SPORT SCIENCE 3

EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY A & B

TEACHING AND LEARNING GUIDE

Name: __________________________

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UNIT 1: EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY A
T OPICS
1.1 E NERGY AND E NERGY S YSTEMS
1.2 O XYGEN D ELIVERY
1.3 E FFECTS OF T RAINING

1.1 Energy and Energy Systems

• Energy
• Role of ATP:
o structure
o high energy bonds
o ATP splitting
o ATP storage and transportation
• Energy sources to replenish ATP:
o creatine phosphate
o carbohydrates (low glycaemic index foods and high glycaemic foods)
o fats
o protein
o concept of “Hitting the Wall”
o glycogen sparing
• ATP production:
o during resting conditions
o during exercise
• Phosphagen (ATP – CP or Anaerobic Alactic System):
o basic equations (not including enzymes)
 characteristics:
 metabolism (method of energy production)
 fuel sources
 speed of ATP production
 quantity of ATP production (relative, i.e. not a specific amount)
 limitations
 duration (predominant)
 intensity
 provide sporting examples
 muscle fibre type
• Lactic acid (Anaerobic Glycolysis) system:
o equations of the energy system (not including enzymes)
o lactate clearance, lactate accumulation, Hydrogen Ions and Acidosis
 characteristics:
 metabolism (method of energy production)
 fuel sources
 speed of ATP production
 quantity of ATP production (relative, i.e. not a specific amount)
 limitations
 by-products
 duration (predominant)
 intensity
 provide sporting examples
 muscle fibre type
 lactic acid removal (fate of lactic acid)
• Aerobic System:
o basic equations/flow chart, includes basic outline of Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport System
(not including enzymes)
o fate of the by-products (heat, water and carbon dioxide)
o glycolysis
o lypolysis

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 o characteristics
 metabolism (method of energy production)
 fuel sources
 speed of ATP production
 quantity of ATP production (relative, i.e. not a specific amount)
 limitations
 by-products
 duration (predominant)
 intensity
 provide sporting examples
 muscle fibre type
• Oxygen Transport in muscles; role of myoglobin
• Energy Continuum: interplay of the different energy systems:
o contribution of energy systems varies depending on
 duration
 intensity
 aerobic fitness
o aerobic energy system makes a greater contribution earlier than previously thought
o discussion: fat adapted vs glycogen adapted metabolism
• Muscle Fibre Types: Slow (Type I) and Fast (Type IIa and Type IIb):
o profile characteristics of each

1.2 Oxygen Delivery

• Oxygen Deficit
• Aerobic Steady State
• VO and VO Max:
o absolute and relative VO Max (including making calculations)
o in relation to athletes in different sports and fitness levels
 discuss demands of endurance sports, intermittent team sports, player roles, etc...
 comparison in typical novice, intermediate and high performance athletes
o in relation to fitness testing: calculate maximum aerobic speed
o factors that affect an individual’s VO Max
 aerobic fitness
 body size
 gender
 heredity
 age
• Lactate Inflection Point (Onset of Blood Lactate Accumulation):
o variability of Lactate Inflection Point (LIP) as a percentage of VO maximum and maximum heart
rate
o improving your Lactate Inflection Point (LIP)
o buffering
o LIP and VO Max

1.3 Effects of Training

• Acute Responses (immediate effects) of exercise:
o cardiovascular responses to exercise
o respiratory responses to exercise
o muscular responses to exercise
• Chronic Circulorespiratory Adaptations (long term effects) of exercise may be observed:
o at rest
o during submaximal exercise
o during maximum exercise
• Chronic Muscular Adaptations (long term effects) of exercise as a result of:
o endurance training
o non-endurance (anaerobic and resistance) training

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 1.1 Energy & Energy Systems
In this unit, we will look at how the human body is provided with energy to enable
performance. We will be looking at answering the following general questions…..

What is “energy”?
How is it produced?
How is energy replenished?
How does the body utilise energy?

It is important to understand that although we will consider each of the three energy systems
separately, they all work together, at the same time to meet the energy demands of the body.

 Energy

Energy can be defined as the capacity or ability to perform work.

All energy for body functions comes from the breakdown of the chemical, ATP (adenosine
triphosphate).

_____________________The below diagram and information is not examinable_____________

______________________________________________________________________________

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It is the role of the body’s energy systems to ensure the supply of ATP. There are 3 energy
systems, and they can be categorised as aerobic (requiring oxygen) or anaerobic (does not
require oxygen).

Fig 11.5 (Amezdroz et.al. 2010 p.204)

Fig.11.5 (Amezdroz et.al. 2010 p.204)

 Role of ATP

ATP is a chemical that serves as the immediate source of energy for most of the energy-
consuming reactions of the body, most notably for muscle contraction; but also for things
such as nerve conduction; building and repairing muscle tissue; processing and digesting
food, and; the production of hormones.

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STRUCTURE & BONDING

ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE
• Is made up of adenosine and three phosphates
• The phosphates are linked to adenosine by high energy bonds
• The high energy bond contains energy that when released (by enzymic action) powers
muscular contraction etc. This is called ATP Splitting.

Below is a simple diagram of ATP.

When the ATP releases energy for muscle contraction etc it gets split, producing ADP
(Adenosine diphosphate) and a free phosphate.

ATP SPLITTING
ATP has three phosphate bonds, when broken off they release energy. The bond between the
second and third phosphates is broken when electrical nerve impulses from the brain cause
an enzyme to be released. When one phosphate is broken off the molecule we are left with
adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and Pi (an inorganic phosphate). Thus when energy is needed
the ATP splits to release energy.
ATP => ADP + Pi

Our muscles only store limited ATP, and when energy is needed we must be able to create our
own through the three energy systems. Depending on the intensity and duration of exercise,
the substrate used in the re-generation of ADP to ATP can be: phosphocreatine (PCr); glucose;
glycogen; lactic acid (LA); fat or protein.

Our body usually creates energy (ATP) in one of two states; when at rest or during exercise.

The function of the energy systems is to re-attach the free phosphate back onto the ADP thus
replenishing ATP stores to provide energy for “work” eg- muscle contraction etc.

ATP –ADP cycle and energy flow

ATP STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION

ATP stores are already present in the muscles and can be used to power contractions for
approximately 2 seconds. After this is used up, we begin to produce ATP through the energy
systems.

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  Energy Sources to replenish ATP
(Sources, Storage & Transportation)

The energy required to replenish ATP ultimately comes from food.

CREATINE PHOSPHATE (CP, PC, PCr)

• Creatine phosphate is a molecule similar in function to ATP in that it is a chemical that
splits, releasing energy. The energy is used for the reaction: ADP + P → ATP.
• There are stores of creatine phosphate within muscle cells (and brain cells).
• Approximately half of the creatine is synthesised by the body (in the liver, kidneys &
pancreas) and half comes from dietary intake of animal muscle (meat & fish). Some
athletes also use creatine supplements in their diet.

There are a number of acceptable short hand versions to represent creatine phosphate.
These include CP, PC (phosphocreatine) and PCr.

There will be more detail regarding creatine phosphate will be covered in the topic:
Phosphagen System

References: (UMMC 2011), (AIS 2011)

FUELS (food).
Or body needs fuel to help generate most of our ATP. The fuels used to make ATP are
carbohydrates (CHO’s), fats and proteins taken in from our diet.

CARBOHYDRATES (CHO’s)
• Carbohydrates include sugars and starches and may be simple or complex (based on the
number of sugars in the molecule)
• Dietary sources of carbohydrates include:
o Simple: glucose, confectionary, sugars in fruit, dairy & vegetables.
o Complex: starch, grains, bread, legumes, starchy vegetables
• Transportation: Carbohydrates are broken down by the digestive system into glucose for
transportation in the blood to all cells, including muscle and liver. Glucose is also
released from the liver into the blood to maintain blood glucose levels and allow for
transportation of glucose to all cells in the body (including to muscle during exercise).
• Storage: Some glucose is stored in the blood. Some glucose is stored as glycogen in
muscles and liver. Glycogen is then then used to power ATP production in both Anaerobic
(using LA system) and Oxygen (aerobic) systems. Excess glucose is converted to fat,
which is stored in adipose (fat) tissue.
• Carbohydrates are given a glycaemic index (GI) value. This indicates how quickly blood
glucose levels rise after consumption of a carbohydrate. Foods are given a GI score out of
100 (a high index indicates that a lot of glucose enters the blood quickly).
o High GI foods (GI = 79 -100) include: glucose (GI = 100), jelly beans, sports
drinks, white rice, white bread, fruit juice.
o High GI foods are important for ‘instant energy’, particularly during and after an
event.
o Low GI foods (GI = 0 -55) include: lentils, pasta, all bran cereal, apples, milk.
o Low GI foods are important to consume before an event as the slow sustained
glucose release will provide energy for a relatively long time into the event
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Fats, or Lipids
• Fats (Lipids) are extremely high in energy. They are made up triglycerides and free
fatty acids.
• Sources of Fats include:
o Dietary: Oils, butter, margarine, nuts, fatty fish, dairy, avocado, pastry, junk
food, fatty meat.
o Excess carbohydrate can be converted into fat for storage.
• Transportation: Fats are broken down and transported in blood as free fatty acids
(FFA’s)
• Storage: Fats are largely as adipose tissue. Triglycerides are stored in muscles and
liver. FFA’s are stored in the blood.
• Energy from the breakdown of fats is used mainly during rest and periods of low
intensity sub-maximal exercise.

References:
(eteaching), (Amezdroz et.al. 2010,p. 201, Amezdroz et.al. 2010p. 60)

Proteins
• Proteins contain amino acids, essential building blocks of the body. They are needed
for growth and repair. Proteins contribute relatively little to the sources of ATP
production unless in extreme circumstances such as ultra-marathons or during
starvation.
• Sources:
o Dietary: Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, dairy, beans, lentils, cereals, breads
o Other: in extreme circumstances, protein can be released by break down of
body tissues eg- blood plasma, viscera, muscle.
• Transportation: amino acids are transported by the blood to the sites requiring them.
• Storage: Proteins are not ‘stored’ as such, but form part of tissues including muscles
which can be broken down to release the amino acids. Amino acids in the blood can
be used as a fuel source for the aerobic system. Excess amino acids are converted to
fat for storage in adipose tissue.
____________________________The below diagram is not examinable_________________________

Fig 11.4 (Amezdroz et.al. 2010, p.202)

__________________________________________________________ _________________________

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“Hitting the wall”
The experience of “hitting the wall” is also commonly known as “bonking”. During extended
exercise, often marathon running or long distance cycling, the athlete experiences a relatively
sudden fatigue, decrease in power output and the inability to improve power output. This is
known as “hitting the wall”. It happens when liver and muscle glycogen stores become
exhausted and as a result fats (rather than carbohydrates) become the primary fuel source
used by the aerobic system to produce ATP. Oxidation of fat is relatively slow compared to
oxidation of glycogen, thus the production of ATP is slowed. “At the end of 2 hours, the
exerciser can only maintain about 50% of the initial exercise intensity” (McArdle et.al.
2007p.17)

A number of strategies can be put in place to delay exhaustion of glycogen stores; these
include carbohydrate loading and consuming carbohydrates during exercise to maintain a
supply of blood glucose.

Glycogen Sparing
The aerobic system utilises carbohydrate, fats and proteins as fuel sources. Carbohydrates
are the major fuel source used. However, as seen when “hitting the wall” supply is limited
and can limit performance. An adaptation to exercise includes an increased capacity of the
aerobic system to metabolise fats. This means that “at any given exercise intensity, a trained
individual has to rely less on glycogen, thereby ‘sparing’ their glycogen stores.

Glycogen sparing is the process whereby glycogen stores are not used early in an exercise
bout due to the increased ability to use triglycerides to produce energy. This delays depletion
of these stores, and thereby delays the time to exhaustion due to glycogen depletion
(Smyth et. al. 2006p.258) (Harger-Domitrovich etal.2007).

 ATP Production

DURING RESTING CONDITIONS

Demand for energy is low, and heart/breathing rates are low and stable. All energy is
produced aerobically; with approx two thirds coming from the breakdown of fats, and one third
coming from the breakdown of glycogen/glucose. The production of ATP from both sources
occurs in the mitochondria, the bean shaped “powerhouse” located in the muscle cell.

DURING EXERCISE
This covers a broad range of activity, the ATP produced for each determined by a number of
factors:
• The length of time (duration) of the exercise
• How hard you are working (intensity) in the exercise
• How well developed your cardiorespiratory system is (aerobic fitness)
• The degree of recovery in between successive bouts of exercise

If our body could choose, it would produce all energy aerobically (with O2), as this system is
the most efficient and produces no fatiguing by-products. However, due to the time it takes
to get the necessary oxygen into our lungs, then absorbed into the blood and finally carried
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into the working muscles; our body must also make use of two other anaerobic (without O2)
systems, which do not make use of oxygen.

Consequently, the body will generate ATP through using combinations of the three energy
systems:

• The ATP-PC (or Phosphagen) System – through the breakdown of Phosphocreatine

(anaerobic)
• The Lactic Acid (or Anaerobic Glycolytic) System - through the incomplete breakdown of
Glucose ( anaerobic)
• The Aerobic (or Oxygen) System – through the complete breakdown of glucose / fats /
protein ( aerobic)

______The below diagram is not examinable, but may be used to assist/clarify a written description________

Fig 10.13 (a) (Tortora & Grabowski 2003, p.289)

__________________________________________________________________________________

 Phosphagen (ATP–CP or ATP-PC or Alactic System)

With regards to all the energy systems: There is much conjecture and debate surrounding times, and
ongoing research is still being conducted, HOWEVER, for our purposes, the following durations or the time
of most effectiveness are being taught as accurate based on the weight of current understanding.

ATP-PC System – ATP is produced through the breakdown of Phospho-Creatine (PCr), this is an
anaerobic process. It occurs in the muscle cell (not the mitochondria).
Note: the terms phosphocreatines (PCr) and creatine phosphate (CP) can be interchanged
and refer to the same chemical.

