ABUYOG COMMUNITY COLLEGE

ABUYOG, LEYTE
S.Y. 2023-2024
FIRST SEMESTER

COURSE MODULE IN

Facilitating
Learner-Centered
Teaching
(Midterms)

COMPILED BY: Ms. Aryanne R. Querquez

Instructor
 TAB LE O F C O N T E N T S

PREFACE

TOPICS Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

The 14 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

Chapter 2: Metacognition: Thinking about Thinking

Metacognition and Metacognitive Knowledge
Metacognitive Regulation
Metacognitive Instruction

Chapter 3: Cognitive Learning Theories

Lesson 1: Cognitive Development Theory by Jean Piaget
Lesson 2: Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development by Lev Vygotsky
Lesson 3: Information Processing Theory by George Miller
Lesson 4: Problem Solving and Creativity

Chapter 4: Behavioral Learning Theories

Lesson 1: Classical Conditioning by Ivan Pavlov
Lesson 2: Connectionism by Edward Thorndike
Lesson 3: Operant Conditioning by Burrhus Frederick Skinner
Lesson 4: Latent Learning by Edward Tolman
Lesson 5: Social Learning Theory by Albert Bandura

Chapter 5: Constructivist Learning Theories

Lesson 1: Constructivist Theory by Jerome Bruner
Lesson 2: Gestalt Theory by Max Wertheirmer
Lesson 3: Subsumption Theory by David Ausubel
Lesson 4: Cooperative and Experiential Learning

Chapter 6: Psychosocial, Psychosexual and Humanistic Theories of Learning

Lesson 1: Psychosocial Theory by Erik Erikson
Lesson 2: Psychosexual Theory by Sigmund Freud
Lesson 3: Moral Development Theory by Lawrence Kohlberg

Chapter 7: Student Diversity

Lesson 1: Multiple Intelligence
Lesson 2: Learning Styles
 C O U R S E O U T L I N E

PRELIMINARY SEMI-FINAL

1. Learner-centered psychological 5. Constructivist Learning Theories

principles a. Jerome Bruner’s
Constructivist Theory
a. Cognitive, metacognitive,
motivational and affective b. Gestalt Theory
factors of teaching and
learning c. Cooperative and Experiential
Learning
b. Development and social
factors and individual 6. Psychosocial, Psychosexual and
differences that influence Humanist Theories of Learning
learning a. Erikson’s Psychosocial
Theory
2. Metacognition
b. Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
a. Metacognition and
metacognitive knowledge c. Kohlberg’s Moral
Development Theory
b. The three metacognitive
process: planning, monitoring
and evaluating
c. Metacognitive Instruction

MID-TERM FINAL

3. Cognitive Learning Theories 7. Student Diversity

a. Individual differences
a. Piaget’s Cognitive
Development Theory b. Learning/Thinking styles
b. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural c. Multiple Intelligence
Theory
d. Learners with exceptionalities
c. Information Processing
Theory
d. Bloom’s Taxonomy
4. Behavioral Learning Theories
a. Pavlov’s Classical
conditioning
b. Thorndike’s connectionism
c. Skinner’s Operant
conditioning
d. Neo-behaviorism
CHAPTER 3

Cognitive Learning
Theories
LESSON 1: Cognitive Development Theory by Jean Piaget
LESSON 2: Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development by Lev Vygotsky
LESSON 3: Information Processing Theory by George Miller
LESSON 4: Problem Solving and Creativity

CHAPTER INTRODUCTION

The term cognitive learning derives its meaning from the word cognition,
defined by an electronic dictionary as “the mental action or process of
acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience and
the senses.” Thus learners are viewed to learn by using their brains.
(Bulusan, Raquepo, Balmeo, Guttierez, of 2019)

In the process, the learners are actively engaged in metal activities

involving perception, thinking, and relying on their memory as they process
new experience. Through the connections of these old and new experiences,
the acquisition of knowledge and understanding result exist.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

• differentiate the stages of the Cognitive Development Theory

• outline salient features of the different cognitive theories
• define the key features of social interaction and cite real-life
application of the features
• discuss the information processing theory
• discuss the problem solving cycle then cite a situation where the cycle
is applied
Lesson 1:
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
EXPOSE

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

• define the key features in each stage of the cognitive development theory
• outline salient features in the stages of the Cognitive Development Theory

• Piaget was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development
• His contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive development, detailed
observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to
reveal different cognitive abilities
• The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the infant, and
then the child, develops into an individual who can reason and think using hypothesis

Three basic components to Piaget’s Cognitive Theory:

By Jean Piaget
1. Schema
The building blocks of knowledge
2. Adaptation process
Enable the transition from one stage to another
Equilibrium, assimilation and accommodation
3. Stages of cognitive development

Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete operational
Formal operational

1. Schemas -Piaget (1952)

• Are the basic building blocks of intelligent behavior- a way of organizing knowledge.
• Set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use both to understand and to
respond to situations
• Units of knowledge, each relating to one aspect of the world, including objects, actions,
and abstract concepts
• Wadsworth (2004)
• Schemata (plural of schema) can be thought of as “index cards’ filed in the brain, each one
telling an individual how to react to incoming stimuli or information

2. Adaptation
• The learner’s adjustment to the world
• This happens through:
 o Assimilation: when you take in new information regarding your existing schema.
The first attempt of understanding new information and experiences
o Accommodation: this happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not
work, and needs to be changed to deal with new object or situation
o Equilibration: the child’s attempt to strike a new balance between the two
mechanisms: assimilation and accommodation
• Out of these three, assimilation and accommodation are the two core processes people use
in order to adapt to the environment--- the attempt to make sense of new information and
to use it for future
• Equilibrium is the attempt to strike a balance between the schemas in your head and then
what the environment is telling
• The process involves the child applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing
the behavior if the knowledge is not aligned with the new knowledge (accommodation)
• Cognitive development is not a steady process. Therefore equilibrium occurs in different
ways and is the key process children use to move beyond simply assimilating things

3, The Stages of Cognitive Development

Formal
Concrete
Pre- Operational
Operational
operational Stage
Stage (From age 12 to and
Sensorimotor Stage (From age 7 to above)
Stage (From age 2 age 11)
(Birth to age 2) to age 7)

Sensorimotor Stage (birth to age 2)

• Infants “think” by means of their senses and motor actions

 • Learns trough reflexes, senses and movement-actions on the environment
• Two major accomplishments happen at this stage:
o object permanence-the formation of a schema of the object and the knowledge
the object continues to exist even after it is out of view
o Goal-directed actions-children do not think about what they do as these actions
are instinctive and involuntary

Pre-operational Stage (age 2 to age 7)

• Children are thinking at a symbolic level but are not yet using cognitive operations
• Develops language and begin to use symbols to represent objects
• Children have not yet mastered mental operations because they use action schemes
connected to physical manipulations, not logical reasoning
• The child cannot use logic or transform, combine or separate ideas

The key features of the Pre-Operational stage:

