gives the date 1615, which was
that of the second manifesto, the Confessio Fraternitatis. He appears to have
confused passages from the two. The Fama has 'by those [the original members of
the Fraternity] was collected a book or volume of all that man can desire, wish or
hope for'; the Confessio has 'Were it not a precious thing, that you could so read in
one only book ... all that which in all other books (which heretofore have been, and
are now, and hereafter shall come out) hath been, is and shall be learned and found
out of them?': see A.E. Waite, The Real History of the Rosicrucians, London, 1887,
pp. 72, 89. Of course, no reference to the Tarot is intended in either passage.
31. This is one of the schemes that Papus borrowed from Levi. See Papua 1889,
p. 217, Papus 1892, p. 211, Papus 1910a, p. 210.
32.Papusl889,p.216,Papus1892,p.210,Papusl910a,p.209.
33.Papus1889,p.220,Papus1892,p.214,Papusl910a,p.213.
34. See Papus 1892, pp. 8-9, 12, 239, 338, 340-2, 343.
35. Papus 1891.
38. Andre & Beaufils 1995, p. 89. The founder of the Church was Jules Doinel
(1842-1902), an archivist who around 1890 was serving in the Archives departe-
 Notes to pp. 253-256 291
mentales du Loiret in Orleans (Dictionnaire de biographie fraru;aise, Vol. XI, Paris,
1967).
37. Andre & Beaufils 1995, p. 128, and p. 282 for the Tours clinic.
38. Andre & Beaufils 1995, p. 116.
39. Pierre Geyraud (said to be a pseudonym for Raoul Guyader), Parmi les
sectes et les rites: Les societes secretes de Paris (The Secret Societies of Paris), Paris,
1938, pp. 55-6, mentions his great difficulty in encountering a member of the
F.T.L. ('a man who worked in films') and that member's reluctance to give him any
information, save that he believed its founder to have been Sedir. Geyraud quotes
from Paul Sedir, Histoire des Rose+Croix, Bihorel-lez-Rouen, 1910, p. 128, repub-
lished 1933 as Histoire et doctrine des Rose+Croix (History and Doctrine of the
Rosicrucians), in which the F.T.L. is described as 'a very elevated Rosicrucian
centre' which 'began to spread in about 1898'. Mcintosh 1972, pp. 223-4, quotes the
whole passage.
40. Andre & Beaufils 1995, pp. 152-3.
41. See Howe & Moller 1978, p. 33, and Andre & Beaufils 1995, pp. 166-9; the
former conclude that Papus 'had told Yarker that he was not a Grand Orient
freemason but had failed to reveal that he had never been regularly initiated'. The
Rite of Swedenborg was founded in the United States in 1859: Yarker (1833-1913)
had imported it to England from Canada in 1876 (Ellie Howe, 'Fringe Masonry in
England, 1870-85',Ars Quatuor Coronatorum, Vol. 85, 1972, pp. 242-95).
42. Encausse 1932, pp. 31-4, prints an article published in the Revue des Deux
Mondes of 15 March 1922 giving an account of the alleged visit of 1905, including
an evocation of the spirit of Alexander III, and a letter of June 1922 to Le Voile
d'lsis by Marc Haven and another, repudiating the report of the evocation but not
denying the visit; much of this is translated in Mcintosh 1972, pp. 160-1. Andre &
Beaufils 1995 conclude that the visit itself never took place.
43. Andre & Beaufils 1995, p. 280. See also Jacqueline Encausse, Un 'Serviteur
lnconnu': Philippe Encausse, fils de Papus, Paris, 1991.
44. See Mariel 1971, p. 365, s.v. Rites egyptiens, Howe & Moller 1978, p. 38, and
Andre & Beaufils 1995, p. 263.
45. Andre & Beaufils 1995, p. 258.
46. Saint-Yves described it in his book L'Archeometre of 1903. See Andre &
Beaufils 1995, pp. 269-74.
47. Morton mistranslated this as 'editor'; Waite left. this unchanged.
48. F. Jollivet-Castelot, Comment on devient alchimiste ... base sur les clefs
du Tarot (How to Become an Alchemist ... based on the Keys of the Tarot), Paris,
1897.
49. Falconnier 1896. For an illustration of the Wegener designs, see Kaplan
1986, p. 395.
50. Papus 1909.
51. Papua's attribution of a connection of the Tarot with the work of Ramon Lull
is as absurd as all his other attempts to find allusions to it in the writings of early
writers.
52. For illustrations of Goulinat's designs, see Kaplan 1978, p. 211, and Hoff-
mann & Dietrich 1988, no. 109.
53. Papus 1909, p. 8.
54. Goulinat published several books, including his La technique des peintres of
1922, which became a standard manual for painters. In 1935 he was appointed
Director of the Department of Restoration of Paintings for the national museums,
and aft.er the war became President of the Societe des artistes fran~ais. His
daughter published a life of her father entitled Jean-Gabriel Goulinat: sa vie, sa
292 Notes to pp. 257-261
carriere (Paris, 1974). She tells us that Dr Encausse diagnosed Mme Goulinat's
cancer and predicted her imminent death.
55. These are said to be the 'Watan signs' used in the 'archaeometer' invented
by Saint-Yves d'Alveydre. The signs were reproduced 'by special permission of the
author' (Papus 1909, p. 7); but d'Alveydre died in the year the book appeared.
56. Goulinat's designs were reproduced in facsimile by Editions Dusserre in
1992 from an original copy, coloured by hand, with permission of both Mlle
Goulinat and H. Encausse, Papus's grandson.
57. Dorbon 1940 states that El libro negro was published in Barcelona in 1866,
with Hortensio Flam.el given as the author. It describes the book as a translation
ofHortensius Flamel, Le livre rouge, with some additional material on cards and
dreams.
58. For Moreau, see pp. 154 and 283, notes 20 and 21. The list given in Moulth's
book of 1859 of divinatory meanings according to Moreau of the cards of the Piguet
pack agrees little with that given by Papus, whose source is not clear.
59. Papus 1909, pp. 162-6.
60. In fact, there is a glaring clue on one of them, which bears along the
right-hand margin, near the bottom, the inscription 'Tom. VI, N 4', which we have
not seen on any other copy of this engraving.
61. B. Picart, Ceremonieset coutumesreligieusesde tous les peuples du monde
(Religious Ceremonies and Customs of all the Peoples of the World), Amsterdam,
Tome VI, 1723, 2e Partie, facing p. 126.
62. Kircher 1667, pp. 156-62. .
63. Kircher 1667, pp. 125-7. .
64. For an account of this whole matter, see K. Frank Jensen, 'Eliphas Levi's
"Indian Tarot" ', Manteia, No. 9, 1993, p. 4. As stated there, thanks are due to Dr
Partha Mitter for his help in tracking down the source of the engravings.
65. Andre & Beaufils 1995, pp. 267-71, 273-8, and Mariel 1971, s.v. Bricaud.
Bricaud, who died in 1934, succeeded Teder as head of the Martinist Order, and
was involved with the Rite of Memphis-Misrai:m and most other French occult
groups. He wrote a book about the abbe Boullan and was a propagator of the ideas
of his predecessor Vintras (Mariel 1971, pp. 86, 466).
66. Mcintosh 1972, p. 220, Andre & Beaufils, pp. 257, 261, 309, 314n.
67. Andre & Beaufils 1995, p. 317.
68. Andre & Beaufils 1995, pp. 334-6.
 Bibliography

Alliette (J.-B.), see Etteilla.

Amadou 1985, 1986: Robert Amadou, 'Alchimie et societe secrete', L'Autre Monde, no. 98,
1985, pp. 24-9, and no. 99, 1986, pp. 18-23 and 57.
Andre & Beaufils 1995: Marie-Sophie Andre and Christophe Beaufils, Papus: biographie. La
Belle Epoque de l'occultisme (Papus, biography: the Golden Age of Occultism), Paris, 1995.
Astaroth 1881: Astaroth, L'Avenir devoile par les cartes (The Future Unveiled by the Cards),
Paris, 1881.
Baltrusaitis 1967: Jurgis Baltrusaitis, Essai sur la legende d'un mythe: La quete d'Isis,
Introduction a l'egyptomanie (Essay on the Legend of a Myth: the Quest of Isis, Introduc-
tion to Egyptomania), Paris, 1967 (new edn. as La quete d'Isis: essai sur la legende d'un
mythe, Paris, 1985).
Berti & Vitali 1987: Giordano Berti and Andrea Vitali (eds.), Le carte di corte: I tarocchi,
Bologna, 1987 (catalogue of the Ferrara exhibition).
Boiteau 1854: Paul Boiteau d'Ambly, Les Cartes ajouer et la cartomancie (Playing Cards and
Cartomancy), Paris, 1854.
Bourgeat 1906: Jean-Gaston Bourgeat, Le Tarot: aperqu historique (The Tarot: a historical
survey), Paris, 1906.
Bowman 1969: Frank Paul Bowman, Eliphas Levi, visionnaire romantique (E.L., Romantic
Visionary), Paris, 1969.
Breitkopf 1784: Immanuel Breitkopf, Versuch, den Ursprung der Spielkarten, die Ein-
fuhrung des Leinenpapieres, und den Anfang der Holzschneidekunst in Europa zu
erforschen, Erster Theil <Attempt to Investigate the Origin of Playing Cards, the Introduc-
tion of Linen Paper, and the Beginning of the Art of Woodcuts in Europe, Part/), Leipzig,
1784 (Part II published in 1801).
Buisset 1984: Christiane Buisset, Eliphas Levi: sa vie, son oeuvre, ses pensees (E.L.: his Life,
his Works, his Thought), Paris, 1984.
Caillet 1912: Albert L. Caillet, Manuel bibliographique des sciences psychiques ou occultes
(Bibliographic Manual of the Occult or Psychic Sciences), 3 vols., Paris, 1912.