Phosphocreatine (PCr), splits, allowing its Pi to join with ADP to quickly synthesize more ATP.
This occurs until PC stores are depleted, in approximately 8 to 10 seconds for most people,
but for slightly longer for elite power athletes.
PCr => Pi + Cr
Pi + ADP = ATP
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CHARACTERISTICS

Characteristic Creatine phosphate system

Metabolism Anaerobic, splitting of CP
Fuel Chemical creatine phosphate
Speed of ATP production Very fast, virtually instant
Quantity of ATP production Very limited, Small amount,

Small amount of ATP production, fuel source

Limitations
is exhausted quickly due to limited CP stores
It is the predominant energy system for the
first 10 seconds of high intensity exercise.
Approximate Duration
Plus the start of submaximal exercise
(depends on training adaptations
Stored ATP: 0—2 seconds
and intensity)
ATP-PC : 2--10 seconds

Intensity High to maximal

Fatigue Very fast fatigue
Speed of muscle contraction Very rapid
Muscle fibre type Fast twitch (Type IIa and Type IIb)
Any short duration, high intensity sport,
eg- elite 100m sprint, 25m swim, weight
lifting, gymnastics vault, volleyball serve,
tennis serve, golf drive, jump shot in
Sporting Examples
basketball, long jump, high jump, athletics
field events eg- javelin, discuss, shot put.
Start of sub-max exercise eg--first 20-30 sec
of marathon running.

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  Lactic Acid System (Anaerobic Glycolysis System)

With regards to all the energy systems: There is much conjecture and debate surrounding times, and
ongoing research is still being conducted, HOWEVER, for our purposes, the following durations or the time
of most effectiveness are being taught as accurate, based on the weight of current understanding.

Lactic Acid System- ATP is produced through the incomplete breakdown of Glucose, in a
process called anaerobic glycolysis, which, as the process suggests, is anaerobic in nature
(not requiring oxygen).

EQUATIONS

Energy from the breakdown of glycogen and glucose into Pyruvic acid is used to produce ATP.

Energy released from the breakdown of glucose into Pyruvic Acid is the second way that
ADP+Pi reforms into ATP. From approx 10-30 seconds, the contribution of the PCr system
diminishes to almost nothing and glycolysis has taken over as the predominant energy
system.

This process uses glycogen (stored carbohydrate) to produce ATP. The glycogen is changed
into a form of glucose and sent through glycolysis. The substance generated at the end of this
cycle is Pyruvic Acid.

Lactic acid accumulation + Hydrogen ions

Normally the pyruvic acid produced is then used by the aerobic system in the mitochondria.
When energy demands are high or oxygen is not available more Pyruvic Acid is produced than
can be used by the aerobic system. The excess pyruvic acid is converted into Lactic acid.
Then, Lactic acid and hydrogen ions accumulate in the muscle cells and blood causing an
increase in acidity, called acidosis, which is often felt as a burning sensation in our muscles.
This reduces the cells ability to resynthesize ATP. The end result of this is that the muscle
fibres stop sliding across each other ceasing muscle action ie- contributor to fatigue.

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Lactate (LA) Clearance (The Fate of Lactic Acid)
Lactic acid is produced by the body all day long. During rest and exercise below the blood
lactate threshold (ie- most of the time) the rate of production equals the rate at which it is
metabolised, and so there is no accumulation.

However, when lactic acid accumulates during exercises, it has a detrimental effect on
exercise performance. Thus it is important to consider the factors which affect its removal
from the blood stream.

The rate at which lactic acid leaves the muscle and enters the blood stream (as blood lactate)
is determined by the rate at which blood flows through the tissues.

Lactic acid may be taken up by the heart and other skeletal muscle and converted back into
Pyruvic acid and further metabolised in order to generate energy in the form of ATP.

The fate of the remaining Lactic Acid is summarised in the table below:

Fate of the Lactic Acid

65% is oxidised to form carbon dioxide and water.

20% is converted back into glucose by the liver. This is

returned to the liver and muscles to be stored as glycogen.

10% is converted in the liver to form protein.

5% is converted into glucose.

After the completion of an exercise session one has the option of employing an Active or
Passive recovery mode (see recovery section). If lactic acid accumulates during high intensity
exercise there is a distinct advantage in employing an active recovery because the blood flow,
and therefore the lactic acid dispersal from the muscle, is greater than that during a passive
recovery. Furthermore, the rate at which lactic acid is utilised as an energy source by the
heart and skeletal muscle is greater during low intensity exercise than at rest.

Therefore, Lactic acid is NOT:

• responsible for (but is a pre-cursor to) the burn in the leg muscles when exercising very
fast
• responsible for the soreness you experience in the 48 hours following a hard session
(DOMS)
• a waste product
* See Recovery for more information

CHARACTERISTICS
The LA system provides ATP for high intensity activities such as sprints that take up to
approximately 2 minutes. The duration of most effectiveness occurs during the first minute of
this time period. After about 3 minutes of activity, another system (the aerobic or oxygen
system) takes over as the predominant energy system.

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 Characteristic Lactic acid system
Metabolism Anaerobic incomplete breakdown of glucose
Fuel Glycogen into glucose
Speed of ATP production Rapid
Quantity of ATP production Limited
Produces Lactic acid and hydrogen ions,
Limitations
which causes muscle fatigue.
Approximate Duration
Used for high intensity activities that can
(depends on training adaptations
take up to approximately 2 minutes.
and intensity)
Intensity High intensity
Lactic Acid,
By-products
Hydrogen ions (H+ causes fatigue)
Fatigue Fast Fatigue
Speed of muscle contraction Rapid
Muscle fibre type Fast twitch (Type IIa & Type IIb)
400m sprint, 100m swim, 500m Kayak,
quadriceps in downhill skiing repeated high
Sporting Examples intensity bursts during team games, eg-
netball, football, squash, basketball, hockey,
water polo or gymnastics routine etc

References include: (McArdle et.al. 2007, p.150), (Smyth et. al. 2006, p.72) (eTeaching)

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  Aerobic System (Oxygen System)

With regards to all the energy systems: There is much conjecture and debate surrounding times, and
ongoing research is still being conducted, HOWEVER, for our purposes, the following durations or the time
of most effectiveness are being taught as accurate based on the weight of current understanding.

The aerobic system produces a LOT of energy. It uses oxygen to drive the complete
breakdown of glucose / fats / protein, using the processes of glycolysis/lipolysis + Krebs Cycle
+ Electron Transport System. This process is aerobic and occurs in the mitochondria. The
aerobic system produces the most energy of the three systems.

When carbohydrates are used as the fuel for the aerobic system, the processes is called
Aerobic Glycolysis. Aerobic indicates that oxygen is required; Glycolysis refers to the
splitting/breakdown of glycogen and glucose. The breakdown of fats by the aerobic system to
produce energy is called lipolysis. (Lipo= fat; Lysis = breakdown)

BASIC EQUATIONS
The diagram below shows the pathway of the breakdown of Glycogen, fats and protein to
create energy aerobically.

____________________________________The below diagram is not to be examined___________________

Fig 2.12 (Smyth et.al. 2006,p.71)

_______________________________________________________________________________

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There are a number of diagrams that can be used to highlight the equations. Students need to become
familiar and understand the processes involved. The below equations are for the Aerobic system:

Adapted (the figure has been altered to include the by-products) from Fig 2.11, (Smyth et. al. 2006p.70)

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Reference: Nelson Physical Education, VCE Units 3 & 4, 4th Ed, Robert Malpeli, Margaret Horton, Glenn
Davey, Amanda Telford, Nelson Australia, 2006 ISBN 0 17 010181 6

The diagram Fig 2.11 shows a basic flow chart of how the aerobic system works. It is also
described below.
Notice that:
• The first steps for glycogen and glucose are the same as for the LA system.
• Fats and Proteins can also be used as a fuel source.
• Oxygen is required.
• By-products are produced, but these are non-fatiguing

Stage 1: Anaerobic Glycolysis

• Occurs in the muscle cell.
• This only occurs when carbohydrates are used as the fuel.
• Glycogen is broken down into glucose, which is then broken down into pyruvic acid,
releasing a small amount ATP.
• This is anaerobic glycolysis (identical to LA system)
• Pyruvic acid moves to the next stage.

When fats are used as the fuel source, this stage is referred to as lipolysis. This occurs when
triglycerides are broken down to fatty acids which enter the Krebs Cycle in the mitochondria.
This process is also anaerobic.
(Vanderkooi, 2014)

Stage 2: Krebs Cycle (aka. Citric acid cycle or TCA cycle).

• Occurs within the mitochondria.
• Fuel and oxygen enter the Krebs cycle.
• Pyruvic acid (carbohydrate), fatty acids or proteins can be used as the fuel in this
stage.
• Oxygen combines with carbons, producing CO2 as a by-product.
o The CO2 diffuses into the blood and is carried away to the lungs and eliminated.
• Some ATP is produced
• Hydrogen ions are produced, these move to the next stage

Stage 3: Electron Transport Chain

• Occurs within the mitochondria.
• Hydrogen and Oxygen mix to form water.
• Heat and water are produced as a by-product
o Water diffuses into tissues and blood, and may be sweated or urinated out or
breathed out as water vapour.
o The heat is transferred into surrounding tissue, including blood. As body
temperature rises, blood gets re-directed to the skin where the heat can
escape.
• A large amount of ATP is produced.
• At the end of these reactions, the glucose has been completely metabolised.

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Fate of the by-products - When the body is at rest
When the body is at rest or during low intensity sub-maximal exercise, the demand for ATP is
low and it is produced aerobically. The by-products are usually easily removed. (The removal
of heat and water through sweat can be compromised in conditions of high temperature
and/or humidity!)

(Amezdroz et.al. 2006, p.242)

The energy for ATP resynthesis comes primarily from two fuel sources:
• 1 Fats approx. 2/3
• 2 Carbohydrates approx. 1/3

At such times, this process is very efficient. Much more energy is produced than from the LA
system or ATP-CP system. Fats produce about 12 times more ATP energy than carbohydrates.
This can be expressed diagrammatically in the following manner:

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CHARACTERISTICS

Characteristic Aerobic system

Metabolism Aerobic, complete breakdown of fuels.
Fuel Carbohydrates, fats, proteins
Speed of ATP production Slow
Quantity of ATP production Limited only by amount of fuel stores

- Requires sufficient oxygen and fuel, and so

takes a little while before it will work at full
capacity.
Limitations
- It cannot supply sufficient ATP for very high
intensity exercise.

Approximate Duration 3 - 5 minutes onwards

(depends on training adaptations (Note it can be the predominant energy
and intensity) source from 30 seconds into exercise)
Intensity Sub-maximal
By-products CO2, H2O, heat (non-fatiguing)
Fatigue Slow
Speed of muscle contraction Slow
Oxygen required Yes
Slow twitch (Type I)
Muscle fibre type Fast twitch (Type IIa)

Any continuous submaximal exercise, eg

Marathon, cross country skiing, triathlon,
2000m rowing, road cycling, motor sports, ,
Sporting Examples sailing, AFL midfield, 1500m swimming,
biathlon.
Also very low intensity sports – Archery,
shooting

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 Summary of characteristics of the three energy systems
Characteristic ATP-PC Lactic acid Aerobic
Anaerobic incomplete breakdown of
Metabolism Anaerobic, splitting of CP Aerobic, complete breakdown of fuels.
glucose
Fuel Chemical creatine phosphate Glycogen into glucose Carbohydrates, fats, proteins
Speed of ATP
Very fast, virtually instant Rapid Slow
production
Quantity of ATP
Very limited, Small amount, Limited Limited only by amount of fuel stores
production
- Requires sufficient oxygen and fuel, and so takes a
Small amount of ATP production, fuel source Produces Lactic acid and hydrogen ions, little while before it will work at full capacity.
Limitations
is exhausted quickly due to limited CP stores which causes muscle fatigue. - It cannot supply sufficient ATP for very high intensity
exercise.
- It is the predominant energy system for the
Approximate Duration
first 10 seconds of high intensity exercise. -- - Used for high intensity activities that 3 - 5 minutes onwards
(depends on training
Plus the start of submaximal exercise can take up to approximately 2 minutes. (Note it can be the predominant energy source from
adaptations and
Stored ATP: 0—2 seconds 30 seconds into exercise)
intensity)
ATP-PC : 2--10 seconds
Intensity High to maximal High intensity Sub-maximal
Lactic Acid,
By-products NA CO2, H2O, heat (non-fatiguing)
Hydrogen ions (H+ causes fatigue)
Fatigue Very fast fatigue Fast Fatigue Slow
Speed of muscle
Very Rapid Rapid Slow
contraction
Oxygen required No No Yes
Slow twitch (Type I)
Muscle fibre type Fast twitch (Type IIa and Type IIb) Fast twitch (Type IIa & Type IIb)
Fast twitch (Type IIa)
Any short duration, high intensity sport,
eg- elite 100m sprint, 25m swim, weight 400m sprint, 100m swim, 500m Kayak,
Any continuous submaximal exercise, eg Marathon,
lifting, gymnastics vault, volleyball serve, quadriceps in downhill skiing repeated
cross country skiing, triathlon, 2000m rowing, road
tennis serve, golf drive, jumpshot in high intensity bursts during team
Sporting Examples cycling, motor sports, , sailing, AFL midfield, 1500m
basketball, long jump, high jump, athletics games, eg- netball, football, squash,
swimming, biathlon.
field events eg- javelin, discuss, shot put. Start basketball, hockey, water polo or
Also very low intensity sports – Archery, shooting
of sub-max exercise eg--first 20-30 sec of gymnastics routine etc
marathon running.

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  Oxygen transport in muscles: role of Myoglobin

Myoglobin is a protein that binds oxygen, similar to haemoglobin. It aids delivery of oxygen to
the mitochondria.

In order to function, the aerobic system requires oxygen. Oxygen is transported on

haemoglobin in blood to the capillary beds of the muscle where it is released and diffuses into
the muscle cells.

The main function of myoglobin is in aiding the delivery (diffusion) of oxygen from cell
membrane to the mitochondria where it is consumed. Myoglobin acts as a store for oxygen
within muscle cells.

The oxygen bound to myoglobin is released when oxygen diffusion from the blood is too slow
to meet demands.

Myoglobin stores tend to get reduced more readily during intermittent rather than continuous
exercise.

Oxygen released from myoglobin for consumption must be replaced at some time. This
occurs if supply of O2 to the muscle exceeds demand and during recovery after exercise,
during the first part of the EPOC (more details in the recovery section).

References include (McArdle et.al. 2007 pp.286-288)

 Energy Continuum: Interplay of the different energy systems

Contribution of energy systems - variables.

When determining the predominant energy system, and/or the overall contributions of the
three energy systems, for a given sport or activity, there are a number of factors which need to
be considered.

