Agriculture

Ecosystems &
Enwronment
ELSEVIER Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 54 (1995) 151-163

A review of the evaluation and use of tropical forage legumes in

sub-Saharan Africa
D. Thomas, *, J.E. Sumberg
Natural Resources Institute, Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime ME4 4TB, UK
School of Development Studies, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, UK
Accepted 21 December 1994

Abstract

This paper evaluates research on herbaceous tropical forage legumes in sub-Saharan Africa and offers two alternative
explanations for the lack of adoption of adapted species. There is a considerable volume of literature from sub-Saharan Africa
on the evaluation, chemical composition, fertiliser requirements, persistence, management and use of forage legumes. Most
legumes tested are exotic and emphasis has been placed mainly on Australian species and cultivars of Stylosanthes, Centrosema,
Desmodium, Lablab and Macroptilium. Research programmes have been characterised by cycles of introduction and re-intro-
duction of legumes, and most of the screening has been observational or conducted under cutting on-station. Relatively few
accessions of a given species have been tested at any one time and, in total, represent only a small proportion of the collections
held in the major forage gene banks. Ignorance of the literature and a failure in communication between forage scientists, even
within countries, have resulted in costly duplication of effort. Despite the potential benefits of forage legumes and the availability
of species adapted to a wide range of environments, actual use in the livestock sector has been limited, with the exception of
dairy production systems in highland areas,

Keywords: Legumes; Herbaceous forages; Evaluation; Sub-Saharan Africa

1. Introduction conservation (Byenkya, 1988). In west Africa, exper-

iments were initiated on the use of legumes to maintain
Studies with pasture plants in sub-Saharan Africa soil fertility at Ibadan, Nigeria, in 1922(Faulkner,
began in the early years of this century. Fodder culti- 1934; Vine, 1953).
vation was seen as essential if the negative environ- After the Second World War, pasture and fodder
mental impacts of nomadic livestock production were research intensified and was influenced strongly by the
to be avoided through intensification, and if slash and pioneering work on tropical pasture plants in northern
burn agriculture was to be replaced by more productive, Australia. It became an article of faith among animal
sedentary, mixed farming systems (Lord Lugard, 1926; scientists that improving the quantity and quality of
Hall, 1936). In east Africa, the first legumes were intro- feed through the introduction and cultivation of better
duced into Uganda in 1906 for use primarily in soil fodder species was a prerequisite for the development
of the livestock sector. Systematic introduction and
* Corresponding author: Tel. + 44 1634 883811; Fax. + 44 1634 screening of legumes and grasses for their forage and
883888. soil regeneration was undertaken in the 1950s and

0167-8809/95/$09.50 © 1995 Elsevier Science B.V. All fights reserved

SSDIOI 6 7 - 8 8 0 9 ( 9 5 ) 0 0 5 8 4 - 6
152 D. Thomas, J. Sumberg / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 54 (1995)151-163