1. Centration 6. Animism
2. Egocentrism 7. Artificialism
3. Play 8.. Realism
4. Symbolic representation 9. Irreversibility
5. Pretend play

1. Centration
2. Egocentrism 3. Play
During this stage children have
Children’s thoughts and Children in this stage
difficulties thinking about more
communications are typically
than one aspect of any situation. learn through play.
egocentric (about themselves)
Younger children tend to get fixed They learn to
The child’s inability to see a
only on one dimension or attribute interact. Imagination
situation from another person’s
of a situation, such as the height of is very active
point of view
the container, and to make their
judgement of how much stuff can
fit into that container based on that
single dimension
 4. Symbolic 5. Pretend Play 6. Animism
Representation Toddlers often pretend to be This is the belief that
The ability to make one people they are not (e.g. inanimate objects (such
thing-a word or an superheroes, policeman) and as toys and teddy bears)
object- stand for may play the roles with props have human feelings and
something other than that symbolize real life objects intentions
itself Children may also invent an
imaginary playmate

7. Artificialism 8. Realism 9. Irreversibility

This is the belief that certain Children think that what is This is the inability to reverse
aspects of the environment not true is real the direction of a sequence of
are manufactured by people events to their starting point
(e.g. clouds in the sky)

Concrete Operational Stage (from age 7 to age 11)

The ability to engage in “hands-on thinking” characterized by organized and rational thinking. A
major ability at this stage is reversible thinking, thinking backward, from the end to the beginning
(Woolfolk, 2016). Reversibility involves conservation and Decentration.

The key features of the Concrete Operational Stage:

1. Reversibility 3. Conservation 5. Seriation
2. Decentration 4. Classification 6. Spatial Reasoning
 1. Reversibility
Involves conservation and
Decentration. Children
capable of conservation
appreciate that an object’s
quality is not altered simply by
transforming how that object
appears. This capability is 2. Decentration
enabled in large part through The ability to pay attention to multiple attributes of an
the maturation of children’s object or situation rather than being locked into attending
memory so as to enable their to only a single attribute
retention of awareness of a 3. Conservation
series of events and their Involves the ability to understand when the amount of
ability to run backwards something remains constant across two or more situations
through those remembered despite the appearance of the thing changing across those
events so as to see how situation.
something transformed could Whatever the arrangement or appearance of the object, as
be restored to its initial state long as there is nothing added or decreased, the number or
the amount of the object would remain the same

4. Classification 5. Seriation 6. Spatial Reasoning

Ability to group similar The ability to arrange The ability to understand and to reason
objects in terms of color, objects according to size, using cues in the environment that
shape, use, etc. like small to smallest, far convey information about distance or
to farthest direction
Ability to put things in They learn that objects that are further
order based on quantity away will appear smaller than objects
and magnitude that are closer
A bull is big, a carabao is Children become able to give directions
bigger, and the elephant using another person’s vantage point
is the biggest rather than their own
A boy who wants to indicate to a woman
seeking directions that she should turn to
his left would know to tell the direction
seeker (who is standing facing him) to
turn to her right.
Formal Operational Stage (age 12 and up)

• Adolescents
can engage in mental processes involving abstract thinking and coordination of some
variables (Woolfolk, 2016)
• All the earlier mental abilities have been mastered
• The adolescents can now think like a scientist, as they can give hypotheses and conjectures
about the problem, set up experiments to test them, and control extraneous variables to
arrive at a valid and reliable explanation
• Can consider multiple perspectives and develops concerns about social issues, personal
identity, and justice.

Feature at this stage

Adolescent egocentrism
o The assumption that although others have different perceptions and beliefs, every
individual share other’s thoughts, feelings and concerns.
o This is opposite to the egocentric characteristic in the earlier stages, wherein
children think that what they and others think are similar to theirs

Teaching Implications of Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

“What is desired is that teacher cease being a lecturer satisfied with transmitting ready-made solution;
his role should rather be that of a mentor stimulating initiative and research”.
It behooves to be creative in imparting knowledge and skills to the students to engage them in a more active
learning environment so they can construct meaning and concepts. The classroom environment, curriculum
and instructional materials should complement each other.
Berk (2013) provided a summary of teaching implications derived from Piaget’s theory of Cognitive
Development:
1. A focus on the process of children’s thinking, not just its products. Teachers should
emphasize the students’ understanding and the process they use to get the answer
2. Recognition of the crucial role of children’s self-initiative, active involvement in
learning activities. Children are encouraged to discover themselves through
spontaneous interaction with the environment, rather than the presentation of ready-
made knowledge
3. A de-emphasis on practice aimed at making children adult-like in their thinking. Piaget
believe that trying to speed up and accelerate children’s process through the stage could
be worse than no teaching at all.
4. Acceptance of individual differences in developmental progress. Piaget’s theory asserts
that children go through the same development stages but at different rates. Teachers
must exert a special effort to arrange classroom activities for individuals and groups of
children rather than for the whole class.
Webb (1980) recommended some considerations for teachers to ponder upon in their teaching
practices;
 • Consider the stage characteristics of the student’s thought processes in planning learning
activities.
• Use a wide variety of experiences rather than drill on specific tasks to maximize cognitive
development.
• Do not assume that reaching adolescence or adulthood guarantees the ability to perform
formal operations.
• Each person structures each learning situation in terms of hi schemata. No two persons will
derive the same meaning or benefit from a given experience.
• Individualize learning experiences so that each student is working at a level that is high
enough to be challenging and realistic enough to prevent excessive frustration.
– Provide experience necessary for the development of concepts before the use of
these concepts in language
– Consider learning an active restructuring of thought rather than an increase in
content
– Make full use of wrong answers by helping the student analyze his thinking to retain
the correct elements and revise the miscomprehensions
– Evaluate each student in terms of improving his performance
– Avoid overuse of materials that are so highly structured that creative thought is
discouraged
– Use social interaction in learning experiences to promote increase in both interest
and comprehension

Lesson 2:
SOCIOCULTURAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
ELICIT
In learning how to ride a bike or a motorcycle, usually, we ask for assistance or help from a person
who knows and masters the task well. Even in learning how to cook adobo. Primarily, we ask
guidance from someone--might be your mother, sister, or any person who knows how to cook
adobo– for us to be able to accomplish the task and be able to come up with a mouth-savoring
food.

EXPOSE

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

• define the three major themes of sociocultural development theory

• define the key features of social interaction and cite real-life application of the features

– Russian psychologist
– He is considered as the father of social constructivist theory
– Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory is one of the foundations of constructivism
– His theory asserts three major themes regarding social interaction, the more knowledgeable
other, and the zone of proximal development.
By Lev Vygotsky
The Social Development Theory
– Vygotsky’s social development theory of human learning describes
learning as a social process and the origination of human intelligence
in society or culture
– The major theme of Vygotsky’s theoretical framework is that social
interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition.
– Argues that social interaction precedes development; consciousness
and cognition are the end product of socialization and social behavior.

