REVIEW ARTICLE

www.afm-journal.de

Wearable Haptic Feedback Interfaces for Augmenting

Human Touch
Shubham Patel, Zhoulyu Rao, Maggie Yang, and Cunjiang Yu*

1. Introduction
The rapid development of virtual and augmented reality has highlighted the
growing need for haptic feedback interfaces, particularly in portable or We are currently living in an era of rapid
wearable formats. These haptic feedback interfaces significantly enhance the technological advancement that is con-
tinually transforming our experiences
immersive experiences of users across various domains, including social
and interactions. At the intersection of
media, gaming, biomedical instrumentation, and robotics by utilizing diverse fields such as augmented real-
sophisticated actuators to stimulate somatosensory receptors or afferent ity (AR), virtual reality (VR), medical
nerves beneath the skin, thereby creating tactile sensations. Despite the prosthetics, and telerobotics, there is a
progress in various haptic feedback interfaces that employ diverse working compelling array of breakthrough inno-
vations. Among these innovations, haptic
mechanisms, each mode has limitations. This article comprehensively
technology plays a pivotal role in a pio-
reviews the current state and potential opportunities of various haptic neering field that aims to simulate the
feedback interfaces with a particular focus on actuator technologies. Existing sense of touch through the application of
haptic feedback interfaces can be classified into three main categories: forces,[1] vibrations,[2] motions,[2b,3] and
force-based haptic feedback interfaces, thermal haptic feedback interfaces, electrical impulses.[4] Haptic technology,
and electrotactile haptic feedback interfaces. which originated in the mid-20th century,
primarily served as an enhancement tool
for machinery and flight operations.[5]
Its primary objective was to improve
manual control and promote safety and
precision in these fields. Subsequently, haptic technology found
S. Patel, Z. Rao new applications in robotics, providing tactile feedback to op-
Materials Research laboratory
University of Illinois erators controlling robotic systems. This marked the begin-
Urbana-Champaign ning of the expansive journey of haptic technology, which has
Urbana, IL 61801, USA been propelled by advancements in computational capabilities,[6]
S. Patel, Z. Rao sensors,[7] and actuator miniaturization,[2b,8] as well as a deeper
Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics understanding of human biomechanics[9] and sensorimotor
The Pennsylvania State University
systems.[8b,10] In recent years, haptic technology has played a
University Park, PA 16802, USA
crucial role in the development of AR/VR, tele-haptic interac-
M. Yang
State College Area High School tion (Figure 1), and assistive devices for individuals with sensory
650 Westerly Pkwy, State College, PA 16801, USA impairments.
C. Yu Advancements in wearable haptic devices that interact directly
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering with the human skin have led to a new wave of realistic tactile
Department of Materials Science and Engineering feedback. Notable among these achievements is the development
Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering
Department of Bioengineering of haptic gloves that simulate touch sensations in virtual reality
Materials Research Laboratory applications, offering an unprecedented level of interaction.[11]
Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology Haptic technology has also been integrated into advanced pros-
Nick Holonyak Micro and Nanotechnology Laboratory thetic limbs to provide sensory feedback to users and improve
University of Illinois
the functionality and acceptance of these devices.[12] Another sig-
Urbana-Champaign
Urbana, IL 61801, USA nificant development has been the integration of electrical stim-
E-mail: [email protected] ulation into haptic technology, which has expanded the range of
The ORCID identification number(s) for the author(s) of this article
tactile sensations available.[4b,13] The invention and application
can be found under https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202417906 of electrical stimulation have revolutionized the haptic world,
© 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by broadening the horizon for realistic touch feedback and mak-
Wiley-VCH GmbH. This is an open access article under the terms of the ing it even more immersive and user-friendly. Haptic technol-
Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution ogy has become a fundamental component of various devices
and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly used daily, including smartphones, smartwatches, and gaming
cited.
controllers.[14] This integration enables users to interact with the
DOI: 10.1002/adfm.202417906

Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 2417906 2417906 (1 of 23) © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
 16163028, 0, Downloaded from https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202417906, Wiley Online Library on [04/02/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de

Figure 1. Conceptual illustration of futuristic bilateral and multimodal tele-haptic interactions.

digital world in a more interactive and realistic manner. The im- 2.1. Physiology of Human Touch and Spatiotemporal Resolution
plementation of haptic technology has facilitated collaboration
among multiple fields, including neurobiology, physics, engi- The process of human touch involves spatiotemporal interpre-
neering, and computer science. This interdisciplinary approach tation of various environmental stimuli, which is facilitated
has yielded new insights and driven rapid innovation in the field. by an extensive network of somatosensory receptors, includ-
The advancement of haptic technology has not been without ing thermoreceptors, nociceptors, and mechanoreceptors, spread
challenges such as simulating the intricate and complex human throughout the body.[16] These receptors respond to different
sense of touch, overcoming limitations in technology, and gaps types of stimuli such as pressure, vibrations, and temperature,
in our understanding of the human sensory system. Progress in and are located at different depths in the skin. The skin itself
materials science, sensor technology, computational algorithms, is a complex layered structure with diverse viscoelastic proper-
and design methodologies continues to drive this advancement. ties that contributes to tactile perception.[17] Furthermore, the
This progress is unrelenting and continually enhancing the per- skin serves as a platform for tactile impressions, which are then
formance, versatility, and usability of these devices. This review channeled to the receptors. Nociceptors and thermoreceptors are
aims to provide a broad understanding of the role of human skin- unmyelinated terminal branches that are spread throughout the
based somatosensory receptors for haptic feedback and in light upper portions of the dermis and epidermis.[16] Mechanorecep-
of this understanding, the latest wearable haptic feedback inter- tors are encapsulated receptors and, in the human hand, have a
faces are reviewed and categorized as force-based haptic feedback high spatial distribution in the fingertips and are relatively sparse
interfaces, thermal haptic feedback interfaces, and electrotactile in the palm.[18] There are four primary types of mechanorecep-
haptic feedback interfaces tors (Figure 2a): Meissner’s corpuscles (fast-adapting or FA I),
Pacinian corpuscles (FA II), Merkel’s disks (slow-adapting or SA
2. The Science of Sensation I), and Ruffini’s corpuscles (SA II).[15b,19] Fast-adapting receptors
respond to mechanical stimuli with swift and intense responses;
The skin is the largest organ of the human body and plays however, their responses decline with continuous exposure to
a crucial role in tactile-based communication with the exter- the stimuli (Table 1). Slow-adapting receptors, however, maintain
nal environment.[15] Densely packed mechanoreceptors convey their responses as long as the stimulus persists. SA I and FA I are
both visual and audio information. Given the significance of the distributed closer to the skin and have higher densities than SA
skin in tactile-based communication, it is imperative to compre- II and FA II receptors.[9a] The skin layers interlock to prevent rel-
hend its psychophysical properties to create an effective human– ative sliding and act as a stress-distributing filter, which plays a
computer interface. This section provides an overview of the es- vital role in defining the spatial resolution of the receptors.[20]
sential characteristics of human skin required for the design of The sensitivity and spatiotemporal boundaries of these so-
an effective tactile-based human–machine interface. matosensory receptors in detecting various mechanical stimuli

Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 2417906 2417906 (2 of 23) © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
 16163028, 0, Downloaded from https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202417906, Wiley Online Library on [04/02/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de

Figure 2. a) Skin’s mechanical receptors are responsible for cutaneous haptic perception. Created in BioRender. Patel, S (2025) https://BioRender.com/
t41z874. b) Results of two-point discrimination tests on different parts of the human body. Reproduced (adapted) with permission.[19] Copyright 2017
International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology.

directly influence our ability to discern different objects, patterns, ing lower tactile sensitivity.[20,23] For instance, the average thresh-
and directional stimuli.[20,21] For instance, the highest spatial res- old of the palm is at least two times higher than that of the finger-
olution, which can be defined as the minimum possible sepa- tips, which exhibit significantly lower pressure thresholds than
ration the human hand can discriminate between two contact those of the rest of the body. Temporal resolution is another crit-
points, can be found in the fingertips (Figure 2b), which can dis- ical aspect of tactile perception. In humans, receptors can dis-
tinguish between two points as close as 1 mm apart.[22] Several tinguish events separated by as little as 1.4 ms, equivalent to the
indicators of tactile sensitivity exist, including pressure threshold discrimination of vibrations up to 700 Hz.[20] Our receptors can
and degree of skin deformation. The pressure threshold varies differentiate between two distinct tactile events that occur at dif-
across different body parts, with higher threshold values indicat- ferent locations within an interval of 30–50 ms, enabling us to

Table 1. Summary of tactile receptors in human glabrous skin and selected characteristics.

Merkel cells Meissner’s Pacinian corpuscle Ruffini Free nerve endings Krause end bulbs
corpuscle corpuscle

Type SA I FA I FA II SA II – –
Adaptation rate Slow Fast Fast Slow – Slow
Spatial acuity [mm] 0.5 3–4 10+ 7+ – –
Vibration/rapid – –
indentation threshold
mean [μm]
Stimulation frequency 0.4–3 3–40 40–500+ 100–500+ – 40–80
[Hz]
Effective stimuli Spatial Temporal changes Temporal changes in Sustained Pain, temperature, crude touch Cold temperature, light
deformation, in skin skin deformation downward touch
sustained deformation pressure,
pressure, lateral skin
curvature, stretch, skin
edge, corners slip
Sensory function Pattern/form Low-frequency High-frequency Finger Nociception, thermoreception, Thermoreception, localized
detection, vibration and vibration detection, position, general touch touch in specific areas
texture motion tool use stable grasp,
perception, detection, grip tangential
tactile flow control, tactile force,
perception flow perception motion
direction

Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 2417906 2417906 (3 of 23) © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
 16163028, 0, Downloaded from https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202417906, Wiley Online Library on [04/02/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de