Calvino 1969: ltalo Calvino, Il Castello dei destini incrociati, Parma, 1969, Turin, 1973; Eng.
trans. by William Weaver, The Castle of Crossed Destinies, London, 1977.
Cardano 1550: Girolamo Cardano, De Subtilitate (On Subtlety), Venice, 1550.
Casanova 1993: Giacomo Casanova, Histoire de ma vie. Texte integral du manuscrit original,
3 vols., Paris, 1993 (Bouquins),
Cavendish 1977: Richard Cavendish, A History of Magic, London, 1977 (repr. London and
New York, 1990).
Cellier du Fayel 1845: Narcisse-Honore Cellier du Faye!, La verite sur Mademoiselle Lenor-
mand: memoires, revelations intimes des mysteres de la sibylle et de ses adeptes ou
consultants (The truth about Mlle Lenormand: memoirs, private revelations of the Sibyl's
mysteries and of her followers or consultants), Paris, 1845.
Chacornac 1926: Paul Chacomac, Eliphas Levi, renovateur de l'occultisme en France (1810-
1875) (E.L., Renewer of Occultism in France), Paris, 1926 (repr. Paris, 1989).
Christian 1856: Paul Christian, Carmen sibyllinum, Paris, 1856.
Christian 1863: Paul Christian, L'Homme rouge des Tuileries (The Red Man of the Tuileries),
Paris, 1863; an undated photographic reprint was issued in Paris in 1937.
Christian 1870: Paul Christian, Histoire de la magie, du monde surnaturel et de la fatalite a
travers les temps et les peuples (History of Magic, of the Supernatural World and of Fate
in all Times and among all Peoples), Paris, 1870.
294 Bibliography
Christian 1952: Paul Christian, The History and Practice of Magic, 2 vols., ed. Ross Nichols,
Eng. trans. by James Kirkup and Julian Shaw of Histoire de la magie, London, 1952.
Constant 1841: A. Constant, La Bible de la liberte (The Bible of Liberty), Paris, 1841.
Constant 1844: Abbe Alphonse Constant, La Mere de Dieu (The Mother of God), Paris, 1844.
Constant 1845: Abbe A. Constant (de Baucourt), Le livre des larmes, ou le Christ consolateur
(The Book of Tears, or Christ the Consoler), Paris, 1845.
Constant 1846: Alphonse-Louis Constant, La derniere Incarnation (The Last Incarnation),
Paris, 1846.
Constant (A.-L.), see also Levi.
Copenhaver 1992: Brian P. Copenhaver, Hermetica, Cambridge, 1992.
Court 1885: Memoires d'Antoine Court (1696-1729), publies par Edmond Hugues (Memoirs
of Antoine Court (1696-1729), published by E. Hugues), Toulouse, 1885.
Court de Gebelin 1773-82: Antoine Court de Gebelin, Monde primitif, analyse et compare avec
le monde moderne (Primitive World, analysed and compared with the modern world),
Paris, 9 vols., 1773-82.
Crata Repoa 1778: also Krata Repoa. Work published anonymously in Berlin, 1778, by C. F.
von Koppen and Johann Wilhelm Bernhard von Hymmen.
D'Allemagne 1906: Henry-Rene D'Allemagne, Les cartes a jouer du X/Ve au XXe siecle
(Playing Cards, from the XIV to the XX Century), 2 vols., Paris, 1906.
Darnton 1968: Robert Darnton, Mesmerism and the End of the Enlightenment in France,
Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1968.
de la Grange 1845: A. Frederic de La Grange, Le Grand Livre du Destin (The Great Book of
Destiny), Paris, 1845.
Delalain [1899]: Paul Delalain, L'imprimerie et la librairie a Paris de 1789 a 1813, Paris, s.d.
[1899].
Depaulis 1984: Thierry Depaulis, Tarot,jeu et magie (Tarot, Game and Magic), Paris, 1984
(exhibition catalogue).
Depaulis 1986: Thierry Depaulis, 'Roger de Gaigneres et ses tarots' ('Roger de Gaign~res and
his Tarots'), Le Vieux Papier, fasc. 301, July 1986, pp. 117-24, with 'Additif' (Addendum),
ibid., fasc. 302, Oct. 1986, p. 160.
Depaulis 1989: Thierry Depaulis, Les cartes de la Revolution: cartes ajouer et propagande
(The Cards of the Revolution: Playing Cards and Propaganda), Issy-les-Moulineaux, 1989
(exhibition catalogue).
Dimitriadis 1990: Dicta Dimitriadis, Mademoiselle Lenormand: la reine de la voyance (Mlle
Lenormand, the Queen of Clairvoyance), Paris, 1990.
Dorbon 1940: Librairie Dorbon Atne, Bibliotheca esoterica, Paris, n.d. [1940] (antique book
dealer's catalogue).
Dummett 1980: Michael Dummett, The Game of Tarot, London, 1980.
Edmond 1854: Edmond [Edmond Billaudot], L'Urne du destin, ou l'Avenir devoile (The Urn
of Destiny, or the Future Unveiled), Paris, 1854.
Encausse (Gerard), see Papus.
Encausse 1932: Philippe Encausse, Papus, Dr. Gerard Encausse, sa vie, son oeuvre (Papus
... his Life and Work), Paris, 1932.
Encausse 1979: Philippe Encausse, Papus: le 'Balzac de l'occultisme' (Papus, the 'Balzac of
Occultism'), Paris, 1979; revised edn. of Encausse 1932.
Esmael 1875: Esmael, Manuel de Cartomancie, ou l'Art de tirer Les cartes (Manual of
Cartomancy, or the Art of Reading the Cards), Paris, 1875.
Etteilla 1770: Etteilla [J.-B. Alliette], Etteilla, ou maniere de se recreer avec un jeu de cartes
(Etteilla, or A Way to Entertain Oneself with a Pack of Cards), Amsterdam, 1770.
Etteilla 1785: Etteilla [J.-B. Alliette], Maniere de se recreer avec le jeu de cartes nommees
tarots, pour servir de second cahier (A Way to Entertain Oneself with the Pack of Cards
called Tarots, Second Book), Amsterdam & Paris, 1785.
Etteilla 1786: Etteilla [J.-B. Alliette], Les sept nuances de ['oeuvrephilosophique-hermetique
(The Seven Grades of the Philosophical-Hermetic Work), Paris, n.d. [1786].
Etteilla 1787: Etteilla [J.-B. Alliette], Science. Le~ons theoriques et pratiques du livre de Thot.
Moyennes classes (Theoretical and Practical Lessons in the Book of Thoth. Middle classes),
Amsterdam & Paris, 1787.
Etteilla 1791: Etteilla, ou l'art de lire dans Lescartes, Paris, 1791.
Faivre 1973: Antoine Faivre, L'Esoterisme au XVllle siecle en France et en Allemagne
(Esotericism in the XVIII Century in France and Germany), Paris, 1973.
 Bibliography 295
Faivre 1994: Antoine Faivre,Acces de l'esoterisme occidental, Paris, 1968 (rev. and transl. as
Access to Western Esotericism, Albany, New York, 1994).
Faivre 1995: Antoine Faivre, The Eternal Hermes, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1995.
Falconnier 1896: Rene Falconnier, Les XXII lames hermetiques du Tarot divinatoire (The
XXII Hermetic Plates of the Divinatory Tarot), Paris, 1896; 2nd edn., 1911. Repr. Nice,
1976, Collection Belisane.
Ferrier 1550: Auger Ferrier, Des jugemens astronomiques sur les nativitez (Concerning
Astronomical Judgements based on Birthdates), Lyons, 1550.
Festugiere 1950: A.-J. Festugiere, La revelation d'Hermes Trismegiste (The Revelation of
Hermes Trismegistus), Vol. 1, Paris, 1950 (repr. 1986).
Flamel 1841: Hortensius Flamel, Le Livre rouge (The Red Book), Paris, 1841.
Flamel 1842: Hortensius Flamel, Le Livre d'or (The Golden Book), Paris, 1842.
Garasse 1622: Fran~ois Garasse, Recherche des Recherches (Investigation of the 'Investiga-
tions'), Paris, 1622.
Gilbert 1986: R. A. Gilbert, The Golden Dawn Companion, Wellingborough, 1986.
Girault 1843: Francis Girault, Mademoiselle Le Normand: sa biographie, ses predictions
extraordinaires, son commerce avec les personnages les plus illustres d'Europe, de la
Republique, du Directoire, de l'Empire et de la Restauration jusqu'a nos jours (Mlle Le
Normand: her biography, her extraordinary predictions, her intercourse with the most
famous people of Europe, of the Republic, of the Directory, of the Empire, and of the
Restoration to this day), Paris, 1843.
Greer & Pollack 1989: Mary K. Greer & Rachel Pollack (eds.), New Thoughts on Tarot, North
Hollywood, California, 1989.
Halbronn 1993: Jacques Halbronn, Etteilla. L'astrologie du livre de Thot (1785), suivie de
Recherches sur l'histoire de l'astrologie et du tarot par Jacques Halbronn, Paris, 1993
(repr. of Maniere de se recreer avec le jeu de cartes nommees tarots; pour servir de
quatrieme cahier a cet ouvrage, Amsterdam & Paris, 1785, with a study by Jacques
Halbronn).
Hoffmann & Dietrich 1988: DetlefHoffmann and Margot Dietrich, Tarot-Tarock -Tarocchi,
Leinfelden-Echterdingen, 1988 (exhibition catalogue).
Hoffmann & Kroppenstedt 1972: DetlefHoffmann and Erika Kroppenstedt, Wahrsagekarten
(Fortune-telling Cards), Bielefeld, 1972 (exhibition catalogue).
Holmyard 1957: E.J. Holmyard, Alchemy, Harmondsworth, Middlesex, 1957 (repr. New
York, 1990).