Three Major Themes

1. Social interaction
2. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)
3. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

1. Social interaction
Four Key Concepts

•Social interaction plays a central role in cognitive development

#1
•Social learning precedes development
#2
•Language accelerates cognitive development
#3
•Self-initiated discovery and collaborative dialogue aid in a child’s cognitive development
#4

Stage 1: Social interaction plays a central role in cognitive development

– Children are unable to learn and develop if they are removed from society, or are forbidden to
interact with it.
– Through the social learning experience, he was able to gradually develop and grow.
– The result of a “dynamic” or active interaction between the individual and the society is
COGNITIVE and HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
– As society has an impact on the individual, the individual also has an impact on the society.
Example:
o The child’s first teacher was his parents-who taught him his first words and guided him as
he took his first steps
o On the first day of school, he met his teachers, and several other teachers in the following
years
Stage 2: Social learning precedes development
– Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. He states: “Every function in the child’s
cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level.
– A child will not be able to develop unless he undergoes or experiences social learning first.
Vygotsky identified two level where social learning takes place:
• Interpsychological level- this is where the person will have to interact, connect and reach
out to other people. This is the level where social learning takes place
• Intrapsychological level- once the learner has passed the social level, the functions will
appear a second time and this time more developed and thus leading to cognitive
development
– Without interaction and learning, there is no way that the individual will be able to function
– HOWEVER, that does not mean that people are born with absolute zero abilities. Vygotsky point
out that everyone is born with basic or ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS
Elementary Mental Function (EMF)
 Come by naturally with birth and growth, without influence by an external stimulus.
These are not learned and involuntary
– Sensation - Hunger -Memory
Higher Mental Functions (HMF)
• These are stimulated, taught and learned in social settings or environments and they
often come with social meanings

– Language -Memory -Voluntary attention -Perception

Stage 3: Language accelerates cognitive development

– Language is very important in any social interaction since it is the primary medium of
communication in any social setting
– There are three stages of speech development:
Stage 1: Social or External Speech
Stage 2: Egocentric Speech
Stage 3: Inner Speech

Three Stages of Speech Development

1. Social or external speech (Birth to approximately age 3)
– Speech only occurs on the external or social level to express a desire or to convey simple
emotions such as shouting or crying
– At this stage, speech is merely a tool to make things happen in the external world
– The learner makes use of his limited speech to express simple thoughts of hunger,
pleasure, displeasure, satisfaction and dissatisfaction through crying, laughing, shouting
and gurgling
2. Egocentric speech (Approximately ages 3 to 7)
– Children think out loud or talk to themselves as they are doing something. It is used to
guide behavior and help to solve problems.
– An important part of the transition to inner speech and more sophisticated thinking
– The child start to enunciate words more clearly and more complete sentence, with more
sense or thought. More improved baby talk
3. Inner speech
– Inner speech is soundless speech or thought.
– Speech becomes internalized and is used to guide thinking and behavior.
– This eventually leads to higher levels and more complex types of thinking.
– He can do mental calculations in his head, analyze a situation from all angles without
saying a single word and form an opinion without verbalizing his arguments.

Stage 4: Self-initiated discovery and collaborative dialogue aid in a child’s cognitive

development
– The social and cultural settings that children’s activities take place in requires social
interaction and communication, and that the children learn best through social interactions
– They acquire knowledge and hone skills through these interactions, as well as the culture
surrounding them, and these ultimately shape their cognition

2. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)

– The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than
the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept.
– The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older adult, but the MKO
could also be peers, a younger person, or even computers.
 3. Zone of Proximal Development
– A teacher and a learner work together on a task that the learner could not perform independently
because of the difficulty level
– Reflects the idea of collective activity, where those who know more or are more skilled share that
knowledge and skill to accomplish a task with those who know less
– The area of exploration for which the student is cognitively prepared, but requires help and social
interaction to fully development.
– A teacher or more experienced peer is able to provide the learner with "scaffolding" to support the
student’s evolving understanding of knowledge domains or development of complex skills

Scaffolding
– A teaching method that helps students learn more by working with a teacher or a more advanced
student to achieve their learning goals
– Students learn more when collaborating with others who have wider range of skills and knowledge
than the student currently does

Teaching Implications of Vygotsky’s Theory

Vygotsky’s theory promotes learning contexts in which students play an active role in learning.
His theory requires that the teacher and students are collaborators in the learning process, with the teacher
as facilitator or guide in learner’s construction of knowledge and development of skills. In the use of
ZPD, teachers can organize classroom activities in the following ways:
1. Instruction can be planned to provide practice within the ZPD for individual children or groups of
children.
2. Scaffolding provides hints and prompts at different levels. In scaffolding, the adult does not
simplify the task, but the role of the learner is simplified “through the graduated intervention of the
teacher.”
3. Cooperative learning activities can be planned with groups of children at different levels who can
help each other learn.

Lesson 3:
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY
ELICIT
Recall your experiences when you want to study and review topics or concepts from a discussion.
Some tend to organize lecture notes into more comprehensible ones (outlines, graphic organizers,
summary, etc.) so that it will be easy for you to recall and absorb the concepts. According to
Schunk (2016), studies have shown that learners have retained about 12-24 weeks after instruction,
they may retain forever. Organized materials improves memory because items are linked to one
another systematically. Recall of one item prompts recall of items linked to it. (Bulusan, Raquepo,
Balmeo, Guttierez, of 2019)

PENNY FOR YOUR THOUGHTS

Are you fund of organizing your lecture notes? If yes, in what way do you usually arrange your
notes? If not, what strategies do you use to easily recall concepts from discussions?
Even when items to be learned are not organized, people often impose organization on the material,
which facilitates recall (Matlin, 2012). Let us discover how the organization of concepts help in
the development of an individual’s cognitive.

EXPOSE

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

• discuss the information processing theory

• define the three major components of the information processing theory then cite real-life
applications

• George A. Miller, American psychologist developed the By George Miller

information processing theory.
• Information Processing Theory (IPT) pertains to the study and
analysis of what occurs in a person’s mind as he receives a bit of
information.
• Information processing occurs in stages that intervene between
receiving a stimulus and producing a response.
• The basic idea of Information Processing Theory is that the
human mind is like a computer or information processor rather
than behaviorist notions that people are merely responding to
stimuli.
• These theories equate thought mechanisms to that of a computer,
in that it receives input, process, and delivers output. Information
is gathered from the senses (input), is stored and processed by the brain, and finally brings
about a behavioral response (output)

The mind receives and represents/encodes the stimulus from the environment, process the
information, stores it, locates/retrieves it, and a response to it. Learning is a change/revision in the
knowledge that has been stored by the memory.