1960s in many countries including Ghana, Kenya, implications for future forage research and develop-
Madagascar, Malawi, Nigeria, Swaziland, Tanzania, ment.
Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe (Kategile, 1985;
Haque et al., 1986; Kategile et al., 1987; Dzowela,
1988). During the 1970s and 1980s pasture research
continued and generally expanded. The International 2. The environment
Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Nigeria
and the International Livestock Centre for Africa Sub-Saharan Africa exhibits considerable diversity
(ILCA), working at various sites in east and west in agroecology, which results from variations in rain-
Africa, initiated programmes to collect, introduce and fall, altitude, slope and soils (ILCA, 1993). Mean
screen fodder plants. Networks linking national and annual rainfall ranges from less than 100 mm in some
international institutes and scientists were formed to areas of the Sahel to 9000 mm in the mountains of
promote and co-ordinate fodder research activities Cameroon. Most of west, central and southern Africa
(Dzowela, 1990). experience a single growing season, however in the
It is not surprising, therefore, that the literature relat- highlands there are generally two distinct growing sea-
ing to forage legumes in sub-Saharan Africa is consid- sons. In the last 2 decades, 20 countries have experi-
erable. Agishi (1991) prepared a bibliography for enced significant and, in some cases, persistent periods
Africa that contains 1239 citations for over 100 mainly of drought. Altitude ranges from 120 m below sea level
herbaceous legume species from more than 35 genera. in the Danakil depression of Ethiopia to 5895 m above
The tropical species most cited are, in order, Stylosan- sea level on the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro. Some
thes guianensis, Centrosema pubescens, Desmodium 4% of the land area is over 1500 m and classified as
uncinatum, Stylosanthes hamata, Labab purpureus, highlands, with almost 50% of it occurring in Ethiopia.
Macroptilium atropurpureum, Desmodium intortum Approximately 40% of the land has a slope of more
and Stylosanthes humilis. Forage legumes have been than 8° and is, therefore, vulnerable to water-induced
studied in terms of establishment, fertiliser require- erosion. Soils vary in texture from sandy Arenosols to
ments, nutritive value and chemical composition, reac- heavy, poorly drained Vertisols. Acid soils (Ferralsols
tion to defoliation, persistence, seed production, pests and Acrisols) cover 18% of the region, and 10% of the
and diseases, grazing management and animal perform- soils (Solonchaks and Solonetz) are saline. Deficien-
ance. Legumes have been tested as components of cies of macronutrients and trace elements are wide-
grass-legume mixtures, used to reinforce native spread.
pastures, established as fodder-banks, planted as inter- Domestic ruminant livestock include cattle, sheep,
crops and in leys, and in some cases, sown under trees goats and camels, and mixed herds and flocks are com-
in plantations. Using this same bibliography, Jutzi mon. Livestock are managed in a range of production
(1992) analysed the historical development of trends systems, varying from nomadic pastoralism, through
and priorities in fodder research in southern Africa. sedentary smallholder systems which integrate crops
Despite this considerable body of research and expe- and livestock, to intensive commercial systems (Tothill
rience, covering all of the major agro-ecological zones et al., 1989). An estimated 74% of the cattle of sub-
in Africa, and over a period of 9 decades the cultivation Saharan Africa are associated with smallholder mixed
of legumes specifically for forage is minimal. Apart farming systems (Brumby, 1986), and these systems
from their use in a limited number of specific situations, are considered to offer the best potential for increased
such as dairy production in the highlands of east Africa, productivity through intensification (Winrock Inter-
farmers and livestock producers have overwhelmingly national, 1992; Mclntire et al., 1992). The introduction
chosen not to take advantage of the range of benefits and use of forage legumes are considered an essential
legumes can offer. part of the process of intensification (Table 1).
This paper reviews the ethos and methods that have Livestock in Africa provide food, manure, power,
supported research on the evaluation of forage legumes cash, hides and fibre. Livestock are used as an inflation-
in sub-Saharan Africa, examines the reasons for lack proof asset that is readily convertible into cash in dif-
of use by farmers and livestock producers and discusses ficult times.
 D. Thomas, J. Sumberg /Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 54 (1995) 151-163 153

Table 1
Entry points for the introductionof forage legumesinto smallholdermixed farms

Entry points Technique Forage type

Fallow Fodderbank/proteinbank Forage legume

Cereal crop Crop residue supplementation Forage/tree legume
Intercrop Hedgerow/alley farming Tree legume
Intercrop Pulse or forage legume
Self-regenerating Forage legume
Plantationundercrop lntercrop Forage legume
Ley pasture Relay sowing/intercrop Forage legume
Natural pasture Oversowing Forage legume
Sown pasture Cultivationsowing Grass + forage legume
Other Intensivefeed garden Tree legume, forage legume,grass
Fenceline Tree legume
Contourbunds Grass, forage legumestrips, tree legume

Modified from TothiUet al. (1989).

