Received 10 April 2023; revised 13 June 2023; accepted 3 July 2023.

Date of publication 6 July 2023;

date of current version 20 July 2023. The review of this article was arranged by Associate Editor L. Solero.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/OJIA.2023.3293059

Onboard Energy Storage Systems for Railway:

Present and Trends
MARIAM SAEED 1 (Member, IEEE), FERNANDO BRIZ 1 (Senior Member, IEEE),
JUAN MANUEL GUERRERO 1 (Senior Member, IEEE), IGOR LARRAZABAL 2 , DAVID ORTEGA2 ,
VICTOR LOPEZ 2 , AND JUAN JOSE VALERA 2
1
Department of Electrical, Computer and Systems Engineering, University of Oviedo, 33003 Gijón, Spain
2
Traction R&D, Ingeteam Power Technology S.A., 48170 Zamudio, Spain
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR: MARIAM SAEED (e-mail: [email protected])
This work was supported in part by the European Commission’s HORIZON and KDTJU programs through the project POWERIZED under Grant 101096387, in
part by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation under Grant MCINN-23-PCI2022-135021-2, and in part by the Government of the Principality of Asturias
under Project AYUD/2021/50988.

ABSTRACT Governments have recently been dedicating relevant funds to cope up with the inevitable
transition to sustainable mobility aiming for a greener transportation sector. This scenario is backed up by the
deteriorating global energy crisis, which is predicted to hasten the transition to sustainable energy. Focus has
been given to railway systems being globally considered as a tractor project for promoting the use of green
and renewable energy by helping build the required infrastructure. As a result, a high tendency for integrating
onboard energy storage systems in trains is being observed worldwide. This article provides a detailed review
of onboard railway systems with energy storage devices. In-service trains as well as relevant prototypes are
presented, and their characteristics are analyzed. A comprehensive study of the traction system structure of
these vehicles is introduced providing an overview of all the converter architectures used, categorized based
on the type of onboard energy storage device on the train. The current situation of hydrogen fuel cells in
railway systems is presented as well, highlighting consistent tendencies. This article also provides a glimpse
into commercial battery and fuel cell products used on operating trains.

INDEX TERMS Hydrogen fuel cell, lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery, onboard energy storage, railway traction.

NOMENCLATURE I. INTRODUCTION
OESD Onboard energy storage device. Integration of energy storage devices onboard trains has be-
EMU Electric multiple unit. come a trending topic of the railway transportation sector [1].
DMU Diesel multiple unit. This comes to address the massive measures being undertaken
EDMU Electro-diesel multiple unit. worldwide by public and private sectors to cope with road
BEMU Battery electric multiple unit. maps toward reducing carbon emissions [2], [3]. One key
HEMU Hydrogen electric multiple unit. target is achieving a more sustainable mobility and green
HMU Hydrogen multiple unit. transportation sector reaching a net zero emission by 2050 [2].
Li Lithium. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), trans-
Li-ion Lithium-ion. portation sector currently accounts for almost 37% of global
LTO Lithium titanate oxide. carbon emissions after an 8% rebound in 2021, as shown in
NMC Nickel manganese cobalt. Fig. 1 [4]. It can be seen that railway is one of the sectors with
EoL End of life. the lowest carbon emissions. However, many trains are still
SoC State of charge. operated using diesel engines, which goes against worldwide
SoH State of health. road maps and increasing efforts toward reduction of carbon
NTP Normal temperature and pressure. emissions, such as the 2050 European road map implying the