Information Processing Theory (IPT) has three major components:

1. Sensory memory
2. Short-term memory
3. Long-term memory

1. Sensory Memory
• The state in which the stimuli sensed (heard, seen, touched, smelled, touched) temporarily
held in mere seconds for the information to be processed further. As a person is presented
a lot of stimuli at a given time, the sensory memory serves as a filter on what to focus on.
• Selective attention. The individual’s ability to choose and process information while
disregarding the other stimuli or information
Factors that influence attention:
1. The meaning is given by the individual to the task or information.
2. The similarity between competing task or source of information.
3. The difficulty or complexity of the task as influenced by prior knowledge.
4. The ability to control and sustain attention.

As the information held in the sensory memory is for about three seconds only, unattended
stimulus are forgotten. The information the person gave attention to is transferred to the
short-term memory
2. Short-Term Memory
• Serves as temporary memory while the information is given and processing before it is
transferred to long term memory. Information in this stage is 15-20 seconds and can hold
from 5 to 9 bits of information only at a given time.
• Two strategies involved in the transfer of memory in the long-term memory:
Maintenance rehearsal. Involves repetition of the information to sustain its
maintenance in the short term memory.

Elaborative rehearsal. It is the process of relating the new information to what is

already known and stored in the long term memory to make the new information
more significant.

Schemes of Elaborative Rehearsal:

▪ Organization
▪ Mnemonic Device
▪ Imagery

Schemes of Elaborative Rehearsal:

▪ Organization. The process of classifying and grouping bits of information into
organized chunks.
▪ Example: cellphone number,
▪ Mnemonic Device. Elaborate information in different ways, e.i. acronym,
▪ Imagery. Strategy that involves the memory taking what is to be learned and
creating meaningful visual, auditory, or kinesthetic images of information.
3. Long-Term Memory
Is the storehouse of information transferred from short term-memory. It has unlimited space.
Varied contents of information are stored, namely:
▪ Semantic Memory. The memory for ideas, words, facts and concepts that are not part of
the person’s own experiences.
▪ Episodic Memory. The memory of events that happened in a person’s life, connected to a
specific time and place.
▪ Procedural Memory. The knowledge about how to do things, step-by-step process
▪ Imagery. Mental images of what is known. Associating images to the name of a newly
introduced person, etc.

Retrieving Information from the Long-Term Memory

• Retrieving information from long term-memory involves locating the information and
transferring it to the short-term memory to be used for a purpose.
• Schunk (2012) mentioned two ways of information retrieval:
– Recalling.
• Free recall. The person has to rely on the information previously learned
purely by memory.
• Cued recall. Involves the provision of cues and clues to the person to help
in the recall of the information
• Recognition. Involves providing the learner with stimuli as choices to make
a decision or judgement.
Forgetting
– The loss of information, either in the sensory memory, short-term memory, or long-term
memory.
– Interference. The process that occurs when remembering certain information hampered
by the presence of other information.
– This situation is also related to the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. It involves the
failure to retrieve the information, but the person is sure the information is known.
– Sensory memory. There are other stimuli that bombard the person. As one stimulus
is just the focus at a time, others are forgotten
– Short-term memory. As rehearsal and maintenance activities are made, incoming
new information interferes
– Long-term memory. Same phenomenon happens in the long-term memory
– Retroactive interference- new information interferes with recalling the previous
information.
– Proactive interference- the old information interferes with recalling the new
information.
– Time decay is another factor for the loss of stored information from long-term
memory. Unused information decays and is forgotten.
• Some theorist argue that stored information in the long-term memory is never lost.

Teaching implications of IPT:

1. Make sure you have the students’ attention. Develop a signal that tells students to stop what
they are doing and focus on you. Make sure that students respond to the signal. Practice
about the signal.
2. Move around the room, use gestures, and avoid speaking in a monotone.
3. Begin a lesson by asking a question that stimulates interest in the topic.
 4. Regain the attention of individual students by walking closer to them, using their names
while asking them a question.
5. Help the students to separate essential from nonessential details and focus on the most
important information.
6. When you make an important point, pause, repeat, ask a student to paraphrase, note the
information on the board in colored chalk, or tell students to highlight the point in their
notes or readings. The use of mnemonic devices could assist learner’s retention of the
information learned.
7. Help students to make connections between new information and what they already know.
Review prerequisites to help students bring to mind the information they will need to
understand new information.
8. Provide for repetition and review of information. Using graphic organizers for rehearsals
can help.
9. Present material in a clear, organized way. Make the purpose of the lesson very clear.
10. Focus on meaning, not on memorization. For instance, in teaching new words, help
students associate the new word to a related word they already understand.

Lesson 4:
BLOOM’S TAXONOMY

EXPOSE

2. BLOOM’S REVISED TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

Benjamin Bloom developed the most prominent methods for categorizing differences in thinking
skills. The Bloom’s Taxonomy is a model that described the different levels of learning outcomes
that target what skills and competencies the teacher aim to develop in the learners. Sooner, Lorin
Anderson (a former student of Bloom), David Krathwohl and a group of cognitive psychologists
updated the taxonomy.

There are six levels of cognitive learning according to the revised version of Bloom’s Taxonomy.
Each level is conceptually different. The six levels are remembering, understanding, applying,
analyzing, evaluating, and creating. The categories after knowledge were presented as “skills
and abilities,” with the understanding that knowledge was the necessary precondition for putting
these skills and abilities into practice. (www.coloradocollege.edu)

Levels Definition Learning Outcome Verbs

Remember Retrieve, recall, or Cite, define, describe,
recognize relevant identify, label, list, match,
knowledge from long-term name, outline, quote,
memory recall, report, reproduce,
retrieve, show, state,
tabulate and tell
Understand Demonstrate Abstract, arrange,
comprehension through articulate, associate,
one or more forms of categorize, clarify, classify,
explanation compare, compute,
conclude, contrast, defend,
diagram, differentiate,
discuss, distinguish,
estimate, exemplify,
explain, extend, generalize,
give examples of, illustrate,
infer, interpret, outline,
paraphrase, rephrase,
summarize, translate
Apply Use information or skill in Apply, calculate, carry out,
a new situation demonstrate, dramatize,
employ, execute,
implement, manipulate,
operate, organize, solve,
transfer, use
Analyze Break materials into its Analyze, break down,
constituent parts and assume, categorize,
determine how the parts classify, compare,
relate to one another and/or conclude, contrast,
to an overall structure or discover, dissect,,
purpose distinguish, examine,
inspect
Evaluate Make judgements based on Appraise, assess, award,
criteria and standards choose, criticize, defend,
disprove, estimate,
interpret, judge, rate,
support, justify, measure,
rank, rate, recommend,
support, test and validate
Create Put elements together to Assemble, build, combine,
form a new coherent or plan, produce, compose,
functional whole; constitute, construct,
reorganize elements into a create, design, develop,
new pattern or structure devise, formulate, generate,
integrate, invent, make,
manage, synthesize and
write
Why use Bloom’s Taxonomy?
(A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives.)