3. The need for forage legumes farming systems in Africa can now be observed in
which, in various ways and to varying degrees, inte-
The early analyses of agriculture in sub-Saharan grate crop and livestock production. One example is
Africa were driven by a complex set of political, eco- the Gambia where highly mechanised, mixed crop-
nomic and environmental concerns. It was believed that livestock production is now the norm but the system
the rationalisation of indigenous pastoral and slash- has little in common with the vision of mixed farming,
and-burn farming systems, through sedentarisation and including forage legumes,promoted over many years
intensification, would help create the conditions for by the government (Sumberg, 1992; Sumberg and Gil-
political stability, social and cultural development, sur- bert, 1992).
plus production and better control over the exploitation Most livestock scientists, forage agronomists, devel-
and management of natural resources, particularly for- opment agencies and government policy-makers accept
ests and rangelands (Lord Lugard, 1926). Legumes that one of the major technical limitations to increased
were seen to be crucial in enabling this transition to productivity of ruminant livestock in sub-Saharan
take place, as they would provide high quality feed to Africa is poor nutrition, resulting from the lack of a
replace native pastures and substitute for extended fal- reliable feed supply of adequate quality. This problem
low periods as the primary strategy for maintaining soil is most frequently cited in relation to areas with a pro-
fertility. This analysis led to a number of programmes nounced dry season; loss of body weight during the dry
aimed at promoting mixed farming in east and west season is used as an unequivocal indicator of a nutri-
Africa, with most included both animal traction and the tional or feed constraint. Although crop residues and
cultivation of forage legumes. The results of most crop by-products are important feed resources in some
attempts to promote mixed farming and, in some cases situations, native vegetation found on range and fallow
impose it through legislation and force were disap- lands is in most cases the primary source of nutrients
pointing. Nevertheless mixed fanning and the promo- for livestock. This seems unlikely to change in the
tion of greater crop--livestock interaction have recently foreseeable future.
taken on new life as research and development themes The productivity of native grasslands is constrained
(Mclntire et al., 1992; Winrock International, 1992) by the levels and distribution of available soil nutrients
and forest legumes continue to be central to these inte- and water (Tothill et al., 1989). Outside the more arid
grated farming models. It is important to note that areas the nutritive value (protein content and digesti-
despite the generally poor record of efforts to promote bility) of most grass species declines rapidly with
specific models of mixed farming, a wide range of advancing physiological maturity and reaches very low
154 D. Thomas,J. Sumberg/ Agriculture, Ecosystemsand Environment54 (1995) 151-163

levels during the dry season in most situations the appli- Strategies for evaluation of pasture plants are well
cation of nitrogen fertiliser to grazing lands is imprac- established. Although actual methods vary, there are
tical for both economic and logistical reasons. generally three basic steps. The evaluation of large
Attention has therefore focused on the introduction of numbers of accessions in lines or very small plots for
forage legumes, which, in principle, have the potential adaptation to climatic, edaphic and biotic factors is
to improve the quality and utilisation of grassland followed by agronomic evaluation of selected acces-
resources. The decline in the nutritive value of legumes sions, in pure stands or binary mixtures, under cutting
with advancing maturity is not as dramatic as that seen or grazing. Finally a limited number of 'elite' acces-
in tropical grasses, which contributes to the potential sions or combinations are tested in large fields under
of legumes for increasing animal performance. The different management systems, with monitoring of
fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by legumes contrib- both pasture and animal performances.
utes to the nitrogen economy of the pasture, including The sections which follow illustrate some of the
the increase in the nitrogen content of the associated results of the use of these strategies and methods, with
grass species. In sub-Saharan Africa, depending on special reference to two particularly well-researched
environmental conditions and age, the nitrogen fixed genera. It is significant that although there is consid-
by pasture legumes in experimental plots amounts to erable literature relating to the use of these general
between 45 and 290 kg ha- i annually, with even higher approaches to test forage legumes in experimental sta-
amounts in highland areas (Thomas, 1973). Stobbs tions in the major agro-ecological zones of sub-Saharan
(1975) estimated that in the monsoonal tropics (5--6 Africa, there are still relatively few examples of
months dry season), reinforcing native pasture with on-farm evaluation of forage legumes (Mohamed-
legumes and the application of some fertiliser could Saleem, 1986b; Taylor-Powell and Suleiman, 1986).
increase beef production from 80 to 120-170 kg ha-1
while sowing grass-legume pastures could increase 4.1. Species of Stylosanthes
this further to 200-300 kg ha- ~. In the humid tropics,
with a long growing season, still higher production Forage research in both Australia and south America
levels are attainable from improved pastures (Stobbs, has focused on Stylosanthes over many years, and there
1975). are a number of Australian commercial cultivars for
which seed is readily available. The genus Stylosanthes
has a special place in the discussion of forage legumes
4. Screening of forage legumes in Africa as it has provided many of the most widely
tested species.
To play a significant role within livestock production Stylosanthes species have been tested throughout
systems in sub-Saharan Africa, forage legume species east and southern Africa. Hakiza et al. (1988b) and
must be available that are adapted to the climatic, Larbi et al. (1992) evaluated accessions of Stylosan-
edaphic and biotic factors prevailing in the environ- thes fruticosa (syn. Stylosanthes mucronata), Stylo-
ments in which they are to be utilised. The important santhes guianensis (syn. Stylosanthes gracilis) and
characteristics generally sought inpasture germplasm Stylosanthes scabra in Ethiopia. In Tanzania, Lwoga
relate to establishment, growth, survival and nutritive et al. (1985) reported the screening of S. guianensis,
value. Williams et al. (1976) suggested five basic S. scabra and Stylosanthes humilis. The first two spe-
requirements for a pasture species: high dry matter cies along with Stylosanthes hamata, S. fruticosa and
yield, persistence, adequate feed quality, compatibility Stylosanthes capitata were tested in Kenya by Menin
with other species, and easy propagation and establish- et al. (1988). In Uganda, Stobbs and Joblin (1966a),
ment. Each of these characteristics has many measur- Stobbs and Joblin (1966b), Stobbs (1969a), Stobbs
able components including seedling vigour, growth (1969b), Stobbs (1969c) and Stobbs (1970) con-
rate, tolerance to climatic stresses, resistance to pests ducted grazing trials in which liveweight gains were
and diseases, tolerance to defoliation and seed produc- measured from associations of legumes and grasses
tion potential. The relative importance of these com- which included S. guianensis. Experiences with Stylo-
ponents will vary in different environments. santhes species are also reported from Madagascar
 D. Thomas, J. Sumberg /Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 54 (1995) 151-163 155