Rarely does a sport or event rely 100% on a specific energy system for its energy needs. The
reality is that there is an ongoing and continual interplay between ALL three energy systems,
based upon a range of factors. The major factors are:
• Intensity and
• Duration of physical activity which is being undertaken, and
• The aerobic fitness of the individual involved.

As mentioned above, the contributions from each system do not “switch” on and off like a
light; the transition between systems is much more gradual in nature.

NOTE: Research over the years has shown that the aerobic system provides a greater
percentage of the energy contribution, and earlier on, than previously thought. The aerobic
21
system for aerobically fit athletes can be the predominant energy source from as early as 30
seconds into activity. See below for the influence of aerobic fitness in this phenomenon.

The graph below illustrates the concept of the energy continuum.

Fig 2.7 (Smyth et.al. 2006 p.66)

As the intensity increases, the influence of anaerobic systems (ATP and LA) increases (and
vice versa) and as the duration increases, there is a greater reliance on the aerobic system.

NOTE: Different sources quote varying % contributions of each energy system for a range of
sporting activities. This is especially understandable in team sports, as no two players of a
midfield position, in soccer, for example, will use exactly the same energy sources every game
– it will be affected by a number of variables.

• Aerobic fitness
Aerobic fitness will influence which energy system is the predominant producer of ATP, as well
as the overall % contribution of each energy system. As aerobic fitness increases, the body is
better able to activate the aerobic system due to increased efficiency of O2 delivery and there
are more of the enzymes and molecules needed for aerobic respiration. The higher the
aerobic fitness of an athlete, the earlier that the aerobic system will be the dominant source
of ATP production. It also means an athlete will rely less on their LA system, as they can work
aerobically at a higher intensity for longer, and recover quicker between successive bouts
using the Phosphagen system.
(section 1.4 will contain more information on effects of increased fitness)

• Fat adapted vs Glycogen adapted metabolism

Recent research suggests that metabolic adaptation can occur through manipulation of diet.
Specifically, athletes who consume a diet high in fats and low in carbohydrates (as opposed to
a traditional high carbohydrate/low fat diet) are able to attain significantly higher rates of fat
oxidation during submaximal exercise, and they have a greater capacity to oxidize fats at a
higher exercise intensity.

Likewise, an athlete who consumes a diet high in carbohydrates and low in fats will adapt to
metabolise carbohydrates more readily during submaximal exercise.

22
The graphs below illustrate the contribution of fats and carbohydrates in athletes who have fat
adapted vs glycogen adapted metabolisms (achieved through high fat/low carbohydrate and
high carbohydrate/low fat diets respectively).

____________________________Graph is not examinable_____________________________

(Volek, et al., 2016)

_______________________________________________________________________________

23
  Muscle Fibre Types: Slow (Type I) and Fast (Type IIa and Type IIb)

Skeletal muscles consist of two main fibre types –slow twitch (Type I) and fast twitch (Type IIa
and Type IIb). Slow twitch muscle fibres are suited to endurance exercise, where as fast
twitch are suited to high intensity short duration exercise. Every muscle contains a mixture of
the different fibre types. Proportions of fibre types are different between individuals and
between different muscles of within and individual.

Students are required to be able to explain the following characteristics:

Slow-Twitch Fast-Twitch, Fast-Twitch,

Characteristics
Type I Type IIa Type IIb
White/red White
Colour Red
(pink) (pale)
Possess partially Possess purely
Characteristics Purely aerobic
aerobic anaerobic
(Aerobic/Anaerobic) characteristics
characteristics characteristics
Speed of action Slow Fast Fast
Force production Low Intermediate High

Resistance to fatigue High Moderate/High Low

Fibre diameter Small Intermediate Large

Capillary supply High Intermediate Low
Number of
High Intermediate Low
Mitochondria
Glycolytic Capacity Low High High
(ability to use LA system)

Oxidative Capacity High Medium/High Low

(ability to use aerobic system)

Size of motor nerve Small Large Very Large

Major storage fuel Triglycerides CP, Glycogen CP, Glycogen
Location where fibres Postural muscles –
Leg muscles Arm muscles
are abundant eg back and neck
Maintain posture & Rapid intense
Primary functions of Walking,
aerobic endurance movements of
fibres Sprinting
activities short duration

References include:
(Mackenzie 1999) (McArdle et.al. 2007383) (Tortora & Grabowski 2003 p.296)

24
 1.2 Oxygen Delivery
Relevant Terms

HEART RATE
When we exercise, there is an increased demand for fuels and oxygen by working muscles
and also a resultant increase in the need to remove waste products, which are also being
produced at faster rates. These include carbon dioxide, hydrogen ions and lactate. As a
result, the heart needs to pump faster and/or harder in order to increase the supply of blood
and the elements it carries (oxygen and fuels) to working muscles, as well as increasing waste
removal.

- Heart Rate is measured in Beats per Minute (BPM) eg. 93 BPM

- Working out your theoretical Effective Maximum Heart Rate (MHR) is done by
calculating:

Effective Maximum Heart Rate (MHR) = 220 minus your age.

- Max HR may vary due to differences in individuals, including by gender, age, activity,
training history (https://www.brianmac.co.uk/maxhr.htm)
- You can then calculate % of max HR for prescribing training intensity

STROKE VOLUME
Stroke Volume is a measure of how much blood is squeezed out of the heart into the aorta
each time it beats

CARDIAC OUTPUT
Cardiac Output is the amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle of the heart per
minute.

Cardiac Output (Q) = Stroke Volume (SV) x Heart Rate (HR)

Q = SV x HR

BLOOD PRESSURE
Blood pressure is usually measured by an instrument called a sphygmomanometer. Blood
pressure is recorded using two numbers. An example might be 120/80. The larger number
indicates the pressure in the arteries as the heart squeezes out blood during each beat. It is
called systolic blood pressure. The lower number indicates the pressure as the heart relaxes
before the next beat. It is called the diastolic blood pressure.

BP varies depending upon:

1. Gender – females have lower BP than males
2. Age – BP tends to increase with age due to inactivity and overweight and blood vessel
deterioration
3. Exercise – Increases systolic (much more than diastolic) BP

25
 4. Excitement and stress – both cause BP to rise
5. Diet – increases with high salt intake
(https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/blood-pressure)

BLOOD REDISTRIBUTION
Blood tends to flow to tissues and cells in proportion to their level of activity. Specific
increases occur in blood supply to parts of the body that require extra supplies of oxygen and
fuels to support increased workloads. Specific decreases occur in blood supply to those parts
of the body not requiring extra oxygen and fuel for that period of time. For example, during
intense exercise, extra blood flows to the muscles to provide extra oxygen and nutrients.

RESPIRATORY RATE
Number of Breaths per minute

TIDAL VOLUME
The amount of air inhaled and exhaled per breath

PULMONARY/MINUTE VENTILATION
The volume of air moved into and out of the respiratory tract each minute.

Minute Ventilation (VE) = Respiratory Rate (RR) X Tidal Volume (TV)

GAS EXCHANGE
Gas Exchange occurs at the lungs as well as the muscles/tissues and, in both cases, happens
passively following diffusion gradients:

Pulmonary diffusion essentially sees the replenishment of oxygen in the pulmonary capillaries
and the removal of carbon dioxide from these same vessels. – a two way exchange of gases!
This gaseous exchange occurs between the air of the alveoli, through the respiratory
membrane to the blood of the pulmonary capillaries.

This gas exchange also occurs at the muscles.

ARTERIOVENOUS OXYGEN DIFFERENCE (a-VO2 DIFF.)

The arteriovenous oxygen difference (a-VO2 diff.) is an indication of the difference in oxygen
concentration between arterial and venous blood.

 Gases in the blood –

o 2 gases are involved – Oxygen (O2) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
o There are 2 regions for exchange of gases. At the alveoli (external respiration)
and at the muscle fibres (internal respiration)
o Gases move across membranes along concentration gradients from regions of
high to low concentration.

26
Reference: McPartland, Pree, Malpeli, Telford (2010), Nelson Physical Education Studies For
WA, Cengage Learning Australia. South Melbourne, Australia. (pages 197-202)

 Oxygen Deficit

The concept of Oxygen Deficit is best understood from the standpoint that, whenever possible,
the body would prefer to supply all its energy aerobically. At times when it is NOT able to do
this, it will enter into O2 Deficit, which can be explained as the situation that arises when we
move from rest to exercise and do not give our respiratory, circulatory and cardiovascular
systems sufficient time to be able to supply the energy demands of the body, therefore other
(anaerobic) energy sources are tapped to supply the ATP for performance.

It is important to understand that the O2 Deficit is just the difference between the amount of
oxygen required for the task, had all the energy been supplied aerobically, and the amount the
body was able to supply, up until the point where our body can reach a steady state.

A suitable definition for Oxygen Deficit would be: “The amount of energy which has to be
supplied by anaerobic metabolic processes in the early minutes following the start of exercise
due to the slow increase in O2 uptake.” Peak Performance - Number 245

27
 (Reference: Nelson Physical Education VCE Units 3 & 4, 4th Ed’n)

 Aerobic Steady State

The aerobic steady state is reached once there is a balance between the amount of energy
needed for activity and the amount of energy being supplied aerobically by the body. It is
signified on a graph of either heart rate or respiration rate as a plateau, or flat line.
Once you start exercising, oxygen consumption increases exponentially until we reach steady
state. How long it takes to achieve an aerobic steady state depends on how aerobically fit you
are.

Elite endurance athletes have been known to achieve one in 40-60 seconds, whereas the
average for healthy untrained subjects is closer to 3 minutes (not examinable) (“Oxygen
kinetics — a start smart for a mean finish!”; Peak Performance - Number 245) . An athlete
can achieve an aerobic steady state at any point within their aerobic training zone; which is
varyingly defined as being anywhere between 60-85% of MHR, although it is considered by
many to be most effective in the 65-75% MHR region, where a person can still carry on a
conversation (http://www.cycling-inform.com/heart-rate-training/73-how-to-use-heart-rate-
monitor-and-zones-to-improve-your-cycling ).

When an athlete moves from one steady state to another, within their aerobic training zone
(by increasing their exercise intensity), the anaerobic systems (typically the lactic acid system),
supplies the extra ATP required until the oxygen system is back in balance at the higher
intensity (increasing the total oxygen deficit).

28
  VO2 & VO2 Max

Aerobic power, aerobic capacity and maximal oxygen uptake are all terms used
interchangeably with VO2 max.
The body’s ability to consume and utilize oxygen for the production of energy is referred to as
our oxygen uptake (VO2). It is determined and affected by a number of factors, all of which
impact equally on our VO2 Max, and will be discussed later.

VO2 max can be defined as:

"The highest rate of oxygen consumption attainable during maximal or exhaustive exercise"
(Wilmore JH & Costill DL. (2005) Physiology of Sport and Exercise: 3rd Edition. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics).

ABSOLUTE & RELATIVE VO2 MAX. (including making calculations)

In absolute terms, VO2 Max is expressed in litres per minute (L/Min). However, such a figure
does not take into account the differences in body size. Is it fair to compare how much oxygen
a 150cm person weighing 50kg consumes per minute, with that of a 200cm person weighing
110kg?? Consequently, we more commonly refer to relative VO2 Max figures which take body
size into account by simply diving the persons’ absolute reading by their weight, and by using
millilitres (mL/kg/min) instead of litres.

Eg (1) Sedentary male - 80kg

Absolute VO2 Max = 3 litres / min (3000 millilitres)

Relative VO2 Max = 3000

80 = 37.5 mL/kg/min

Eg (2) Elite marathon runner – 70kg

Absolute VO2 Max = 6 litres / min (6000 millilitres)

Relative VO2 Max = 6000

70 = 85.7 mL/kg/min

- In relation to athletes in different sports and fitness levels

Like many things, people like to use quantifiable figures to equate with success. However, for
a variety of reasons, VO2 should be viewed more as an indicator of a person's aerobic
potential or capacity, rather than as a way of predicting success in endurance events. Athletes
with some of the highest VO2 Max’s do not win events and athletes that do win events are
often competing against those with higher VO2 Max’s.

Comparison in typical novice (non-athletes) and high performance athletes; reflecting the
differing demands of different sports/activities:
A basic knowledge and understanding which reflects these differences should be known!

29
(Table from Wilmore JH & Costill DL. (2005) Physiology of Sport and Exercise: 3rd Edition.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics).

30
 (from Davis, Kimmet, Ackerly & McAree (1999), VCE Physical Education, 3rd Ed, p87,
MacMillan, Australia)

IN RELATION TO FITNESS TESTING

Aerobic tests to exhaustion usually last at least 5 – 10 minutes and your VO2 Max is
measured during the final stages of whole body exercise (near exhaustion). Accurate testing
of maximum oxygen uptake requires expensive machinery and gas analysis equipment. For
this reason, several predictive testing standards have been formulated. A shuttle run (aka-
Beep Test) result, for example can be translated into a VO2 Max prediction. For a series of
tests which can measure or predict VO2 Max, see either
http://www.brianmac.co.uk/vo2max.htm or
http://www.topendsports.com/testing/aerobic.htm

FACTORS THAT AFFECT AN INDIVIDUAL’S VO2 MAX

• Aerobic Fitness – as a result of aerobic training, a number of chronic adaptations will occur
(see topic 1.4), which will enhance the ability of the body to take in, transport and utilize
oxygen more efficiently. Consequently, the better your aerobic fitness the better your VO2
Max.(see tables above for sample figures)

• Body Size - VO2 max is usually expressed relative to bodyweight (see notes above) because
oxygen and energy needs differ relative to size. It can also be expressed relative to body
31
 surface area and this may be a more accurate when comparing children and oxygen
uptake between sexes
• Gender – even with similar training regimes, women tend to have lower VO2 Max scores
than men, mainly due to having less muscle mass and more fat stores.

• Heredity – all people can improve their VO2 Max with training, but the extent to which they
can improve is genetically determined. The highest ever recorded VO2 max is 97.5
ml/kg/min in men and 78.6 ml/kg/min in women (not examinable).

• Age - In untrained sedentary individuals, their VO2 Max can peak as early as 10 years for
girls and 16 years for boys! However, the peak for trained endurance athletes may not be
achieved until mid to late 20’s or into the 30’s. VO2 Max declines most rapidly after the
age of approximately 50 years. This is due to decreases in cardio-respiratory efficiency,
muscle mass and increases in body fat. However, VO2 max is always higher in active
people, and the rate of decline is slower in active people of all ages.