Howe & Moller 1978: Ellie Howe and Hellmut Moller, 'Theodor Reuss: Irregular Free-
masonry in Germany, 1900-23', Ars Quatuor Coronatorum, Vol. 91, 1978, pp. 28-46.
Howe 1972: Ellie Howe, The Magicians of the Golden Dawn, London, 1972.
Hugues 1872: Edmond Hugues, Antoine Court: histoire de la restauration du Protestantisme
en France au XVIIle siecle (Antoine Court: the History of the Restoration of Protestantism
in France in the XVIII Century), 2 vols., Paris, 1872.
Jung 1967: C. G. Jung, Alchemical Studies, transl. by R.C.F. Hull, Princeton, 1967 (repr.
1983).
Kaplan 1978: Stuart R. Kaplan, The Encyclopedia of Tarot, New York, 1978.
Kaplan 1986: Stuart R. Kaplan, The Encyclopedia of Tarot, Vol. II, New York, 1986.
Kaplan (A.) 1990: Aryeh Kaplan, Sefer Yetzirah: The Book of Creation, York Beach, Maine,
1990.
Kaplan (S.R.) 1990: Stuart R. Kaplan, The Encyclopedia of Tarot, III, Stamford, Connecticut,
1990.
Keller 1981: William B. Keller, A Catalogue of the Cary Collection of Playing Cards in the
Yale University Library, 4 vols., New Haven, 1981.
Kircher 1652-4: Athanasius Kircher, Oedipus Aegyptiacus (The Egyptian Oedipus), Rome,
1652-4.
Kircher 1667: Athanasius Kircher, China illustrata (China illustrated, Latin), Amsterdam,
1667.
Krata Repoa, see Grata Repoa.
La sibylle 1843: La sibylle du XIXe siecle: demieres propheties de Mlle Lenormand, avec un
commentaire et une notice biographique et anecdotique tires des manuscrits inedits de cette
illustre sibylle (The Sibyl of the XIX century: Last Prophecies of Mlle Lenormand, with a
commentary and a biographical and anecdotic notice based on unpublished manuscripts
of this illustrious Sibyl), Paris, 1843, with commentary by Hortensius Flamel.
Le Forestier 1970: Rene Le Forestier, La Franc-Mar;onnerietempliere et occultiste auxXVIIIe
296 Bibliography
et XIXe siecles, Paris, 1970 (transl. as Templar and Occultist Freemasonry in the XVIII
and XIX Centuries, 1989).
Le Normand 1814: Marie-Anne Le Normand, Les souvenirs prophetiques d'une sibylle sur les
causes secretes de son arrestation le 11 decembre 1809 (Prophetic Memories of a Sibyl on
the secret cause of her arrest on 11 December 1809), Paris, 1814.
Le Normand 1817: Marie-Anne Le Normand, Les oracles sibyllins, ou la suite des souvenirs
prophetiques (The Sibylline Oracles, or the Prophetic Memories continued), Paris, 1817.
Le Normand 1818: Marie-Anne Le Normand, La sibylle au congres d'Aix-la-Chapelle, suivi
d'un coup d'oeuil sur celui de Carlsbad, ouvrage faisant suite aux Oracles sibyllins, avec
des notes politiques, historiques, philosophiques, cabalistiques, etc., etc., ornes de sept
gravures [emblematiques} (The Sibyl at the Aachen Congress, followed by a glance at the
Karlsbad Congress, to continue the Sibylline Oracles, with political, historical, philo-
sophical, cabalistic notes, etc., etc., illustrated with 7 [emblematic] engravings), Paris,
1818.
Le Normand 1822: Marie-Anne Le Normand, Souvenirs de la Belgique: cent jours d'infor-
tunes, ou le proces memorable, avec des notes historiques et politiques, etc. (Memories from
Belgium: a hundred days of misfortune, or the Memorable proceedings, with historical and
political notes, etc.; illustrated with an engraving, the author's portrait in her Brussels
jail), Paris, 1822.
Le Normand 1827: Marie-Anne Le Normand, Memoires historiques et secrets de l'lmperatrice
Josephine (Historical and Secret Memoirs of the Empress Josephine), Paris, 1827.
Le Normand 1831: Marie-Anne Le Normand, Le petit homme rouge au chateau des Tuileries
(The Little Red Man at the Tuileries Castle), Paris, 1831.
Lelievre 1847: Mlle A. Lelievre, Justifications des sciences divinatoires (Justifications of the
Divinatory Sciences), Paris, 1847.
Levi 1854-5: Eliphas Levi [A.-L. Constant], Dogme de la haute magie (Doctrine of High
Magic), Paris, published in fascicules 1854-5.
Levi 1855: Eliphas Levi [A.-L. Constant], Rituel de la haute magie (Rituals of High Magic),
Paris, 1855. ·
Levi 1856: Eliphas Levi [A.-L. Constant], Dogme et rituel de la haute magie (Doctrine and
Ritual of High Magic), Paris, 1856 (actually published 1855); 2nd edn., Paris, 1861.
Levi 1860: Eliphas Levi [A.-L. Constant], Histoire de la magie (History of Magic), Paris, 1860.
Levi 1861: Eliphas Levi [A.-L. Constant], La Clef des grands mysteres (The Key to the Great
Mysteries), Paris, 1861. Trans. by A.E. Waite as The History of Magic, London, 1913.
Levi 1865: Eliphas Levi [A.-L. Constant], La Science des esprits (The Science of Spirits),
Paris, 1865, being the 2nd vol. of La philosophie occulte (Occult Philosophy).
Levi 1896: Eliphas Levi [A.-L. Constant], Le Catechisme de la paix (The Catechism of Peace),
Paris, 1896 (posthumous).
Levi 1898: Eliphas Levi [A.-L. Constant], Le grand arcane, ou l'occultisme devoile (The Great
Secret, 01;Occultism Unveiled), Paris, 1898 (posthumous).
Levi 1923: Eliphas Levi [A.-L. Constant], Transcendental Magic: its Doctrine and Ritual,
trans. of Levi 1856 by A.E. Waite, revised edn., London, 1923, paperback edn., London,
1968, original edn., London, 1896.
Levi 1959: Eliphas Levi [A.-L. Constant], The Key of the Mysteries, trans. of Levi 1861 by
Aleister Crowley, London, 1959, 1969, New York, 1970.
Lhote 1983: Court de Gebelin, Le Tarot, ed. by Jean-Marie Lhote, Paris, 1983 (a photographic
reprint, with notes, of the essays of Court de Gebelin and de Mellet from Gebelin 1773-82,
with copious notes and a biographical introduction: the most accessible edition of the
text).
Lollio 1550: Flavio Alberto Lollio, Invettiva contra il Giuoco del Taroco, in Rime piacevoli,
Venice, 1550 (repr. in part in Singer 1816, Appendix XIII, and in Dummett 1980, pp.
432-3).
Magus 1874: Antonio Magus, L'Art de tirer les cartes (The Art of Reading the Cards), Paris,
1874.
Mariel 1971: Pierre Mariel (ed.), Dictionnaire des societes secretes en Occident (Dictionary of
Secret Societies in the West), Paris, 1971.
Marquiset 1911: Alfred Marquiset, La celebre Mademoiselle Lenormand (The Famous Mlle
Lenormand), Paris, 1911.
Mcintosh 1972: Christopher Mcintosh, Eliphas Uui and the French Occult Revival, London,
1972.
Menestrier 1704: C.-F. Menestrier, Bibliotheque curieuse et instructive de divers ouvrages,
 Bibliography 297
anciens et modernes, de litterature et des arts (Curious and Instructive Library of Various
Ancient and Modern Works of Literature and the Arts), 2 vols., Trevoux, 1704.
Mercier 1974: Alain Mercier, Eliphas Levi et la pensee magique au XIXe siecle (E.L. and
Magical Thought in the XIX Century), Paris, 1974.
Merlin 1869: Romain Merlin, Origine des cartes ajouer: recherches nouvelles sur les naibi,
les tarots et sur les autres especes de cartes (Origin of Playing Cards: New Researches on
Naibi, Tarots and Other Varieties of Cards), Paris, 1869.
Migne 1848: abbe Jacques-Paul Migne, Dictionnaire des sciences occultes, 2 vols., Paris, 1848.
Millet-Saint-Pierre 1859: J.-B. Millet-Saint-Pierre, Recherches sur le dernier sorcier et la
derniere ecole de magie (Researches on the Last Sorcerer and the Last School of Magic),
Le Havre, 1859 (offprint from Bulletin de la Societe havraise d'Etudes diverses, 1859).
Moakley 1966: Gertrude Moakley, The Tarot Cards painted by Bonifacio Bembo for the
Visconti-Sforza Family, New York, 1966.
Moulth 1859: Nathaniel Moulth, Petit manuel du devin et du sorcier (Short Manual of the
Diviner and the Sorcerer), Paris, 1859.
Mozzani 1988: Eloi:se Mozzani, Magie et superstitions de la fin de l'Ancien Regime a la
Restauration (Magic and Superstitions from the end of the Ancien Regime to the Restora·
tion), Paris, 1988.
O'Donoghue 1901: Freeman M. O'Donoghue, Catalogue of the Collection of Playing Cards
Bequeathed to the Trustees of the British Museum by the Late Lady Charlotte Schreiber,
London, 1901.
Papua 1888: Papua [Gerard Encausse], Traite elementaire de science occulte (Elementary
Treatise of Occult Science), Paris, 1888.
Papua 1889: Papua [Gerard Encausse], Le Tarot des Bohemiens: le plus ancien livre du monde
(The Tarot of the Gypsies: the oldest book in the world) Paris, 1889. The heading of the
title-page is Clef absolue de la science occulte (Absolute key to occult science).