(Rasambainarivo et al., 1985) and Mauritius (Jotee, uation. As in eastern and southern Africa, promising
1988). According to Clatworthy (1984), comparisons accessions were recommended for use in improved pas-
of different Stylosanthes species have been made in tures.
almost all countries within southeast Africa (defined Considerable data are available from west Africa on
as those countries lying south and east of Zambia; animal performance, particularly for S. guianensis in
annual rainfall 500-1250 mm), but the results have not the northern Guinea zone, although results vary
usually been reported in detail. Information from Bot- depending on the type of trial and environmental con-
swana and the Republic of South Africa is especially ditions. In northern Nigeria, cv. Cook and S. hamata
scant. The most widely tested species is S. guianensis, cv. Verano were recommended for inclusion in fodder-
and there has been some experience with S. hamata, S. banks (Tarawali et al., 1988). In this system blocks of
humilis and S. scabra. In Malawi and Zambia, S. gui- legume (4 ha-~) are established and managed by pas-
anensis cv. Cook has generally proved well adapted toralists near their homesteads. After early wet season
and, in Zimbabwe, cv. Oxley. Timberlake and Dionisio grazing to control invading grasses, utilisation is
(1985) reported that cvs. Cook and Oxley were used deferred until the dry season to allow a build-up of
to reinforce native pasture in Mozambique. Increased forage. Selected animals are allowed to graze for up to
cattle production, resulting from oversowing native 2.5 h day- i. In principle, the soil fertility built up under
pasture with S. guianensis, has been demonstrated in the fodder-banks can be exploited later with the estab-
Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe. As a result of these lishment of annual cereal crops.
studies, species of Stylosanthes have been recom- The most serious biological constraint to Stylosan-
mended by the various authors for use in cultivated thes in sub-Saharan Africa is the disease anthracnose,
pastures. caused by the fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides.
The testing of Stylosanthes in west Africa was However, the disease is not as important in sub-Saharan
reviewed by Lazier (1984). Rainfall in the region Africa as in the savanna areas of South America, the
ranges from 100 to 1800 mm annually. As in the other centre of diversity of most Stylosanthes species.
regions, S. guianensis has been the species most tested.
This legume is adapted to areas extending from the 4.2. Species of Centrosema
north of Senegal (latitude 16°N) to southern Zaire
(12°S) and Angola, and from the northern Guinea zone Experiences with Centrosema in 24 countries of sub-
to the humid zone in Nigeria, the central African Saharan Africa were reviewed by Lazier and Clatwor-
Republic, the Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Benin and thy (1990). However, the original information is
Cameroon. In associations, it is compatible with a wide fragmentary and is often reported in relatively inacces-
range of grasses including Panicum maximum, Andro- sible publications. Most experiences with the genus
pogon gayanus, Chloris gayana and species of Bra- have been based on just one species, Centrosema
chiaria. Stylosanthes guianensis has also been tested pubescens. This species grows in climates ranging from
in crop rotations to replace fallows. Stylosanthes humi- humid to semi-arid, and in cooler environments at
lis has been successfully sown in drier areas (600-700 medium altitudes ( 1000-1700 m) or higher latitudes.
mm annual rainfall) on sandy soils in northern Nigeria. However, it performs best in more humid areas of low-
Stylosanthes hamata has also been shown to be adapted land sub-Saharan Africa where rainfall exceeds 1100
to these areas. In southern Niger, where annual rainfall mm with a dry season of less than 5 months. Yields in
averages 560 mm, Kouame , pet al. (1992) evalu- the dry season can be increased dramatically by irri-
ated indigenous S. fruticosa and S. hamata in crops of gation. It has performed well in Chad, the Ivory Coast,
millet. Since the mid-1970s larger numbers of Stylo- Nigeria, Senegal, Zaire, Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda.
santhes lines, covering a broader range of species, have In Malawi, Mozambique and Ghana, it has been used
been screened by organisations such as ILCA in Nige- as a cover crop in rubber, coconut and mango/cashew
ria, and also in Cameroon, Senegal and Zaire. In The plantations, respectively. Centrosema pubescens com-
Gambia, Russo (1986) reported that lines ofS. humilis, bines well with many grass species including Panicum
S. hamata, S. scabra, S. guianensis, Stylosanthes maximum, Andropogon gayanus, Pennisetum purpu-
macrocephala and S. capitata were introduced for eval- reum and Cyno&m plectostachyus. Grazing trials with
156 D. Thomas, J. Sumberg/Agriculture, Ecosystemsand Environment54 (1995) 151-163