32
_____________________________The below figures are not examinable_____________________________

1 2

Fig 1 – from Amezdroz, Dickens, Hosford, Stewart & Davis (2010), Queensland Senior
Physical Education, 3rd Ed. Australia, Macmillan Education Australia

Fig 2 – from
http://www.opportunityfitness.com.au/aerobic_fitness__vo2_max_and_disease_prevention

________________________________________________________________________________________

LACTATE INFLECTION POINT (ONSET OF BLOOD LACTATE ACCUMULATION)

There are many terms used to describe the changes in blood lactate concentration that occur
with increasing exercise intensity. In addition to the term lactate inflection point (LIP), which
will be the term of choice is this course, sports scientists, coaches and athletes also use the
following expressions to represent an athlete’s highest steady state intensity: lactate
transition point (Australian standard used by sports scientists working in the institute system),
anaerobic threshold, lactate threshold, individual anaerobic threshold (IAT), maximal lactate
steady state (MLSS), and the onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA).

The graph below taken from a VCE PE student activity performed in the ERA lab identifies the
highest steady-state (or aerobic) intensity the student could perform as determined by their
Lactate Inflection Point (LIP). Using the results from a VO2max plus blood lactate test, this
point is identified by an inflection in blood lactate concentration that exponentially rises
thereafter with increasing exercise intensity. It is generally accepted that LIP values will occur
around a blood lactate concentration of 4 mM, however, this value will vary between
individuals of different aerobic fitness.

33
The intensity that coincides with LIP signals a marked increase in the rate of carbohydrate
metabolism to meet the new ATP demands. It is important for teachers to understand that LIP
represents the highest steady-state exercise intensity (i.e. lactate production = lactate
removal) an individual can perform for a longer duration (i.e. 30 min to 2 hours). The running
speed or cycling power output that LIP occurs at will vary greatly with the aerobic fitness level
of an individual and therefore change with the type of training performed.
For example it is this point that is most relevant to moderate-high intensity running events
such as 5 and 10 km distance races. However, if you happen to be a world class marathon
runner, LIP will also represent the intensity you are able to sustain throughout your race.

An individual’s LIP value will vary depending on the person’s fitness, the environmental
conditions, the nutritional status, genetics, type of training and the intensity of the exercise.
The LIP is a much better indicator of performance in endurance activities than VO2 Max, and
is also much more highly trainable than VO2 Max.
(Notes adapted from: https://www.achper.vic.edu.au/documents/item/292)

The LIP establishes the exercise intensity beyond which a given exercise intensity or power
output cannot be maintained. Exercise intensities beyond the LIP are associated with a
shortened time to exhaustion - the higher the exercise intensity beyond the LIP, the more
rapid the onset of fatigue. This decreased time to exhaustion is mainly associated with the
accumulation of the by-products of anaerobic metabolism, namely lactate and hydrogen ions.
(Notes taken and adapted from http://www.jaconline.com.au/liveitup/book2.htm
Web Supplements section, p 75)

VARIABILITY OF LIP AS A % OF VO2 MAXIMUM (VO2 MAX) AND MAXIMUM HEART RATE (HMR)

There is a wide range of figures which are used to equate the LIP with both % VO2 Max and
%MHR; as it is so widely dependent on the individual, no single value is considered accurate.

For the untrained athlete the range of values for LIP is:
- 55-70% of MHR, with an average value at around 60% MHR
- 40 -70% of VO2 Max, with an average value at around 50-60% of VO2 Max
34
 For the trained athlete the range of values for LIP is:
- Up to or in excess of 90% MHR
- 70–95% of VO2 Max, though usually in the range of 70-80% VO2 Max

Thus a trained athlete may exercise at a greater intensity, for longer periods of time,
before fatigue causes negative effects their performance. This can be interrelated to
both Psych and Skill aspects.

IMPROVING YOUR LACTATE THRESHOLD (LIP)

There is general consensus that there are two main ways to improve your LIP through training.
Both involve working at or just over the intensity needed to reach your LIP. One method
involves intermittent training, the other involves continuous training. Eg’s of sample programs
are:
• Interval LIP Training
Sample Plan: Twice a week perform three to five 10 minute high effort intervals at 95-
105% of your LIP heart rate with three minutes of rest between intervals.

• Continuous LIP Training

Sample Plan: Twice a week perform one 20-30 minute high intensity effort at 95-105
% of your LIP heart rate.

BUFFERING
The increased performance after LIP training results from educating the body’s buffering
mechanism (alkaline-hence the use of bi-carb of soda as an ergo aid for LA athletes) in more
effectively using lactate to assist in buffering/neutralizing , and in the removal of H+ ions from
the contractile muscle environment into the bloodstream, enabling the muscles to continue
working for longer periods without the “burn” or heaviness associated with decreasing pH
levels generated through high intensity exercise.

35
1.3 Effects of Training

Training effects are the physiological changes your body makes in response to the demands
of exercise.

There are 2 kinds of responses:

- Acute responses (immediate): only last for the duration of the exercise and consider
cardiovascular, respiratory and muscular responses.

- Chronic adaptations (long-term effects): take a minimum of 6 weeks of training to

develop. Circulorespiratory effects can be observed at rest, during submaximal
exercise and during maximum exercise. Muscular adaptations will vary and depend on
what type of training is being performed ie aerobic v anaerobic.

 Acute Responses (immediate effects) of exercise

Acute responses to exercise are those changes which occur in the body between rest and
exercise and only last for the duration of the exercise.

The following acute responses occur due to the working muscles need for oxygen during
exercise. Please refer to section 1.2 for explanation of these terms.

CARDIOVASCULAR RESPONSES TO EXERCISE:

• Increased Heart Rate (HR)
When we exercise, there is an increased demand for fuels and oxygen by working
muscles and also a resultant increase in the need to remove waste products, which
are also being produced at faster rates. These include carbon dioxide, hydrogen ions
and lactate. As a result, the heart needs to pump faster and/or harder in order to
increase the supply of blood and the elements it carries (oxygen and fuels) to working
muscles, as well as increasing waste removal.

- Heart Rate is measured in Beats per Minute (BPM) eg. 93 BPM

- Working out your Effective Maximum Heart Rate (MHR) is done by calculating:

Effective Maximum Heart Rate (MHR) = 220 minus your age.

- You can then calculate % of max HR.

• Increased Stroke Volume (SV)

Stroke Volume is a measure of how much blood is squeezed out of the heart into the
aorta each time it beats. When you exercise, your heart muscle contracts more
forcefully to increase blood (and hence oxygen) supply to your muscles. This causes a
36
 more complete emptying of your ventricles, so your stroke volume increases (Amezdroz
et al, 2010 p 390).

• Increased Cardiac Output (Q)

Cardiac Output is the amount of blood pumped out of the heart per minute. When you
begin to exercise, your cardiac output increases in an effort to increase the blood
supply (and hence oxygen delivery) to your working muscles. If you exercise at a
submaximal level your cardiac output will eventually level out (steady state). However,
if you keep increasing the pace, cardiac output will increase linearly up to the point of
exhaustion (Amezdroz et al, 2010 p 390).

Cardiac Output (Q) = Stroke Volume (SV) x Heart Rate (HR)

Q = SV x HR

• Increased Systolic Blood Pressure

Blood pressure is usually measured by an instrument called a sphygmomanometer.
Blood pressure is recorded using two numbers. An example might be 120/80 mmHg.
The larger number indicates the pressure in the arteries as the heart squeezes out
blood during each beat. It is called systolic blood pressure. The lower number
indicates the pressure as the heart relaxes before the next beat. It is called the
diastolic blood pressure.

During exercise, because stroke volume, heart rate and cardiac output increase, more
blood is pumped into the arteries more quickly. This cause the systolic blood pressure
to increase while diastolic remains fairly constant.

• Increased Blood Flow

During exercise, blood flow to the working muscles increases because of increase Q
and a greater distribution of blood away from the non-working areas to active muscles
(Amezdroz et al, 2010 p 392).

• Redistribution of Blood Flow to working muscles

Blood tends to flow to tissues and cells in proportion to their level of activity. Specific
increases occur in blood supply to parts of the body that require extra supplies of
oxygen and fuels to support increased workloads. Specific decreases occur in blood
supply to those parts of the body not requiring extra oxygen and fuel for that period of
time. For example, during intense exercise, extra blood flows to the muscles to provide
extra oxygen and nutrients (Amezdroz et al, 2010 p 392).

o At rest: Muscles (15-20%) Organs (80-85%)

o During exercise: Muscles (80-90%) Organs (10-20%)

• Increased a-v O2 difference

The arteriovenous oxygen difference (a-v O2 diff.) is the difference between oxygen
concentration in the arteries and the oxygen concentration in the veins. The a-v O2 diff.
shows how much oxygen is being absorbed into your muscles and used to produce
aerobic energy (Amezdroz et al, 2010 p 392).

37
 For example when the body is at rest, the arterial oxygen concentration could be 19ml
of oxygen per 100ml of blood, and the venous oxygen concentration could be 13ml of
oxygen per 100ml of blood. Thus the muscles are using 6ml of oxygen per 100 ml of
blood. Thus the a-vO2diff. is 6ml/100ml.

When a person begins to exercise, more oxygen is extracted from the blood as it
passes through the muscle because it is needed to produce energy to keep the muscle
contracting. As a result, the venous oxygen concentration could drop to 4ml of oxygen
per 100ml of blood. Thus the a-v O2diff would be 15ml/100ml.

Reference: McPartland, Pree, Malpeli, Telford (2010), Nelson Physical Education Studies For
WA, Cengage Learning Australia. South Melbourne, Australia. (pages 197-202)

Gases in the blood – 2 gases are involved – Oxygen (O2) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Gas Exchange occurs at the lungs as well as the muscles/tissues and, in both cases, it
happens passively following diffusion gradients:

Pulmonary diffusion essentially sees the replenishment of oxygen in the pulmonary

capillaries and the removal of carbon dioxide from these same vessels. – a two way
exchange of gases! This gaseous exchange occurs between the air of the alveoli,
through the respiratory membrane to the blood of the pulmonary capillaries.
This gas exchange also occurs at the muscles.

o There are 2 regions for exchange of gases. At the alveoli and at the muscle
fibres.
o Gases move across membranes along concentration gradients from regions of
high to low concentration.

• Decreased Blood Plasma volume

Because of increased sweating, the blood plasma volume usually decreases during
strenuous exercise.
38
 • Increased blood lactate concentrations
The amount of blood lactate accumulation depends on the exercise intensity and the
ability of the cardiorespiratory system to deliver enough oxygen to the muscles, to clear
the lactate as it is produced when the clearance of blood lactate does not match
production, there is an increase in blood lactate concentration. As exercise intensity
increases so does blood lactate production and accumulation (Amezdroz et al, 2010 p
393).

• Blood pH decreases
pH indicates the acidity of a substance. Below 7, the closer the value is to 0, the more
acidic it is. The decrease in pH is a direct result of the increase in acidity within the
blood, caused by the increased blood lactate accumulation with increasing exercise
intensity.

RESPIRATORY RESPONSES TO EXERCISE:

The following respiratory responses occur to supply the body with more oxygen and to remove
carbon dioxide:

• Increased Respiratory Rate (respiratory frequency)

ie the number of breaths per minute increases.

• Increased Tidal Volume (volume per breath)

ie the amount of air inhaled and exhaled per breath

• Increased Ventilation (volume per minute)

Ie The amount of air breathed in one minute.

Ventilation (V) = Respiratory Rate (RR) X Tidal Volume (TV)

• Increased Oxygen Uptake (VO2) or volume of oxygen consumed

Oxygen uptake (VO2) is the amount of oxygen taken up and used by the body to
produce energy. It reflects how much work is being done by the body. When your body
exercises, your VO2 increases as your body absorbs more oxygen and uses it to
produce more aerobic energy (Amezdroz et al, 2010 p 395).

MUSCULAR RESPONSES TO EXERCISE:

• An increased number of muscle contractions to propel the body
• Increased Motor Unit activation so that more fibres are fired to contract and the
muscles make more forceful contractions.
• Increased recruitment of muscle fibres in a motor unit to produce more force.
• Increased Blood Flow to the muscles (vasodilation/vasoconstriction)
• Increased Muscle Temperature (due to increased blood flow & ATP production)
• Increased muscle enzyme activity (in order to produce increased amounts of ATP)
• Increased Oxygen extraction at the muscles as myoglobin delivers more oxygen to the
working muscles.
• Depletion of muscle energy stores (ATP-PC stores, glycogen & triglycerides)

Reference: Amezdroz et al, 2010 p 397)

39
 Chronic Circulorespiratory Adaptations (long term effects) to exercise may be observed

Chronic responses or adaptations to exercise are those changes that occur over longer
periods of time as a direct result of the training undertaken. They remain, after recovery from
exercise has been completed.

A number of factors affect the nature of chronic adaptations:

- The individual athletes’ capacities and genetic factors
- The frequency, duration & intensity of training
- The type and method of training used:
1. Power (anaerobic) type training
2. Endurance (aerobic) training at sub-maximal level

Note: For explanation of some of the below terms, please refer to relevant information in
previous sections.

