Geometrical Metrology

PED 343
Lecture 5
Dr. Amira Khattab
Assistant Professor
Production Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering-Alexandria University
Large Scale Dimensional
Metrology (LSDM)

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 Scales of Metrology
i) Nanometrology
ii) Micrometrology
iii) Standard-scale metrology
iv) Large-scale metrology.

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 SI prefixes

SI prefixes are used to form

decimal multiples and
submultiples of SI units. They
should be used to avoid very
large or very small numeric
values. The prefix attaches
directly to the name of a unit,
and a prefix symbol attaches
directly to the symbol for a unit.

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 Challenges in Large-Scale Metrology
Large-scale Metrology is concerned with techniques for accurate, three-
dimensional measurement of manufactured objects, which have dimensions
typically of a few meters to several 10s of meters.
Large-scale metrology is mainly used for geometric inspection, and the linear
dimensions vary from 1 to 100 m. However, with extension of the scale to GPS and
remote sensing, the range extends to kilometers with an accuracy around one
meter.
The best-known challenges in large-scale metrology are:
1) Large measurement sizes in 3D with tight required tolerances;
2) Oversized structures;
3) Complex geometries;
4) Difficult-to-reach features and challenging angles access.
5) Harshest of conditions on the factory floor

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 Applications
LSDM includes the assembly and dimensional inspection of aerospace
structures such as space rockets, alignment of jigs, fuselage of
airplanes, windmills, gas and steam turbines, and ship construction.

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Evolution Of The Main Families Of LSDM Systems And
Relating Accuracy Over Time

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 LSDM Classical Instruments

• In the early Sixties, LSDM was

referring essentially to length and
angle and the techniques involved
were originating from geographical
surveying instruments and methods.
Until then, the most employed
instruments were tapes, wires,
sticks.

Elementary Surveying Equipment

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 Laser Interferometers
• Based on light interference principle
• It consists of a laser source, an
interferometer, and two mirrors.
• The portion of the beam directed to the
fixed mirror is the reference beam while
the other portion is directed to a moving
mirror.
• By displacing the movable mirror, a
phase change occurs between the two
beams, and upon recombination, these
beams interfere, producing fringes which
can be counted. This provide the signal
for determining relative displacement.

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 Laser Tracker
• They are constructed with a laser interferometer housed inside a tube
reflected off a mirror to determine the position of optical targets known as
retroreflective targets positioned within a large object. The accuracy of
laser trackers is in the order of 25 μm over a distance of several meters.

• The source emitting the laser is in the stand, and a retroreflector is moving
with the object or fixed in one position. The objective is to determine the
distance d between the laser stand and the object.

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Laser Tracker Construction

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LSDM using Laser Tracker

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 Large Coordinate Measuring Machines
• Coordinate measuring machines (CMM) have the advantage of better
precision when measuring in large ranges.
• For large and heavy parts, bridge and gantry types are used.
• CMMs are programmable, flexible instruments used to collect and
report on dimensional data for virtually any type of manufactured
component, for example, engine blocks, door panels, camera bodies,
and turbine blades.
• CMMs typically collect their data by touching a component with a
calibrated probe as directed by an operator. The CMM records the
location of these touch points.
• CMMs can also use machine vision to collect data without contacting
the component (video probes and scanners). Figure shows a large
CMM inspection of the shape of a Jaguar car.
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 CMMs

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Common CMM Configurations

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 LSDM using CMMS
• Gantry CMM
• Portable CMM

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 Photogrammetry
Photography in its broadest sense is a process that converts the real 3-dimensional
world into flat 2-dimensional images. The camera is the device that makes this
transformation or mapping from 3 dimensions to 2 dimensions.

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 Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry reverses the photographic process described above. It converts or
maps the flat 2-dimensional images back into the real 3-dimensional world. As
information is lost in the photographic process, the 3-dimensional world cannot be
completely reconstructed with just one photograph.