Table 2
Rangeof characteristicsof sites at whichgood performanceof Centrosemaspecieshavebeen reportedin sub-SabaranAfrica

Species Latitude Annualrainfall (mm) Altitude (rn) Soil type

C. arenarium 8°N Irrigated 1650 Basic Tufa

C. brasilianum 1I°-I4°N 300-1100 < 700
C. hybrid 18°S 800 1200 Silty
C. 8-11°N Irrigated 500-1650 Basic Tufa
macrocarpum
C. pascuorum 12-26°S 650-1500 < 1300 Clay
C. plumieri 0° 1800 < 500 -
C. pubescens 15-18°S 450-2000 < 1700 Vertisols SandyLoams
C. schiedeanum 8°N Irrigated 1650 Basic Tufa
C. schottii 5°N 600 1500 -
C. virginianum 1-25°S 700-900 700-1650 -

Source:Lazierand Clatworthy(1990).

sheep and cattle on pure and mixed Centrosemapubes- (1991) cites only 13 references to the use of the spe-
cens pastures have been conducted in Ghana, Nigeria, cies, mainly the Australian cvs. Clarence, Cooper and
Madagascar and Uganda. Tinaroo. Macrotyloma axillare cv. Archer, released in
Although the list of countries (Burkina Faso, Mali, Australia in 1966, has been tested. However, there are
Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Liberia, The Gambia, Senegal, few references in the African literature despite the local
Zaire, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Madagascar, Zim- origins of the genus. Pueraria phaseoloides has been
babwe, Republic of South Africa) in which other spe- used in more humid areas, often under plantation crops.
cies of Centrosema have been screened is considerable, Chamaecrista rotundifolia (syn. Cassia rotundifolia )
very few species and lines have actually been tested. cv. Cavalcade has shown promise in Nigeria as an alter-
Of the more recently available species, Centrosema native to S. hamata cv. Verano in fodder-banks. Loto.
pascuorum has been the most widely evaluated. The nonis bainesii is recommended for sandy soils in
species, total number of sites and the range of charac- southern Africa, whilst Clitoria ternatea shows poten-
teristics of these sites are presented in Table 2. tial for coastal Kenya and, under irrigation, in the
Sudan.
4.3. Other legumes

Species of genera other than Stylosanthes and Cen- 5. General considerations

trosema have been evaluated in sub-Saharan Africa
(Table 3). Australian cultivars of Desmodium intor- Most of the legumes evaluated to date have been
turn and Desmodium uncinatum have been the most exotic to Africa, and emphasis has been placed on Aus-
widely tested species, and have been recommended in tralian commercial cultivars, presumably because of to
sub-humid and semi-arid areas, where cooler temper- the ease with which research and development pro-
atures prevail in the dry season, and at higher altitudes. grammes have been able to import seed. With the
Australian cultivars of Lablab purpureus have been exception of Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria and Zimbabwe,
evaluated particularly in the drier areas in countries little effort has been made to collect and multiply leg-
such as Botswana, Mali and, under irrigation, in the ume seed in Africa. In addition, the accessions so far
Sudan. In the genus Macroptilium, only Macroptilium evaluated represent a small percentage of those held in
atropurpureum (usually the Australian cv. Siratro; syn. the major forage germplasm banks. Schultze-Kraft et
Phaseolus atropurpureus) has been tested extensively; al. (1990) for example indicate that there are 1925
it is one of the few tropical forage legumes produced accessions held in major collections of Centrosema
by hybridisation (Hutton, 1962). Although Neono- species in Colombia, 1147 in Australia, 1073 in Brazil
tonia wightii is indigenous to the sub-continent, Agishi and 339 in the USA. Accessions of 35 Stylosanthes
 D. Thomas, J. Sumberg /Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 54 (1995) 151-163 157