The authors of the revised taxonomy suggest a multi-layered answer to this question.
1. Objectives (learning goals) are important to establish in a pedagogical interchange so that
teachers and students alike understand the purpose of that interchange
2. Organizing objectives helps to clarify objectives for themselves and for students
3. Having an organized set of objectives helps teachers to:
a. plan and deliver appropriate instruction
b. design valid assessment tasks and strategies, and
c. ensure that instruction and assessment are aligned with the objectives

Bloom’s taxonomy is a powerful to help develop learning objectives because:

• Before you can understand a concept, you must remember it
• To apply a concept you must first understand it
• In order to evaluate a process, you must have analyzed it
• To create an accurate conclusion, you must have completed a thorough evaluation

Like other taxonomies, Bloom’s is hierarchical, meaning that learning at the higher levels is
dependent on having attained prerequisite knowledge and skills at lower levels. The purpose of
Bloom’s digital taxonomy is to inform instructors of how to use technology and digital tools to
facilitate student learning experiences and outcomes. It aims, “to expand upon the skills associated
with each level as technology becomes a more in grained essential part of learning.” The use of
this adapted version and the examples of tools it provides focus “should not be on the tools
themselves, but rather on how the tools can act as vehicle for transforming student thinking at
different levels.” (Bloom’s Digital Taxonomy, 2015-
https://www.commonsensemedia.org/videos/blooms-digital-taxonomy)
Knowledge is situated, being in part a product of the activity, context and culture in which it is
developed and used. In this way, we can begin to ascertain differences that will help instructors
apply the right tool to the right learning goals. (Meyer, K.A, 2010. A comparison of Web 2.0 tools
in a doctoral course. The Internet and Higher Education, 13(4), 226-232.)
CHAPTER 4

Behavioral Learning
Theories
LESSON 1: Classical Conditioning by Ivan Pavlov
LESSON 2: Connectionism by Edward Thorndike
LESSON 3: Operant Conditioning by Burrhus Frederick Skinner
Neo-Behaviorism
LESSON 4: Latent Learning by Edward Tolman
LESSON 5: Social Learning Theory by Albert Bandura

CHAPTER INTRODUCTION

Some of the most popular learning theories are lodged under behaviorism.
It is primarily concerned with influencing change in one’s behavior.
Hence, you will discover the fundamental tenets of behaviorism and how
such concepts are applied to facilitating learner-centered classroom. It is
therefore important for you to be immersed into the principles so that you
can easily use them in facing the real world of teaching. (Bulusan,
Raquepo, Balmeo, Guttierez, of 2019)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

• analyze learning theories under behaviorism

• discuss the different phenomena of learning under behaviorism
• cite applications of behavioral theories to teaching
Lesson 1:
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
ELICIT

Before, teachers are used of bringing a stick in the classroom. Once the teacher raise the stick, that
indicates that the class should give their attention to the teacher and the class should not be noisy.
In elementary level, when the teacher raised flashcards, it means that the students should read what
is on the flashcards. Did you experience these?

PENNY FOR YOUR THOUGHTS

Teacher Clariza is a neophyte teacher in a public elementary school. She always complains about
her noisy and unruly pupils. Telling them to keep quiet in a soft manner has not been effective.
Suggest some tips on how she can condition her class to keep still.

Conditioning the response of the learners matter in the teaching and learning process. This helps
the learners to master a response as they are provided with a stimulus. As a future teacher,
conditioning can be a big help in managing the classroom. You will discover how this is done as
we go through the discussion.

EXPOSE

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

• paraphrase and discuss Ivan Pavlov’s experiment

• distinguish the difference between stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination

• Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist, is known for his By Ivan Pavlov

famous experiment with conditioning the salivation
response in dogs
• Classical conditioning is a reflexive or automatic type of
learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a
response that was originally evoked by another stimulus
• Learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes
associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a behavior
UNLOCKING OF TERMS
• Stimulus
o Something that exist in the surroundings or that is presented
• Response
o How the animal responds to the stimulus
• Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
o Something that triggers a naturally occurring response
• Unconditioned Response (UR)
o The naturally occurring response that follows the unconditioned stimulus
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
o A neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly presented prior to the unconditioned stimulus,
evokes a similar response as the unconditioned stimulus
• Conditioned Response (CR)
o The acquired response to the formerly neutral stimulus

Pavlov identified a fundamental associative learning process called Classical Conditioning.

Conditioning. Evolutionarily beneficial because it allows organisms to develop expectations that
help them prepare for both good and bad events

In the early part of the 20th century, Russian psychologist, Ivan Pavlov was studying the digestive
system of dogs when he noticed an interesting behavioral phenomenon:
The dogs began to salivate when the lab technicians who normally fed them entered the room,
even though the dogs had not yet received any food. Pavlov realized that the dogs were salivating
because they knew that they were about to be fed. The dogs had begun to associate the arrival of
the technicians with the food that soon followed their appearance in the room.
With his team of researchers, Pavlov began studying this process in more detail. He conducted a
series of experiments in which, over a number of trials, dogs were exposed to a sound immediately
before receiving food.
He systematically controlled the onset of the sound and the timing of the delivery of the food and
recorded the amount of the dogs’ salivation.

Initially the dogs salivated only when they saw or smelled the food, but after several pairings of
the sound and the food, the dogs began to salivate as soon as they heard the sound. The animals
had learned to associate the sound with the food that followed. (Bulusan, Raquepo, Balmeo,
Guttierez, of 2019)
After he had demonstrated that learning could occur through association, Pavlov moved on to study
the variables that influence the strength and the persistence of conditioning. After the conditioning
had taken place, Pavlov presented the sound repeatedly but without presenting the food afterward,
“Acquisition, extinction and spontaneous Recovery” shows what happened.
After the initial acquisition (learning) phase in which the conditioning occurred, when the CS was
then presented alone, the behavior rapidly decreased---the dogs salivated less and less to the sound,
and eventually the sound did not elicit salivation at all.
 • Extinction refers to the reduction in responding that occurs when the conditioned stimulus
is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus.

• Spontaneous Recovery is the increase in responding to the CS following a pause after

extinction. Although at the end of the first extinction period, the CS was no longer
producing salivation, the effects of conditioning had not entirely disappeared. After a
pause, sounding a tone again elicited salvation, although to a lesser extent than before
extinction took place

• Generalization refers to the tendency to respond to stimuli that resemble the original
conditioned stimulus. Pavlov experimented with presenting a new stimuli that were similar,
but not identical, to the original conditioned stimulus. The dog had been conditioned to
being scratched before the food arrived, the stimulus would be changed to being rubbed
rather than scratched. He found that the dogs also salivated upon experiencing the similar
stimulus.

• Discrimination is the tendency to respond differently to stimuli that are similar but not
identical. The dogs salivated when they heard the specific tone that had preceded food, but
not upon hearing similar tones that had never been associated with the food.