Chronic Circulorespiratory Adaptations (long term effects) of exercise may be observed:

AT REST:
• Decreased resting Heart Rate (HR)
• Cardiac Hypertrophy

(Reference: Amezdroz et al 2010 p 414)

• Increased Stroke Volume (SV)
• Unchanged or decreased Cardiac Output
• Increased Blood Volume & Haemoglobin
• Decreased Blood Pressure
• Increased Capillarisation of the heart muscle
• Increased Capillarisation of skeletal muscle
• Decreased Lung Ventilation (improved oxygen extraction)

DURING SUBMAXIMAL EXERCISE:

• Decreased Heart Rate (HR)
• Cardiac Hypertrophy
• Increased Capillarisation of the heart muscle
• Improved heart rate recovery rates
• Increased Stroke Volume (SV)
40
 • Decreased blood flow to working muscles (increased efficiency)
• Decreased Blood Pressure
• Increased a-V O2 difference
• Unchanged Cardiac Output (Q)
• Decreased Minute Ventilation
• Decreased or unchanged VO2 (oxygen consumption)
• Increased LIP

DURING MAXIMAL EXERCISE:

• Cardiac Hypertrophy
• Increased Capillarisation of heart muscle
• Increased Capillarisation of skeletal muscle
• Increased Stroke Volume (SV)
• Increased Cardiac Output (Q)
• Increased VO2 Max
• Improved heart rate recovery rates
• Increased a-V O2 diff
• Increased/unchanged muscle blood flow
• Increased Minute Ventilation
• Increased LIP (resulting in decreased lactic acid production)

Table 1: Chronic Training Effects on the Cardio-respiratory System

Training Effect At Rest Sub-maximal Maximal

Exercise Exercise
Cardiac Hypertrophy Increased ------- ------
Cardiac Output (Q) Unchanged or decreased Unchanged or decreased Increased
Heart Rate Decreased Decreased Unchanged or
decreased
Stroke Volume Increased Increased Increased
Total haemoglobin & blood volume Increased ------ ------
Blood Pressure Decreased Decreased Decreased
Lung Volumes Increased _________ ________
Minute Ventilation Unchanged Decreased Increased
Oxygen Consumption (VO2) Unchanged Unchanged or decreased Increased
Muscle Glycogen Depleation ------ Decreased Increased
Lactic Acid level in blood & muscle Unchanged Decreased Increased
Anaerobic Threshold ------- Increased -------
Blood Flow to working muscles ------- Decreased or unchanged Increased
a-vO2 diff Unchanged Increased Increased

41
  Chronic Muscular Adaptations (long term effects) of exercise

The following are chronic adaptations which are also termed long term effects of exercise that
occur as a result of the following training regimes:

ENDURANCE TRAINING:
• Increased Oxygen extraction by increased concentrations of myoglobin
• Increased oxygen delivery
• Increased numbers of energy production sites ie size and number of Mitochondria
• Increased oxidation of fat’s (glycogen sparing)
• Increased fuel stores of muscle glycogen & triglycerides
• Increased size of slow twitch muscle fibres
• Decreased utilisation of Anaerobic Glycolysis System

NON-ENDURANCE (ANAEROBIC & RESISTANCE) TRAINING:

***The chronic muscular effects of any Anaerobic/Resistance training program are
dependent on the type of training undertaken, the muscle group/s being targeted, the base
fitness level of the athlete, the gender of the athlete, and the age of the athlete (Folland and
Williams, 2007).

• Increased muscles stores of ATP & PC stores (as a result of muscular hypertrophy from
the training type – Reference: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4213384/);
increased levels of enzymes & thus an increases in the capacity of the ATP-PC system
• Increased muscle glycogen stores and glycolytic enzymes & thus increased glycolytic
capacity
• Increased storage of glycogen
• Increased size of fast twitch muscle fibres (Muscular Hypertrophy)
• Increased speed & force of contraction
• Increased strength amounts of connective tissue
• Increased numbers of muscle capillaries
• Flexibility training effects: Increased length of muscles, tendons & ligaments, increased
range of joint movement.

42
Table 2: Summary of the Effects of Endurance (aerobic) Training on Skeletal Muscles

Mitochondria Increased
Glycogen stores Increased
Myoglobin Increased
Triglyceride stores Increased
Oxidation of CHO & Fats Increased
Anaerobic Glycolysis Decreased
Stores of ATP/PC Increased
Increased oxidation of Fats Glyocogen sparing
Fibre Type ST : Number Same
Size ST Increased
Oxygen Delivery Increased

Useful References / Recommended Readings:

Websites:

Kansas State University, 2012, Cardiovascular response to exercise [online] Available at:
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/68417/Imprtant%20PDF%20Files/Cardiovascular%20Response%2
0to%20Acute.pdf [Accessed 19 November 2012].

VCE PE, 2012, Acute responses to exercise [online] Available at:

http://brunswickvcepe.wikispaces.com/file/detail/Acute+responses+to+exercise.pptx
[Accessed 19 November 2012].

Publications:

Follard, JP, Williams, AG, The adaptations to strength training: morphological and neurological
contributions to increased strength, Sports Med. 2007;37 (2):145-68. Available at:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17241104

Live it up 2, second edition, David Smyth, Helen Brown, Wayne Judge, Christine McCallum &
Peter Wright, Jacaranda, 2006 ISBN-13 978 0 731 40247 2

Nelson Physical Education, VCE Units 3 & 4, 4th Ed, Robert Malpeli, Margaret Horton, Glenn
Davey, Amanda Telford, Nelson Australia, 2006 ISBN 0 17 010181 6

Sahlin, K, Muscle Energetics During Explosive Activities and Potential Effects of Nutrition and Training,
Sports Med. 2014; 44 (Suppl 2): 167–173. Available at:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4213384/

43
UNIT 2: EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY B
Topics
2.1 Training Programs
2.2 Recovery

2.1 Training Programs

Components of fitness (such as flexibility, aerobic capacity and muscle strength):

major categories and application
The Training Session:
warm-up
purposes and approaches
elements
physiological responses (refer acute training effects)
conditioning
skill development
cool-down
purpose
techniques
physiological responses (refer to recovery)
Principles:
specificity
progressive overload
frequency
intensity
duration
de-training
variety
individuality
diminishing returns
Methods – a number of key methods underpin all types of training program:
continuous

 FITT formula (Frequency, Intensity, Time and Type)

LISS (Low Intensity Steady State)/Long Slow Distance training
lactate threshold training
fartlek
interval: (key variables and applications)
work interval
recovery interval
sets
repetitions
resistance
resistance training key terms – repetition, set and repetition maximum
discussion – common principles and variables – manipulating
volume/reps/sets
isotonic weight training
isometric resistance training

44
 resistance models, for example, but not limited to: bodyweight, pilates,
machines/cables/bands, supersets, dropsets, etc...
exercise ball (fit ball) training
plyometric
principles
safety considerations
flexibility
dynamic
proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation
static
circuit
aims and advantages
methods
cross training
aims and advantages
methods

Trend towards application and design of various emerging or popular methods (such as
cross fit, boxercise, HITT, tabata, trx, MAS – Maximum Aerobic Speed etc.) and their links
to general categories.

The Training Year:

Periodisation
preparatory pre-season (general preparation and
specific preparation) competitive phases/in-
season (pre-competitive and competitive)
transition/off-season
Tapering and Peaking

2.2 Recovery

Physiological causes of fatigue, concept of rest days, overtraining

Recovery Strategies:
cool down (exercise or active recovery)
stretching
passive recovery
rehydration
commonly used techniques (including but not limited to)
cold-water immersion (CWI)/cryotherapy
contrast water therapy (CWT)
hot-water immersion (HWI)
massage
compression
low intensity pool sessions
Role of the O2 transport system in recovery
(EPOC) and O2 Debt:
Alactacid Debt – replenishment of ATP and PC Stores, O2 resaturation of myoglobin
and haemoglobin

45
 Lactacid Debt – removal of Lactic Acid (includes fate or removal)
Nutritional Replenishment:
consumption of CHO: suggested time frame
consumption of Protein: suggested time frame
muscle glycogen replenishment
rehydration: fluids & electrolytes

Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS)

characteristics
actions for minimizing impact/prevention

46
2.1 Training Programs

 Components of fitness

Fitness components are the fitness requirements of various sports and activities. Athletes
require fitness components according to the demands of the sport. Most sports usually
require a wide range of fitness components.

Major Categories

Health Related Motor Skill & Sport Related

Fitness Components Fitness components
Cardiovascular Endurance Agility
Muscular strength Speed
Local muscular endurance Muscular Power
Flexibility Balance
Body Composition Coordination
Reaction time

Applications

Cardiovascular Endurance/Aerobic Capacity

- The heart’s ability to deliver blood to working muscles and their ability to use it or
- Is the ability to exercise continuously for extended periods of time without tiring or
- It is the ability of the circulatory & respiratory systems to make ATP (energy) using
oxygen.
- It is also known as aerobic capacity, aerobic endurance and cardiorespiratory
endurance.
- It is most applicable in endurance events, such as marathons, triathlons, cross country
skiing, orienteering or for those playing as centre/midfielder in team sports.

Muscular Strength
- Muscular strength is the ability to express force.
- Maximum strength is the maximal amount of force produced in one contraction.
- If it is performed in 1 contraction it is called 1RM repetition maximum. In practice it
may be the maximal force applied up to 10 times.
- It is most applicable in sports or activities that require great use of force, such as
weightlifting/powerlifting; all types of wrestling; football/rugby/gridiron for scrums and
tackling, men’s gymnastics, etc.

Local Muscular Endurance

- Local muscular endurance is the muscle(s) capacity to continue contracting for a
period of time while experiencing fatigue.
- Contractions of muscles create pressure that cause surrounding blood vessels to
become blocked.
- This limits the amount of O2 provided for the working muscles, resulting in fatigue.

47
 - It is most applicable in sports or activities that require the repetition of the same
action, such as running, swimming, rowing, cycling, etc.

Flexibility
Flexibility is the range of motion around a joint.
- It is most applicable in sports or activities that require a wide range of motion and/or
the application of force over a greater distance, such as gymnastics, diving, throwing
(baseball, softball, athletics, etc), swimming, martial arts/wrestling, etc

Body Composition
This refers to body size such as height, length and girths and distribution of muscle to body
fat.
- How it is applied depends on the requirements for each sport and/or position. For
example, the body composition requirements tend to be vastly different for a wide
receiver compared to a defensive guard in NFL, or a netball centre compared to a goal
attack; or for a sumo wrestler compared to a high jumper, etc.

Agility
Agility is the ability to change direction quickly and accurately.
- It is most applicable in sports or activities that require lots of movement in varying
directions, including team sports such as hockey, soccer, basketball/netball, lacrosse;
volleyball; ultimate frisbee; all racket sports (tennis, badminton, squash, etc).

Speed
Speed involves movement from one point to another in the fastest possible time.
- This is most relevant in activities/positions where speed is a crucial factor in
determining success, such as sprints in athletics, cycling, swimming, skating, team
sports, etc.

Muscular Power
- The ability to produce maximal force as quickly as possible in a contraction.
- Also referred to as just power. This combines speed & strength.
- Most appropriate where short explosive bursts are required, such as weightlifting,
athletics field events, martial arts, baseball/softball/cricket, etc.

Balance
- Balance is the maintenance of a body's state of equilibrium.
- This can be dynamic, when the body is moving or static, when the body is stationary.
- It is applicable in all sports, but mainly in ones where stability is relevant, such as
gymnastics, surfing, diving, fencing, target sports, etc.

Coordination
Coordination is when a motor skill is performed fluently and effectively. It can rely on
coordination between hand-eye; foot-eye; whole body, etc.
- It is relevant in all ball sports, and other sports such as gymnastics, dance, boxing, etc.

Reaction Time
Reaction time is the time between receiving a stimulus and starting a response (See Skill
Acquisition unit)

48
 - This is most applicable in sports where time to react is critical, including
baseball/softball/cricket, fencing, racket sports, and particularly for goalies in sports
such as hockey/soccer/water polo/lacrosse, etc.
(Source: E-Teaching, Disc 2 Developing Training Programs)

__________________________The below figure is not examinable__________________________________

Reference: Nelson Physical Education VCE Units 1 & 2, Telford, Seery, Whittle, Corrie & Malpeli, Nelson Cengage
Learning, 2010, P 54.
____________________________________________________________________________________________

 The Training Session

To gain the most from the investment of time in training each session must follow an
accepted protocol which will allow the athlete to prepare their mind and body for work then
progress through the stressful part of the session then finally, slowly come down from the
session returning to pre exercise state at the completion of workout.

Each training session should comprise of;

- WARM UP: general to specific

- CONDITIONING/SKILL DEVELOPMENT PHASE
- WARM/COOL DOWN: this may include active recovery modalities

WARM UP PHASE
The warm up is designed to
• Purpose
- Prepare the body for competition or conditioning exercise.
49
 - Reduce the possibility of joint or muscle injury or soreness.

• Elements
- The warm-up should include exercises that prepare the muscles to be used and
activate the energy system required. It should be related specifically to the activity
that follows.
- The warm-up should incorporate the following activities:
o a continuous activity
o light resistance exercises
o flexibility exercises such a dynamic stretching

• Physiological responses (effects) of warm up that occur

Refer to Unit 1.3: Acute training effect

CONDITIONING/SKILL DEVELOPMENT PHASE

This phase incorporates conditioning and skill development. Sometimes conditioning occurs
first and then skill development and vice versa. At times, these two phases are combined
together. This greatly depends on the type of the sport, level of participants, time within the
training year and other factors such as ground availability.

During the conditioning (or fitness) phase, the specific fitness components for a particular
sport are developed using the training methods you favour. Proven training principles should
be utilised during this phase. Skill development focuses on the specific skills and team work
required for the sport. Sometimes during this phase, appropriate skills can be worked on in
conjunction with any conditioning work.

THE COOL-DOWN
• Techniques
The cool-down is the tapering off after completion of the workout. It should be a
continuation of the activity at a much reduced intensity (e.g. after running, keep
walking). All cool-downs should include either static stretching exercises or PNF
stretching exercises for all muscle groups involved.

• Purpose/physiological effects
The cool down is needed to prevent venous pooling (i.e. pooling of blood in the veins).
After strenuous exercise, the heart keeps pumping blood at a rapid rate. If you end
your workout abruptly, the muscles are no longer contracting-helping to propel the
blood back to the heart-so blood may pool in the veins and tissue.

(Source: Queensland Senior Physical Education, Glenn Amezdroz, Sue Dickens, Geoff Hosford, Tania Stewart &
Damien Davis, Macmillan Education Australia, 2010, (pages 374-379) ISBN 9 781 4202 2943 (pbk.)

50
  Principles of training

The PRINCIPLES of training are those rules which govern the outcomes to a training
programme. Without these rules investment of time in training activities would be wasted
because the outcomes would not be predictable.

SPECIFICITY OF TRAINING
Specificity of Training is the main training principle that guides the development of your
training program. It can be summarised as ‘You get what you train for’.

A training program must stress the physiological systems (fitness components, energy
systems and body parts) to achieve specific training adaptations (changes or improvements).
The use of relevant energy systems, muscle groups, movement patterns/skills should be
specific (relevant) to the sport.

For your training program to be a success you must apply the specificity principle by select
specific training methods that will develop the specific fitness you need. Within each training
method you must choose specific exercises that will develop the specific body-part fitness that
you need.

(Source: Queensland Senior Physical Education, Glenn Amezdroz, Sue Dickens, Geoff Hosford, Tania Stewart &
Damien Davis, Macmillan Education Australia, 2010, (pages 308) ISBN 9 781 4202 2943 (pbk.)