Papus 1891: Papus [Gerard Encausse], Traite methodique de science occulte (Methodical
Treatise of Occult Science), Paris, 1891.
Papus 1892: Papua [Gerard Encausse], The Tarot of the Bohemians, trans. A.P. Morton of
Papus 1889, London, 1892.
Pa pus 1909: Papua [Gerard Encausse], Le Tarot divinatoire: clef du tirage des cartes et des
sorts (The Divinatory Tarot: key to telling fortunes with the cards), Paris, 1909.
Papus 1910a: 2nd edn. of Papua 1892, revised by A.E. Waite, London, 1910. (Except where
otherwise noted, the pagination coincides with that of Papus 1892.)
Papus 1910b: 2nd revised edn. of Pa pus 1889, Paris, 1910.
Pasquier 1596: Etienne Pasquier, Les Recherches de la France (Investigations of France),
Paris, 1596.
Postel 1547/1646: Guillaume Postel, Absconditorum a Constitutione Mundi Clavis (Key to
Things Hidden from the Foundation of the World), Basle & Paris, 1547; 2nd edn., ed. A.
V. Frankenberg, Amsterdam, 1646.
Pratesi 1987: Franco Pratesi, 'Italian Cards: New Discoveries no. 4', The Playing-Card, Vol.
XVI, 1987, pp. 27-36.
Pratesi 1989: Franco Pratesi, 'Italian Cards: New Discoveries, no. 9', The Playing-Card, Vol.
XVII, 1989, pp. 136-45.
Rakoczi 1954: Basil Ivan Rakoczi, The Painted Caravan, the Hague, 1954.
Rosenroth 1677-84: Christian Knorr von Rosenroth, Kabbala denudata (The Cabala Un·
veiled), Vol. 1, Sulzbach, 1677, Vol. 2, Frankfurt, 1684.
Saint-Martin 1782: Louis Claude de Saint-Martin, Tableau naturel des rapports qui existent
entre Dieu, l'homme et l'univers (Table of the Correspondences between God, Man and the
Universe), Edinburgh, 1782.
Schmidt 1908: Paul Schmidt, Court de Gebelin a Paris (1763-1784), St.-Blaise & Roubaix,
1908.
Scholem 1974: Gershom Scholem, Kabbalah, New York, 1974 (repr. 1987).
Scott 1924-36: Walter Scott, Hermetica, Oxford, 1924-36 (repr. London, 1968; Boston, 1985).
Singer 1816: Samuel Weller Singer, Researches into the History of Playing Cards, London,
1816.
Star 1888: Ely Star, Les mysteres de ['horoscope(The Mysteries of the Horoscope), Paris, 1888.
Starkie 1953: Walter Starkie, In Sara's Tents, London, 1953.
Steele 1900: Robert Steele, 'A Notice of the Ludus Triumphorum and some early Italian card
games; with some remarks on the origin of the game of cards', Archaeologia, Vol. 57, 1900,
pp. 185-200.
298 Bibliography
Taylor 1949: F. Sherwood Taylor, The Alchemists: Founders of Modern Chemistry, New York,
1949 (repr. 1992).
Thorndike 1923-58: Lynn Thorndike, A History of Magic and Experimental Science, New
York, 8 vols., 1923-58.
Tulard 1991: Jean Tulard et al., Nouvelle bibliographie critique des memoires sur l'epoque
napoleonienne. Nouvelle edition, revue et enrichie (New critical Bibliography of Memoirs
of Napoleon's Time. New, revised and enlarged edition), Geneva, 1991.
Une sybille 1843: Memoires et propheties du petit homme rouge, par une sybille [sic], depuis
la Saint-Barthelemy jusqu'a la nuit des tems [sic] (Memoirs and Prophecies of the Little
Red Man, by a Sybil, from the Massacre of St. Bartholomew until the Dawn of Time), Paris,
1843.
Vaillant 1844-5: J.-A. Vaillant, La Romanie (Roumania), 3 vols., 1844-5.
Vaillant 1851: J.-A. Vaillant, La Bible de la science bohemienne: Evangile selon le plus vieux
des pelerins, le plus franc des prophetes, le plus vrai des socialistes, le Bohemien Narad,
fi.ls de Nun, vainqueur des deux grandes prostituees d'Orient et d'Occident (The Bible of
Gypsy Science: the Gospel according to the oldest of pilgrims, the most genuine of prophets,
the truest of socialists, the Gypsy Narad, son of Nun, conqueror of the two great prostitutes
of East and West); only two booklets published, under the title Voyage a travers les temps,
les pays et les peuples, ou Revelation de l'Argo antique et de la science des Saganes, par
Narad, fils de Nun (Voyage across times, countries and peoples; or Revelation of the
ancient Argo and of the science of the Sagans, by Narad, the son of Nun), Paris, 1851.
Vaillant 1857: J.-A. Vaillant, Les Romes: Histoire vraie des vrais bohemiens (The Romanies:
the true history of the true Gypsies), Paris, 1857.
Vaillant 1861: J.-A. Vaillant, Clef magique de la fiction et du fait: introduction a la science
nouvelle (The Magic Key of Fiction and of Fact: introduction to the new science), Paris,
1861.
Viatte 1928: Auguste Viatte, Les sources occultes du romantisme, 1770-1820 (The Occult
Sources of Romanticism, 1770-1820), 2 vols., Paris, 1928 (repr. 1965). ,
Waite 1911: Arthur E. Waite, The Secret Tradition in Freemasonry, 2 vols., London; 1911.
Waite 1921: Arthur E. Waite, New Encyclopaedia of Freemasonry, 2 vols., London, 1921
(repr. as one vol., New York, 1970).
Waite 1924: Arthur E. Waite, The Brotherhood of the Rosy Cross, London, 1924 (repr. New
York, 1993).
Walter 1943: Georges Walter, Catalogue des journaux revolutionnaires (1789-1799) (Cata·
logue of Revolutionary Newspapers), Paris, 1943.
Williams 1975: Thomas A. Williams, Eliphas Levi: Master of Occultism, University of
Alabama Press, 1975.
Wirth 1927: Oswald Wirth,Le Tarot des imagiers du moyen age (The Tarot of the Mediaeval
Artists), Paris, 1927.
 Index

Aachen Congress, 125-6 Archeometre, 254, 257

Abu Ali ibn Sina (Avicenna), 10 Aretino (P. Bacci), 266n20
Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyya Arnald of Villanova, 10
(Al-Razi, Rhazes), 10 Asch Mezareph, see Aesh Mezareph
Adam, P., 237 Asclepius, 6, 14
Aesh Mezareph (also Asch Mezareph), 17, Astaroth, 164, 283n20
151-2, 155-6, 159 Astral Light, 168, 184-5, 192
Aft're, Mgr D.-A., 176, 178 astrology, xi, 1, 2-4, 24, 87-8, 107, 135-6,
Agrippa, H.C., 15, 125, 151, 168, 184, 228-9 140, 151, 159, 168, 184, 194, 195-6,
Akiba, Rabbi, 12, 14 197, 198,200-2,205,208,209,210,
Albert d'Alby, 75, 146 212-13,239,242-3,251,258,262
Albertus Magnus (Albert the Great), 10, astronomy, 221, 223, 225
151 Atwood, Mrs M.A., 9
Albin, Mme, 133 Augustine, St, 6, 255-6
Alboise du Pujol, J.-E., 118-19, 134, 155-6, Aureolus Magnus, 287n10
157, 159 Avicenna, see Abu Ali ibn Sina
Alboise du Pujol, M.-A.-H., 156, 283-4n29
alchemy, l, 7-11, 18, 88, 151, 168, 169, Bacon, R., 10
184-5,242,255,262 Bailleu!, A., 265n47, 287n13
Alethophilus, 7 Balsamo, G., see Cagliostro
Alexis Piemontois (ps. ofG. Ruscelli), Baltrusaitis, J., 270n24, 27ln60
272n16 Balzac, H. de, 176, 197, 205
Allenbach, A., 175, 176 Balzac, Mme de, 192
Alliette, J.-B. (father), 77, 81 Bareste, E., 130, 152-3, 156, 204
Alliette, J.-B. l'Aine (brother), 77-8, 81 Baret, Mgr P., 163
Alliette, J.-B. le Jeune, see Etteilla Bargagli, G., 267n23
Alliette, L.-J.-B., see Etteilla fils Barlet, F.-C. (ps. of A. Faucheux), 236, 237,
'Alpha', 97, 98-9, 146 240,251,253,254
Al-Razi, see Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Baronius, C., 7
Zakariyya Barres, M., 289n10
Alta, abbe (ps. of abbe C. Melinge), 237 Barton, T., 263n5