Lesson 2:
THORNDIKE’S CONNECTIONISM
ELICIT

Upon entering the classroom, one should be ready to learn or else, transfer of learning might be
difficult. If a learner is not ready, the effect will be, he might not perform well in the teaching and
learning process. That is why teachers are advised to use motivational activities that will arouse
the learner’s interest and will prepare them for the day’s activities. According to Bulusan,
Raquepo, Balmeo, Guttierez, of 2019, teachers are also encouraged to use activities that simulates
real-life applications of the concepts. If this is done, there will be a strong connection between the
concepts and the learner’s experiences.

PENNY FOR YOUR THOUGHTS

Oral recitation is a teaching strategy that measure the learners’ learning progress. Have you
experienced to be called suddenly without preparing yourself to answer? How did you response to
the situation? If not, how would you response if you are on the said situation?

Connection between the concepts and the learning experiences of the learners plays a crucial role
in the teaching and learning process. When there are connections between the stimulus and the
learner’s response, there is a least possibility that the skills and concepts they learned will be
forgotten. Let us see how Thorndike’s connectionism contribute to the teaching and learning
process.
 EXPOSE

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

• identify the primary laws of learning postulated by Edward Thorndike

• differentiate law of primacy and law of recency, law of effect and law of readiness
• discuss the importance of connectionism in the teaching and learning process

By Edward Thorndike
• Edward L. Thorndike is one of the few
psychologist who focused on education
• Thorndike believed that forming associations or
connections between sensory experiences and neutral
impulses results in the prime type of learning
• Mainly concerned with the connection between the
stimulus and response (S-R)
• Believed that learning often occurs by trial and error
(selecting and connecting)
Laws of Learning
1. Law of Exercise
a. Law of use
b. Law of disuse
2. Law of Effect
3. Law of Readiness
4. Law of Primacy
5. Law of Intensity
6. Law of Recency

From the book Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching by Bulusan, Raquepo, Balmeo,

Guttierez, (2019)
Law of Exercise
• Drills are vital to acquire and sustain learning. Bonds between stimuli and responses are
strengthened through being exercised frequently, recently, and vigorously. Divided into
two parts: the Law of Use and the Law of disuse
a. The Law of Use. The frequent recurring of the response to the stimulus strengthens
their connection
b. The Law of Disuse. When a response is not made to a stimulus, the connection’s
strength is weakened or even forgotten
• Learners usually learn faster when they often apply a certain skill (law of use) and tend to
forget when such a response does not recur over some time (law of disuse)
EXAMPLE:
Pianists repeatedly practice their pieces before their performance. By practicing
(law of use), they ensure that they will play correctly. If they do not exercise playing
their pieces (law of disuse), they may encounter difficulty in smoothly
accomplishing their performances
Thorndike, later revised the Law of Exercise. He confessed that by merely practicing, one does not
bring improvement in learning. Practicing, according to Thorndike, is not sufficient. The constant
practice must be followed by some reward or satisfaction to the learner. In short, the pupil must be
motivated to learn.
Law of Effect
• Emphasizes that if a response is followed by a “satisfying” state of affairs, the S-R
connection is strengthened; if a response is followed by an “annoying” state of affairs, the
S-R connection is weakened.
• Satisfiers and annoyers are critical to learning.
Law of Readiness
• If one is prepared to act, to do is rewarding, and not to do is punishing
• Before learning commences, one must be physically, emotionally, mentally, and
psychologically prepared
• When students are ready to learn a particular action, then the behaviors that foster this
learning will be rewarding. Meanwhile, when students are not ready to learn or do not
possess prerequisite skills, then attempting to learn is punishing and even becomes a waste
of time
– When a learner knows the answer to a particular question, thus he will raise his
hand. Calling him to recite is rewarding.
– When a teacher calls on a student who does not know
Other Laws of Learning
Law of Primacy
• The first thing learned has the strongest S-R bond and is almost inerasable
• Learning a concept or skill again is more difficult than the first time one has learned it
• This explains why teachers correct students have misconceptions in a new lesson. When
misconception is not corrected for the first time, that might lead to habit formation
• In English Language teaching, a recurring mistake among learners is called fossilization
• Relearning the correct concept later will be confusing to the students
• The first (prime) learning experience should be as functional, precise and as positive as
possible
Law of Intensity
• Exciting, immediate, or even dramatic learning within the real context of the students
would tremendously facilitate learning
• Exposing the students in real-world applications of the skills and concepts makes them
most likely to remember the experience
Law of Recency
• The concepts or skills most recently learned are least forgotten
• Teachers should facilitate learning by providing the learners with a clear connection
between the pervious and the current learning experience
Principle of Associative Shifting
• Thorndike mentioned that humans tend to show an almost similar response to an entirely
different stimulus if, on recurring instances, that stimulus has slight changes compared to
the previously known one.
Lesson 3:
OPERANT CONDITIONING
ELICIT
Teacher Ruth is teaching grade 1 pupils how to read. Each time a pupil is able to read words
correctly, she gives a star to the pupil. Afterwards, the pupil became participative in the discussion
and repeated the same behavior when they are having reading sessions.
Teacher Abigail likes to have an interactive class so she always gather insights from her learners.
When a student shares an insight, to encourage the learner to participate more, she smiles, nod,
praise and even clap for the learner.

PENNY FOR YOUR THOUGHTS

Have you experienced to be praised before (it may be at school or at home) or to be rewarded
because of a well-accomplished task? Share your experience.

Based from your experience above, how does the reward or the positive feedback affect your
behavior? Did you become motivated or discouraged? Explain your answer.

Positive feedback or praises, rewards and even punishments that are given to the learners affect
their behavior. This is always noticed in everyday situation. It can also affect the classroom
management and the climate in the teaching and learning process. As we go along the discussion,
let us discover how reinforcement and punishment help in facilitating a learner-centered teaching.

EXPOSE

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

• define reinforcement and punishment and cite real-life application of each

• analyze real-life situations where operant conditioning is applied

• Burrhus Frederick Skinner , well-known as B.F. Skinner, By Burrhus Frederick

the father of Operant Conditioning Skinner

• Believed that we do have such thing as a mind, but that it is

simply more productive to study observable behavior rather than
internal mental events
• He believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at
the causes of an action and its consequences. He called this
approach
Operant Conditioning.
BF Skinner placed a rat in a special cage (called the Skinner’s box) that has a bar on one
wall that, when pressed, causes a little mechanism to release a food pellet into the cage. The rat is
moving around the cage when it accidentally presses the bar and as a result of pressing the bar, a
food pellet falls into the cage.
The rat “learns” to press the bar whenever it wants food. This leads to one of the principles
of operant conditioning- A behavior followed by a reinforcing stimulus results in an increased
probability of that behavior in the future.