PROGRESSIVE OVERLOAD
Progressive overload or the overload principle (see figure 14.3) governs all fitness training. If
you want to improve, you must exercise at an intensity greater than your existing capacity, and
this intensity must move towards your performance objective. If the training load exceeds the
load to which the body is accustomed, the body will adapt physiologically so that a higher load
is required for further improvement.

51
__________________________The below figure is not examinable__________________________________

(Source: Queensland Senior Physical Education, Glenn Amezdroz, Sue Dickens, Geoff Hosford, Tania Stewart &
Damien Davis, Macmillan Education Australia, 2010, (pages 310) ISBN 9 781 4202 2943 (pbk.)
_________________________________________________________________________________________

FREQUENCY
The frequency of training relates to the number of training sessions per week. Thus it relates
to how often we train. Training improvements are the summation of biological adaptations
induced by the stress of regular exercise. Generally, the more frequent the training, the
greater the fitness improvement, although all programs must include rest days to allow the
body to recover.

The training frequency varies according to the chosen activity. However, it is possible to make
the following generalisations:

• For fitness to improve, the minimum number of sessions per week is three. However,
fitness can be maintained in two sessions, or possibly one session, per week.
Therefore, if you wish to develop a fitness component, you must train at least three
times a week; if you wish to maintain a fitness component, you must train twice a
week.

• To improve aerobic capacity, the ideal training frequency should be 4–5 days per
week, although runners, swimmers and triathletes may need to increase this to 6–7
days per week. Training for two sessions per day is not necessarily more productive
than training for only one session per day

• To improve strength, power and speed (anaerobic components) requires less frequent
training, with the ideal being 3–5 days per week.

(Source: Queensland Senior Physical Education, Glenn Amezdroz, Sue Dickens, Geoff Hosford, Tania Stewart &
Damien Davis, Macmillan Education Australia, 2010, (pages 311) ISBN 9 781 4202 2943 (pbk.)

INTENSITY
Training intensity refers to how hard each session will be. It has been described as the most
important training variable and should be carefully monitored to ensure that training is
effective and that the athlete is working at the appropriate levels to gain fitness benefits. As
52
you progress through a training program, the intensity increases because of progressive
overload. However, the initial intensity and the rate of overload depend on your beginning
fitness, as identified in the pre-tests, and the long-term goals of the program.

There are several factors that indicate intensity and ways of measuring or calculating the
intensity at which you are working during a training session or during competition.

Several different methods are listed below:

- energy expended per unit time, e.g. 37.8 kJ/min
- percentage of VO2max (e.g. 85% VO2max)
- exercise heart rate, often called target heart rate (THR) or target training zone, is a
percentage of maximum heart rate (MHR) (e.g. 80% maximum heart rate)

- rate of perceived exertion (RPE) developed by Borg

- most accurate: oxygen consumption and blood lactate levels (but requires expensive
equipment: used for elite athletes).

(Source: Queensland Senior Physical Education, Glenn Amezdroz, Sue Dickens, Geoff Hosford, Tania Stewart &
Damien Davis, Macmillan Education Australia, 2010, (pages 312) ISBN 9 781 4202 2943 (pbk.)

DURATION
Duration refers to the length of a training program or the length of each session. The
minimum duration of any fitness program to develop training effects is six weeks. Aerobic
fitness improvements tend to take longer to develop than other fitness components. Ideally,
therefore, aerobic fitness programs should run for not less than 12 weeks, and anaerobic
fitness programs should run for 8–10 weeks.

(Source: Queensland Senior Physical Education, Glenn Amezdroz, Sue Dickens, Geoff Hosford, Tania Stewart &
Damien Davis, Macmillan Education Australia, 2010, (pages 317) ISBN 9 781 4202 2943 (pbk.)

DETRAINING OR REVERSIBILITY (“use it or lose it!”)

Biological adaptations induced through training will be reversed over time if the stimuli that
created the change are removed. Thus training effects are reversible, it can be summarised by
the saying ‘If you don’t use it, you lose it’.

The biological adaptations that are produced by training will be reversed if training ceases.
Therefore, it is essential that anyone involved in training, whether sport-related or health-
related, never takes a complete break from training. Even if you are injured, you still need to
train the uninjured parts of your body so that you avoid detraining.

Maintenance periods, during which training is of lower intensity or sessions are less frequent,
are fine in the off-season or to allow physical and psychological recovery. However, complete
cessation of training results in a rapid loss of the fitness you worked so hard to develop.

Detraining affects all fitness components, however, aerobic (endurance) losses are more
rapid than strength (power) losses. In fact, research shows that the results of 5 months of
endurance training can be lost in 6–8 weeks.

(Source: Queensland Senior Physical Education, Glenn Amezdroz, Sue Dickens, Geoff Hosford, Tania Stewart &
Damien Davis, Macmillan Education Australia, 2010, (pages 317) ISBN 9 781 4202 2943 (pbk.)

53
VARIETY
Variety relates to varying the training program to helps to maintain motivation. Variety adds
spice to your training program and helps to maintain your motivation. Initial gains in fitness
are made quickly. However, fitness levels tend to build up, then reach a plateau, i.e. stay at
one level. Plateau performances may last for varying lengths of time.

You may experience a number of plateaux during a season, but they can be shortened by
maintaining your motivation. One strategy for doing this is to vary your training sessions in the
following ways: Vary how you train, e.g. aerobic capacity can be developed through swimming,
running, floor classes or circuit training, as long as the specificity principle is not violated.

Some examples:
• Vary where you train, e.g. do beach runs, hill runs, park runs, road runs; train in the
gym; swim at the local pool.
• Vary how hard you train, e.g. 2 easy days, 1 hard day, 2 easy days, and so on.
• Vary the selection of people you train with, e.g. schoolmates, friends, family,
teammates, workmates.

(Source: Queensland Senior Physical Education, Glenn Amezdroz, Sue Dickens, Geoff Hosford, Tania Stewart &
Damien Davis, Macmillan Education Australia, 2010, (pages 319) ISBN 9 781 4202 2943 (pbk.)

INDIVIDUALITY/Individual Differences
The Individuality of Training Principle dictates that training should be adjusted according to
each athlete's individual characteristics and needs. The range of characteristics may include
differences related to such things as: age, gender, fitness, stage of skill development,
previous experience/injuries, psychological factors such as motivation and goals, etc.
The aim of considering the athletes’ individual differences is to capitalize on their personal
strengths, strengthen their weaknesses and to help them maximise their genetic potential,

DIMINISHING RETURNS
The law of diminishing returns states that the gains in fitness become smaller and smaller
over time, as your fitness or skill levels increase.

This principle states that for any athlete:

• gains in fitness are more rapid early in a program, and later gains are more difficult to
achieve
• gains are most rapid for those who begin a program with a lower level of fitness,
whereas those with a solid fitness base gain more slowly.

(Source: Queensland Senior Physical Education, Glenn Amezdroz, Sue Dickens, Geoff Hosford, Tania Stewart &
Damien Davis, Macmillan Education Australia, 2010, (pages 319) ISBN 9 781 4202 2943 (pbk.)

54
  Methods of Training

The methods of training change over time and often reflect the current fad or trend. Think of
the many trends in recent years, such as power walking, aerobics, Tae Bo, spin, CrossFit, HIIT,
etc, etc. Most of these methods are simply variations on a theme, which are based around a
core set of training methods which have survived the test of time. You should have some
awareness of what current exercise trends there are and what method of training they are
adapted from.

CONTINUOUS TRAINING
The purpose of continuous training is to improve aerobic capacity, raise the lactate threshold
levels (also known as anaerobic threshold) and improve local muscular endurance.

Continuous training must be sufficiently intense to increase the heart’s stroke volume and
cardiac output. Or, put simply, it must increase the ability of the heart to deliver oxygen to the
working muscles.

Continuous training is the foundation of all sport-related and health-related training programs.
The improvements in the aerobic system created by continuous training allow the exerciser to
reach an aerobic steady state faster, accumulate less lactic acid and recover more rapidly
between efforts or after exercise.

Improvements in aerobic fitness using continuous training methods are based around varying
the FITT formula:
 Frequency (referred to in Training Principles, above)
 Intensity (referred to in Training Principles, above)
 Time/Duration (referred to in Training Principles, above)
 Type (Type refers to the type of activities that use large muscle groups
such as running, cycling, swimming, power walking and aerobic floor
classes).

Types of Continuous training include:

• LISS (Low Intensity Steady State/Long Slow Distance (LSD) – This type of continuous
training produces a gradual but steady aerobic improvement. For example it can be used
early in an aerobic training program or the pre-season phase and then throughout as a
recovery session when residual tiredness is present. This is submaximal aerobic training at
about 75% HR maximum, with the emphasis on distance not speed.

• Lactate Threshold (LT) Training - This is faster race-type work at about 85% HR maximum.
Lactic acid accumulates throughout this training, making it very fatiguing but essential
since it duplicates competition conditions.

• Fartlek - ‘Fartlek’ is a Swedish word meaning ‘speed play’. It is continuous training, ie

cross-country, but with regular changes of pace (intensity). It is a blend of continuous and
interval training in which the athlete can increase the intensity depending on how they
feel, similar to rates of perceived exertion.
An example of Fartlek training is, travelling the length of the netball court at different levels of
speed, ie, jog, sprint, jog, sprint, etc.
55
INTERVAL including Maximum Aerobic Speed (MAS)
Interval training is a form of training during which work intervals are followed by rest intervals.
It is designed to improve speed, power and agility, and aerobic and anaerobic capacity.
Interval training is the best way of improving your ability to play team sports such as netball,
soccer, basketball, football or field hockey. These sports all involve periods of activity or work
(e.g. chasing the ball, followed by periods of rest or recovery when the ball is down the other
end of the field).

• Key variables in interval training:

It is possible to develop all three energy systems during interval training by altering the
length of the work interval. It is also possible to make interval training highly specific to
a particular energy system or sport, as well as adhere to the overload principle by
manipulating the key variables involved in interval training. These are:

1. Work interval
The work interval is the distance and duration of the work effort, e.g. running 400
m in 70 seconds. The intensity of the work interval must activate the energy
systems that require improvement or are specific for the activity for which you are
training.
For example, to train the three energy systems requires the athlete to work at an
MHR of:
ATP-CP 90–100%, Lactic acid 85–100%, Aerobic 70%.

The main concept of interval training is to enable the athlete to work at higher
intensities, because a rest period will follow. Therefore, the general guide is that
during the work interval the heart rate should always reach lactate threshold (85%
MHR).

2. Recovery interval
The recovery interval is the time between work efforts. The recovery interval can be
passive (standing) or active (walking or slow jog). The specific energy system and
fitness component being targeted will determine what the heart rate should be
during the recovery interval.
For example, a sprinter will complete intervals with complete recovery so they can
work at the highest intensity, but a 400 m runner may reduce recovery to tax the
lactic acid system and increase lactate threshold 2 levels, so that they will able to
work harder for longer during the race. As a general guide, 140 bpm or less would
be appropriate, but this will differ for each individual athlete.

3. Set
A set is a group of work-and-recovery intervals. For example, a set of 10 intervals of
50 m each is written as 10 × 50 m.

4. Repetition
Each individual work interval is called a ‘repetition’ (rep.). For example, the set of
10 × 50 m is 10 repetitions of 50 m each.
(Source: Queensland Senior Physical Education, Glenn Amezdroz, Sue Dickens, Geoff Hosford, Tania Stewart &
Damien Davis, Macmillan Education Australia, 2010, (pages 322-323) ISBN 9 781 4202 2943 (pbk.)

56
RESISTANCE TRAINING
Resistance training is good for developing the fitness components of muscular strength,
power and endurance, and can be manipulated to closely approximate sport specific
movement.

Resistance training relies on an understanding of the following key terms:

• A repetition is one performance of an exercise, for example one push up or one bicep
curl.
• A set is a number of repetitions of an exercise performed continually without rest, for
example, eight bicep curls equals one set of 8 reps or 1x 8.
• A RM (repetition maximum) is the maximum weight you can lift a certain number of
times, for example, 1 RM is the maximum weight you can lift once. 10 RM is the
maximum weight you can lift ten times (but not eleven).

• Common principles and variables

The major variables when undertaking resistance training include most of the same things as
contained in interval training, namely: a work interval, a rest interval, sets and reps. However,
the work interval in resistance training is the resistance itself, or the load being lifted/moved.
In most instances, the load is expressed as a weight (kilo’s or pounds). How much is lifted,
how long you should rest, and what number and type of reps and sets that should be
completed varies greatly based upon a wide range of factors.
The right way to structure a resistance session is open to much debate. You should share
among your class the different ways in which your programs are structured so that you are
able to give an example of one. For example: what is a 1RM? What % of 1RM would be used
for developing strength/power/endurance? What is a pyramid set, how is it different from a
superset or a drop set, etc.

There are several types if resistance training:

• Isotonic Weight Training (Traditional Weight Training)
Isotonic training occurs when joints are moved under load, and the load or weight remains
constant throughout the range of movement. Isotonic weight training can be used to develop
muscular strength, muscle bulk, power or local endurance by manipulating the weight lifted,
the number of repetitions, the number of sets and the speed at which you move. Solid gains in
muscle strength can be made in 6 weeks of training.

NOTE- Joint stability/flexibility must also be a priority in the initial conditioning phase of any
resistance training program.

• Isometric Resistance Training

Isometric resistance training involves contracting a muscle against an immovable resistance.
There is no joint movement, but the muscle does exert force.

Examples:
- Sports like judo or gymnastics where force needs to be exerted in static positions
- Sports like tennis or hockey where hitting implements must be gripped tightly.
- When a weakness has been identified at one particular position during a movement
sequence.
- Developing core strength such as planks
57
 • Models of resistance training
Resistance training can be incorporated into many different models and use many different
themes. It may be things such as bodyweight work, which may be based around formal
activities such as yoga, pilates, etc; or more just in homes or gyms using your own bodyweight,
adjusted to suit you level of strength by adjusting the level of incline or through the use of
supportive resistance bands, etc.
Other types of resistance models use specific equipment such as barbells, dumbbells, or pin-
loaded machines, where the weight moved can be adjusted to the individual.

• Exercise Ball (Fit Ball) Training

A major benefit of the exercise ball training is that it can develop your core stability. Many
strength programs can be performed on a fit ball as due to it being an unstable base of
support it engages your core muscles and stabilisers.
For example if you are doing a seated dumbbell shoulder press on the fit ball, you are not only
working your deltoids, but your core muscles and stabilisers too.