Aluette cards, 63, 72, 223 Bateleur, see Mountebank (Tarot trump)
Amadou, R., 108-9, 275n6, 276n32, n34, Bautray, M.-A., 77, 81
n38,n39,n40 Beaucourt, J.-A., 174, 176, 178
Ambrose, St, 15 Beaufils, C., 236, 289nl, n2, n3, n7, n8,
Ambruget, M., 137, 153, 154, 163 nll,290n36,29ln37,n38,n40,n41,
Amis Reunis (Masonic Lodge), 55 n42,n43,n45,n46,292n65,n66,n67,
Andre, M.-S., 236, 289nl, n2, n3, n7, n8, n68
nll,290n36,291n37,n38,n40,n41, Beauharnais, E. de, 128
n42,n43,n45,n46,292n65,n66,n67, Beauharnais, J. de (M.-J.-R. Tascher de La
n68 Pagerie), see Josephine, Empress
Angel (Tarot trump), 46-7, 173 Belline, M., 162, 286n7, 286-7n8
Apocalypse, see Revelation Benci, T., 7
Apollonius ofTyana, 10, 181, 183, 184, Benoist, J.-B., 82, 90, 273n33
208,235 Bernardine of Siena, St, 63, 224, 230,
Arc-en-Ciel (Masonic Lodge), 253, 254 288nll
arcana,38, 150,202,206,209,213,238, Berry, see Marie-Caroline
243, 246, 248-9, 256-7 Bertauts, printer, 141
300 Index
Berti, G., 266n17, 269n18, 277n55 Calas, J., 54
Bieling, G.P.J., 141 Calvino, I., 23, 29
Billaudot, E., see Edmond Candalle, F. de, see Foix-Candalle, F. de
Blavatsky, Mme H.-P., 235, 254 Canseliet, E., 274n48
Blismon, see Blocquel, S. Carbonell, C.-0., 112, 277n45
Block, M., 232 card-reading, see cartomancy
Blocquel, S., 113, 147-9, 163 Cardano,G.,151, 173,184,249
Blumrlider, A. von, 127 cardmakers,x,30,60-1, 70,82,85,90,96,
Bodin, L., 155, 283n25 149,170
Boehme, J., 19, 20 Carra, J.-L., 64, 271n50
Boiardo, M.M., 267n24 cartomancie, first occurrences, 99, 102
Boiteau d'Ambly, P., 214-15, 224, 226, cartomancy, 47-51, 64-7, 72-3, 74-5, 82, 94,
288n12 95-6,96-7,99, 102, 106, 117, 124, 135,
Bolos of Mendes, 7 137-9, 143-6, 149-51, 153-4, 161-5,
Bonaparte, see Napoleon I 170, 206, 251-2, 255-9
Bond,J., 23 cartomantic packs, 47-8, 138-41, 143-4
Bonrecueille, C. Geille-St-Leger de, 91, cartonomancie, 82, 99, 136, 161
100-1, 108-9, 110 Cary Collection, 265n2, 268n8, 277n53,
Bonus, P., 10 282n80
Book of Thoth, 21, 68, 82-3, 85, 87, 89-90, Cary sheet, 45, 46, 268n8
92, 95-6, 97, 100, 101-3, 107, 110-11, Casanova, G., 74, 269nl4, 271nl
114,125, 137, 139, 148,162, 164, 166, Casaubon, I., 7, 18
185,240,243 Cassandra, Mme, 231, 233
books on cartomancy, 74-5, 96-8, 135-6, Casselle, P., 80
140-1, 145, 146, 148-9, 150, 161, 162-4 Cavendish, R., 168, 265n44
Borrow, G., 229, 230 Cellier du Faye!, N.-H., 118-21, 129,
Boswell, J., 19 28ln75
Bouge, J.-B. de, 126 Chacomac, H., 253
Boullan, abbe J.-A., 240-1, 292n65 Chacomac, P., 156-8, 179, 194, 198; 204,
Bourgeat, J.-G., 255, 258 261,284n37,284nl,285n18,287nl0,
Bowman, F.P., 285n16, n20 288n13
Boyeldieu d'Auvigny, Mme L., 119 Champin, writer, 158
Boyle, R., 11 Champollion, J.-F., 60, 111-12
Brahe, T., 80, 273n27 Champollion-Figeac, J.-J., 112, 277n47
Breitkopf, I., 214-15, 267n31 Chamuel, L., 238
Breteau, Mme, 281n78 Charcot, J.-M., 235
Breteau, publisher, 135, 140, 141, 28ln78 Chariot (Tarot trump), 45
Bricaire de La Dixmerie, C.-N., 79 Charlatte, J., 254
Bricaud, J., 260, 292n65 Charlatte, P., see Encausse, P.
Briggs, R., 66 Charles VI, King of France, 28, 63, 148
Brodie-Innes, J.W., 230, 232 'Charles VI' Tarot cards, 28, 40, 45, 268nl
Brunet, Mlle, 131-2 Charrot, J., 212
Budge, E.A. Wallis, 60, 68, 264n22 Chatto, W.A., 28
Buisset, C., 285nl5, nl6 Chevalier, A., 241
Bulwer-Lytton, E., 181 Chevalier, veuve, see Renard, Mme
chiromancy, see palmistry
Cabala, xi, 1, 13-15, 16-17, 18, 37-8, 68, Christian, P. (ps. of J.-B. Pitois), xi, 88,
100, 168, 169, 172-3, 183, 184, 185, 130, 156-60, 162, 169, 180, 192,
186-8, 189-91, 194, 202, 212-13, 236, 194-213, 235, 238-9, 242-3, 245, 246,
242,255,262 248,249,254,257,259,261,262
Cabalism, xi, 14-17, 20, 183, 186, 187, his contribution to the Tarot, 202,
189-90, 245, 247 212-13, 238, 239, 242-3, 245, 248, 254,
Cabalistic Order of the Rosy Cross, see 259,262
Rose-Croix, Ordre Kabbalistique de Histoire de la magie, 157, 158, 195, 200,
la 201,203,204-12
Cadiot, N., 179-80, 181, 191 L'homme rouge des Tuileries, 88, 130,
Cadoudal, 108 192,197-202,203,204,205,206,208,
Cagliostro (ps. ofG. Balsamo), 21, 50, 139, 209,242
207-8, 237 Christian fils, P.-M.-B., 157-8
Caille, R., 235, 275n8, 278nl6, 283n22 Christian Augustus, duke of Bavaria, 17
Caillet, A.L., 155, 275n8, 278n16, 283n22 Chuquet, A., 154, 283n22
 Index 301
Clebert, J.-P., 231, 232 Dietrich, M., 282n3, n9, n12, 284n40,
Clement, Mme, 132-3, 134-6, 136-7, 154, 29ln52
155, 161, 164 Dimitriadis, D., 116, 119-20, 128, 277nl,
Cocai, M. (ps. ofT. Folengo), 50, 267n26 278nll, nl3, 278-9n20, 279n35,
Colberg, E.D., 19, 265n43 280n55
Collin de Plancy, J.-A.-8., 119, 145-7, 164 Disdier, H., 227
Colnet, journalist, 127 divination, 24, 72, 124, 125, 135, 136, 138,
Colocci, A., 229-30, 231 152, 163,207,242,251,254,255
Confessio Fraternitatis Roseae Crucis, 18, Divine Name, see Tetragrammaton
290n30 D'Odoucet, M.-M., 79, 88, 89, 91, 101-2,
Constant, A.-L., see Uvi, E. 103-8, 114,139,259,280n51,286n36
Constant, J .•J., 174-5 Science des signes, 88, 103, 106-8, 139
Cornelius Agrippa, see Agrippa, H.C. Doinel, J., 260, 290-ln36
Corpus Hermeticum, 4-7, 87, 169, 171-2, Dorbon, Librairie, 91, 273n27, 275nl,
205 292n57
correspondences, 3, 20, 169, 171, 184 Du Bois, L., 118, 119, 120, 121, 135, 154
Corteiz, Mme, 53-4 Du Bourg, General, 201
Cosimo de' Medici, 7 Dudin, royal censor, 83
Court, A., 52-4, 269nl du Four de Longuerue, abbe L., 124,
Court, J., 52 266n7, 279-80n39
Court de Gebelin, A., xi, 52-68, 69, 70-3, Dujardin, H., 129-30
75,82,83,84-5,87,94,97,99, 139, Dumas fils, A., 255
142,143,148,164, 166,171,172, 173, Dumas pere,A., 179, 192
185, 188, 190,200,207-8,214-15,223, Dummett, M., ix, x, 66, 266nl8, 272n4, n6,
224,226,227,230,231,232,242,261 nl5,274n54
his date of birth, 53-4 The Game of Tarot, ix, x, 66
his death, 64 Du Preau, G., 7, 273-4n44
MoncJeprimitif, 55-73, 82, 93, 97, 223-4
Crata Repoa, 20, 205 Edmond (ps. of E. Billaudot), 137, 160-2;
Crowley, A., 283n28 163, 164,202-3,212
Crusius, M., 229 Eglise Gnostique Universelle, see Gnostic
Cudalbu-Slusanschi, 0., 287nl Church
Cureau de La Chambre, M., 88 Egyptian origin of the Tarot, 58, 59-60, 62,
65,66-7, 148, 162, 164,242,251-2,262
D'Allemagne, H.-R., 272n20, 282nl, n13 Egyptian Tarots, 89-94, 101, 103, 107, 114,
d'Amerval de La Saussotte, 120 135, 143, 144-5, 147-51, 154, 160, 163,
Darnton,R.,265n49,271n49,n50,n51 165,166,231,255-6,260,262
Death (Tarot trump), 46 Egyptomania, xi, 20, 21, 57, 67
De Bry, J.T., 80-1, 273n27 Elect Cohens (Elus Coens), 20, 55
decans,2, 198,201,210-11,223,230,257 elementals, 10
Decker, R., x, 266n19 elements, 3, 9, 87, 93, 186, 255, 262
Dee,J., 15 Elijah hen Solomon, Rabbi, 12
Delaage, H., 169, 289n8 Eliot, T.S., 23
Delalain, P., 108, 275nl2, 276n26, 279n34, Emerald Table(t), see Tabula Smaragdina
n35 Emery, Mrs, see Farr, F.