Table 3
Promising or recommended species other than Stylosanthes and Centrosema evaluated in sub-Saharan Africa

Species Countries References

D. uncinatum, D. intortum, D. sandwicense, D. Burundi, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Ghana, Ast6re ( 1985); Njwe et al. (1992); Lazier
adscendens, D. leiocarpum, D. ovalifolium Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, ( 1989); Mengistu and Lazier ( 1989); Tetteh
Nigeria, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, ( 1976); Orodho ( 1990); Rasambainarivo et al.
Zambia, Zimbabwe ( 1985); Thomas (1976a); Thomas (1976b);
Timberlake and Dionisio ( 1985); Mohamed-
Saleem (1986a); Ogwang ( 1986); Lwoga et
•,d. (1985); Urio (1987); Stobbs (1969e);
Byenkya (1988); Sabiiti et al. (1988); Kulich
and Kaluba (1985); MacLaurin and Grant
(1987)
Lablab purpureus ( = Dolichos lablab ) Botswana; Ethiopia; Kenya; Mali; Chandler (1985); Njarui (1990); Mengistu
Mozambique; Nigeria; Sudan; Zambia and Lazier (1989); Onifade and Agishi
( 1990); Osman and Osman ( 1982); Kulich
and Kaluba (1985)
Macroptilium atropurpureum ( = Phaseolus Botswana; Ethiopia; Gambia; Ghana; Kenya; Chandler ( 1985); Mengistu and Lazier
atropurpureus ) ; M. lathyroides ( = P. Madagascar; Malawi; Mauritius; ( 1989); Russo (1986); Adjei and Fianu
lathyroides ) Mozambique; Nigeria; Tanzania; Uganda; (1985); Njarui ( 1990); Rasambainarivo et al.
Zambia (1985); Thomas (1976a); Thomas (1976b);
Jotee ( 1988); Timberlake and Dionisio
( 1985); Mohamed-Saleem (1986a); Onifade
and Agishi (1990); Lwoga et al. (1985);
Stobbs ( 1970); Kulich and Kaluba (1985)
Neonotonia wightii ( = Glycine wightii) = G. Botswana; Ethiopia; Kenya; Malawi; ('.handier (1985); Mengistu and Lazier
javanica) Mauritius; Mozambique; Nigeria; Swaziland; ( 1989); Larbi et al. ( 1985); Orodho ( 1990);
Tanzania; Uganda; Zambia; Zimbabwe Dzowela ( 1985); Jotee ( 1988); Timberlake
and Dionisio ( 1985); Onifade and Agishi
(1990); Ogwang (1986); Lwoga et al.
(1985); Sabiiti and Mugerwa ( 1990); Kulich
and Kaluba ( 1985); MacLaurin and Grant
(1987)
Pueraria phaseoloides Ghana; Mozambique; Nigeria; Sierra Leone; Asiedu et al. ( 1978); Timberlake and Dionisio
Uganda; Zimbabwe ( 1985); Onifade and Agishi ( 1990); Amara
( 1986); Byenkya ( 1988); Biwi (1990)
MacrotylomaaxiUare(=Dolichosaxillaris); Ethiopia; Kenya; Malawi; Nigeria; Zambia; Mengistu and Lazier (1989); Menin et al.
M. africanum; M. daltonii Zimbabwe ( 1988); Njarui ( 1990); Thomas ( 1976a);
Thomas (1976b); Onifade and Agishi ( 1990);
Kulich and Kaluba ( 1985); MacLaurin and
Grant (1987)
Chamaecrista rotundifolia ( = Cassia Ethiopia; Kenya; Nigeria Mengistu and Lazier ( 1989); Njarui ( 1990);
rotundifolia ) Tarawali et al. (1989)
Lotononis bainesii Tanzania; Swaziland; Zimbabwe Lwoga et al. (1985); Ogwang (1986);
MacLaurin and Grant (1987)
Clitoria ternatea Kenya; Tanzania; Sudan Njarui (1990); Lwoga et al. (1985); Ayoub
(~986)
Aeschynomene americana; A. histrix Gambia; Kenya Russo (1986); Njarui (1990)
Zornia latifolia; Z. glabra; Z. brasiliensis; Z. Ethiopia; Nigeria; Botswana; Zambia Hakiza et al. (1988); Mohamed-Saleem
setosa; Z. glochidiata; Z. diphylla; Z. ( 1986a); Chandler (1985); Cranfurd and Prins
pratensis. Rhynchosia sublobata (1979)