(Source: Queensland Senior Physical Education, Glenn Amezdroz, Sue Dickens, Geoff Hosford, Tania Stewart &
Damien Davis, Macmillan Education Australia, 2010, (pages 331-338) ISBN 9 781 4202 2943 (pbk.)

PLYOMETRICS
Plyometrics is a form of training designed to improve muscular power in sports where an
explosive powerful movement is demanded, such as hopping, jumping, skipping and
bounding. This includes sports such as basketball, netball, volleyball and Australian Rules
football. Other sports such as rowing, athletics (sprinting, jumps, hurdles, throwing) and
weightlifting also benefit from this type of training.

Plyometric exercises invoke a rapid eccentric (lengthening) contraction followed immediately

by a forceful concentric (shortening) contraction. In this type of training it is the speed of the
contraction that is essential, as it aims to increase power, which is a combination of speed
and strength. This can also be referred to as explosiveness.

• Safety Considerations
Plyometric exercises involve an increased risk of injury due to the large force generated
during training and performance, and it is often recommended that such exercises should
only be performed by well-conditioned individuals under supervision. Good levels of
physical strength and flexibility should be achieved before commencement of plyometric
training.
(Source: Queensland Senior Physical Education, Glenn Amezdroz, Sue Dickens, Geoff Hosford, Tania Stewart &
Damien Davis, Macmillan Education Australia, 2010, (pages 338) ISBN 9 781 4202 2943 (pbk.)

FLEXIBILITY
Flexibility training is used to improve joint and muscle flexibility. Any callisthenic that puts
your muscle in a stretched position develops your flexibility.

• Dynamic (active) stretching – Dynamic stretching involves athletes performing a

gradually intensifying series of movements which replicate those specific to their
particular sports/activities. This is the best form of stretching prior to
58
 training/competition ie to be used in a warm-up, and should follow a whole body, low
intensity aerobic activity (eg – light jog).

• Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) – In this method of stretching, the

following method is used…..
o Take a muscle to it’s maximum range, contract the muscle against an
immovable resistance, usually provided by a partner (isometric contraction)
o Passively increase the range yourself
o Perform another isometric contraction and another passive range increase.
o Repeat until you reach your limit

NOTE: PNF is best suited to being a separate flexibility session, or as part of a cool
down, NOT part of a warm up due to the potential for increasing the rate of injury

• Static (passive) stretching – Involves taking a muscle to its greatest range and holding
this position for 30-45 seconds.

NOTE: static stretching is best suited to a cool down, rather than a warm up, due to a
potential loss of power output.

(Source: Queensland Senior Physical Education, Glenn Amezdroz, Sue Dickens, Geoff Hosford, Tania Stewart &
Damien Davis, Macmillan Education Australia, 2010, (pages 351-357) ISBN 9 781 4202 2943 (pbk.)

CIRCUIT
• Aims and Advantages
The aims of a circuit are completely dependent upon what is attempting to be
achieved. Due to its nature, however, circuit training offers many advantages over
other forms of training. These include such things as: it can target any or all energy
systems and/or muscle groups; it can incorporate as few or as many participants as
needed; it can be completed in a small space, and it can make optimal use of the time
spent exercising; it can cater for all fitness levels, it can incorporate skills as well, etc.

• Method
Circuit training consists of rotating around a varying number of ‘stations’ performing
different exercises at each station with minimal or no rest in between them. A longer
rest may occur between sets if the circuit is repeated.
At each station, the exercise is usually performed for a specified number of repetitions
or for a set time before moving on to the next station. The amount of weight that a
person lifts during a circuit training session can vary between sets.

CROSS TRAINING
• Aims and Advantages
The aim of cross training is to prevent your body from plateauing, by constantly mixing
and changing up the type of exercises you are doing, and/or the body parts and/or
duration/intensity at which you train.
Benefits include: keeps up motivation by constantly stimulating you and preventing
your workouts from becoming too stagnant and boring; you get to develop any or all
energy systems, components and muscle groups; helps avoid overuse injuries.

59
 • Methods
Cross Training works on the basic principle of doing a range of training that is different
from your normal training program. This could be done during the season, or during the
off season. It could involve doing different activities which develop the same energy
systems and muscle groups, (such as the runner who goes swimming or cycling) or it
could be doing something completely different (such as the cricket team that spend
time each practice playing soccer). There is no set method for cross training; it
completely depends upon the individual athlete and their needs.
TRENDS
Trends towards application and design of various emerging or popular methods such as Cross
fit, boxercise, HIYY, tabata, trx, MAS (maximum Aerobic Speed) and how they relate are all
interesting and relevant and can be explored with how they relate to Sport Science theory.

For example
Maximal aerobic speed (MAS) is scientifically defined as the minimal running speed at which
VO2 max occurs. An athlete’s MAS is calculated by dividing the distance covered over say
1500m, by the time taken, while working at the hardest intensity you can. This yields a value
in meters per second. Training in this manner generally involves intervals performed at or
above MAS for a specified amount of time, accompanied by a 1:1 - 2:1 work to rest ratio.
Common protocols are the 120% 15:15 Eurofit method and Tabata 20:10 method. Both
scenarios employ short enough work intervals to allow speeds above 100% MAS followed by
incomplete recoveries. (source: Gustin, G, Energy System Development: Comparing Maximal
Aerobic Speed and Extensive Tempo for Team Sport, found at
http://fitforfutbol.com/2016/06/energy-system-development-comparing-maximal-aerobic-
speed-and-extensive-tempo-for-team-sport-by-greg-gustin/)

Calculating Maximum Aerobic Speed (MAS)

There are a couple of simple tests that you can perform in order to establish your maximum
aerobic speed.
Test 1 – The Beep test
The beep test is a simple to conduct test that determines your RUNNING DISTANCE & SPEED
when you reach your VO2max. The Test commences at 8km/hour and increases by 0.5Km/h
each minute up until fatigue is reached. At this point you VO2max and running speed can be
calculated.

The 1.6km (1 mile) run All you need to perform this test is a 400m athletic track. Simply
record the time it takes for you to run the 4 laps. This aerobic test will determine your
maximum aerobic speed by dividing the distance in meters 1600 by the time in seconds.
E.g. if you ran the 1600m in 6 minutes (360 seconds) the calculation would be:
1600/360 = 4.444m/s
4.444 m/s would be considered you 100% MAS.

Notes taken from: https://www.protrainingprograms.com/blog/determining-your-maximum-

aerobic-speed

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  The Training Year

Whether a program is designed for a competitive athlete or an individual keen to improve their
health-related fitness, it must be planned carefully so that the desired outcomes are
achieved. Any annual plan must take into account:

• The individual’s test results.

• Calendar dates of competitions.
• Rate of progressive overload.
• Fitness components to be developed.
• Climate and season.
• The fact that a high level of competitive fitness cannot be maintained for the whole
year.

PERIODISATION
The key element in structuring a sound training year for athletes is called periodization.
An annual plan must be divided into smaller phases of training. It basically means the cycling
of specificity, intensity and volume of training to achieve peak levels of fitness for competition.
The training year is divided into periods that will achieve different things.

An elite athlete may be preparing for a major event that is one or even four years away, such
as the Olympic Games. They cannot maintain peak fitness for the whole time and may even
have to peak several times before their main goal, such as for team selection or world
championships. Therefore it is obvious that the program has to be divided into smaller chunks
or periods. The training year may be divided into three main periods.

Phases of the Periodisation Model:

1. PREPARATORY (PRE-SEASON)
- General preparation phase.
- Specific preparation phase

2. COMPETITIVE (IN-SEASON)

- Pre-competition phase
- Competitive phase

3. TRANSITION (OFF-SEASON)

• The transition (or off-season) phase

The off-season period should be both a psychological and physical break from the sport in
which you have been competing. It usually lasts 6–12 weeks. Training during this period
should be devoted to remaining reasonably active without staying involved in the chosen
sport. If you are inactive during this period, you will rapidly lose the benefits of previous
training. Suitable off-season training would include low-intensity weight and running
training twice weekly, supplemented by active recreational games (such as basketball,
61
 tennis and swimming) played for enjoyment. The off-season period should also include
specialised weight-training or speed programs to remedy any diagnosed weaknesses.
Training methods that suit this phase of training include continuous training, cross training
and resistance training.

• The preparatory (or pre-season) phase

During the general preparatory or fitness foundation phase, emphasis is placed on
developing general fitness as a solid base on which to build and specialise in the following
phases. This subphase usually lasts 4–10 weeks and gives special emphasis to
developing the aerobic energy system.

During this subphase, the volume of training is high, but the intensity is low to start with,
and increases very slowly. Specialised programs to remedy specific player weaknesses
should be continued during this subphase. During the specific preparatory subphase,
there is a shift in training towards more specific game-related fitness work. The intensity of
training should increase while the volume slowly decreases. This subphase usually lasts
2–6 weeks.

• The competitive (or in-season) phase

The competitive phase usually lasts 4–6 months. During the competitive season, the
emphasis is on maintaining pre-season fitness. Because of the heavy demands of
competition, not every training session during this phase should be long and intense.
Training should work on a hard–easy cycle. Sessions early in the training week should be
longer and more intense. Sessions later in the week should be lighter and less intense so
that players are not still recovering from fatigue on competition day.

(Source: Queensland Senior Physical Education, Glenn Amezdroz, Sue Dickens, Geoff Hosford, Tania Stewart &
Damien Davis, Macmillan Education Australia, 2010, (pages 366-367) ISBN 9 781 4202 2943 (pbk.)

TAPERING AND PEAKING

• Tapering – A reduction in training before a major event to allow for complete recovery
and optimal performance due to reduced fatigue and maximum strength or endurance.
It should begin a week before the event or competition but depends on the type of
sport and level of competition.

• Peaking refers to those training techniques that result in players reaching their
optimum state of readiness to perform. Peaking is related to training intensity and
must be considered on two levels: over the whole year, and for specific individual
games or events.

o Whole year peaking – In a whole year plan, the goal is to have players peaking
during the in-season period. A training program with a longer pre-season
phase, which includes gradual overloads in intensity into the early in-season,
will result in a slower improvement rate, but a higher final peak that can be
maintained longer ie for the duration of the in-season. An example relates to a
majority of team sports with a roster.

62
 o In-season peaking – This relates to peaking for specific
matches/competitions/events during the in-season period (eg a crucial match,
selection, qualifier, trials, Grand Final, Olympics, Commonwealth Games, World
Cups) this requires some rest from training or at least easing up to allow
complete recovery and a build-up of peak strength and endurance on
competition day. Examples include sports such as swimming, gymnastics,
athletics, dance, rowing etc but could also relate to some team sports such as
the Australian Soccer Team.

(Source: Queensland Senior Physical Education, Glenn Amezdroz, Sue Dickens, Geoff Hosford, Tania Stewart &
Damien Davis, Macmillan Education Australia 2010, (pages 367) ISBN 9 781 4202 2943 (pbk.)

63
 2.2 Recovery

With regards to the replenishment/recovery rates for the three energy systems, it often depends on
the type, intensity, duration of the activity being performed along with the individual differences
(such as the diet prior to exercise or chronic adaptations) of the athlete, thus the level of fuel
depletion will vary and thus the replenishment rates will also vary. There is also much conjecture
and debate surrounding times, and ongoing research is still being conducted.

Recovery is often defined as ‘the process of returning the body to its pre-exercise state’
including restoration of all energy stores and the evacuating from muscles of all accumulated
metabolites which would inhibit performance quality. However, in a sense, it is more than
that, as highlighted by the AIS in describing recovery as being “the process of allowing your
body to adapt to the training stimuli presented to it”.
http://sls.com.au/sites/sls.com.au/files/The%20Latest%20on%20Recovery.pdf

Thus, our body must in fact return to something more than in pre-exercise state in order for
chronic adaptations to occur. We are more concerned here, though, with the specific process
which occur in the time following exercise. The nature and duration of any recovery process is
determined by the duration and intensity of the activity as well as personal factors of the
athlete, most notably, their level of fitness.

 Physiological Causes of Fatigue, concept of rest days, overtraining

Fatigue is defined as a state of discomfort and decreased efficiency resulting from prolonged
or excessive exertion (Amezdroz et al, 2010 p 421).

The specific causes of fatigue include the following

o Fuel Depletion
 In intense activities which rely on the ATP-PC system, fatigue results when
our stores of PC are depleted- this usually occurs at about the 10 second
mark.
 When working using the LA system, the fuel is glycogen. It is unusual that
glycogen will be sufficiently depleted to prevent work at this intensity level; it
generally only occurs at the end of an endurance event and stops a person
from sprinting for more than the time available using their ATP-PC system.
 In endurance events, the body can usually store sufficient fuel for several
hours of work. It tends to use sources of glycogen and then stored forms of
fat. As this process occurs, the intensity must slow down due to the
increased amount of oxygen needed to breakdown fat into ATP (Hitting the
Wall).

o Metabolic by-products
 Too many hydrogen ions (H+), generated from anaerobic glycolysis,
decreases the pH in the muscles and plasma (increasing the acidity) to the
point where the muscles can no longer contract (Acidosis)
64
 o Dehydration and increased body temperature
The loss of as little as a couple of percent of body fluids, through sweating
(which contains water, salt and electrolytes) can be enough to impact on
physical performance. A range of factors can lead to, or contribute to
dehydration and an increased body temperature.

Suggested Resource: e-Teaching, Disc 1 “Fatigue and Recovery”

The degree to which each of the specific causes listed above contributes to the
overall fatigue of an athlete is determined by a range of factors such as:

- The type, duration and intensity of the activity being undertaken:

- The fitness level of the athlete
- The mental state of the athlete
- The nutritional state in terms of glycogen storage and hydration levels
- and others

REST DAYS
The concept of the need for rest days in a training program is one for which much debate
occurs. The fact that Tour de France riders cover roughly 3500km in 23 days with only 2 rest
days, suggests that you can do exhaustive exercise on multiple consecutive days. However,
there are many factors which need to be considered on this point.

The idea of a 200km bike ride is just a daily work routine for a professional rider, yet for the
average cyclist, it would be a challenge requiring a great deal of training in order to achieve it.
This shows how the fitness of the athlete, and the concept of diminishing returns helps
determine whether they can cope with daily training.

However, even for the fittest of athletes, the structure of their program and the nature of their
recovery is often what dictates their ability to train on a daily basis. For many such athletes,
the notion of a “rest” day is just a reduced intensity or duration of training. They also have
much more rigorous refueling and rehydration programs which ensure they are sufficiently
energized to perform at such levels.