Operant Conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments
for behavior
• Was based on Thorndike’s Law of Effect
• Behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior
followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated
• Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular
behavior and a consequence
• Reinforcement. Behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated , behavior which is not
reinforced tends to die
• Skinner identified three (3) types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior:
– Neutral operants
o Responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the
probability of a behavior being repeated.
– Reinforcers
o Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior
being repeated. Reinforcers can be in positive or negative.
– Punishers
o Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior
being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

Reinforcers (Strengthens Behavior)

Positive Reinforcement
• Strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds
rewarding
• After the reinforcement is given, an individual is more likely to repeat the
behavior in the future thus strengthening the behavior
Negative Reinforcement
• The removal of an unpleasant reinforce can also strengthen behavior
• Removal of an adverse stimulus which is rewarding to the animal or person
• Strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience
Schedules of Reinforcement (When reinforcement is applied)
From the book Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching by Bulusan, Raquepo, Balmeo, Guttierez, (2019)

Reinforcement Schedule Description Classroom Application

Continuous Schedule Reinforcement is given every Students receive feedback

time the animal gives the after each response concerning
desired response the accuracy of their work

Intermittent Schedule Reinforcement is given Students are not called on

irregularly as the animal gives every time they raise their
the desired response hands, not praised after
working each problem, and
not always told they are
behaving appropriately

Fixed Interval The time interval is constant Appreciating a student’s

from one reinforcement to the answer is done for the first
next response made after 5 minutes

Variable Interval The time interval varies from The first correct response after
occasion to occasion around 5 minutes is reinforced, but
some average value the time interval varies (e.g.
2,3, or 8 minutes)

Ratio Schedule Reinforcement is given Teacher gives praises to a

depending on the number of student after reciting the 5th
correct responses or the rate of correct answer
responding

Fixed Ratio Every nth correct response is Every 10th correct response
reinforced, where n is constant receives reinforcement

Variable Ratio Every nth correct response is A teacher may give free time
reinforced, but the value periodically around an average
varies around an average of five completed assignments
number n

• Continuous Reinforcement
• The original scenario; every time that the rat does the behavior
• A human is positively reinforced every time a specific behavior occurs
• Fixed Ratio Reinforcement
• Behavior is reinforced only after the behavior occurs a specified number of times
• A child receives a star for every five words spelled correctly
• Variable Ratio Reinforcement
• Behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of times
• Gambling or fishing
• Fixed Interval Reinforcement
• One reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval providing at least one correct
response has been made
• Being paid by the hour
 • Variable Interval Reinforcement
• Providing one correct response has been made, reinforcement is given after an
unpredictable amount of time has passed
• A self-employed person being paid at unpredictable times

Punishment (Weakens Behavior)

The opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate a response rather than
increase it
• Positive Punishment
Addition of an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the behavior
• Negative Punishment
The removal of pleasant stimulus to decrease the behavior
(NOTE: It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative
reinforcement)

Problems with using Punishment:

1. Punished behavior is not forgotten, it is suppressed- behavior returns when punishment is
no longer present
2. Causes increased aggression- shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems
3. Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors
4. Do not necessarily guide toward desired behavior- reinforcement only tells you what to do,
punishment only tells you what not to do

ALTERNATIVE TO PUNISHMENT
Punishment is often applied in schools to address disruptions. Maag (2001) enumerated some
common punishments like loss of privileges, removals from the classroom, in- and out-of-school
suspensions, and expulsions. Nonetheless, there are several alternatives to punishment. The
primary advantage of this alternative over punishment is that it shows the student how to behave
adaptively.
1. CHANGE THE DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULI. Move misbehaving student away from
other misbehaving students
2. ALLOW THE UNWANTED BEHAVIOR TO CONTINUE Have student who stands
when s/he should be sitting.
3. EXTINGUISH THE UNWANTED BEHAVIOR. Ignore minor misbehavior so that it is
not reinforced by teacher attention
4. CONDITION AN INCOMPATIBLE BEHAVIOR. Reinforce learning progress, which
occurs only when a student is behaving.
 Neo-Behavioral
Learning Theories
As behaviorism developed, one more sub-branch came out to fill in the gap between behaviorism and
cognitive learning beliefs. It is called Neo-Behaviorism. The neo-behaviorists believed that some
mediating variables into the established stimulus-response theory contribute much to learning.

Lesson 4:
LATENT LEARNING
ELICIT

In every action we are doing, it is always driven with a purpose. For an instance, you are pursuing
your studies for you want to have a better future. With this, even so we are not continuously
reinforced or even there are no visible reinforcement, you will still continue your studies because
of a purpose. Every individual performs a behavior because he has a purpose or goal.

PENNY FOR YOUR THOUGHTS

An organism performs a behavior because it has a purpose or goal even without any visible
reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned. Do you agree with this? Discuss
your answer.

Let us see how purposive learning contributes to the success of teaching and learning proses and
how this theory will help you as you facilitate a learner-centered classroom.

EXPOSE

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

• make a synthesis on the Purposive Behaviorism by Edward Tolman

• Paraphrase Tolman’s experiment
• Define main concepts from Tolman’s theory
• reflect on Tolman’s beliefs
• analyze real-life situations where Purposive Behaviorism is applied
 • Latent learning was not original to Edward C. Tolman, By Edward Tolman
but he developed it further.
• Tolman’s theory combines the advantages of stimulus-
response theories and cognitive field theories, also called as
purposive behaviorism
• He insisted that all behavior is directed because of a purpose.
Hence, all behaviors are focused on achieving some goals by
cognition- an intervening variable.
• Latent learning is a type of learning which is not apparent in
the learner’s behavior at the time of learning, but which
manifest later when a suitable motivation and circumstances
appear.
• Tolman’s experiments with rats demonstrated that organisms can learn even if they do not
receive immediate reinforcement

Tolman’s Experiment
In the experiment, Tolman placed hungry rats in a maze with no reward for finding their
way through it. He also studied a comparison group (of rats) that was rewarded with food
at the end of the maze.
Group 1: Rewarded
Day 1-17. Every time they got to end, given food.
Group 2: Delayed Reward
Day 1-10. Every time they got to end, taken out.
Day 11-17. Every time they got to end, given food.
Group 3: No Reward
Day 1-17. Every time they got to end, taken out.