species held in these countries n u m b e r 2241, 1451, 1984). In Australia, 124 accessions o f M a c r o t y l o m a
1922 and 838, respectively (Schultze-Kraft et al., species are stored ( B l u m e n t h a l and Staples, 1993) and
158 D. Thomas, J. Sumberg/Agriculture, Ecosystemsand Environment54 (1995) 151-163

at ILCA, 6443 herbaceous legumes from 377 species stock sector have experimented with or adopted this
and 63 genera are held in the germplasm bank (Hanson new technology. The limited use of legumes which has
and Lazier, 1989). The fact that relatively few lines of taken place has been mainly on large state-farms, in
a given species have been tested means that a small grazing reserves controlled by the government, or on
proportion of the total available variation has been eval- commercial ranches. However, even in these situations,
uated. Exceptions are the more thorough evaluation of the development and use of improved pasture has not
Zornia species and S.fruticosa by Hakiza et al. (1988a) generally been sustained.
and Hakim et al. (1988b) and those of Neonotonia Finding an answer to the question of why livestock
wightii and S. scabra undertaken by Larbi et al. (1992). producers have been so hesitant to grow and use forage
In summary, fodder legume research programmes legumes is essential if future fodder research is to make
have been characterised by cycles of introduction and a positive contribution to the livestock sector in sub-
re-introduction with, in many cases, a distinct lack of Saharan Africa. The remainder of this section outlines
continuity. Screening has been almost exclusively con- two scenarios that may explain the non-adoption of
ducted on experimental stations. The major emphasis forage legumes: the first revolves around a complex of
has been on the use of observation plots for the evalu- reasons often cited by fodder and livestock researchers,
ation of environmental adaptation, with a more limited and the second outlines an alternative explanation.
degree of testing under cutting. There are relatively few The non-adoption of forage legumes in sub-Saharan
reports of species being tested under grazing (either on Africa is usually explained with reference to factors
or off-station), and most trials are of short duration such as the basic motivation of livestock keepers, the
(less than 4 years). Ignorance of the literature and poor regimes governing access to and control of land and
communication between forage scientists, even within the limited resources and capabilities of extension and
countries, appear to have resulted in serious duplication research institutions. These factors are most commonly
of effort. woven together as follows.
Farming practices have evolved to ensure survival
and maximum returns for minimum effort. In the tra-
6. Use of forage legumes ditional sector livestock are kept for many purposes,
but their value is often perceived more in terms of
In sub-Saharan Africa, native pastures and crop res- numbers rather than productive potential. Emphasis is
idues continue to be the major source of nutrients for on survival and maintenance of the maximum number
ruminant livestock. However, the nutritional deficien- of animals rather than maximum production from a
cies associated with heavy reliance on native pasture more limited number. Nevertheless, in the face of
are well documented. At the same time, the capacity of increasing demand for livestock products and pressure
legumes to improve soil fertility and increase pasture on land resources, livestock producers need to be more
and animal production is, at least in the view of scien- market-orientated.
tists and technicians, beyond dispute. In some situa- The concept of a crop planted solely for use by live-
tions this appreciation of the value of legumes is also stock is generally contrary to experience. Producers
shared by farmers and livestock producers; grain leg- cannot afford to take risks in subsistence agriculture,
umes such as groundnuts and cowpeas are known for so priority for the use of resources such as labour is
their positive effects on soil fertility, and the residues given to staple food crops. Accordingly, and ironically,
of these crops are often used or sold for livestock feed. legume forages currently have little place in crop-based
Despite the limitations of the various introduction systems even though these systems potentially offer the
and screening programmes, research over the last 30 best opportunities for legume introduction.
years has identified adapted and persistent forage leg- Land tenure systems vary among ethnic groups and
umes which have been recommended for use in a range often do not incorporate the idea of individual owner-
of environments. However, in contrast to Australia, the ship. Individuals may not have exclusive or permanent
adoption of legume-based pastures as a adjunct to or rights to use particular pieces of land, and security of
substitute for rangeland, has not occurred in sub- tenure often depends on regular agricultural use. With-
Saharan Africa. Few producers in the traditional live- out ownership or security of tenure, farmers are
 D. Thomas, £ Sumberg /Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 54 (1995) 151-163 159