Delarue, M.-F., 149 Emperor (Tarot trump), 44
Delespine, M.-M., 77-8 Empress (Tarot trump), 44
Della Rocca, C., 114 Encausse, G., see Papus
Depaulis, T., x, 91, 266n9, 270n29, 274n56, Encausse, J., 291n43
n62,276n28,281n76,282n3,n4,n5, Encausse, L., 234
n9,n12,283n14 Encausse, P., 236, 254, 261, 289nl, n8,
Deschamps, J.-M., 127 29ln42
Desprez, E. (ps. ofE. Tenaille de Engelmann & Graf, 140
Vaulabelle), 284n30 Enoch, 1, 11-12, 14, 15, 19, 183
Detre, C., see Teder Ersch, J.-8., 80, 113
Devalembert, J.-A., 272n2, 282n8 Esh ha-Mezareph, see Aesh Mezareph
Devil (Tarot trump), 46 Esmai!l, 164, 28ln68, 284n38
Dictionnaire de biographie fraru;aise, 53, Esquiros, A., 176
272n4,276n37,277n6,290-ln36 Este court, 27, 28, 40
Dictionnaire synonimique du livre de Thot, Etteilla (ps. of J.-B. Alliette le Jeune), x, xi,
see under Joubert de La Salette 35, 39, 49, 50-1, 59, 72, 74-5, 76-99,
302 Index
100-1, 103-4, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, Fool (Tarot trump), 25, 31, 40, 43-4, 163,
113,117,125,135,138,139,142, 173,200
143-4, 146, 147-9, 150, 154, 162-3, Fortitude (Tarot trump), 45
164, 165, 166, 170-3, 186, 187-8, 191, fortune-telling, 23-4, 29, 117, 132, 168-9
194,199-200,202,212,214,224,231, with coffee grounds, 23, 51, 125, 163
235,238,242,243,248,251,252, with molten lead, 125
256-7, 258-9, 261-2, 279n36, 281n74, with ordinary cards, 23, 72, 74-5, 124-5,
286n36,287n17 137,138, 139,146,163, 164,258
his companion Elisabeth, 101, 103, 109, with Tarot cards, 23, 48-51, 65, 73, 135,
111-12, 276n43 137, 138,145, 146, 147,161, 163, 164,
his Piquet pack, see Petit Etteilla 171, 230-3, 237, 242, 251-2, 255-6
his social ideas, 94-6 with tea leaves, 23
his succession, 100-2, 104 with the white ofan egg, 51, 125
his Tarot pack, 89-94, 101, 103, 107, Fouche, J., 106
114, 135, 143, 144, 166, 243, see also Fouquier-Tinville, Mme, 129
Grand Etteilla I four creatures, 11, 4 7, 186, 203, 207
his theory of the Tarot, 82-7, 148, 165, Fourier, C., 151, 153
187, 199,200,202,212,224,242,256, Fran\:Oise, 116
261-2 Frankenberg, A.V., 174
Etteilla, ou maniere de se recreer avec un Franklin, B., 55
jeu de cartes, 50-1, 74, 79 Frater C.R., 18
L'art de lire dans Lescartes, 96-9, 146, Fraternitas Thesauri Lucis (F.T.L.), 253
162 Frederick II the Great, 265n46
Maniere de se recreeravec lejeu de Freemasonry, xi, 19-20, 21, 55, 73, 89, 107,
cartes nommees tarots, 78, 83, 84-7, 90 108,155, 168,191,207,238,239,241,
Etteilla fils (ps. ofL.-J.-B. Alliette), 76-7, 242, 253-4
78,95,110 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Iijte, 253
Eugenie c., 178, 179, 181 Memphis Rite, 253
Everard, J., 7 Memphis-Misral:m Rite, 254, 292n65
Ezekiel, 11, 186 Misral:m Rite, 253-4
Scottish Rite, 55
Fabre d'Olivet, A., 106 Swedenborgian Rite, 253-4
Faivre, A., 167, 263nl4, 264n29, 265n37, Frere-Colonna, abbe, 174-5
n44,n46,270n17
Falconnier, R., 255-6 Gaignieres, R. de, 28, 280n39
his Tarot divinatoire, 255-6 Gall, F.J., 120, 139, 278nl7
Fama Fraternitatis, 18, 249 ganjifa, 29, 37, 268n4
Farr, F. (Mrs Emery), 230 Garasse, F., 267n22
fatidic numbers, 209-12 Garibaldi, G., 227
Faucheux, A., see Barlet, F.-C. Gassendi, P., 4, 17, 18
Fayolle, L.-R.-L. de, see Mellet Gauguin, P., 176
Federation Ma\:onnique Universelle, 254 Gauld, A., 271n51
Ferrara,27,28,40 Gaurico, L., 124, 138
Ferrier,A.,159,201,204 Gautier, J., 192
Fiasson, 137, 153-4, 161, 163 Gautier, T., 192
Ficino, M., 7, 14 Gebelin, M., 52
Finet, Mme, printseller, 143 Geber, see Jabir ibn Hayyan
Firmicus Maternus, J., 3 Geille, see Bonrecueille
Firmin-Didot, A., 119 Ghica, Prince Gregory, 226
Flamel, H., 117-18, 119, 120, 133-4, 135, Ghica, Princess, 226-7
151-2, 153-6, 157, 159,281n75,292n57 Gikatilla, J;, 15
Le livre d'or, 151, 152, 153, 155 Gilbert, L., 117, 120
Le livre rouge, 133, 151-2, 153, 155, 158 Gilbert, M.-A., 119
See also La sibylle du XIXe siecle Giorgio, F. 15-16
Flamel, N., 118, 139, 184, 277n4 Girardin, E.de, 129
Flammermont, C.-F., 120 Girardin, Mme de, 176
Flavius Mithridates (ps. ofR. Moncada), 14 Girault, F., 118-19, 120, 129, 135, 178n15,
Fludd, R., 17, 18 280n55,281n62,n78
Foix-Candalle, F. de, 87, 273n44 Gnostic Church, 253, 260
Folengo, T., see Cocai, M. Golden Dawn, see Hermetic Order of the
Fontaine, M.-E., 77 Golden Dawn
 Index 303
Goulet, interprete, 105 190,194,198,201,204,205,207,243,
Goulinat, J.-G., 256-8, 259, 262, 291-2n54 255,262
Graf, E., 281n75 Hermetic Books, see Corpus Hermeticum
Grand Etteilla I (card pack), 76, 90, 101-4, Hermetic Brotherhood ofLuxor, 236
107, 114, 125, 135, 139, 144-5, 147, Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, 155,
148, 150, 161,202,257 173,230,234,248,254,283n23
Grand Etteilla II (card pack), 147-9, 149, Ahathoor Temple, 242
150, 154, 164 Hermetic theosophy, 8
Grand Etteilla III (card pack), 114-15, 147, Hermetism, xi, 1-10, 15, 151, 169, 188
149,163, 164 Hermit (Tarot trump), 45
Grand Jeu de !'Oracle des Dames, see hieroglyphs, 9, 71, 84, 88, 91, 110, 112,
Grand Etteilla III 126, 138,206
Grand Lenormand (card pack), see under Risler, 82, 100, 113
Le Normand, Mlle M.-A. Hitchcock, E.A., 9
Grand Tarot Belline (card pack), 162, 202 Hoffmann, D., 139, 141, 147, 149, 271nl,
Grandville, J ..J., 282n2 281n80,282n81,n82,282n2,n3,n9,
Grange, L., 157 n12,284n40,n41,n42,291n52
Grangou,Mme, 117 Homme rouge des Tuileries, see Little Red
Greek sticks, 97, 98-9, 124, 125, 138, 146 Man
Greer, M.K., 26-7, 34 Howard, J.M., 127
Grellmann, H.M.G., 229 Howe, E., 289n18, 291n41, n44
Grimaud, 76, 90, 92, 116, 139, 145, 162, Hoyland, J., 229
202,242,274n62,286n7 Hubault-Malmaison, abM, 174
Gringonneur, J., 28, 124, 148, 268nl, Hugand, C., see Jejalel
280n39 Hugh of Santalla, 10
Groome, F.H., 229 Hugo, M.-A., 132-3, 134-5
Grosschedel, J.B., 273n27 Hugues, E., 54, 269nl
Groupe Independant d'Etudes Esoteriques, Humanidad (Masonic Lodge), 254
237-8, 252 Huysmans, J.-K., 239, 241
Guaita, S. de, 155, 236, 237, 238-42, 246, Hymmen, J.W.B. von, 20
251,252,253,254,283n22
Le Serpent de la Genese, 240, 241 Iamblichus, 205-7
Gueffier jeune, 113-14, 274n64 Illumines d'Avignon, 21
Gueffier, veuve, 143 Illuminism, 20
Guillois, M.-F., 136 lmprimerie celere, 102, 103, 104, 106
Guizot, F., 129 Imprimerie expeditive, 105-6
Gumppenberg, F., 114 I.N.R.I. (Masonic Lodge), 253, 254
Guyon, Dom B., 198, 200, 201, 204 Irenee (ps. of Bonnier), 117
Guyon, Mme J.-M. Bouvier de La Motte, Ishmael, Rabbi, 11-12, 14
176 Isis Lodge, 235
Gypsies, xi, 65, 88, 164, 214-33, 251, 254
Jabir ibn Rayyan, 10
Haatan (ps. of A. Thomas), 253 Jacob, E., see Star, E.