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 Photogrammetry
Completely or Partially Overlapping Measurements

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Errors in Measurements

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 Accuracy Vs Precession
a) Accuracy of Measurement The accuracy of measurement is the closeness of
agreement between a quantity value obtained by measurement and the true value
of the measurand (quantity intended to be measured).
b) Accuracy of a Measuring System It is the ability of a measuring system to
provide a quantity value measured close to the true value of a measurand.
c) Precision of Measurement
The precision is the closeness of agreement between quantity values obtained by
replicate measurements of a quantity, under specified conditions. The
measurement precision is usually expressed numerically by measures of
imprecision, such as standard deviation, variance, or coefficient of variation under
the specified conditions of measurement.
Next figure shows the various situations of the combined accuracy and precision.

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Accuracy Vs Precession

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 Main Sources of Errors in Measurement

Main Sources of error in measurement:

1-Machine “measuring equipment”

2-Man “operator/inspector”
3-Method “procedure/setup”
4-Material “type and condition of part”
5-Environment “temperature, humidity, …”

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Cause and Effect Diagram for Main Sources of Errors

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 Error in Size
Absolute and Relative Errors
Error in size or quantity:
Difference between desired (nominal) size or quantity of an object and its
measured size or quantity without reference to any uncertainty in the
measurement.
Error in size or quantity (Absolute Error) = Measured value –Nominal value
Relative Error= Absolute Error/ Nominal Value
Example:
• Nominal shaft diameter = 80.00 mm
• Result of measurement = 80.70 mm
• Absolute error = 80.70 –80.00 = +0.70 mm
• Relative error = + 0.70/80.00 = +0.0087 or +0.87%

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Errors in Measurement

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 Errors in Measurement
Errors in measurement
Error in measurement is the difference between the true (actual) size or
quantity of an object and its measured size or quantity.
Types of measurement errors:
a- Systematic errors: This type of error has either fixed values or specific
trend. These errors can be determined by calibration of the measuring
instrument. They can be adjusted or compensated for.

b- Random errors: These are errors due to random sources of variation i.e.,
slight change in temperature, slight variation in frictional forces, etc.. The
exact value of the error in a specific reading can not be determined however,
the expected value of the error in any reading follows the laws of probability.

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 Systematic Errors
• Error in standard gauge

• Zero error: It is the value of the indicated reading of an instrument

when the measured quantity equals zero. For a micrometer, it is the
reading observed when the two micrometer anvils are in contact.

• Misalignment errors: Abbe’s principle of alignment: It holds that,

during measurement, the axis of the measuring instrument should
coincide with the line of the dimension to be measured.

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 Principle of Alignment

Line of measurement coincide with

dimension line

Deformed
Misplaced part leads
instrument leads to
to error in alignment.
error in alignment

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 Misalignment Error
Misalignment Error= Measured value – Actual (True) value
= L – L cos(θ)
= L [1- cos(θ)]

Cosine error occurs in measuring the length of any part with a scale if the
measuring scale is inclined to the true line of dimension being measured. It may be
seen in the figure that the length recorded is in excess of the true length by an
amount L(1-cosθ).

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 Parallax Error Displacement

• Parallax error
• The parallax results due to the angle at
which we look at the object.
• Parallax error may result from the scale and
pointer not being contained in the same
plane. This could be obviated by:
• - Using a mirror behind the scale. If the
operator aligns his eyes so that no reflection
of the pointer is visible, he is viewing normal
to the scale, and parallax is eliminated.
• - Putting the scale and the pointer in the
same plane.
• - Using digital reading type of instrument.

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 Random Errors
• Applied when multiple independent
observations are made under the same
conditions.
• Data can be from repeated measurements,
control chars, curve fit by least-squares
method etc
• Obtained from a probability density function
derived from an observed frequency
distribution (usually Gaussian).

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The Gaussian Distribution

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 Random Errors
• Random errors usually follow a normal distribution curve. If the
sample size is small (less than 25), it is better to use the t distribution.
• A range of expected variability (R) can be determined, depending
on two factors:
- The estimated standard deviation of measurement readings, and the
sample size used in estimation.
- The level of confidence required in estimation.

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 Random Errors
Where:
• R: the repeatability measure
(range)
• σ : the estimated population
standard deviation
• t: the t-distribution parameter at
the specified confidence level and
used sample size. Values of t-
parameter are given in the
• t-distribution table

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