For the mere mortals among us, the average athlete, the ability to train on a daily basis, or the
need for rest days, is often determined by the nature of the activities undertaken. Seldom is
the need for a rest day based on cardiovascular reasons, but more likely based on muscular
ones.

Thus weight training can be undertaken every day, or even twice a day, by alternating the
session/day on which each muscle group is worked.

For endurance athletes, the cardiovascular system can be worked every day, while sparing the
muscles, to some extent, by mixing up activities such as running one day, swimming the next
or running one day and cycling the next, such as the training program a triathlete would
undertake.

For those involved in team sports, there is no reason why they could not train on a daily basis,
again with varying emphases on the intensity and duration on each session.

65
As a general rule, an average healthy person can still improve their fitness by training every
other day; and even serious athletes should allow their bodies at least one day per week of
complete rest to ensure full recovery. In all instances, attention should be paid to nutritional
and physical recovery between sessions to ensure that fatigue either does not occur, or is
minimized, so as to reduce the likelihood of overtraining and injury.

OVERTRAINING
Physiological conditioning requires a balance between applying progressive overload and
recovery. Too much overload and/or too little recovery may result in a collection of emotional,
behavioural, and physical symptoms which have been formally recognized as "overtraining
syndrome". This is not daily variations in performance and post exercise tiredness that is
common in conditioned athletes. For such a condition to occur, the symptoms should have
persisted for weeks to months. Overtraining is marked by cumulative exhaustion that persists
even after recovery periods. Athletes and coaches often refer to the condition as "burnout" or
"staleness."

Common Warning Signs and Symptoms of Overtraining Syndrome

• Washed-out feeling, tired, drained, lack of energy

• Mild leg soreness, general aches and pains
• Pain in muscles and joints
• Sudden drop in performance
• Insomnia
• Headaches
• Decreased immunity (increased number of colds, and sore throats)
• Decrease in training capacity / intensity
• Moodiness and irritability
• Depression
• Loss of enthusiasm for the sport
• Decreased appetite
• Increased incidence of injuries.
• A compulsive need to exercise
(List taken from http://sportsmedicine.about.com/cs/overtraining/a/aa062499a.htm )

66
  Recovery Strategies

COOL DOWN (EXERCISE OR ACTIVE RECOVERY)

An active recovery should be undertaken after any exercise that relies primarily on the LA or
O2 systems (For further information on cooling down, see Topic 1.5 “Training Programs - The
Training Session - Cool Down”). From a recovery perspective, an active recovery can speed up
the removal of LA by as much as 50 %. It should be followed by a stretching regime.

STRETCHING
There are different types of stretching, however, it is now established that the most effective
type to be undertaken as part of a recovery, following all types of exercise, is passive
stretching for at least 5-10 minutes, with each stretch being held for at least 10 seconds.
Their purpose in recovery is to help muscles to relax, realign muscle fibres and re-establish
their normal range of movement. For further information on stretching, see Topic 1.5 “Training
Programs – Methods - Flexibility”).

PASSIVE RECOVERY
This refers to sitting down and not moving after exercise. It is only suggested as appropriate
for high intensity activities which rely primarily on the phosphagen/ ATP-PC energy system.

REHYDRATION
As mentioned above, dehydration can result in a decrease in performance, so rehydration is
important, especially in endurance events and in hot and/or humid environments. To ensure
adequate rehydration, many athletes weigh themselves before and after activities, and
continue the rehydration process until the figures are equal. Ongoing rehydrating during the
activity will reduce the amount of rehydration necessary during recovery. During recovery,
water is fine for rehydrating, although sports drinks, whether purchased or homemade - that
include water, salts, electrolytes and carbohydrates are shown to be more effective.

COMMONLY USED TECHNIQUES (the list below is NOT exclusive):

• Cold Water Immersion (CWI) (Plunge)/Cryotherapy (as recommend on the AIS Website).
Primarily used post training sessions, training in the heat or during the acute phases of
muscle injury, soreness or bruising. Try to accumulate up to 10 minutes in the plunge pool to
shoulder level in a single immersion or multiple shorter immersions.
For example 10 minute plunge (relax as much a possible!) Or 1. 3 minute plunge (relax as
much a possible!) 2. 2 minutes out of water (air temperature) 3. Repeat 3 times (AIS Recovery
Use guidelines
https://www.ausport.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/641354/Recovery_Pools_Usage_
Guidelines.pdf

• Contrast water therapy (CWT) (Spa/Plunge)

Alternating between hot and cold water; Primarily used post training session as an alternative
to cold water immersion or between training sessions.
Do not use if you have damaged muscles, a very recent injury or bruising. Try to have equal
time on both spa and plunge pool, and always finish after a plunge.
67
https://www.ausport.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/641354/Recovery_Pools_Usage_
Guidelines.pdf

• Hot-water immersion (HWI)

This is usually done in a temperature of about 37-40o C, and can be done in a spa to use
the jets as a form of massage therapy as well

• Massage
There is conflicting views on the effectiveness of the use of massage as a form of
recovery, some suggest that it has no scientific basis as a means of recovery.
According to the AIS Recovery Symposium, in December 2011, massage as a means of
recovery has no scientific basis and may be detrimental to DOMS, although as a practice,
it is still widely used (as found at
http://sls.com.au/sites/sls.com.au/files/The%20Latest%20on%20Recovery.pdf)

• Compression
In recent times, one of the simplest and most commonly used forms of recovery has
become the use compression garments. They do not seem to have any adverse effects
and may have some positive effects from a physiological perspective (studies show a
mixed bag of outcomes). It is from a perceived psychological perspective, they seem to be
considered most effective by those who use them.

• Low intensity pool sessions

“Pool recovery sessions are a great way to get the body moving again following a match
and/or hard training session - the water minimizes bodyweight and is a therapeutic way to
recover with a combination of swimming, mobility, deep water running and shallow water
wading. It’s a perfect way to get bruised and fatigued bodies moving again with very
minimal risk of injury.
“The pool workout can also ‘offload’ the weight on a strained or injured area while still
allowing a player to train at the required intensity through a combination of swimming and
deep water running drills.” (Paul Haines, Fitness coach at GC Suns - Water Therapy article
by Dom Cadden 2XU website)

68
  Role of the O2 Transport System in Recovery (EPOC) & O2 Debt

The bio-energetics of recovery are based around the delivery of oxygen in volumes higher than
that which would normally be required post exercise at rest. Over the years various theories
have been postulated as to what was actually happening in these processes and from the
latest research we have come to fully understand the concepts as EPOC.

EXCESS POST EXERCISE OXYGEN CONSUMPTION (EPOC)

Due to the energy utilised at the beginning of exercise there needs to be a restoration process
taking place. After the cessation of exercise, oxygen consumption drops rapidly at first but
remains above normal resting levels for some time. This requires oxygen and this demand
created is repaid during EPOC, which has two phases:

1. The Rapid Recovery (Alactacid) Phase

2. The Slow Recovery (Lactacid) Phase.

Reference: Bowers, Richard W. & Fox, Edward L., 1992, Sports Physiology, 3rd Edition, WCB
McGraw-Hill, USA, page 77

69
From:
http://moodle.coleggwent.ac.uk/NLN/Vocational/Health%20Studies%20and%20Sports%20Science/L
evel%203/Anaerobic%20respiration/78D85EB7-C6EC-4FF3-9764-2A1BB69B3ACB/602.html

ALACTACID DEBT: REPLENISHMENT OF ATP & PC STORES

The first physiological processes that take place during alactacid debt phase are the re-
saturation of myoglobin (intramuscular oxygen) and haemoglobin with oxygen
(oxyhaemoglobin in the blood). Alactacid debt is also responsible for the replenishment of
phosphagens (stored ATP and PC). The whole process uses between 2-4 litres of oxygen and
is usually 50% complete within 20-30 seconds and fully completed within 2-3 minutes.

LACTACID DEBT: REMOVAL OF LACTIC ACID (INCLUDES FATE OR REMOVAL)

A more significant portion of the EPOC is accounted for by the oxidation of Lactic Acid. This
process, which occurs in the liver, relies on a supply of oxygen.

The rate at which lactic acid leaves the muscle and enters the blood stream (as blood lactate)
is determined by the rate at which blood flows through the tissues.

Lactic acid may be taken up by the heart and other skeletal muscle and converted back into
Pyruvic acid and further metabolised in order to generate energy in the form of ATP.

The fate of the remaining Lactic Acid is summarised in the table below:

Fate of the Lactic Acid

65% is oxidised to form carbon dioxide and water.

20% is converted back into glucose by the liver. This is

returned to the liver and muscles to be stored as glycogen.

10% is converted in the liver to form protein.

5% is converted into glucose.

70
From: http://www.sportsphysiologyhealth.com/lactic-acid-removal-and-the-lactacid-oxygen-
debt-component

(The information above is a basic repetition of information contained in the unit 1.1 Energy
Systems, The LA system)

Also accounting for a proportion of the extra oxygen consumed are the heart and respiratory
muscles which take a considerable time to return to normal resting levels, as well as the
processes needed to return the body temperature to normal.

It is during the Lactacid Phase of EPOC that muscle and liver glycogen, which are depleted
during exercise, must be replenished.

 Nutritional Replenishment

CONSUMPTION OF CHO: Suggested Time Frame

The major dietary factor in post-exercise refueling is the amount of carbohydrate consumed.
In the immediate post exercise period, athletes are encouraged to consume a carbohydrate
rich snack or meal (that provides 1-1.2 g of carbohydrate per kg body weight) within the first
hour of finishing, as this is when rates of glycogen synthesis are greatest. This is especially
important if the time between prolonged training sessions is less than 8 hrs. The type and
form (meal or snack) of carbohydrate that is suitable will depend on a number of factors,
including the athletes overall daily carbohydrate and energy requirements, access and
availability of suitable food options and the length of time before the next training session.

“Research (Amezdroz et al 2010, p426) suggests that food with a high glycemic index (foods
that quickly release glucose) should be consumed immediately following activity”

CONSUMPTION OF Protein: Suggested Time Frame

Though research is continuing, most agree that both resistance and endurance athletes will
benefit from consuming 15-25g of high quality protein in the first hour after exercise. Adding a
source of carbohydrate to this post exercise snack will further enhance the training adaptation
by reducing the degree of muscle protein breakdown.

71
Reference: Tables and notes from “Recovery Nutrition” Fact Sheet from the AIS. Found at:
http://www.ausport.gov.au/ais/nutrition/factsheets/competition_and_training2/recovery_nut
rition

MUSCLE GLYCOGEN REPLENISHMENT RATES (for continuous & intermittent activity)

Glucose is a major fuel for energy during exercise. Depending on the type, intensity, duration
of the activity being performed along with the individual differences (such as CHO loading,
chronic adaptations) of the athlete, the level of glycogen depletion will vary and thus the
replenishment rates will also vary.

• In most cases, even for continuous exercise, the majority of glycogen stores will be
replenished within 5-10 hours, especially if CHO loading increases fuel supplies prior to
continuous activity and if post exercise nutritional regimes are adhered to.

• Any fats consumed during the recovery process will result in a decreased rate of glycogen
replenishment.

• Consuming protein with carbohydrates enhances glycogen storage. Proteins are needed
post-exercise as they amino acids that are necessary to rebuild damaged muscle tissue.

• It can take up to 48hours to restock glycogen stores after exhaustive aerobic exercise
such as marathons, triathlons etc (Amezdroz et al 2010, p 426).

REHYDRATION: FLUIDS & ELECTROLYTES

Dehydration has been shown to have a negative impact on performance (see above). Hence,
the need for rehydration after exercise is crucial. It can take up to 24 hours to fully rehydrate
after very intense activities, and given that thirst is a poor indicator of the need for fluids,
there are some general guidelines that athletes should follow to ensure they are adequately
hydrated.
• Drink at regular intervals, such as every 20 min’s, when exercising; especially in hot and
humid conditions.
• Drink at a rate of about 500-800-mL/hour in endurance events, depending on the
conditions
• Carbohydrate replacement drinks are really only necessary for events lasting for more than
one hour, otherwise water is sufficient
• Drinks are most easily ingested into the intestinal wall when cool- not when warm or cold
• Caffeine and alcohol consumption in recovery can heighten dehydration by making you
urinate even more
• To tell if you are fully rehydrated, you can either weigh yourself before and after exercise,
or monitor the colour of your urine until it is clear and almost colourless
• Where fluid loss has been extensive (in excess of 2-3% of body mass) then commercial
rehydration drinks with electrolytes and sodium may be of use; otherwise cordial and a
normal diet should suffice

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 Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS)

CHARACTERISTICS
DOMS is something most athletes will know well and have experienced, yet surprisingly, there
are many misunderstandings and misconceptions about it. The first is that DOMS is not the
acute soreness we feel in our muscles during or immediately after high intensity exercise- this
is associated with “muscle burn” from acidosis.

DOMS describes a phenomenon of muscle pain, soreness or stiffness that occurs one to three
days after exercise. It is most frequently felt when you begin a new exercise program, change
your exercise routine, or dramatically increase the duration or intensity of your exercise
routine, and is a normal response to unusual exertion and is part of the recovery process that
leads to chronic adaptations.

While the exact cause of DOMS is unknown, it is thought to be a result of microscopic tearing
of the muscle fibers, with most researchers agreeing that it is linked strongly to eccentric
contractions; where the muscle lengthens during contraction. Examples of eccentric muscle
contractions include going down stairs, running downhill, lowering weights and the downward
motion of squats and push-ups. In addition to small muscle tears there can be associated
swelling in a muscle which may contribute to soreness.

ACTION FOR MINIMISING IMPACT/PREVENTION

There is no one best way to treat DOMS and individuals are advised to experiment and find
which of a range of methods works best for them. Treatment options include: ensuring you
are fully warmed up prior to the exercise; doing nothing and letting it recover on its own,
usually within 5-7 days; perform an active recovery after the exercise; stretching/yoga;
massage; CWI or contrast therapy; for some people, more of the same exercise that caused
the DOMS in the first place, but done at a gentler intensity has been beneficial; or low
intensity, non-load-bearing activity such as swimming or cycling.

For further info on DOMS, go to http://sportsmedicine.about.com/cs/injuries/a/doms.htm

http://www.sport-fitness-advisor.com/delayed-onset-muscle-soreness.html

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