Halbronn, J., 79, 87, 274n46, 275nll Jacob, Mme J., 242
Hanged Man (Tarot trump), 45-6, 60-1, 85, Janin, J., 132
249,269n13 Jejalel (ps. of C. Hugand), 100-4, 106,
Harness, D.M., 23 109-ll,235,247n63
Haven, M. (ps. ofE. Lalande), 235, 237, Jeu (Grand) de Mlle Lenormand (card
252,253,261,276n34,291n42 pack), see Grand Lenormand
Hebert, J.-R., 120-1 Jeu de la Princesse Tarot (card pack), 114,
Hebrew letters, 12-13, 15-16, 17, 37-8, 62, 150-1
65,70-1,73,172,173,181, 185, 186, Jollivet-Castelot, F., 252, 255, 261
187-8, 189, 191, 194, 199,206,210, Josephine, Empress, 116, 121, 122-3, 124,
211,212-13,237,238,240,247,251, 126-7, 128,282n10
257,262 Joubert de La Salette, P ..J., 103, 109-12
Hedio, C., 229 Dictionnaire synonimique du livre de
Helvetius, Mme, 57-9, 65, 67 Thot, 93, 106, 107, 110-11, 259,
Hermes, 2, 3 276n41
Hermes Trismegistus, 1-10, 11, 15, 19-20, Jouy, V.-E., 123, 138-9
85,87, 112, 139, 151, 171,183, 184, Judgement (Tarot trump), see Angel
Juggler (Tarot trump), see Mountebank
304 Index
Justice (Tarot trump), 45 her divination techniques, 99, 124-5,
137-9
Kaplan, S.R., 113, 145, 266nl5, 277n52, her succession, 132-3, 160
n54,283nl4,286n36,289nl3, her 'theory' of the Tarot, 125, 126, 139
29ln49,n52 Grand jeu de Mlle Le Normand, 116-17,
Kardec, A. (ps. ofH.-L. Rivail), 167, 284n2 138-41
Karnoffel, 42 'Petit Lenormand' (card pack), 116, 141
Kepler, J., 17, 18 Le Normand, M.-8., 132
Khalid ibn Yazid, 9 Lenormant, printer, 123, 279n35
Khunrath, H., 184 Lenthall, J., 48
Kiesewetter, C., 138 Leonardo da Pistoia, 6
Kircher, A., 15-17, 187-90, 247, 260 Leone Hebreo, 15
China illustrata, 260 Leone Modena, 14
OedipusA.egyptiacus, 15-17, 187, 247, Le petit escamoteur, 275n65
265n41 Lesclapart, publisher, 74, 79
Knorr von Rosenroth, C., 17, 152, 159 Lespes, L., 132
Kabbala Denudata, 17, 152, 159 Le tireur de cartes, 98
Kl>ppen,C.F.von,20 Levi, E.(ps. of A.-L. Constant), xi, 24, 34,
Krata Repoa, see Crata Repoa 39,47, 72,90-1, 154, 156-8, 160,
Kroppenstedt,E.,147, 149,27lnl,28ln80, 166-93, 194-5, 197, 198, 199, 200, 211,
282n81,n82,282n2,n3,n9,nl2, 212-13, 226, 227-8, 234, 235-6, 238-9,
284n40,n41,n42 241-2,243,245,247-8,249,252,253,
254,255,256,259,260,261-2,
Lacombe, Mme, 137 287nl0,288nl0,nl2,290n31
Lacoste, Mme, 117 his theory of the Tarot, 170, 185-91, 197,
Lactantius, 6 199,200,202,210,224,227,238,241,
la Grange, A. F. de, 137, 153-7, 161, 163, 242,254,256
209 Dogme (et rituel) de la haute mf18ie,
Le grand livre du destin, 137, 153-4, 181-5, 189, 191, 197, 224, 221;8, 235,
155-6, 157, 209 238
Lalande, E., see Haven, M. Histoire de la magie, 168, 191, 204, 227-8 ·
Lamennais, F.-R. de, 179 La Bible de la liberte, 177, 178, 179, 180
Lange-Levy, publisher, 133, 135, 156 La clef des grands mysteres, 189, 191,
Langlois, J ., 77 210,247
La sibylle du XIXe siecle, 117, 118, 133-5, Le Voile d'lsis, 238, 252, 253, 261
151, 155-6, 160 Lhote, J.-M., 58-60, 62, 66, 71, 269n8, nll,
Lavater, J. K., 88, 139 270n12,nl7,n28,n36,271n51,n66
Lavigne, publisher, 151-3, 159 L'lnitiation, 236-7, 239, 252, 261
Laycock, D., x Linote, Mlle, 60-1
Leber, M.-C., 28 Lismon Z., see Blocquel, S.
Lebouvier,cardmaker,96 Little Red Man (Petit Homme rouge), 130,
Lebrun, J.-B.-P., 81 152, 197,280n59
Le Brun, Mme, 103, 109, 117 Lollio, F.A., 34, 41
Lecanu, abbe A.-F., 119, 283n21 Longuerue, abbe de, see du Four de
Le Clerc, P., 208 Longuerue, abbe L.
Le Forestier, R., 265n45, 269nl0, 270nl3, Lorambert, see Trismegiste, J.
nl4,nl5,nl6,nl7,274n50 Louis XN, King of France, 153
Le Gros, abbe, 56 Louis XVIII, King of France, 121, 128
Leland, C.G., 229 Love (Tarot trump), 45
Lelievre, Mlle A., 133, 136-7, 154, 164 Lull, R., 10, 15, 184, 256
Le Loup, Y., see Sedir Lussides (ps. of J.-B. Pitois), 156, 204
Lemarchand, Mlle, 163 Luys, J.-B., 235, 261
Lenain, L.-R., 286n36 Lyonnais, 117
Lenglet-Dufresnoy, N., 88
Lenoble, E., 88 Mcintosh, C., 158, 198, 289nl4, 29ln39,
Le Normand, J.-L.-A., 119 n42,292n66
Le Normand, Mlle M.-A., xi, 99, 116-42, Magi, 1-21, 205, 207, 255
143, 147, 148-9, 152, 154, 155-6, 160, magnetism,20,63-4, 112, 168,169, 175,
162, 163,164, 166,282nl 235,237
her burial, 132 Mago del Tarocco, 23
Magus, A., 161, 163-4, 28ln68, 282n7 ·
 Index 305
Maison Dieu, see Tower (Tarot trump) Moon (Tarot trump), 46
Maistre, J. de, 205 More, H., 17
Mattre Philippe de Lyon (ps. ofN.-A. Moreau, cartomancer, 154, 163, 258,
Philippe), 237, 253, 254 283n21,292n58
Malchus, K.A. von, 138-9 Moreau, General J.-V., 106, 108
Manilius, M., 3 Morel, Mme, 137
Mann, S., 274n53 Morienus (Marianus), 9
Manne,E.de, 119,278n13 Morton, A.P., 251, 290n22, 291n47
Marie-Antoinette, Queen of France, 120 Moses, 7
Marie-Bernard, Dom (ps. of P. Christian), Moses de Leon, 14
196-7 Moult, C.-J., 284n43
Marie-Caroline, Duchess of Berry, 131, Moult, T.-J., 139, 284n43
281n61 Moulth, N., 162-3, 283n20
Mariel, P., 289n7, n8, 291n44, 292n65 Moulth, T., 162
Mariette, P.-J., 80 Moussu, R., 76-7
Marquiset, A., 119-21, 122, 127, 129, Mountebank (Tarot trump), 44, 200
278nl2,279n24,n29,n32,n33, Mozzani, E.,117, 137, 272n4, 275nl4,
280n40,n43,n50,n57,281n62,n63, 281n63,n70,n71,n72,283n21
n64 Muller, 'prophet', 126
Marteau, P., 242 Musee de Paris, 55, 64
Martines de Pasqually (J.J. de La Tour de
La Caze), 20 Napoleon I, 21, 106, 107, 108, 116, 117,
Martinist Order (Ordre Martiniste), 237, 122, 123, 124, 127, 129, 130,204
238,252,253-4,260-1,292n65 Napoleon III, 195-6, 198, 202, 203, 212
Martres,A. de, 132 Narad, 218-19, 251
Masson, 78 Naundorff, C.-E., 168
Mathers, S.L., 254 Nehunia hen ha-Qanah, 13
Matto, see Fool Neuf Soeurs (Masonic Lodge), 55
Melchior, Mme, 133 Newman, D., 47
Melinge, abbe C., see Alta, abbe Nichols, R., 158-9, 194, 212, 284n37
Mellet, L.-R.-L. de Fayolle, comte de, 64-5, Noce, comte de, 153-4, 161
66-73, 75, 84, 86, 87, 93-4, 97, 172, Nodier, C., 158-9, 204
173,185, 188,214 NostradaIJlUS, 103, 139, 152
Memphis-Misrai'.m Rite, see under Nouvelle Ecole de Magie, 95
Freemasonry numerology, 198, 209, 210, 211, 242, 244-5
Mendes, C., 192
Menestrier, C.-F., 75, 266n8, 280n39 O'Donoghue, F.M., 277n49, n52, 281n80,
Mercier, A., 175, 181, 285n16, n20 282n82,283n14
Mercury, 2 Odoucet, see D'Odoucet
Merlin, R., 28, 215 Olcott, Col. H.S., 235
Mersenne, M., 17, 18 Olier, Mgr, 175
Mesmer, F.A., 20, 63-4, 139, 151, 168, 175 Olivarius, 129-31
Metatron, 1, 11 Olivier, Mgr, 178
metoposcopy (physiognomy), 88, 163 Order of the Golden Dawn, see Hermetic
Metternich, K.W.N.L. Prince of, 122, Order of the Golden Dawn
263n14 Ordre Martiniste, see Martinist Order
Meyer, 117 Orpheus,7, 15
Meyrink, G., 253 Orsini, J., 118, 147-9, 154, 163, 164
Michelet, V.-E., 289n10 Ortalli, G., 269n13
Migne, abbe J.-P., 119, 180, 283n21
Millet-Saint-Pierre, J.-B., 76, 78, 88-9, 90, Paban, G. de, see Perenna, A.
100-1, 109,276n18 Pages, E.,52, 54
Mirville, J.-E. de, 191-2 palmistry, 23, 88, 122, 125, 137, 140, 147,
Misrai'.mRite, see under Freemasonry 152, 161, 163,228-9,231,255
Moakley, G., 269n13 Papus (ps. ofG. Encausse), xi, 27, 150, 189,
Moller, H., 265n48, 291n41, n44 214, 234-8, 239, 240, 242-62, 283nl5,
Moncada, R., see Flavius Mithridates 286n36,289nl3,292n54
Mongie l'aine, P., 144-5, 148, 150, 231, Le tarot des Bohemiens, 214, 239, 240,
282n8 243-52,254,256,257,258,259,261
Monsieur Philippe, see Maitre Philippe Le tarot diuinatoire, 256-60
Montferrier, marquis de, 180
306 Index
Paracelsus (T. Bombast von Hohenheim), Reuchlin, J., 14-15,
10, 1~ 151, 168, 184, 209 Reuss, T., 254
Pasquier, J!i., 229, 267n22 Revelation (Apocalypse), 173, 186, 188
Patron, engraver, 82 Rhazes, see Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn
Peladan, sarJ., 237, 239-40, 254 Zakariyya
Perenna, A. or G. (ps. ofG. de Paban), Richter, S., see Sincerus Renatus
145-7, 154,231,282n7 Ricius, P., 15
Perez-Vierra, I., 234 Rivail, H.-L., see Kardec, A.