As the unreinforced rats explored the maze, they developed a cognitive map; a mental picture of
the layout of the maze.
After 10 sessions in the maze without reinforcement, food was placed in a goal box at the end of
the maze. As soon as the rats became aware of the food, they were able to find their way through
the maze quickly, just as quickly as the comparison group, which has been rewarded with food all
along.
Result. The delayed reward group learned the route on days 1 to 10 and formed a cognitive map
of the maze. They took longer to reach the end of the maze because there was no motivation for
them to perform. From Day 11 onwards, they had a motivation to perform and reached the end
before the reward group.
Examples:
• A 4-year-old boy observed his father in using the TV remote control. When he would be
left alone and had the opportunity to turn on the TV using the remote control, he could
easily demonstrate the learning.
• Stephen’s dad drives him to school every day. In this way, Stephen learns the route from
his house to his school, but he’s never driven there himself, so he has not had a chance to
demonstrate that he’s learned the way. One morning, Stephen’s dad has to leave early for
a meeting, so he can’t drive Stephen to school. Instead, Stephen follows the same route on
his bike that his dad would have taken in the car. Stephen had learned the route to school
but had no need to demonstrate his knowledge earlier.
This is the LATENT LEARNING, learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until
there is a reason to demonstrate it. It occurs without any visible reinforcement of the behavior or
associations that are learned. In addition, latent learning occurs every time an organism sees a
reason to perform or show it.
COGNITIVE MAP. It is a mental illustration of the layout of the environment. It is believed that
everything in our cognitive map influences our interaction with the environment. Hence, making
our cognitive map more detailed and comprehensive helps facilitate our learning.
Tolman believed individuals do more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes,
changing conditions, and they strive toward goals. Tolman is virtually the only behaviorist who
found the stimulus-response theory unacceptable, because reinforcement was not necessary for
learning to occur. He felt behavior was mainly cognitive
Tolman’s Other Salient Principles
1. Behavior is always purposive. All behavior is ignited to accomplish a specific goal. A
demonstration of learning is the outcome of possessing a purpose to show it.
2. Behavior is cognitive. An organism is mindful of the connections between specific actions
and certain outcomes (cognitive map). Such mental map is developed by expanding the
experiences, coupled with stimulus and reward. The expectations that underlie and guide
behavior are cognitions.
3. Reinforcement establishes and confirms expectancies. Tolman also underscored the role
of reinforcement in learning. Learning deal with connection between stimuli and
expectancies or perceptions, representations, needs and other intervening variables.
Because expectancies develop in situations in which reinforcement is possible, the role of
reinforcement is primarily one of confirming expectancies. The more expectancy is
established, it is more likely it is that the stimuli (signs) associated with it will become
linked with the relevant significance (expectancy).

Lesson 5:
SOCIAL LEARNING
ELICIT
THEORY
With the generation today, there are a lot of icons or personalities that we can imitate. One of the
most well-known icons are the Korean actors and actresses, or personalities. We even tend to
imitate famous singers and dancers. Also, there are varied platforms in the internet and social
media where we can imitate different crafts, recipes and many more. We can easily learn by
imitating from others.

PENNY FOR YOUR THOUGHTS

From different TV personalities or anyone that you admire, may it be an actor, singer, painter,
dancer, etc., who do you imitate the most? Why do you like to imitate that person?

Is imitating that person(s) that you stated above helpful to you and to your learning progress? Why
do you say so?

Imitation and modeling is relevant in the teaching and learning process. In fact, it is applied in a
day-to-day basis. Let us unwrap concepts regarding imitation and modeling and let us see how the
experiences you shared above can be related to the topics that we are to discuss.
 EXPOSE
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

• differentiate the Behavioral learning theories and the Neo-Behavioral learning theories
• reflect on how Bandura’s theory impacts me as a future teacher
• analyze real-life situations where Social Learning theory is applied

• Social Learning Theory, theorized by Albert Bandura, people By Albert Bandura

learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and
modeling.
• Learning occurs within the context and by observing and copying
others
• The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and
cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention,
memory and motivation.
• Bandura’s theory is also called the social-cognitive theory because
of the influence of cognition in his theory.
• He is one among few behaviorists who believed that human process information through
cognition
• The term self-efficacy is defined as one’s evaluation of his own ability to accomplish or
perform an action in a particular context
• Those with high self-efficacy see themselves as capable or useful in dealing with the world
and with other people.
• Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways.
• Bobo Doll Experiment
• Reinforcement can be internal and external
o External Reinforcement. If a child wants approval from parents or peers
o Internal Reinforcement. Feeling happy about being approved
• Children will have a number of models with whom they identify.
• These may be people in their immediate world such as parents or older siblings, or could
be fantasy characters or people in the media
• The motivation to Identify with a particular model is that they have a quality which the
individual would like to posses
o Identification. Occurs with another person (the model) and involves taking on
observed behaviors, values, beliefs and attitudes of the person of whom you are
identifying
o Identification is different to imitation as it may involve a number of behaviors
being adopted, whereas imitation usually involves copying a single behavior.
Mediational Process
• SLT is a bridge between traditional learning theory and the cognitive approach. This is
because it focuses on how mental factors are involved in learning
• Unlike Skinner, Bandura (1977) believes that humans are active information processors
and think about the relationship between their behavior and its consequences
• Observational learning could not occur unless cognitive process were at work
• Therefore, individuals do not automatically observe the behavior of a model and imitate it,
there is some thought prior to imitation and this consideration is called the Mediation
Process- observing the behavior (stimulus) and imitating it or not (response)
Four Mediational Process
1. Attention
• We cannot learn if we are not focused on the task. This is the extent to which we are
exposed/notice the behavior. For a behavior to be imitated, it has to grab your attention
 • The characteristics of the model and the observer influence one’s attention to models. This
explains why teachers makes use of bright colors or large fronts in their instructional aids
for modeling to snatch the attention of the learners
2. Retention
• Paying attention to something should result in retention that requires cognitively
organizing, rehearsing, coding and transforming modeled information for storage in
memory
• Rehearsal also serves a vital role in the retention of knowledge. This is a mental review of
information. Sometimes, the observer retains the information through association and
cognitive pattern. Rehearsal without coding and coding without rehearsal are less effective
3. Production
• This is the ability to perform the behavior that the model has just demonstrated
• We are limited by our physical ability and for that reason, even if we wish to reproduce the
behavior, we cannot. This influences our decisions whether to try and imitate it or not
• Observers refine their skills with practice, corrective feedback and reteaching.
• Example, a student may have a basic understanding of how to tie shoelaces but not be able
to translate that knowledge into behavior
• Problems in producing modeled behaviors arise not only because information is
inadequately coded but also because learners experience difficulty translating coded
information in memory into overt action
4. Motivation
• The will to perform the behavior
• The rewards and punishment that follow a behavior will be considered by the observer.
• If the perceived rewards outweigh the perceived costs, then the behavior will be more likely
to be imitated by the observer. If the vicarious reinforcement is not seen to be important
enough to the observer, then they will not imitate the behavior

Self-efficacy and learning through observation are from Bandura’s social-cognitive theory.
Applying this these to teaching, you may select certain students to solve a board mathematical
problem. When they are successful, the peer models helps elevate observers’ self-efficacy for
performing well. Students in the class are more likely to perceive themselves as similar in terms
of competence to atleast one of the models.
Using demonstration models or demo teaching is an effective way to facilitate student-centered
learnings. For instance, if you were a TLE teacher, you could teach your students how to insert a
sleeve into a garment through modeled demonstrations. You might begin with describing the
process and then use visual aids to portray the procedure. You could conclude the presentation by
demonstrating the process at a sewing machine.
Compliments I the form of feedback can increase self-efficacy while learning through modeling.
If you were a drama teacher, you could model various performance skills while working with
students as they practice a play. As the students perform their parts, you may highlight their
strengths or give them a pat in their shoulders or a thumbs up sign before telling them their points
for improvement.