sense multiple simultaneous events.[24] Importantly, spatial and information for managing the gripping forces required to grasp
temporal resolutions exhibit an inverse relationship.[22] This in- objects.[23a,34b] Recognizing tactile information regarding shear
verse relationship arises from the distinct contributions of the assists in adjusting gripping force. Tactile feedback continuously
SA1 and RA fibers to spatial perception. At high frequencies, the communicates the current state of the system to the central ner-
RA signal interferes with the SA1 signal in the task of spatial acu- vous system.[23b] For instance, the task of manipulating an ob-
ity, which affects the spatial resolution.[25] ject can be viewed as a system comprising several states, such as
Thermoreceptors are another vital component of our so- reaching, loading, lifting, holding, replacing, and unloading. So-
matosensory system. These specialized neurons are sensitive to matosensory receptors respond differently to each of these states,
temperature changes and are categorized as cold and warm re- aiding the central processing unit in completing the manipula-
ceptors. Cold receptors, primarily consisting of A𝛿 and C fibers, tion task. This tactile information also optimizes the timing of
are activated by a decrease in temperature, typically responding different stages of a manipulation task.
to temperatures between 5 and 35 °C, with a peak response at This section highlights the physiology of human touch and the
≈25 °C.[23b,26] In contrast, warm receptors are activated by an in- role of mechanoreceptors in decoding the various types of tactile
crease in temperature and respond to a temperature range of 30– information. It outlines the spatiotemporal thresholds of the dif-
48 °C, with peak sensitivity at ≈43 °C.[23b,26] Notably, the firing ferent mechanoreceptors. Somatosensory receptors, distributed
rates of these receptors vary with temperature changes as small within the skin along the soft outer skin layer, are important for
as 0.1 °C, providing the nervous system with precise thermal receiving tactile information such as shape, orientation, hard-
information.[27] The distribution of thermoreceptors is not uni- ness, and surface roughness.
form across the skin; they are found at higher densities in areas,
such as the face and hands, which are more frequently in con- 3. Force Based Haptic Feedback Interfaces
tact with external objects and the environment. Warm receptors
are less numerous, with densities approximately one-third to one- Force-based haptic feedback interfaces are proficient in simulat-
half of those of cold receptors in comparable regions.[28] The in- ing both tactile and kinesthetic sensations.[35] To realize such
terplay between mechanoreceptors and thermoreceptors allows systems, the use of mechanical actuators is vital; they emu-
for a nuanced perception of our surroundings, where tempera- late the force sensations experienced by skin or muscles in
ture cues can enhance or alter the tactile experience.[29] virtual interactions.[3] However, when it comes to sensing nu-
anced attributes such as weight, stretch, or joint movements,
torque becomes essential. Consequently, simple mechanical ac-
2.2. Role of Tactile Sensing in Perception tuators are not always adequate for delivering comprehensive
kinesthetic feedback.[35] Currently, a large portion of kinesthetic
Both tactile (skin-based) and kinesthetic (movement and feedback mechanisms employ substantial external mechani-
position-based) sensations are critical in recognizing cues, such cal equipment that are not portable and easy to wear. In the
as the texture and shape of an object with which we interact.[23b] evolution of wearable kinesthetic feedback systems, two cen-
In particular, tactile sensing is adept at determining material ge- tral components have emerged: materials that can modulate
ometrical properties, particularly when the object’s size signifi- their mechanical rigidity[36] and the advancement of miniatur-
cantly surpasses that of the fingertip.[8b] The role of mechanore- ized mechanisms.[8c,37] Considering that a significant portion of
ceptors is fundamental in detecting an object’s shape, partic- mechanoreceptors are just below the surface of the skin and are
ularly when the dimensions are within the fingertip’s contact often millimeters or micrometers in dimension, tactile feedback
area (7–12 mm).[30] These receptors, with substantial input from systems that feature dense actuator arrays are paramount, es-
slow-adapting receptors, convey information about the shape pecially compared to their kinesthetic counterparts. It has been
and orientation of an object. The curvature of an object and speculated that most skin deformations can be mimicked using
the directionality of the contact force can also be inferred from diverse pressures and vibrations across a range of frequencies
these signals.[31] Mechanoreceptors are located near the interme- and intensities.[14a,38]
diate ridges in the human skin, which are undulating epider- This section explores three core force-based haptic feedback in-
mal tissues that reach the junction between the epidermis and terfaces: hydraulic, pneumatic, and electromechanical actuators
dermis.[20,23b] These intermediate ridges amplify tactile signals such as electromagnetic and piezoelectric actuators. Hydraulic
from the skin surface and concentrate stress, thereby enhanc- and pneumatic actuators rely largely on external pumps[39] and
ing the ability of receptors to distinguish the finer details of an elastomer-induced cavities.[40] These actuators can simulate the
object.[17a] Another crucial function of receptors is to identify the sensations of impacts or object contours, and by modulating the
surface roughness of an object in which both spatial and tem- rigidity of their microchannel networks, they can transmit mul-
poral parameters are involved.[32] Fingerprints aid in detecting tifaceted signals to joints. In contrast, electromechanical actua-
finer textures.[33] During active or passive touch, the tangential tors, such as piezoelectric and electromagnetic actuators, are typ-
motion between the object and skin further augments the recep- ically employed for tactile sensations, primarily vibrations, owing
tors’ ability to perceive surface roughness. Surface roughness is to their rapid feedback and potential for miniaturization.
closely associated with friction, a relationship that becomes more
pronounced when tangential forces are involved.[34] Slip detec- 3.1. Hydraulic Actuator-Based Haptic Feedback Interfaces
tion is crucial for determining surface roughness and adjusting
grip force. Tactile feedback from an object influences our estima- Hydraulic technologies are widely utilized in the industrial ma-
tion of the force required to hold it, thereby providing essential chinery, automotive, robotics, and automation sectors owing to

Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 2417906 2417906 (4 of 23) © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
 16163028, 0, Downloaded from https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202417906, Wiley Online Library on [04/02/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de

their advantageous power-to-weight ratios and robustness.[41] downward, causing the liquid to flow into the central part, lead-
These systems convert pressure into mechanical force by utiliz- ing to expansion and upward movement. An example of such an
ing liquid as a transmission medium to enable the movement of actuator is the hydraulically amplified taxel (HAXEL), which has
the actuators. In the realm of haptic feedback, hydraulic actuation exceptional characteristics such as a response time of less than
employs changes in the liquid volume within microchannels to 5 ms and an efficiency of 100 W kg−1 .[44] This actuator comprises
modulate the mechanical properties and shape of the feedback a cavity filled with dielectric liquid, sealed by a non-stretchable
devices.[42] This method has been demonstrated to be effective in 100-μm polyethylene terephthalate (PET) substrate layer with a
providing both kinesthetic and tactile feedback, thereby simulat- 50-nm aluminum coating and a stretchable poly dimethyl silox-
ing realistic touch interaction. The hydraulic system, which relies ane (PDMS) film on top. Specific cavity deformations can occur
on an external framework to govern internal fluid movements, by activating different electrode segments, resulting in both nor-
is used for kinesthetic feedback. Employing changes in the tube mal and lateral dielectric movements, with maximum displace-
structure to apply force to the finger joints allows control over the ments of up to 500 μm for initial pressures above 10 mbar. The
bending angles and force output. As shown in Figure 3a, a glove maximum force measured from the actuator was 160 mN for a
equipped with a braided hydraulic tube system capable of deliv- 10 mbar initial filling pressure, at 1.4 kV. Recently, a stretchable
ering stretching forces is illustrated. Given the critical nature of version of HAXELs (Figure 3b) was developed using stretchable
providing excellent mechanical performance and adjustable feed- dielectrics, electrodes, and substrate.[47] These HAXELs can be
back for a compelling tactile experience, the importance of hy- stretched to 50%, weigh less than 250 mg, and can generate cu-
draulic actuators for achieving high-force and high-strain haptic taneous stimuli well above the reported perception thresholds,
devices cannot be overstated. from direct current (DC) to 1 kHz. HAXELs have recently been
Conventional hydraulic systems, characterized by bulky pip- designed in a range of sizes, from 2 to 15 mm, to cater to vari-
ing and external fluid transportation, often hinder the practical- ous body parts (Figure 3b). These devices can generate forces in
ity of utilizing hydraulic technology in wearable haptic feedback the range of 100–800 mN and induce DC displacements of 100–
interfaces. Potential solutions to this problem may draw upon 850 μm, which are beyond the limits of human perception.[48]
recent advancements in pumping strategies based on stimuli- Moving away from hydraulic haptic feedback, which is de-
responsive gels[43] and electrostatic pumps.[44] For instance, a pendent on cavity deformation, electrorheological fluids have
stretchable bidirectional device was designed based on charge- emerged as another innovative solution capable of providing
injection electrohydrodynamic principles.[39] The pump and force-based haptic feedback. These fluids have the unique abil-
channels were constructed from polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), a ity to change their viscosity and mechanical strength in response
stretchable polymer selected for its chemical stability and ease of to an applied electric field. Figure 3c shows a haptic feedback in-
processing, which ensures significant stretchability and long op- terface utilizing electrorheological fluid.[49] Here, the electrorheo-
erational life. Carbon black was used as the electrode material to logical fluid fills the cavity between the PDMS-sealed acrylic tape
provide the necessary flexibility and conductivity, whereas Novec layer and the electrode. Controlling the fluid flow via an elec-
7100 served as the transmission fluid within the channels. When tric field allows the device to generate pressure and vibrations,
an electric field was applied, ions moved from the cathode to the thereby enhancing the tactile sensation. In contrast to hydraulic
anode, driving liquid flow through the tubes, which were inte- actuators, which rely on electrostatic mechanisms and involve
grated into a wearable glove. This setup was capable of generating cavity deformation, this device achieves changes in surface prop-
pressures exceeding 7 kPa and achieving maximum flow rates of erties through material alterations, providing forces of several
100 ml s−1 at a 5.6 kV voltage. Additionally, reversing the electric newtons when exposed to voltages higher than 1 kV.
field direction triggered the reverse flow of the liquid. Despite
these advancements, integrating such flexible actuation systems
into wearable devices still requires an external water conservation 3.2. Pneumatic Actuator-Based Haptic Feedback Interfaces
system to maintain connectivity with microfluidic actuators.
Advancements in the development of hydraulically amplified An alternative method for generating haptic feedback involves
electrostatic actuators have resulted in notable improvements in the utilization of pneumatic actuators, which bear resemblance
the structure and a reduction in the size of hydraulic feedback to hydraulic actuators. Typically, a pneumatic system is com-
interfaces. These actuators employ electrostatic forces to ma- posed of a network of tubes or cavities filled with air that can
nipulate the shape of a liquid dielectric within a flexible cavity, be pressurized, resulting in the deformation of the shape. No-
thereby allowing for comprehensive hydraulic amplification.[45] tably, the operation of such a system often requires the use of a
When voltage is applied to the electrodes embedded in the elas- compressor.[50] Figure 4a depicts a conceptual design of a pneu-
tomer shell, an electric field is created, resulting in Maxwell matic haptic glove that utilizes changes in air pressure within the
stress, which displaces the liquid dielectric away from the area tubes to manipulate hand gestures. Figure 4b shows a practical
between the electrodes.[46] Figure 3b depicts a hydraulic actu- example of a haptic feedback glove constructed using soft pneu-
ator equipped with tactile feedback capabilities that do not re- matic haptic actuators. These actuators, which are structured in
quire any external water conservation systems or pumps. This three layers, ensure a compact arrangement of air compression
device comprises two primary sections: a ring part that operates and gas channels. The glove integrated ten actuators, each mea-
as the work area for electrostatic attraction, and a central part suring 13 mm by 13 mm and with a thickness of 1.15 mm. This
that serves as the contact area. The liquid was confined within design allowed users to perceive the object they were holding and
the cavity of the device. When polarity voltages are applied to the to control their grip, with the capability to generate forces up to
ring part, electrostatic attraction induces the ring part to move 2.11 N at an input pressure of 20 kPa.[50b] However, utilization

Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 2417906 2417906 (5 of 23) © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
 16163028, 0, Downloaded from https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202417906, Wiley Online Library on [04/02/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de

Figure 3. Hydraulic actuator-based haptic feedback interfaces. a) A schematic of a hydraulic glove that provides stretching on joints for kinesthetic
feedback. CC-BY.[110] Copyright 2022, The Authors. b) A schematic of hydraulic actuators providing out-of-plane displacement activated by an electrostatic
mechanism where cavity deformation leads to dielectric normal and lateral motion (top left and right). Reproduced (adapted) with permission.[44]
Copyright 2020, Wiley-VCH. A 2 × 3 array of HAXELs before and after mounting on the middle of a fingertip, a 2 × 3 array of square HAXELs glued
on an inflated balloon, and a 4 × 3 array of square HAXELs glued on a pen (bottom left). Reproduced (adapted) with permission.[47] Copyright 2023,
Wiley-VCH. HAXEL Stickers (repositionable patches of 5 × 5 HAXELs) can be placed anywhere on the body (bottom right). Reproduced (adapted) with
permission.[48] Copyright 2023, Wiley-VCH. c) Tactile feedback interface based on electrorheological fluid that can change the viscosity and mechanical
strength when an electric field is applied (left), and its mechanical strength (right). Reproduced (adapted) with permission.[49] Copyright 2019, Sage
Journals.

Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 2417906 2417906 (6 of 23) © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
 16163028, 0, Downloaded from https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202417906, Wiley Online Library on [04/02/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de

Figure 4. Pneumatic actuator-based haptic feedback interfaces. a) A schematic of a kinesthetic feedback glove activated by pneumatic tube systems that
control the angles of the hand’s joints. Reproduced (adapted) with permission.[2a] Copyright 2021, Elsevier Ltd. b) A feedback glove activated by groove-
patterned pneumatic channels enabling the users to feel the grasped object and control the grasping. Reproduced (adapted) with permission.[50b]
Copyright 2017, IEEE. c) HaptGlove overview, the kinesthetic feedback module, pneuclutch, delivering the shape and stiffness information of virtual
objects (left), HaptGlove worn on hand (middle), the cutaneous feedback module, pneuindenter, providing touch and vibration feedback (right). CC-
BY.[51] Copyright 2023, The Authors.

of the glove was subject to limitations imposed by the require- variable stiffness force feedback, as well as force and vibration
ment for a tethered connection to external equipment for gas in- feedback at the fingertips. The pneuclutch could generate forces
flation. A potential solution to this problem could be Haptglove, ranging from 3.65 to 22.41 N as the actuation pressure rises from
an untethered and lightweight pneumatic glove that enables nat- 10 to 100 kPa, with a latency of ≈18 ms for kinesthetic feedback,
ural and realistic physical interaction within virtual reality envi- while the pneuindentor could generate forces ranging from 0.11
ronments (Figure 4c).[51] It featured five pairs of haptic feedback to 3.23 N, with a latency of 18.8–155.9 ms for cutaneous feedback.
modules, including pneuclutch and pneuindentor modules, as This allowed for a wide range of interactions with virtual objects,
well as fiber sensors. These modules were capable of delivering including touching, pressing, grasping, squeezing, and pulling.

Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 2417906 2417906 (7 of 23) © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
 16163028, 0, Downloaded from https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202417906, Wiley Online Library on [04/02/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de

Figure 5. Piezoelectric actuator-based haptic feedback interfaces. a) A schematic of the piezoelectric mechanism for haptic feedback. Reproduced
(adapted) with permission.[111] Copyright 2010, Biomedical Engineering Society. b) A smart glove integrated sensors and PZT stimulator with its design
and placement in smart glove (top), integrated demonstration in baseball gaming program with measured haptic stimulation induced by piezoelectric
stimulator (bottom). CC BY -NC.[62b] Copyright 2020, The American Association for the Advancement of Science.

An effective comparison among pneumatic actuator-based ing layer, and restricting layer, enabling it to provide high con-
haptic feedback devices highlights their unique strengths and trol resolution and constant output under different loads through
trade-offs. For instance, the Haptic Glove achieves a maximum real-time closed-loop control based on the linear relationship be-
output force of 2.11 N at an actuation pressure of 20 kPa, mak- tween the output force and capacitance change. It achieved a fast
ing it compact but limited by its tethered design. In contrast, the response (10 ms), high robustness (>10 000 cycles), and a large
HaptGlove’s PneuClutch modules generate significantly higher output force (up to 1.55 N) with high controllable resolution (up
forces, up to 22.41 N at 100 kPa actuation pressure, providing ro- to 0.02 N) based on real-time closed-loop control.
bust kinesthetic feedback, and its PneuIndenter modules deliver
cutaneous sensations with precise force control. While the Hap-
tGlove offers superior functionality and untethered operation, 3.3. Piezoelectric Actuator-Based Haptic Feedback Interfaces
its complexity and integration of multiple modules increase sys-
tem weight and design considerations. These comparisons un- Utilizing the inverse piezoelectric effect, piezoelectric actuators
derscore the diversity in pneumatic actuator-based designs, tai- can convert electrical energy into mechanical movement or stress
lored to different use cases and performance priorities. (Figure 5a).[56] The piezoelectric coefficient (dxy ) is a tensor that
A persistent issue affecting pneumatic actuator systems is the quantifies the relationship between mechanical stress and the
unpredictable nature of the output force generated by the actu- generated electric field, or between an applied electric field and
ators owing to the elasticity of the materials and variable loads the resulting mechanical strain, in different material directions.
resulting from wear and tear.[52] To address this challenge, the Its units are “meter per volt” (m V−1 ) for strain or “coulomb per
implementation of self-sensing actuators based on the principles newton” (C N−1 ) for stress, making it a key property of piezoelec-
of resistance[53] and voltage[54] can be employed to regulate the tric materials. The most important component of this tensor is
output of the actuators. The incorporation of this self-sensing ca- denoted as “d33 ,” corresponding to the strain that occurs in the
pability would simplify the circuitry and sensor requirements of polarization axis for an electric field in the same direction. Other
the control system, leading to enhanced accuracy in the output of coefficients include d31 and d15 , which are measures of perpen-
the actuators with the utilization of a closed-loop system. SenAct, dicular and shear deformations to the polarization axis, respec-
a self-sensing actuator, could be a promising solution.[55] SenAct tively. Piezoelectric materials can be categorized into three types:
consisted of a sandwich arrangement of the actuating layer, sens- crystals such as quartz; ceramics such as lead zirconate titanate

Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 2417906 2417906 (8 of 23) © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
 16163028, 0, Downloaded from https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202417906, Wiley Online Library on [04/02/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de

(PZT); and polymers such as polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF). The net, and the magnet’s dimensions and magnetic properties. Cur-
inverse piezoelectric effect leads to the application of external rently, two predominant categories of electromagnetic actuators
forces to the skin, which serves as a form of haptic feedback. Ow- are in use: eccentric rotating mass (ERM) actuators and linear
ing to their exceptional mechanisms and operational characteris- resonance (LR) actuators.[2a,65] ERM actuators operate on DC and
tics, vibrational haptic feedback can be generated at an extremely function predominantly in a rotational manner. A mass, posi-
rapid response speed. tioned off-center, is attached to the axis of rotation, and its rapid
Currently, various piezoelectric materials suitable for haptic rotation results in an uneven distribution of centripetal force, cul-
feedback interfaces are available, such as PZT,[57] PVDF,[58] and minating in the generation of a vibrational force. In contrast,
perovskite.[59] PZT is notable for its exceptional piezoelectric LR actuators mimic the vibrational mode of a speaker.[66] The
properties and widespread applications in sensors and actua- merits of electromagnetic actuators are evident in their capac-
tors. However, considering the toxicity of lead, the development ity to produce high-frequency vibrations with prompt responsive-
of lead-free piezoelectric materials, such as KNbO3 , is on the ness, outperforming both pneumatic and hydraulic haptic feed-
rise, particularly for use in biocompatible devices.[60] The use of back interfaces in these aspects. Furthermore, they offer superior
ceramic materials in soft haptic feedback interfaces is limited force–displacement and tactile strength in comparison to their
because of their rigidity, whereas flexible polymer-based piezo- piezoelectric haptic counterparts. Figure 6b introduces an inno-
electric materials, such as PVDF and its derivatives, tend to ex- vative portable haptic feedback interface, integrating 192 high-
hibit subpar performance compared to inorganic ceramic piezo- speed taxels based on latching electromagnetic actuators and fea-
electric materials. To overcome this challenge, a combination of turing a groundbreaking magnetic shield concept.[67] This inter-
the inherent flexibility of polymer-based materials and superior face showed impressive rapid refresh times, a substantial verti-
piezoelectric properties of inorganic ceramics can be achieved cal travel amplitude, and a robust holding force. Although this
by mixing ceramic piezoelectric nanoparticles with stretchable portable interface has not yet transitioned to a wearable format
polymers, such as PDMS, to create stretchable piezoelectric directly adhered to the skin, it has successfully found applica-
composites.[61] tions in various domains including gaming, remote collabora-
Figure 5b illustrates a smart glove incorporating a piezoelec- tion, and navigation, providing tactile feedback and assistance in
tric actuator in the form of a PZT chip, which enabled imme- directional guidance.
diate haptic feedback to users in terms of contact and release Looking ahead, it is imperative to focus on the miniaturization
sensations.[62] The displacement of the actuators produced skin of individual electromagnetic actuators for the continued evo-
sensations when the input voltage exceeded 6 V. The resonant lution of skin-integrated electromagnetic haptic feedback inter-
frequency of the PZT chips was set at 270 Hz, taking into con- faces. Actuators that are integrated with electronic components
sideration the dimension of the device, making the vibrations on flexible circuits and utilize advanced structural and mechan-
perceptible to the human skin. The integrated smart gloves were ical designs have the potential to reach their full capacity. This
utilized in a virtual baseball game, showcasing the ability to con- includes generating maximum vibrational force while operating
vey various sensations, such as grasping a bat and feeling light or at low power levels. A significant improvement in this area is the
heavy strikes through the piezoelectric stimulators. However, it is implementation of the cantilever beam design (Figure 6c), which
important to note that the limitations of this feedback interface enables the electromagnetic actuator to resonate at 200 Hz. This
as well as other piezoelectric-based systems are apparent. Piezo- specific frequency range is crucial because it falls within the spec-
electric actuators primarily provide feedback through vibration; trum in which human tactile sensations are most acute and re-
however, they are limited in delivering a comprehensive range of quire minimal power to elicit noticeable sensory responses.[8c,12a]
tactile perceptions, such as texture, pattern, and roughness of the The haptic feedback interface, characterized by the seamless inte-
virtual touch surface. gration of actuators, electronics, and silicone encapsulation, rep-
resents a remarkable fusion with the human skin. Utilizing RF-
powered technology and NFC capabilities, it met the stringent
3.4. Electromagnetic Actuator-Based Haptic Feedback Interfaces wireless requirements of wearable devices, paving the way for
revolutionary applications in VR/AR, prosthetic control, rehabili-
Electromagnetic actuators have been developed utilizing the ca- tation, and gaming. This technology enabled users to experience
pabilities of electromagnetic fields, to generate tactile sensa- real-time virtual touch, enhancing remote communication and
tions characterized by pressure and vibrations.[63] These actua- providing tangible sensations in digital interactions. In another
tors prominently feature a permanent magnet, which responds significant application of this electromagnetic actuator, amputees
swiftly and provides substantial movement, representing a no- regained a sense of touch, grasping objects with a prosthetic limb
table attribute of electromagnetic haptic feedback interfaces. while receiving tactile feedback through the haptic feedback in-
Figure 6a showcases an example of a standard electromagnetic terface. This not only heightened the realism of the experience
actuator.[64] Such actuators typically comprise a coil, a support- but also reconnected the user with the sense of touch, a crucial
ing structure often resembling a cavity, a permanent magnet, aspect of human interaction with the physical world.
and a manipulative layer. The operational mechanism is quite di- Despite its numerous advantages and innovative applications,
rect; as electric current traverses through the coil, the suspended the electromagnetic actuator-based haptic feedback interfaces
magnet is either attracted or repelled by the generated magnetic have limitations. Compared to the piezoelectric actuator-based
field, also recognized as the Lorentz force. The ensuing force haptic feedback interfaces, these fall short in terms of the op-
is dependent on several parameters, including the coil’s num- erating frequency range and compactness. The flexibility of in-
ber of turns, its size, the gap between the coil and the mag- dividual actuators is also a crucial factor in determining the

Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 2417906 2417906 (9 of 23) © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
 16163028, 0, Downloaded from https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202417906, Wiley Online Library on [04/02/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de

Figure 6. Electromagnetic actuator-based haptic feedback interfaces. a) A schematic graph of a microfabricated magnetic actuator where a permanent
magnet on an elastomer film is attracted or repulsed when a current is passed through the coil. Reproduced (adapted) with permission.[64] Copyright
2015, Elsevier B.V. b) A portable haptic display with 192 high-speed taxels based on latching electromagnetic actuators. Reproduced (adapted) with
permission.[67] Copyright 2017, Association for Computing Machinery. c) Exploded-view schematic illustration of a device with 32 independently con-
trolled haptic actuators (left), optical image of device under bending (top middle), Travel amplitude of the magnet as a function of the input power for an
actuator in contact with skin phantoms with elastic moduli of 130 kPa (top right), social media application in which a girl touches a screen that displays
a video feed of her grandmother, who is wearing an epidermal VR device on her hand and her arm (inset photograph) with the girl and grandmother
undergoing a virtual touch process and a virtual sense of touch respectively (bottom right). Reproduced (adapted) with permission.[12a] Copyright 2019,
Springer Nature.

Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 2417906 2417906 (10 of 23) © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
 16163028, 0, Downloaded from https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202417906, Wiley Online Library on [04/02/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de

feasibility of integrating these systems onto human skin, mak- feedback. These include the use of metal thin films[69] and inno-
ing it a wearable technology. To overcome these challenges and vative carbon-based materials,[70] all of which have played crucial
enhance the operating performance of these flexible actuators, a roles in advancing the development of Joule heating electrodes
paradigm shift toward adopting new materials, innovative struc- for wearable haptic feedback interfaces. Particularly, metal thin
tural designs, and advanced fabrication processes is required. films composed of gold (Au), silver (Ag), or liquid metals are
This will address the current limitations and open doors to new preferred due to their high conductivity. These materials can be
possibilities, ensuring that electromagnetic actuator-based haptic rendered flexible through specific structural designs.[71] Stretch-
feedback interfaces continue to evolve and remain at the forefront able heaters based on facile kirigami patterning (the art of cut-
of technological advancements in tactile feedback systems. ting and folding paper) of highly conductive paper are exam-
ples of such structural design-based heaters with high flexibil-
ity and stretchability (Figure 7b). The resulting kirigami heater
4. Thermal Haptic Feedback Interfaces exhibited high heating performance at low voltage (>40 °C at
1.2 V) and fast thermal response (<60 s). The simple kirigami
Recreating thermal sensations is of utmost importance in VR and patterning approach enabled the heater to be extremely stretch-
AR applications, because heat is constantly exchanged through able (>400%) while stably retaining its excellent performance.
physical contact with various entities.[68] Thermo-haptic feed- Furthermore, the heater exhibited a uniform spatial distribution
back interfaces enable users to feel as if they are touching vir- of heat over the entire heating area and high durability (1000 cy-
tual objects with distinct thermal characteristics. These inter- cles at 300% strain). Another common strategy involves the use
faces, which are based on thermal stimulation and sensing, sig- of metal nanowire networks to create flexible metal electrodes.
nificantly enhance the ability to identify and characterize ob- These networks can be produced on a variety of flexible substrates
jects through touch, thereby improving the quality of the simu- using methods such as electrospinning,[72] electrodeposition,[73]
lated experience.[28] To create a functional device embedded with and mask evaporation.[74] However, the combination of metal
thermo-haptic materials that can convey authentic tactile sensa- nanowires with stretchable substrates enables the material to
tions, it is necessary to satisfy a set of criteria that can accurately adapt to the contours of the human body, thereby facilitating con-
simulate thermal sensations for the user. The thermo-haptic feed- formal deformation. As depicted in Figure 7c, an example of such
back interface must be capable of generating a broad spectrum a combination is a stretchable heater based on the embedding of
of temperatures, both above and below the average human body an Ag NW percolation network on a PDMS film.[69c] The Ag NW
temperature, and must be able to precisely and swiftly modulate network, with its exceptional electrical conductivity at high aspect
temperature. Some common physical haptic feedback interfaces, ratios, combined with the stretchable substrate of the PDMS film,
such as Joule heating haptic feedback interfaces and thermo- generated Joule heating with a rapid thermal response and en-
electric haptic feedback interfaces, can be employed to manage hanced stability to endure repeated large mechanical strains with
the skin’s temperature. The accuracy of the thermal-haptic feed- minimal variance in resistance. This heater operated consistently
back interface is very critical, with the ability to induce localized at an elevated temperature under various mechanical deforma-
temperature changes on the skin being preferred. In VR/AR set- tions, while the spatial temperature distribution could be further
tings, users often encounter diverse thermal sensations on spe- controlled by manipulating the spatial current density via pattern-
cific parts of their body, so heat transfer within thermal-haptic ing of the NW percolation network through direct laser ablation
feedback interfaces should rely on conduction to create pixelized for applications that require non-uniform or site-specific heating.
artificial tactile sensations. Last, thermal-haptic feedback inter- However, none of these examples has the possibility of a cool-
faces must be both flexible and wearable to accurately recreate ing system. Achieving thermal sensation on both sides, heating,
thermal sensations for users. A device that integrates seamlessly and cooling is critical for many technologies, such as enhanced
with thermal-haptic feedback interfaces, closely adhering to the VR,[75] on-screen navigation instructions for sighted users,[76] etc.
human skin, is a crucial requirement to ensure an enhanced A possible solution is to integrate these joule resistive heaters
thermal contact area between the interface and the skin’s sur- with passive cooling gel and use a switchable type of thermal bar-
face, leading to a more realistic tactile reproduction. The two rier (STB) in a layered configuration to define thermal modules
most common thermal haptic surfaces have been discussed: and achieve switchable thermal sensation.[77] This system con-
Joule heater-based haptic feedback interfaces and thermoelectric sists of a thin layer of silicone to encapsulate the top surface, a set
actuator-based haptic feedback interfaces. of thermal modules to enable power-efficient heating and cool-
ing, each with an integrated thermistor, a sheet of flexible elec-
tronics to distribute power, and closed-loop feedback control sig-
4.1. Joule Heater-Based Haptic Feedback Interfaces nals to the thermal modules, and a thin layer of silicone to encap-
sulate the bottom surface (Figure 7d (left)). Figure 7d (top right)
The joule heating process involves generating heat in a conduc- illustrates the operation of the device in a way that highlights
tor as it carries an electric current, resulting in a temperature the role of STB, which consists of a thin bladder formed from a
rise. This mechanism is depicted in Figure 7a, showcasing its ca- pair of aluminized ethylene-vinyl alcohol films (12 μm thick) that
pability to provide thermal sensations at an expedited response housed a small volume (30 μL) of a liquid with a low boiling point
rate. In such devices, the pivotal component for delivering pre- (1-methoxyheptafluoropropane; boiling point of 34 °C at 1 atm).
cise thermal feedback is the active electrode. A variety of mate- In the cooling mode, the heater was turned off, and the thin ge-
rials that are both flexible and stretchable have been suggested ometry of the bladder in its condensed state supported efficient
for incorporation into wearable technology to facilitate thermal thermal coupling between the skin and the cooling gel, which

Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 2417906 2417906 (11 of 23) © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
 16163028, 0, Downloaded from https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202417906, Wiley Online Library on [04/02/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de

Figure 7. Joule heaters. a) Schematic of the joule heater. Reproduced (adapted) with permission.[2a] Copyright 2021, Elsevier Ltd. b) Stretchable kirigami-
based heater on the wrist (left), Infrared image of the kirigami-pattern wristband during heating at an operating voltage of 2.5 V (middle) and temperature
change at a different voltage (right) Reproduced (adapted) with permission.[71] Copyright 2017, American Chemical Society. c) Schematic illustration
of the stretchable and transparent heater composed of an Ag NW percolation network on PDMS film (left), transient temperature evolution of the
heater under stepwise application of 0% to 30% strain at a constant voltage (top right), and temperature distribution image of the stretchable and

Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 2417906 2417906 (12 of 23) © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
 16163028, 0, Downloaded from https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202417906, Wiley Online Library on [04/02/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de

operates based on the evaporation of water in a super-absorbent muth telluride (Bi2 Te3 ) based alloys are considered state-of-the-
polyacrylate. Under ambient indoor conditions, the skin temper- art at room temperature because of their superior thermoelectric
ature reached a spatially uniform value of ≈27 °C at thermal equi- performance (typically within 573 K [200 °C]) and high ZT value
librium. This temperature coincides with the maximum sensitiv- (a maximum ZT of 0.8 at 330 K).[82] A thermoelectric device uti-
ity of cutaneous cold receptors, thereby creating an effective cool- lizing Bi2 Te3 /Sb2 Te3 (p-type) was reported, which achieved im-
ing sensation.[78] The activation of the heater vaporized the liquid, pressive cooling performance and the ability to pump a heat flux
thereby expanding the bladder to create a thermal barrier struc- of up to 700 W cm−2 .[83]
ture that isolated the cooling gel from the skin. The effectiveness The broad temperature range of these devices enables appli-
of this barrier is owing to its thick geometry after expansion and cations in thermal feedback technologies, leading to the develop-
the low thermal conductivity of the vapor. ment of numerous thermal-haptic feedback interfaces based on
Despite the significant advancements in Joule heating tech- thermoelectric alloys to provide various temperature sensations.
nologies, ensuring temperature consistency and user safety re- Furthermore, polymer-based thermoelectric materials such as
mains a critical challenge, especially given that the resistance poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) have been proposed
of heating elements changes dynamically during operation. One because of their flexibility and ease of fabrication, which allow
approach to address this involves the use of materials with a them to be readily shaped into thin films or bulk structures.[84]
positive temperature coefficient (PTC), such as doped ceramics PEDOT: Tos films with an increased Seebeck coefficient have
and conductive polymers, which inherently stabilize tempera- been developed. Another polymer-based thermoelectric device,
ture by increasing resistance as the temperature rises.[79] These (±)-10-camphorsulfonic acid-doped, stretch-aligned polyaniline
materials provide self-regulation without requiring external sen- has been reported to display high environmental stability and
sors or feedback systems. Additionally, integrating effective in- power factors.[85] Despite their advantages in terms of mechan-
sulation can reduce temperature fluctuations by stabilizing heat ical robustness and flexibility, there is a pressing need to im-
dissipation.[80] Such approaches ensure that the system responds prove the thermoelectric performance of polymer materials for
more slowly to external disturbances, promoting consistent ther- thermal haptic feedback interfaces that require a broader range
mal output. of temperature changes. Additionally, the stretchability of ther-
Safety is another crucial consideration in Joule heating sys- moelectric haptic feedback interfaces is crucial for integration
tems, particularly in wearable devices where direct skin contact onto the human skin, accommodating daily movements. A skin-
occurs. To mitigate risks of overheating or burns, self-regulating like, highly soft, and stretchable thermal haptic feedback in-
materials like PTC ceramics or polymer composites are employed terface for wearable VR applications has been developed, con-
to limit the maximum temperature achievable by the system. En- sisting of Bi2 Te3 -based p-and-n-type materials and a PDMS/Ag
capsulation layers with low thermal conductivity act as insulative composite substrate (Figure 8b).[75a] This device achieved in-
barriers to reduce heat transfer to the skin,[80] even in the event stantaneous cooling and heating of the skin surface, precise
of a malfunction. Additionally, passive cooling elements, such as temperature control, and maintained functionality, even with
thermally conductive gels or heat-dissipating materials,[81] fur- 230% stretchability. Integrated with a finger-motion glove and a
ther enhance safety by providing additional thermal buffering proportional-integral-derivative control system, the thermal hap-
during operation. tic feedback interface enabled the collection of dynamic ther-
mal information, the reconstruction of thermal sensations, and
the delivery of artificial thermal sensations to users interact-
4.2. Thermoelectric Actuator-Based Haptic Feedback Interfaces ing with objects in a virtual space. In another example, us-
ing a wearable thin-film thermoelectric device (Figure 8c) with
Thermoelectric technology plays a crucial role in providing a high cooling power density and speed, thermal sensation
thermal feedback, as it can both heat and cool human skin was evoked and restored to the phantom hand of individuals
through the thermoelectric or Peltier effect.[28,68] As illustrated in with arm amputation through targeted stimulation of the resid-
Figure 8a, the structure of a thermoelectric actuator consists of a ual limb, and a closed-loop cold-object identification task was
pair of thermoelectric elements (p- and n-type) connected in se- demonstrated.[86]
ries and sandwiched between two layers of electrodes. The flow of
electric current drives charge carriers in both p- and n-type semi- 5. Electrotactile Haptic Feedback Interfaces
conductors toward the junction, facilitating heat transfer from
the heat sink to the junction and resulting in a temperature in- Electrical stimulation of afferent nerves located just beneath the
crease on the top surface of the device. Conversely, a decrease in skin is a highly promising method for providing haptic feed-
the surface temperature can be achieved by reversing the current back, commonly referred to as “Electrotactile Feedback.” This
flow. The efficiency of thermoelectric materials is measured by straightforward approach involves the application of conductive
the figure of merit, ZT value, where Z represents the material’s electrodes to specific areas of the body, such as the hands or fin-
thermoelectric properties and T is the absolute temperature. Bis- gertips, which enables the transmission of electrical current and

transparent heater affixed to a human wrist under outward bending, neutral, and inward bending conditions (bottom right). Reproduced (adapted) with
permission.[69c] Copyright 2015, Wiley-VCH. d) Exploded view and schematic illustration of the working principle of a thin, flexible, wireless system for
generating programmable patterns of thermal sensation across large areas of the skin (left), photographs of a flexible heater based on Cu traces in
a space-filling Peano fractal geometry (inset), and photographs of the device at various body locations, such as chest, back, forearm, and abdomen
(bottom right). CC BY -NC-ND.[77] Copyright 2023, the Author(s).

Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 2417906 2417906 (13 of 23) © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
 16163028, 0, Downloaded from https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202417906, Wiley Online Library on [04/02/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de

Figure 8. Thermoelectric actuator-based haptic feedback interfaces a) Thermoelectric or Peltier cell schematic. CC-BY.[112] Copyright 2022, Tithi Sharma,
Pratham Jain, Smit Patel, Nishyank Bhatt, Prof. Kunalsinh Kathia. b) Digital photograph of the serpentine Cu electrode mounted on Ecoflex after opti-
mization (top left), exploded view of the skin-like thermoelectric actuator-based haptic device (top right), reproducing virtual temperature change while
touching objects at various temperatures (bottom). Reproduced (adapted) with permission.[75a] Copyright 2020, Wiley-VCH. c) Non-invasive thermal
stimulation of the skin used to create thermal sensations in the phantom hand, residual limb, and intact fingertips (blue areas) (left), rapid-response

Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 2417906 2417906 (14 of 23) © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
 16163028, 0, Downloaded from https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202417906, Wiley Online Library on [04/02/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de

stimulation of local afferent nerves. This technique does not re- To address this issue, various hypotheses and models based on
quire any energy conversion. experimental results have been proposed to decipher the rela-
In this section, we primarily focus on direct electrical stimula- tionship between sensation intensity and electrical parameters. A
tion, which has been the most efficacious and extensively doc- novel model elucidating this relationship, alongside an automatic
umented approach. After evaluating the mechanism by which controller to modulate these parameters effectively, has been in-
electrical stimulation can activate haptic nerves, we review wear- troduced, which maintains consistent sensation intensity even
able devices that deliver electrical stimulation to provide haptic amidst changes, such as electrode peeling or during physical ac-
feedback. tivity (Figure 9b).[89] This model focuses on the peak resistance
The frequency of electrical input is of utmost importance in (Rp ), peak pulse energy (Ep ), and phase charge (Q), providing for-
determining the specific mechanoreceptors that are activated. mulas to calculate these parameters based on the known current
A pulsed current at 200 Hz generates a pressure sensation intensity (I), duration (T), and measured peak voltage (Vp ). In the
by stimulating Merkel receptors, whereas a frequency below experiments based on this model, the subjects adjusted I and T to
100 Hz results in a low-frequency vibration sensation, activat- maintain consistent sensation intensity under varying electrode
ing Meissner corpuscles, which are most responsive between conditions, revealing nearly perfect linear proportional trends be-
20 and 70 Hz.[16,23b,87] Owing to the overlapping sensitive fre- tween Ep and Rp for different sensation intensities. This finding
quency ranges of various mechanoreceptors and the body’s re- suggests that a constant I2 T value corresponds to constant sen-
sponse thresholds to different frequencies, a standard frequency sation intensity. Similar linear trends were observed between Q
electric pulse has the potential to activate multiple mechanore- and Rp , converging to a fixed optimal point regardless of the sub-
ceptor types. ject. Using an automatic controller, consistent electrotactile sen-
However, the activation of mechanoreceptors is not solely de- sation intensity was maintained for amputees engaged in activi-
pendent on frequency, and the direction of current flow is also a ties such as hammering a nail or exercising, laying a solid foun-
critical factor.[4a,b] The anodic or cathodic nature of the current in- dation for enhancing electrotactile haptic feedback interfaces in
fluences the direction of depolarization, ultimately determining human–machine interactions.
the type of stimulation experienced (Figure 9a). However, achiev- In addition to perception intensity research, the influence of
ing consistent electrotactile feedback is complicated by variations waveforms on virtual haptic feedback has been explored. A cus-
in skin–electrode interface impedance. This impedance differs tomized electrotactile stimulator capable of modulating current
significantly between individuals and across different regions of in three ways, including common square wave (CSW), sine wave
the body, influenced by factors such as skin thickness, hydration, (SW), and time-varying pulse width square wave (TPSW), has
sweat levels, electrode placement, and pressure. Such variabil- been developed.[90] Statistical results on sensation comfort lev-
ity presents a major challenge for standardizing stimulation pa- els indicated that TPSW provided the most pleasant sensations,
rameters, as sensory thresholds can differ widely. For example, whereas CSW was the least comfortable. SW was found to be
a stimulus intensity that elicits a noticeable sensation in one in- gentler than the CSW under low- and high-amplitude conditions.
dividual may produce no perceivable effect in another. Addition- TPSW, with its pulse-width modulation, allowed users to perceive
ally, impedance changes dynamically during use, further com- periodically changing strength. However, CSW proved to be a su-
plicating consistent stimulation delivery as factors like sweating perior option for intensity discrimination. Furthermore, manip-
or electrode movement alter the interface.[4a] These factors can ulating the electrical current waveform enabled the rendering of
affect the distribution and intensity of the electrical current, po- material texture profiles into signal profiles,[91] allowing electro-
tentially impacting the direction and effectiveness of the depolar- tactile feedback to mimic material textures. These findings offer
ization of the mechanoreceptors and, in turn, the overall electro- valuable insights for selecting appropriate waveforms or signal
tactile experience. profiles to achieve varied electrotactile feedback sensations, en-
To address the inconsistencies in feedback strength due to riching the user experience with information beyond sensation
changes in impedance, current modulation has become a preva- intensity.
lent solution, based on the equivalent electrical model of skin–
electrode interfaces. The current density typically ranges from
0.1 to 15 mA cm−2 in electrotactile research.[2a,14a,88] However, a 5.1. Wearable Electrotactile Stimulation-Based Haptic Feedback
constant current does not guarantee a uniform sensation inten- Interfaces
sity owing to the potential uneven current density distribution,
impedance drift from prolonged use, and sweating. A sudden In electrical stimulation-based haptic feedback interfaces, estab-
increase in the current density beyond a certain threshold may lishing a closed circuit is crucial for enabling electro-tactile stimu-
cause uncomfortable sensations, such as sharp pain or burning. lation in the human body. The development of flexible electrodes
It is crucial to consider these factors when designing electrotac- with appropriate resistivity is paramount for maintaining stable
tile devices to ensure an effective and comfortable stimulation. electrical contact and impedance, ensuring effective skin contact

thin-film thermoelectric cooling device, composed of p-type and n-type controlled hierarchically engineered superlattice structures thin-film thermoelec-
tric materials, to restore thermal sensations (top middle), a common header connected the rapid-response thin-film thermoelectric cooling modules
thermally in parallel and contacted the skin to provide localized cooling, which was perceived in the phantom hand when targeting specific skin sites
(bottom middle), Sites on the residual limbs of individual with arm amputation that, when stimulated, elicit sensory perception in the phantom hand
(right). Reproduced (adapted) with permission.[86] Copyright 2023, Springer Nature.

Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 2417906 2417906 (15 of 23) © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
 16163028, 0, Downloaded from https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202417906, Wiley Online Library on [04/02/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de

Figure 9. Electrotactile haptic feedback interface mechanism. a) Electrical stimulation: cathodic stimulation (left) and anodic stimulation (right).[4b]
Reproduced (adapted) with permission. Copyright 2022, IEEE. b) A schematic illustration of how the electrical current stimulates the nerve to induce
electrotactile feedback (left) with pulse current (right) and sensation intensity controlled stably with an amputee hammering a nail with his prosthetic
hand (right). Reproduced with permission.[89] Copyright 2018, =The American Association for the Advancement of Science.

even when the skin deforms.[92] Commonly used metallic elec- rent but can lead to an inhomogeneous current distribution. Con-
trodes include gold, silver, platinum, and stainless steel, with versely, a larger resistivity, equal to or higher than that of the skin,
nanosized Au layers being particularly prevalent because of their may result in a uniform current density.[14a,95] The typical current
flexibility, chemical inertness, biocompatibility, and microfabri- range used for electrostimulation is within 1–15 mA cm−2 , cor-
cation capabilities, which facilitate the creation of ultra-flexible responding to a skin resistivity range of 670–2100 Ωm.[96]
electrodes.[93] However, it is important to note that the electrode Given the intrinsically rigid nature of metal electrodes,
size plays a significant role in user comfort. Larger electrodes conductive polymer composites have emerged as competitive
tend to induce discomfort more frequently than smaller ones.[94] alternatives owing to their excellent intrinsic flexibility and
Managing the electrode resistance is crucial in this context, as stretchability. For instance, intrinsically stretchable conductive
low resistivity may reduce the voltage required for a certain cur- polymer PEDOT polymerized within a stretchable copolymer

Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 2417906 2417906 (16 of 23) © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
 16163028, 0, Downloaded from https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202417906, Wiley Online Library on [04/02/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de

Table 2. Summary of Electrotactile Feedback Devices: Materials, Current Ranges, and Applications.

Device/study Preparation materials Stimulation current/voltage ranges Related applications

Silicon nanomembranes for fingertip Silicon nanomembranes, elastomeric sheets, 35–40 V at 0–40 Hz Human-machine interfaces, tactile sensing,
electronics[ 93b] multiplexed electrode arrays surgical gloves
Epidermal stimulation and sensing Thin silicone elastomer (60 μm), Cr/Au 3 mA, 20 Hz frequency Prosthetic control, electrical muscle
platform[108] electrodes, serpentine conductive traces activation, lower back exertion
management
Tacttoo: Thin and feel-through tactile Temporary tattoo with screen-printed silver ≈1–2 mA Tactile augmented reality, private
interface[ 103] electrodes, ultra-thin conformal material notifications, fingertip interfaces
(<35 μm)
Super-resolution wearable electrotactile Electrode array (25 half-spherical copper 13–28 V Braille display, virtual reality shopping, tactile
rendering system[ 109] pads), flexible printed circuit, rubber finger feedback through gloves
cot
WeTac system (skin-integrated wireless PDMS substrate (170 μm), gold conductive 0–13.5 mA Virtual reality, hand prosthetics,
electrotactile system)[ 105] traces, hydrogel electrodes (LiCl-based), personalized tactile feedback
flexible printed circuit board
Self-powered electro-tactile system for virtual TENG (with polytetrafluoroethylene as the 0–25 μA Virtual tactile displays, Braille instruction,
tactile experiences[ 107] negative triboelectric layer, Kapton intelligent protective suits, nerve
(ion-bombarded for enhanced stimulation
performance) as the positive triboelectric
layer), PET, tin ball-shaped electrodes

scaffold composed of Polystyrene Sulfonate (PSS) blended with interactions and enhanced AR immersion (Table 2). An exam-
an acrylic polymer, poly(polyethylene glycol methyl ether acry- ple of such a device is the soft electro-tactile finger tube, which
late), has been utilized as an electrotactile electrode to pro- consists of six concentric electrodes that allow programmable
vide a sensation of roughness.[97] Another option is polymer- electro-tactile stimulation on the fingertip.[93b] To achieve this,
metal composites such as PEDOT: PSS/Ag with additives for im- silicon nanomembranes were used as diodes to multiplex sig-
proved stretchability, which can be directly written over the skin, nals to each electrode. The experimental results demonstrated
demonstrating high conformability and low skin-to-electrode that the threshold voltage of the electrotactile stimulation at low
impedance.[98] Conductive ionic gels present another option, frequency was higher than that at high frequency (Figure 10a).
building ionic circuitry instead of capacitive coupling at the skin– Another electrotactile device was proposed, which was based on
electrode interface.[99] However, their efficacy can diminish over ultrathin epidermal electronics integrated with electromyogra-
time owing to water evaporation, making them unsuitable for phy, strain, and temperature sensors that could function under
long-term use. One potential solution is to use glycerol instead of skin deformation (Figure 10b).[93a] The Electrotactile feedback in-
water, as demonstrated by a nonvolatile ionic gel, hydrated poly- tensity was proportional to the pressure detected by the force
acrylamide (PAAm) hydrogel, immersed in a glycerol solution.[99] sensor mounted on a robot arm. This device helped the sub-
To achieve a stable impedance over time at the electrode/skin ject to precisely control the gripping force and hold the bottle
interface, and consequently, a stable electro-tactile performance, without visual or auditory information. Electro-tattoo is another
the choice of materials is crucial. Materials that are either thin form of electrotactile device that can adhere to the skin for tactile
enough, such as a gold nanolayer, or soft enough, such as hy- feedback without affecting the original tactile feeling in the real
drogel, are preferred for creating a tighter skin–electrode inter- world.[103] Another option for high-definition electrotactile feed-
face. For high-resolution stimulation of various mechanorecep- back developed was the wearable electrotactile rendering system
tors, densely distributed electrodes are necessary to simultane- (Figure 10c), which elicited various tactile sensations like pres-
ously deliver different signals to different regions. The selection sure, vibration, and texture roughness, with both high spatial res-
of electrical signals should be fundamentally based on an in- olution (76 dots cm−2 ) and rapid refresh rates (4 kHz), using the
depth understanding of mammalian sensory neurons.[10a] current-steering super-resolution stimulation technique at a low
Electro-tactile stimulation is critical for realizing precise, con- stimulation voltage of 13 V.[104]
trollable, and distinguishable tactile sensations. Arrays of elec- All of the devices mentioned earlier require an external power
trodes play a crucial role in this process. To investigate the effects supply, which is problematic for making haptic systems fully
of various stimulation waveforms on pattern identification and wearable. These power supplies are typically bulky, rigid, and
stimulus quality, a 7 × 7 electrotactile display was used.[100] Com- heavy, which is the opposite of what is required for a wear-
mercial devices based on Teslatouch[101] and Senseg E-sense[102] able system. To address this issue, we need a power manage-
have emerged; however, they suffer from the limitations of being ment system that has a form factor that is thin, soft, tiny,
rigid and bulky, restricting their practical applications. lightweight, and wireless. This means that the device can be
Utilizing wearable electrical stimulation for haptics, various wirelessly powered or it can wirelessly power itself. In addition,
devices have been developed to facilitate the delivery of sim- safety must be considered when dealing with high voltages in
ple electrical stimulation for multifunctional human–machine wearable haptic systems. High voltages can lead to unexpected

Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 2417906 2417906 (17 of 23) © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
 16163028, 0, Downloaded from https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202417906, Wiley Online Library on [04/02/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de

Figure 10. Electrotactile stimulation-based haptic feedback interface mechanism. a) Optical image of the flexible finger tube-based electrotactile stimula-
tor array (top) and the relationship between sensation threshold voltage and frequency (bottom). Reproduced (adapted) with permission.[93b] Copyright
2012, IOP Publishing. b) Magnified view of large-area electrodes mounted on the biceps for muscle stimulation (left), a photograph of an electrotactile
stimulator on the forearm during operation while the participant controls a robot arm to grip a bottle filled with water (middle), and the difference
between the applied forces of the robotic arm when the subject was subjected with and without electrical stimulation (right). Reproduced (adapted) with

Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 2417906 2417906 (18 of 23) © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
 16163028, 0, Downloaded from https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202417906, Wiley Online Library on [04/02/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de

shocks, pain, or even heart attacks if the current exceeds the anisms, focusing on interfaces that employ force, temperature,
safety limit. Therefore, it is crucial to ensure the safety of these and electrical nerve stimulations.
systems. Force-based haptic feedback interfaces deliver tactile stim-
A potential device, the WeTac system, aligned with the afore- uli through hydraulic, pneumatic, piezoelectric, and electromag-
mentioned ideal device was developed (Figure 10d).[105] It fea- netic actuators, thereby creating force and skin deformation. The
tured an ultrathin, wireless, skin-integrated electrotactile system challenge with these devices lies in their miniaturization, which
that was soft, lightweight, and worn on the hands. It consisted of further restricts the density of actuators and, thus, the ability
32 electrotactile stimulation pixels over the palm and was pow- to replicate fine-textured haptic experiences. Temperature-based
ered by a rechargeable lithium-ion battery that could be wirelessly haptic devices elicit changes in temperature upon contact with
charged to 95% in 15 min using qi wireless charging. Safety was virtual materials. Given the limited sensitivity of temperature-
ensured through precise control and real-time monitoring of the sensitive nerve endings, such as free nerve endings and Krause
current intensity using a mobile device graphical user interface. end bulbs, for temperature discrimination, the resolution re-
All these features of WeTac make it a promising approach for quired for heat transfer devices is not as demanding. Heat dis-
achieving desired characteristics in wearable haptic devices. An- sipation also supports the design requirement of low resolu-
other approach involves the use of self-powered, flexible devices tion. Thermoelectric devices capable of providing both heating
utilizing various energy-harvesting methods, such as triboelec- and cooling sensations hold great promise for haptic feedback
tric nanogenerators (TENGs). TENGs operate by converting me- applications. However, the primary challenge lies in develop-
chanical energy, such as motion, friction, or vibration, into elec- ing materials that combine flexibility with a high thermoelec-
trical energy through the triboelectric effect and electrostatic in- tric efficiency. Most high-performance thermoelectric materials
duction. While TENGs have been extensively explored for their are rigid alloys; however, progress has been made in the devel-
potential in sensing and energy-harvesting applications[106] in opment of thermoelectric polymers. These polymers offer the
wearable systems, research on their use in haptic feedback de- desired flexibility for wearable applications but currently fall
vices is still in its early stages. Despite this, their ability to di- short of delivering sufficient thermoelectric properties. Enhanc-
rectly power haptic actuators has garnered increasing attention. ing the thermoelectric performance of flexible materials remains
A TENG-based electro-tactile feedback device was developed that a key obstacle to the advancement of temperature-based haptic
could stimulate the skin through a high-voltage discharge be- feedback interfaces. Electrotactile stimulation-based haptic de-
tween a ball-shaped electrode and the skin.[107] This design elim- vices, which are structurally simple and do not require com-
inates the need for a wired power supply or multiplexing circuits plex fabrication or unique materials, have experienced signifi-
(Figure 10e), allowing for precise control of the charge transfer by cant development in flexible and stretchable electrodes that can
adjusting the distance between the electrode and the skin. Partic- achieve high spatial resolution. However, further research is nec-
ipants interacting with this device could feel distinct stimulations essary to determine the optimal electrical currents for consis-
and accurately recognize randomly chosen numbers by following tent haptic perception and to address the variability in tactile
a patterned sequence for rubbing the TENG array. perception among individuals. Despite numerous devices based
on electrotactile stimulation that have been developed, replicat-
ing a tactile sensation that closely resembles actual touch re-
6. Conclusion and Outlook mains a challenging objective. Substantial biological research
has been conducted on the mechanisms of mechanoreceptors
Haptic technologies, which encompass diverse applications in in the human skin, yet a universally accepted theory of their
the fields of AR/VR, medical prosthetics, telerobotics, and function has not materialized. Foundational research on the ef-
human–machine interfaces, are considered one of the most fects of electrical signals on mechanoreceptors is crucial for
promising and rapidly advancing segments of modern technol- creating a virtual tactile sensation that closely mimics the real
ogy. Despite their impressive growth, only a few of these tech- experience.
nologies have achieved commercial success. The majority of This paper presents a comprehensive review of haptic feed-
commercially available haptic technologies are designed for fin- back interfaces, each of which possesses its specific mechanisms,
gertip interaction, in the form of handheld devices, gloves, or advantages, and applications. To create a realistic virtual tactile ex-
finger sleeves. In light of this, this article provides an overview perience, multiple forms of haptic stimulation, such as force and
of how our skin perceives sensations through mechanorecep- temperature, must be combined. This can be achieved by inte-
tors and associated afferent nerves and shows some of the latest grating the various haptic feedback interfaces. However, the de-
developments in compact and wearable haptic feedback devices velopment of wearable haptic devices capable of simultaneously
that consider the biological aspects of skin haptics. These devices delivering such multifaceted stimulation is still in its early stages,
have been classified based on their unique haptic feedback mech- with most currently available devices being rigid and bulky.

permission.[93a] Copyright 2016, Wiley-VCH. c) Schematic of the super-resolution wearable electrotactile system (left) with current density simulation
results under different distributions of stimulation electrodes (right). CC BY -NC.[104] Copyright 2022, The American Association for the Advancement
of Science. d) Explosive view of the structures and components of the driver unit (top left) and hydrogel-based electrodes hand patch (top right), a
photograph showing the WeTac system worn on the hand (bottom left), and a photograph showing flexible driver unit attached to the forearm (bottom
right). Reproduced (adapted) with permission.[105] Copyright 2022, Springer Nature. e) Schematic illustration of self-powered electrotactile device, its
configuration (left), and its working principle (right). CC BY -NC.[107] Copyright 2021, The American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 2417906 2417906 (19 of 23) © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
 16163028, 0, Downloaded from https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202417906, Wiley Online Library on [04/02/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de

Acknowledgements [13] A. R. See, J. A. G. Choco, K. Chandramohan, Appl. Sci. 2022, 12,

4686.
C.Y. would like to thank the National Science Foundation grant (2227062), [14] a) Y. H. Jung, J. H. Kim, J. A. Rogers, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2020, 31,
the Office of Naval Research grant (N00014-21-1-2480), and the National 2008805; b) H. Culbertson, S. B. Schorr, A. M. Okamura, Annu. Rev.
Institute Health grant (R21EB026175). Control, Rob., Auton. Syst. 2018, 1, 385.
[15] a) G. Corniani, H. P. Saal, J. Neurophysiol. 2020, 124, 1229; b) B. M.
Carlson, in The Human Body, Elsevier Science, USA 2019, Ch. 3.
Conflict Of Interest [16] J. Feher, in Quantitative Human Physiology: An Introduction, Aca-
demic Press, USA 2012, Ch. 4.3.
The authors declare no conflict of interest. [17] a) D. Deflorio, M. Di Luca, A. M. Wing, Front. Hum. Neurosci. 2022,
16, 862344; b) Q. Ouyang, J. Wu, Z. Shao, D. Chen, J. W. Bisley, IEEE
Trans. Biomed. Eng. 2021, 68, 556.
Keywords [18] S. H. Kim, Y. H. Lee, Anat. Cell. Biol. 2020, 53, 325.
[19] C. Pasluosta, P. Kiele, T. Stieglitz, Clin. Neurophysiol. 2018, 129, 851.
haptics, mechanoreceptors, stimulations, thermoreceptors, wearable
[20] R. S. Dahiya, G. Metta, M. Valle, G. Sandini, IEEE Trans. Rob. 2010,
26, 1.
Received: September 23, 2024 [21] H. Backlund Wasling, U. Norrsell, K. Gothner, H. Olausson, Exp.
Revised: December 22, 2024 Brain Res. 2005, 166, 147.
Published online: [22] J. C. Craig, K. B. Lyle, Percept. Psychophysics 2001, 63, 337.
[23] a) M. V. Ravinder, S. Dahiya, Robotic Tactile Sensing, Springer, Dor-
drecht, 2013; b) S. J. L. Lynette, A. Jones, Human Hand Function,
Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2006.
[1] a) Q. Liu, S. Ghodrat, G. Huisman, K. M. B. Jansen, Mater. Des. 2023, [24] a) K. H. Lee, Master Thesis, DGIST, Daegu, 2016; b) J. C. Craig, X.
233, 112264; b) M. Zhu, S. Biswas, S. I. Dinulescu, N. Kastor, E. W. Baihua, Percept. Psychophysics 1990, 47, 22.
Hawkes, Y. Visell, Proc. IEEE 2022, 110, 246. [25] S. J. Bensmaia, J. C. Craig, K. O. Johnson, J. Neurophysiol. 2006, 95,
[2] a) Y. Huang, K. Yao, J. Li, D. Li, H. Jia, Y. Liu, C. K. Yiu, W. Park, X. Yu, 1783.
Mater. Today Phys. 2022, 22, 100602; b) H. Bai, S. Li, R. F. Shepherd, [26] a) J. Moini, A. LoGalbo, R. Ahangari, in Foundations of the Mind,
Adv. Funct. Mater. 2021, 31, 2009364. Brain, and Behavioral Relationships, Academic Press, USA 2023, Ch.
[3] J. Yin, R. Hinchet, H. Shea, C. Majidi, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2020, 31, 10; b) J. C. Stevens Kenneth, K. Choo, Somatosens. Mot. Res. 1998,
2007428. 15, 13.
[4] a) Z. Zhou, Y. Yang, J. Liu, J. Zeng, X. Wang, H. Liu, IEEE Trans. [27] M. Y. A. E. Hay, Doctor of Natural Sciences Ruperto Carola Univer-
Haptics 2022, 15, 464; b) P. Kourtesis, F. Argelaguet, S. Vizcay, M. sity, Heidelberg, Germany, 2021.
Marchal, C. Pacchierotti, IEEE Trans. Haptics 2022, 15, 479; c) K. Kim, [28] K. Parida, H. Bark, P. S. Lee, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2021, 31,
Curr. Opin. Biomed. Eng. 2022, 21, 100368. 2007952.
[5] F. Morosi, M. Rossoni, G. Caruso, Autom. Constr. 2019, 105, 102848. [29] C. Chen, S. Ding, Micromachines 2019, 10, 87.
[6] a) N. Jafari, K. D. Adams, M. Tavakoli, J. Rehabil. Assist. Technol. Eng. [30] a) M. A. Srinivasan, R. H. LaMotte, J. Neurosci. 1987, 7, 1682; b)
2016, 3, 2055668316668147; b) L. Seminara, P. Gastaldo, S. J. Watt, P. S. Khalsa, R. M. Friedman, M. A. Srinivasan, R. H. Lamotte, J.
K. F. Valyear, F. Zuher, F. Mastrogiovanni, Front. Neurorobot. 2019, Neurophysiol. 1998, 79, 3238.
13, 53. [31] I. Birznieks, V. G. Macefield, G. Westling, R. S. Johansson, J. Neu-
[7] a) K. Wang, L. W. Yap, S. Gong, R. Wang, S. J. Wang, W. Cheng, Adv. rosci. 2009, 29, 9370.
Funct. Mater. 2021, 31, 2008347; b) D. Li, K. Yao, Z. Gao, Y. Liu, X. [32] N. Pestell, N. F. Lepora, J. R. Soc., Interface 2022, 19,
Yu, Light: Adv. Manuf. 2021, 2, 39; c) J. J. Kim, Y. Wang, H. Wang, S. 20210603.
Lee, T. Yokota, T. Someya, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2021, 31, 2009602. [33] a) J. Scheibert, S. Leurent, A. Prevost, G. Debregeas, Science 2009,
[8] a) W. Guo, Y. Hu, Z. Yin, H. Wu, Adv. Mater. Technol. 2021, 7, 323, 1503; b) C. Dhong, L. V. Kayser, R. Arroyo, A. Shin, M. Finn, A.
2100452; b) T. Y. K. H. Ankit, A. Nirmal, M. R. Kulkarni, D. Accoto, T. Kleinschmidt, D. J. Lipomi, Soft Matter 2018, 14, 7483.
N. Mathews, Adv. Intell. Syst. 2021, 4, 2100061; c) D. Li, J. He, Z. [34] a) S. Ding, Y. Pan, M. Tong, X. Zhao, Sensors 2017, 17, 2748; b) C. P.
Song, K. Yao, M. Wu, H. Fu, Y. Liu, Z. Gao, J. Zhou, L. Wei, Z. Zhang, Ryan, G. C. Bettelani, S. Ciotti, C. Parise, A. Moscatelli, M. Bianchi,
Y. Dai, Z. Xie, X. Yu, Microsyst. Nanoeng. 2021, 7, 85. J. Neurophysiol. 2021, 126, 1375.
[9] a) S. Biswas, Y. Visell, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2021, 31, 2008186; b) A. R. [35] C. Pacchierotti, S. Sinclair, M. Solazzi, A. Frisoli, V. Hayward, D.
Oates, L. Hauck, R. Moraes, K. M. Sibley, Gait Posture 2017, 58, 232. Prattichizzo, IEEE Trans. Haptics 2017, 10, 580.
[10] a) Y. Roudaut, A. Lonigro, B. Coste, J. Hao, P. Delmas, M. Crest, [36] a) J.-H. Youn, S. M. Jeong, G. Hwang, H. Kim, K. Hyeon, J. Park, K.-U.
Channels 2012, 6, 234; b) T. J. Suslak, Ph.D. Thesis, The University Kyung, Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 640; b) C. W. Carpenter, S. Ting Melissa
of Edinburgh, Edinburgh 2015; c) S. Biswas, Y. Visell, Adv. Mater. Tan, C. Keef, K. Skelil, M. Malinao, D. Rodriquez, M. A. Alkhadra, J.
Technol. 2019, 4, 1900042. Ramirez, D. J. Lipomi, Sens. Actuators, A 2019, 288, 79.
[11] O. Ozioko, R. Dahiya, Adv. Intell. Syst. 2021, 4, 2100091. [37] D. Wang, M. Song, A. Naqash, Y. Zheng, W. Xu, Y. Zhang, IEEE Trans.
[12] a) X. Yu, Z. Xie, Y. Yu, J. Lee, A. Vazquez-Guardado, H. Luan, J. Haptics 2019, 12, 189.
Ruban, X. Ning, A. Akhtar, D. Li, B. Ji, Y. Liu, R. Sun, J. Cao, Q. Huo, [38] a) K. O. Johnson, Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2001, 11, 455; b) S. Choi, K.
Y. Zhong, C. Lee, S. Kim, P. Gutruf, C. Zhang, Y. Xue, Q. Guo, A. J. Kuchenbecker, Proc. IEEE 2013, 101, 2093.
Chempakasseril, P. Tian, W. Lu, J. Jeong, Y. Yu, J. Cornman, C. Tan, B. [39] V. Cacucciolo, J. Shintake, Y. Kuwajima, S. Maeda, D. Floreano, H.
Kim, et al., Nature 2019, 575, 473; b) Y. H. Jung, J.-Y. Yoo, A. Vázquez- Shea, Nature 2019, 572, 516.
Guardado, J.-H. Kim, J.-T. Kim, H. Luan, M. Park, J. Lim, H.-S. Shin, [40] X. Ji, X. Liu, V. Cacucciolo, Y. Civet, A. El Haitami, S. Cantin, Y.
C.-J. Su, R. Schloen, J. Trueb, R. Avila, J.-K. Chang, D. S. Yang, Y. Park, Perriard, H. Shea, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2020, 31, 2006639.
H. Ryu, H.-J. Yoon, G. Lee, H. Jeong, J. U. Kim, A. Akhtar, J. Cornman, [41] a) K. Suzumori, A. A. Faudzi, Adv. Rob. 2018, 32, 458; b) M.
T.-i. Kim, Y. Huang, J. A. Rogers, Nat. Electron. 2022, 5, 374; c) J. Xie, Tiboni, A. Borboni, F. Verite, C. Bregoli, C. Amici, Sensors 2022, 22,
X. Hu, Annu. Int. Conf. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Soc. 2021, 2021, 6263. 884.

Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 2417906 2417906 (20 of 23) © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
 16163028, 0, Downloaded from https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202417906, Wiley Online Library on [04/02/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de

[42] A. Erturk, T.-H. Yang, A. Mazursky, J.-H. Koo, in SPIE Smart Struc- [67] a) J. J. Zarate, H. Shea, IEEE Trans. Haptics 2017, 10, 106; b) J.
tures and Materials + Nondestructive Evaluation and Health Monitor- J. Zarate, O. Gudozhnik, A. S. Ruch, H. Shea, in Proceedings of
ing, SPIE, Denver 2018, p. 399. the 2017 CHI Conference Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in
[43] L. Dong, A. K. Agarwal, D. J. Beebe, H. Jiang, Nature 2006, 442, 551. Computing Systems, Association for Computing Machinery, New
[44] E. Leroy, R. Hinchet, H. Shea, Adv. Mater. 2020, 32, 2002564. York City, NY, USA 2017, 349.
[45] E. Acome, S. K. Mitchell, T. G. Morrissey, M. B. Emmett, C. [68] J. Lee, D. Kim, H. Sul, S. H. Ko, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2020, 31, 2007376.
Benjamin, M. King, M. Radakovitz, C. Keplinger, Science 2018, 359, [69] a) J. A. Vargas, V. Petkov, E. S. A. Nouh, R. K. Ramamoorthy, L. M.
61. Lacroix, R. Poteau, G. Viau, P. Lecante, R. Arenal, ACS Nano 2018,
[46] Z. Suo, Acta Mech. Solida Sin. 2010, 23, 549. 12, 9521; b) Y. Huang, S. Liao, J. Ren, B. Khalid, H. Peng, H. Wu,
[47] G. Grasso, S. Rosset, H. Shea, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2023, 33, 2213821. Nano Res. 2016, 9, 917; c) S. Hong, H. Lee, J. Lee, J. Kwon, S. Han,
[48] E. Leroy, H. Shea, Adv. Mater. Technol. 2023, 8, 2300242. Y. D. Suh, H. Cho, J. Shin, J. Yeo, S. H. Ko, Adv. Mater. 2015, 27, 4744.
[49] A. Mazursky, J.-H. Koo, T.-H. Yang, J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct. 2019, [70] a) Y. Lee, J. Park, A. Choe, Y. E. Shin, J. Kim, J. Myoung, S. Lee, Y.
30, 2521. Lee, Y. K. Kim, S. W. Yi, J. Nam, J. Seo, H. Ko, ACS Nano 2022,
[50] a) B. Zhang, M. Sra, in Proceedings of the 27th ACM Symposium on 16, 1208; b) H. Sun, X. You, J. Deng, X. Chen, Z. Yang, J. Ren, H.
Virtual Reality Software and Technology, Association for Computing Peng, Adv. Mater. 2014, 26, 2868; c) A. A. Balandin, S. Ghosh, W.
Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 2021, 1; b) J. H. Low, W. W. Lee, P. Bao, I. Calizo, D. Teweldebrhan, F. Miao, C. N. Lau, Nano Lett. 2008,
M. Khin, N. V. Thakor, S. L. Kukreja, H. L. Ren, C. H. Yeow, IEEE Rob. 8, 902.
Autom. Lett. 2017, 2, 880. [71] N. S. Jang, K. H. Kim, S. H. Ha, S. H. Jung, H. M. Lee, J. M. Kim,
[51] J. Qi, F. Gao, G. Sun, J. C. Yeo, C. T. Lim, Adv. Sci. 2023, 10, 2301044. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2017, 9, 19612.
[52] a) D. Rus, M. T. Tolley, Nature 2015, 521, 467; b) H. Wang, M. Totaro, [72] J. Xue, T. Wu, Y. Dai, Y. Xia, Chem. Rev. 2019, 119, 5298.
L. Beccai, Adv. Sci. 2018, 5, 1800541. [73] a) H. Zhang, Y. Tian, S. Wang, Y. Huang, J. Wen, C. Hang, Z. Zheng,
[53] a) O. Ozioko, P. Karipoth, P. Escobedo, M. Ntagios, A. C. Wang, Chem. Eng. J. 2020, 399, 125075; b) Y. Huang, C. Yang, B.
Pullanchiyodan, R. Dahiya, Adv. Intell. Syst. 2021, 3, 1900145; Deng, C. Wang, Q. Li, C. De Villenoisy Thibault, K. Huang, K. Huo,
b) H. A. Sonar, A. P. Gerratt, S. P. Lacour, J. Paik, Soft Rob. 2020, 7, H. Wu, Nano Energy 2019, 66, 104200.
22. [74] a) A. Miyamoto, S. Lee, N. F. Cooray, S. Lee, M. Mori, N. Matsuhisa,
[54] a) H. A. Sonar, J. Paik, Front. Rob. AI 2016, 2, 38; b) H. A. Sonar, J.-L. H. Jin, L. Yoda, T. Yokota, A. Itoh, M. Sekino, H. Kawasaki, T. Ebihara,
Huang, J. Paik, Adv. Intell. Syst. 2021, 3, 2000168. M. Amagai, T. Someya, Nat. Nanotechnol. 2017, 12, 907; b) H. Wu,
[55] M. Yu, X. Cheng, S. Peng, Y. Cao, Y. Lu, B. Li, X. Feng, Y. Zhang, H. D. Kong, Z. Ruan, P. C. Hsu, S. Wang, Z. Yu, T. J. Carney, L. Hu, S.
Wang, Z. Jiao, P. Wang, L. Zhao, Mater. Des. 2022, 223, 111149. Fan, Y. Cui, Nat. Nanotechnol. 2013, 8, 421.
[56] A. Singh, S. Monga, N. Sharma, K. Sreenivas, R. S. Katiyar, J. Asian [75] a) J. Lee, H. Sul, W. Lee, K. R. Pyun, I. Ha, D. Kim, H. Park, H. Eom, Y.
Ceram. Soc. 2022, 10, 275. Yoon, J. Jung, D. Lee, S. H. Ko, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2020, 30, 1909171;
[57] a) H. Hua, Y. Chen, Y. Tao, D. Qi, Y. Li, Sens. Actuators, A 2022, b) D. Kim, J. Bang, W. Lee, I. Ha, J. Lee, H. Eom, M. Kim, J. Park, J.
335, 113396; b) Q. Guo, G. Z. Cao, I. Y. Shen, J Vib. Acoust. 2013, Choi, J. Kwon, S. Han, H. Park, D. Lee, S. H. Ko, J. Mater. Chem. A
135, 011003; c) S. Glinsek, M. A. Mahjoub, M. Rupin, T. Schenk, 2020, 8, 8281.
N. Godard, S. Girod, J. B. Chemin, R. Leturcq, N. Valle, S. Klein, C. [76] J. Tewell, J. Bird, G. R. Buchanan, in Proceedings of the 2017 CHI
Chappaz, E. Defay, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2020, 30, 2003539. Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Association for
[58] a) E. S. Ege, A. Balikci, Actuators 2023, 12, 289; b) P. Poncet, F. Computing Machinery, Denver 2017, 1131.
Casset, A. Latour, F. D. D. Santos, R. Gwoziecki, S. Fanget, Proc. Eng. [77] M. Park, J. Y. Yoo, T. Yang, Y. H. Jung, A. Vazquez-Guardado, S. Li, J.
2016, 168, 1500; c) Y. Shouji, T. Sekine, K. Ito, N. Ito, T. Yasuda, Y. F. H. Kim, J. Shin, W. Y. Maeng, G. Lee, S. Yoo, H. Luan, J. T. Kim, H.
Wang, Y. Takeda, D. Kumaki, F. D. D. Santos, A. Miyabo, S. Tokito, S. Shin, M. T. Flavin, H. J. Yoon, N. Miljkovic, Y. Huang, W. P. King,
Adv. Electron. Mater. 2023, 9, 2201040. J. A. Rogers, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2023, 120, 2217828120.
[59] W. Q. Liao, D. Zhao, Y. Y. Tang, Y. Zhang, P. F. Li, P. P. Shi, X. G. Chen, [78] L. A. Jones, M. Berris, in Proceedings 10th Symposium on Haptic In-
Y. M. You, R. G. Xiong, Science 2019, 363, 1206. terfaces for Virtual Environment and Teleoperator Systems. HAPTICS
[60] M. D. Maeder, D. Damjanovic, N. Setter, J. Electroceram. 2004, 13, 2002, IEEE, Orlando 2002, 137.
385. [79] a) M. Wang, X. Jiang, Y. Chen, T. Li, Q. Chen, L. Ma, Polymer 2024,
[61] Y. Liu, H. Zheng, L. Zhao, S. Liu, K. Yao, D. Li, C. Yiu, S. Gao, R. 291, 126601; b) Y. Liu, E. Asare, H. Porwal, E. Barbieri, S. Goutianos,
Avila, C. Pakpong, L. Chang, Z. Wang, X. Huang, Z. Xie, Z. Yang, X. J. Evans, M. Newton, J. J. C. Busfield, T. Peijs, H. Zhang, E. Bilotti,
Yu, Research 2020, 2020, 1085417. Composites, Part A 2020, 139, 106074.
[62] a) M. Zhu, Z. Sun, Z. Zhang, Q. Shi, T. Chen, H. Liu, C. Lee, in [80] Y. Shi, C. Wang, Y. Yin, Y. Li, Y. Xing, J. Song, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2019,
2020 IEEE 33rd International Conference on Micro Electro Mechani- 29, 1905470.
cal Systems (MEMS), IEEE, Vancouver 2020, 16; b) M. Zhu, Z. Sun, [81] M. Park, J. Y. Yoo, T. Yang, Y. H. Jung, A. Vazquez-Guardado, S. Li, J.
Z. Zhang, Q. Shi, T. He, H. Liu, T. Chen, C. Lee, Sci. Adv. 2020, 6, H. Kim, J. Shin, W. Y. Maeng, G. Lee, S. Yoo, H. Luan, J. T. Kim, H.
eaaz8693. S. Shin, M. T. Flavin, H. J. Yoon, N. Miljkovic, Y. Huang, W. P. King,
[63] a) J. Martinez, A. Garcia, M. Oliver, J. P. Molina, P. Gonzalez, IEEE J. A. Rogers, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2023, 120, 2217828120.
Comput. Graph. Appl. 2016, 36, 42; b) O. Ozioko, P. Karipoth, M. [82] a) I. T. Witting, T. C. Chasapis, F. Ricci, M. Peters, N. A. Heinz, G.
Hersh, R. Dahiya, IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 2020, 28, Hautier, G. J. Snyder, Adv. Electron. Mater. 2019, 5, 1800904; b) F. D.
1344. Rosi, Solid-State Electron. 1968, 11, 833.
[64] J. J. Zárate, G. Tosolini, S. Petroni, M. De Vittorio, H. Shea, Sens. [83] R. Venkatasubramanian, E. Siivola, T. Colpitts, B. O’Quinn, Nature
Actuators, A 2015, 234, 57. 2001, 413, 597.
[65] V. Vechev, J. Zarate, D. Lindlbauer, R. Hinchet, H. Shea, O. Hilliges, [84] O. Bubnova, Z. U. Khan, A. Malti, S. Braun, M. Fahlman, M.
in 2019 IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces Berggren, X. Crispin, Nat. Mater. 2011, 10, 429.
(VR), IEEE, Osaka 2019, 312. [85] N. Toshima, Macromol. Symp. 2002, 186, 81.
[66] T. N. Do, H. Phan, T. Q. Nguyen, Y. Visell, Adv. Funct. Mater. 2018, [86] L. E. Osborn, R. Venkatasubramanian, M. Himmtann, C. W. Moran,
28, 1800244. J. M. Pierce, P. Gajendiran, J. M. Wormley, R. J. Ung, H. H. Nguyen,

Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 2417906 2417906 (21 of 23) © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
 16163028, 0, Downloaded from https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202417906, Wiley Online Library on [04/02/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de

A. C. G. Crego, M. S. Fifer, R. S. Armiger, Nat. Biomed. Eng. 2023, 8, [99] S. E. Root, C. W. Carpenter, L. V. Kayser, D. Rodriquez, D. M. Davies,
1004. S. Wang, S. T. M. Tan, Y. S. Meng, D. J. Lipomi, ACS Omega 2018, 3,
[87] S. J. L. Roberta, L. Klatzky, in Handbook of psychology: Experimental 662.
psychology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, USA 2003, Ch. 6. [100] K. A. Kaczmarek, S. J. Haase, IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng.
[88] a) M. Strbac, M. Belic, M. Isakovic, V. Kojic, G. Bijelic, I. Popovic, M. 2003, 11, 9.
Radotic, S. Dosen, M. Markovic, D. Farina, T. Keller, J. Neural Eng. [101] O. Bau, I. Poupyrev, A. Israr, C. Harrison, in Proceedings of the 23nd
2016, 13, 046014; b) M. A. Garenfeld, N. Jorgovanovic, V. Ilic, M. annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology, As-
Strbac, M. Isakovic, J. L. Dideriksen, S. Dosen, J. Neuroeng. Rehabil. sociation for Computing Machinery, New York City, NY, USA 2010,
2021, 18, 87. 283.
[89] A. Akhtar, J. Sombeck, B. Boyce, T. Bretl, Sci. Rob. 2018, 3, eaap9770. [102] J. Linjama, V. Mäkinen, V. E-sense screen: Novel haptic display
[90] Y. Yang, Y. Zhou, J. Zeng, K. He, H. Liu, in 2019 IEEE International with capacitive electrosensory interface. In: HAID, 4th Workshop for
Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics (SMC), IEEE, Bari 2019, Haptic and Audio Interaction Design 2009.
1838. [103] A. Withana, D. Groeger, J. Steimle, in Proceedings of the 31st Annual
[91] a) M. Peruzzini, M. Germani, M. Mengoni, in Proceedings, of 2012 ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology, Associ-
IEEE/ASME 8th IEEE/ASME International Conference on Mechatronic ation for Computing Machinery, New York, 2018, 365.
and Embedded Systems and Applications, IEEE, New York, NY, USA [104] W. Lin, D. Zhang, W. W. Lee, X. Li, Y. Hong, Q. Pan, R. Zhang,
178, 2012. b) A. Hirai, M. Nakayama, T. Ogawa, J. Rob. Mechatron. G. Peng, H. Z. Tan, Z. Zhang, L. Wei, Z. Yang, Sci. Adv. 2022, 8,
2021, 33, 1043. eabp8738.
[92] a) J. Deng, H. Yuk, J. Wu, C. E. Varela, X. Chen, E. T. Roche, C. F. Guo, [105] K. Yao, J. Zhou, Q. Huang, M. Wu, C. K. Yiu, J. Li, X. Huang, D. Li, J.
X. Zhao, Nat. Mater. 2021, 20, 229; b) Y. Ohm, C. Pan, M. J. Ford, X. Su, S. Hou, Y. Liu, Y. Huang, Z. Tian, J. Li, H. Li, R. Shi, B. Zhang, J.
Huang, J. Liao, C. Majidi, Nat. Electron. 2021, 4, 185. Zhu, T. H. Wong, H. Jia, Z. Gao, Y. Gao, Y. Zhou, W. Park, E. Song,
[93] a) B. Xu, A. Akhtar, Y. Liu, H. Chen, W. H. Yeo, S. I. Park, M. Han, H. Zhang, J. Yu, L. Wang, W. J. Li, et al., Nat. Mach. Intell.
B. Boyce, H. Kim, J. Yu, H. Y. Lai, S. Jung, Y. Zhou, J. Kim, 2022, 4, 893.
S. Cho, Y. Huang, T. Bretl, J. A. Rogers, Adv. Mater. 2016, 28, [106] a) S. Liu, F. Yuan, M. Sang, J. Zhou, J. Zhang, S. Wang, J. Li, S. Xuan,
4462; b) M. Ying, A. P. Bonifas, N. Lu, Y. Su, R. Li, H. Cheng, X. Gong, J. Mater. Chem. A 2021, 9, 6913; b) W. Wang, J. Zhou, S.
A. Ameen, Y. Huang, J. A. Rogers, Nanotechnology 2012, 23, Wang, F. Yuan, S. Liu, J. Zhang, X. Gong, Nano Energy 2022, 91,
344004. 106657; c) Y. Wang, L. Chu, S. Meng, M. Yang, Y. Yu, X. Deng, C.
[94] J. Flodin, R. Juthberg, P. W. Ackermann, BMC Sports Sci., Med. Reha- Qi, T. Kong, Z. Liu, Adv. Sci. 2024, 11, 2401436.
bil. 2022, 14, 11. [107] Y. Shi, F. Wang, J. Tian, S. Li, E. Fu, J. Nie, R. Lei, Y. Ding, X. Chen, Z.
[95] K. A. Kaczmarek, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison, L. Wang, Sci. Adv. 2021, 7, eabe2943.
1991. [108] B. Xu, A. Akhtar, Y. Liu, H. Chen, W. H. Yeo, S. I. Park, B. Boyce, H.
[96] A. Kuhn, T. Keller, S. Micera, M. Morari, Med. Eng. Phys. 2009, 31, Kim, J. Yu, H. Y. Lai, S. Jung, Y. Zhou, J. Kim, S. Cho, Y. Huang, T.
945. Bretl, J. A. Rogers, Adv. Mater. 2016, 28, 4462.
[97] A. Mazzotta, M. Carlotti, V. Mattoli, Mater. Adv. 2021, 2, 1787. [109] W. Lin, D. Zhang, W. W. Lee, X. Li, Y. Hong, Q. Pan, R. Zhang,
[98] a) F. Ershad, A. Thukral, J. Yue, P. Comeaux, Y. Lu, H. Shim, K. Sim, N. G. Peng, H. Z. Tan, Z. Zhang, L. Wei, Z. Yang, Sci. Adv. 2022, 8,
I. Kim, Z. Rao, R. Guevara, L. Contreras, F. Pan, Y. Zhang, Y. S. Guan, eabp8738.
P. Yang, X. Wang, P. Wang, X. Wu, C. Yu, Nat. Commun. 2020, 11, [110] R. De Fazio, V. Mastronardi, M. Petruzzi, M. De Vittorio, P. Visconti,
3823; b) S. Patel, F. Ershad, J. Lee, L. Chacon-Alberty, Y. Wang, M. A. Future Internet 2022, 15, 14.
Morales-Garza, A. Haces-Garcia, S. Jang, L. Gonzalez, L. Contreras, [111] F. R. Baxter, C. R. Bowen, I. G. Turner, A. C. E. Dent, Ann. Biomed.
A. Agarwal, Z. Rao, G. Liu, I. R. Efimov, Y. S. Zhang, M. Zhao, R. R. Eng. 2010, 38, 2079.
Isseroff, A. Karim, A. Elgalad, W. Zhu, X. Wu, C. Yu, Small 2022, 18, [112] T. Sharma, P. Jain, S. Patel, N. Bhatt, P. K. Kathia, Int. J. Res. Appl.
2107099. Sci. Eng. Technol. 2022, 10, 1084.

Shubham Patel received his B.Tech. degree in mechanical engineering from the SRM Institute of Sci-
ence and Technology, Tamil Nadu, India in 2018, and an M.S. degree in mechanical engineering from
the University of Houston, Texas, USA, in 2020. He is currently a Ph.D. candidate in the Department
of Engineering Science and Mechanics at the Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania, USA. His
current research focus is on wearable/implantable biomedical devices.

Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 2417906 2417906 (22 of 23) © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
 16163028, 0, Downloaded from https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202417906, Wiley Online Library on [04/02/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de

Zhoulyu Rao received his Ph.D. in material science engineering from the University of Houston, Hous-
ton, Texas, USA, in 2021. He is currently a postdoctoral research fellow in the Department of Engi-
neering Science and Mechanics at the Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania, USA. His current
research interest and focus are on soft, wearable, and implantable electronics for bioelectronics, opto-
electronics, etc.

Cunjiang Yu is currently the founder professor in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engi-
neering at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, with joint appointments in the Department of
Materials Science and Engineering, the Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, and the
Department of Bioengineering. He obtained his Ph.D. in mechanical engineering from Arizona State
University in 2010. His current research lies in soft and bio electronics.

Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 2417906 2417906 (23 of 23) © 2025 The Author(s). Advanced Functional Materials published by Wiley-VCH GmbH