unlikely to invest in new technology, especially in per- nutritional deficiencies are the single most important
ennial legumes. In most countries, grazing land is com- constraint to increased livestock production in Africa)
munally owned and access is uncontrolled. Under these that is not recognised as such by those who will be
conditions, there is no control on stocking rates and, expected to implement the proposed solution. The
given the preoccupation with animal numbers, farmers researchers have, therefore, broken a fundamental rule
are unwilling to exercise restraint. Grazing manage- of successful applied research; the identification of the
ment techniques are difficult to implement without problem with or by the client group. Similarly, simple
fencing, and it is impossible to prevent uncontrolled benefit--cost analyses, that assume that livestock pro-
annual burning of pastures. Thus, under these condi- duction is the only economic activity probably do not
tions, it is most unlikely that legume introduction will reflect the complex basis on which decisions concern-
be successful. ing adoption and resource allocation are actually taken.
Transfer of technology in most countries of Africa The difference between an analysis that assumes a goal
is hampered by the lack of well-organised extension of maximum production over the dry season and one
services. These services, such as they are, tend to focus geared toward an acceptable level of survival at mini-
on crop production; animal production has a low pri- mum cost could well be the difference between adop-
ority. Consequently, there is a shortage of specialised tion and non-adoption of a proposed legume
extension officers capable of advising farmers on pas- technology.
ture development. Clatworthy et al. (1986), for exam- Recently, attention has been drawn to the fact that
ple, cited lack of farmer knowledge as an important African livestock producers use flexible or opportun-
constraint to the adoption of legumes in the communal istic management strategies in the face of uncertain
farming areas of Zimbabwe, and concluded that there rainfall and fodder availability (Westoby et al., 1989;
was a great need to demonstrate to farmers the benefits Behnke et al., 1993). This analysis also has some rel-
of growing and using legumes correctly. Linkages evance to the discussion of forage legumes. Land tenure
between pasture research scientists and the extension and, specifically, lack of private ownership, has con-
services are also weak. sistently been evoked as a constraint to the adoption of
Other factors which are often cited as directly or forest legumes. Yet the new analyses point to the over-
indirectly limiting the adoption of forage legumes riding need for flexibility of movement and access to
include (a) the unavailability of locally produced seed, fodder and water resources because of very significant
(b) the lack of credit facilities for the purchase of inputs inter-annual variation in rainfall. These considerations
such as seed, fertiliser and fencing, (c) distorted pric- might lead to the conclusion that the level of investment
ing policies that do not guarantee economic returns to and negative implications for livestock mobility asso-
farmers, (d) the poor condition of infrastructure which ciated with the use of forage legumes would likely
disrupts both delivery of inputs and removal of outputs make adoption of legume technology a risky proposi-
and (e) a lack of adequate markets for livestock prod- tion in anything but the short-term. In addition to date
ucts (Dzowela et al., 1990). there has been little analysis of the labour implications
An alternative explanation for the lack of interest in of adoption of legume forages. Yet as argued by Berry
forage legumes might begin with the models that have (1993), limited labour availability in terms of total
been used to analyse livestock activities in Africa and quantity and seasonal availability is probably the single
that have provided the base for livestock research and most important factor affecting the course of agrarian
development policy for almost a century. These models change, including agricultural intensification in sub-
heavily discount the rationale behind and the benefits saharan Africa.
of traditional livestock systems. They thus set the stage
for the misinterpretation of some of the key technical
parameters of these systems. Unfortunately, some of 7. Conclusions
these misinterpretations are central to much of the logic
supporting research on forage legumes. For the last 40 years, considerable resources have
Thus, forage researchers have usually set out to been devoted to screening and testing of forage legumes
address a problem defined at a very general level (i.e. in sub-Saharan Africa and species which are adapted
160 D. Thomas, J. Sumberg /Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 54 (1995) 151-163

to a range of environmental conditions have been iden- References

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