Perignon, Mme E. Bonnejoy, 137, 160 Rive, abbe J ..J., 62
Pemety, Dom J.-A., 20-1, 88 Robert of Chester, 10
Petit Etteilla (card pack), 74-5, 95-6, 103, Robert, printseller, 139, 144
140,274n62 Robert, D., 53-4
Petit Homme rouge, see Little RedMan Roman d'Amat, 53
Petit Necromancien (card pack), 144 Rosay-Desfontaines, I., 119
Petit Oracle des Dames (card pack), 143-4 Rose+Croix, 239-40
Petrarch (Petrarca), F., 268n9 Rose+Croix, Ordre Kabbalistique de la,
Peytieux, bookseller, 114 237,238,239,252-3
Philalethes, 55, 88, 207, 287n17 Rosenfeld, H., 214
Masonic conventions, 89, 207-8, 287n17 Rosenkreutz, C., 1, 18, 19
Philippe, N.-A., see Maitre Philippe Rosenroth, see Knorr von Rosenroth
physiognomy, 140 Rosicrucians, 1, 10, 15, 17-19, 20, 237-40,
Picart, B., 260 249,290n30
Pico della Mirandola, G., 14-15, 38, 167-8, Rosinus, see Zosimus
190 Rosy Cross, 198-9, 201, 207
Pirnander,5-7, 18,86-7, 112 Roth-Scholtz, 88
Piscina, F., 267n25, 268n7 Roumania,215, 217,218,219,220,225,
Pistorius, J., 15 228
Pitois, J.-B., see Christian, P. Rousseau, J.-J., 56
planets, 2-3, 12-13 Ruscelli, G., see Alexis Piemontois
Plato, 2, 7 Russia, 74, 253-4
Platonist, The, 255, 258
Plon, H., 204 Saint-Albin, P. de, 195
Poirnandres, see Pirnander Saint-Germain, comte C.-L. de, 88, 139
Poirot, E., 254-5 Saint-Martin, L.-C. de, 20, 168, 173, 237,
Poliziano, A., 6-7 249,283n22
Pollack, R., 26-7, 34 Saint-Sauveur, cardmaker, 274n62, 275n65
Pope (Tarot trump), 25, 44 Saint-Sulpice (seminary), 175-6
Popess (Tarot trump), 25, 44 Saint-Yves d'Alveydre, marquis J.-A., 236,
Postel, G., 15, 38, 173, 242, 249 237,254,257,261,291n46,292n55
Pratesi, F., 48, 50, 266n16, 267n20, n23, Salgues, J.-B., 122, 279n30
n25,269nl6,n18 Samaritan Tarot, 192, 194, 201
prisca theologia, 7, 15, 19 Samuel ben Nissim Abulfaraj, see Flavius
Psellus, M., 6 Mithridates
Pseudo-Dionysius, 15 Satie, E., 240
Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus), 3, 263n5 Savalette de Langes, 55, 89
Schmidt, P., 53-4
Quenaidit, A.-L., 276n34 Scholem, G., 265n36, n38, 286n38
Querard, J.-M., 114, 281n78 Schreiber Collection, 277n49, 282n82
Schreiber, W.L., 266n18
Rabaut de Saint-Etienne, 53 Scottish Rite, see under Freemasonry
Ragon, J.-M., 155, 157, 159, 287n13 secret orders, 1, 234-7, 29 ln39
Rakoczi, B.I., 232-3 Sedillot, c.,116
Ramsay, A.M., 19-20 Sedir Cps.ofY. Le Loup), 252, 253, 261,
ranking of numeral cards, 37 291n39 -
Rantzau, 88 Sepher ha-Bahir, 13-14
Rasinus (Resinus), see Zosimus Sepherha-Zohar, 13-14, 15, 17
Regamey, G., 149 Sepher Yetzirah, 12-13, 15, 16-17, 189, 210,
Reiff, J.F.A., 141 211, 236, 247-8
Renard, Mme (ps. of veuve Chevalier), 117 sephiroth, 12, 14, 17, 186-8
Renier, A., 158 Sforza, F., Duke of Milan, 31, 270n39
Resie, comte de, 271n51 Sheowring, W., 29
 Index 307
Simeon bar Yohai, Rabbi, 14 60-2; according to the comte de Mellet,
Simonet pair, 117 68- 70; accordjng to Etteilla, 85- 7;
Sincerus Renatus (ps. of S. Richter), 19 ac:cordingto E. Levi, 186-9; according
Singer, D.W., 10 to P. Christian, 200; according to J.-A.
Sirven, P.-P., 54 Vaillant, 224; according to Papus,
Sivry, C. de, 254 247-9
Smith, P. Colman, 47 variation in order, 25, 36, 37-8, 42-3, 170
Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia, 181 Tascher de La Pagerie, M.-J.-R., see
Societe Apollonienne, 55 JOBephine,Empress
Societe des lnterpretes du Livre de Thot, Taylor, F.S., 9, 264n18, n31, 286n26
90, 100-1, 105, 108, 109-11, 149,275n7 Teder(ps. ofC. Detre), 253, 254, 261,
Societyofthe Goldenand RosyCross ofthe 29'ln65
Ancient System, 20 Temperance (Tarot trump), 45
Society of Universal Harmony, 20, 64 Templars, 20, 73
South, T., 9 Temple (philosophique) du Soleil, 101, 109
standard patterns, 35-6 Tenaille de Vaulabelle, E., see Desprez, E.
Star (Tarot trump), 46 Terra.sson, abbe J., xi
Star, E.(ps. ofE. Jacob), 242-3, 249, 254 Tetragrammaton, 186, 194, 199, 244,
Starkie, W., 231 245-7,249,250,251,257,262
Steele, R., 10 Theosophical Society, 167, 235, 236, 254,
Stephanus of Alexandria, 9 261
Strasbourg,81-2, 158 Thery de Vaucresson, Monsieur, 273n41
suit-signs, ix, 25, 29-31, 47, 72, 199, 222, Theuriet, M., nee Inard, 253, 254
223, 225-6, 230 Thies, C.W., 229
Sun (Tarot trump), 46 Thomas, A., see Haatan
Swedenborg, E., 20 Thomas Aquinas, St, 10
Swedenborgian Rite, see under Thoth, 2, 5
Freemasonry Tourcaty,cardmaker,90
symbols of Evangelists, see four creatures Tower (Tarot trump), 46
Synesius, 184 Trappola cards, 222, 226, 287-8n8
Tree of Life, 186
Tabula Smaragdina, 10, 184 trionfi/trionfo, 31-2, 41-2
Talleyrand-Perigord, C.-M. de, 107, 121, Trismegiste, J. (ps. ofLorambert), 150-1,
123 163
Talmud, 183 Trismegistus, see Hermes Trismegistus
tarocchi appropriati, 32 Tristan, F., 176, 177, 179
Tarocco bolognese, 44, 48-50, 261 Trithemius, J., 287n16
Tarocco piemontese, 36, 173 Trotti, U., 32
Tarot, ancient uses, 31-4, 47 trump, idea of, 41-2
Tarot, early documents, 25, 27-8, 29-30, Tulard,J., 127,279n28
31-2
Tarot, explanation of the name, 38, 57, 60, Union Idealiste Universelle, 253
68, 173-4 U.S. Playing Card Company, 116
Tarot, game of, ix, 26, 29, 31-2, 40-2, Uthman ibn Suwayd, 10
270n29
forgotten in Paris, xi, 58-9, 89, 270n29, Vaillant, J.-A., xi, 215-28, 229, 231, 232,
274n52 251,254
Tarot, modern uses, 34-7 Les Romes, 215, 216-17, 218, 219, 220-6,
'German' Tarots, 36, 144, 147, 148, 170 231,251
Tarot cards, invention of, ix, 26, 28, 29-30, van Helmont, F.M., 17
31,32,33 Vatier (or Vattier), J., 76, 77, 78-9, 101, 103
Tarot de Besan~on, 35, 36, 44, 70, 90, 144, Viatte, A., 270n12, n16
243,274n53,290n21 Vieville, J., 43, 268n6
Tarot de Marseille, 35-7, 38, 42-3, 44, 45, Villarino del Villar, I., 254
46,47,59,70,92,94, 114, 125,139, Villemarest, C.-H. de, 126
144, 148, 150, 170-1, 173, 187, 188, Villers, P.-A.-J.-B., 105
189, 194, 199-200,202,203,224,238, Vintras, P.-M.-E., 168, 191, 240-1, 292n65
240,242,243,249,255,257,262 Virginie, Mlle, 117
Tarot trumps, ix, 25, 31, 32-3, 36, 40-2 Visconti, F.M., Duke of Milan, 25
exoteric meanings, 33, 43-7 Visconti di Modrone pack, 47, 265n2,
meanings according to Court de Gebelin, 266nl4,286n32
 B
FRANCAi

J
Hi:unr.,

L,Lm

LA ,Bm.'C E Divi~r.
Lt\iR
L.1FEM,'!£ . LAMi:Rt

ISBN 978-0-7156-2713 -6

Duckworth
90-93 CowcrossStreet
LondonEClM 6BF
www.ducknet.co.uk