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238 VOLUME 4, 2023
 of energy storage systems, i.e., battery, supercapacitor, and
flywheel, while fuel cells have not been discussed. A review
of the developments in OESD is presented in [14] focusing
on the technology and the functionalities in railway where a
comparison between the different technologies of OESD is
introduced. In [15], a review of rail transport is presented fo-
cusing on market demand, consumption, emissions, and costs.
The work analyzes the technical, regulatory, and economic
problems and identifies necessary policies to cope with the
transition to more sustainable rail transportation. In [16], a lit-
erature review of the developments and applications of energy
storage devices in electrified railways is presented (up to the
year 2014) with the main focus being comparing the different
FIGURE 1. Global CO2 emissions from transport by subsector [4]. types of energy storage practically used in rail transport.
The objective of this article is to review railway systems
integrating different types of OESDs in their main drive. The
complete ban of diesel trains by this year [2]. Only one-third latest advancements and current status of OESD technology
of railway tracks worldwide are electrified [5], [6]. The USA used in railways up to this date are highlighted. A relevant
has the least share with less than 1% electrified lines where amount of data are collected from most railway projects either
there is still a strong dependence on diesel trains [6]. On the currently in service or undergoing tests (static and dynamic) or
other hand, Europe has more than 60% of electrified tracks, in a prototyping stage. Furthermore, the traction system power
while Asia has almost 50% with a significant increase ob- converter architectures are analyzed for each type of train with
served in the last decade, the highest share being in Japan, OESD, and their main characteristics are discussed. Using
South Korea, and China [7], [8]. In many scenarios, rail- these detailed data, it is possible to identify some consistent
way electrification is very difficult due to the requirement to trends as well as clear future tendencies and expectations for
change the infrastructure and, in some situations, it is impos- the next years. Countries with the largest investments in this
sible to achieve due to tunnels and narrow gauges. This has field and well-positioned manufacturers of rolling stock and
encouraged the integration of energy storage devices onboard OESDs are charted. Finally, the challenges facing the inte-
trains as the only possible solution to replace diesel engines gration of OESD in railway transportation are compiled and
and operate on catenaryless and nonelectrified routes. Be- discussed.
sides, the rail sector is being considered as a tractor project The rest of this article is organized as follows. An overview
for promoting the use of green hydrogen in the industrial of OESDs in railway systems and their function per rail type
sector by building up the infrastructure [9]. This scenario is is addressed in Section II. Traction power converter archi-
backed up by the global energy crisis, which, according to the tecture integrating OESD is described in Section III. Fuel
IEA’s recent world energy outlook, would potentially hasten cell trains and battery trains in service as well as undergo-
the transition to sustainable energy [10], [11]. ing tests are presented in Sections V and IV, respectively.
The technical feasibility of using OESDs in railways has Challenges facing the integration of OESDs in railway are
been proven with many trains already in service for several discussed in Section VI. Finally, Section VIII concludes this
years. However, the massive integration of OESD in railways article.
seen recently is still facing some major limitations, especially
related to the demanding railway operation conditions com- II. OVERVIEW OF OESD IN THE RAILWAY SYSTEM
pared to other applications of energy storage devices. These The world’s first fuel cell locomotive was built by Vehicle
limitations have urged industry to look for solutions to fa- Projects Inc., Golden, CO, USA, in 2002 for mining purposes
cilitate the fast transition by actively involucrating multiple with 17-kW power and was later enhanced in collaboration
stakeholders, including industry, public agencies, and aca- with BNSF railway as well as the U.S. military to a full-scale
demic research. traction switcher locomotive fitted with a lead-acid battery
Several papers have presented a review of the status of demonstrated in 2009 [17], [18]. In the USA, during the last
OESD in railways in the past few years. In [12], a broad tech- decade, several railway projects with OESD have started. Be-
noeconomic survey of onboard batteries, supercapacitors, and sides, some U.S. states are seeing a rapidly maturing hydrogen
fuel cell systems for rail vehicles is presented (up to 2021). infrastructure, e.g., California with more than 50 hydrogen
A technical comparison is performed among different types refueling stations already in operation for other mobility ap-
of OESDs used in railways, and available details of urban plications [19], [20], which would certainly pave the way
and regional trains with OESD are summarized. In [13], a for massive use of hydrogen fuel cells in railway vehicles.
review of the application of energy storage devices in railway Nowadays, the technology of OESD in railway is considered
systems is presented. The work focuses on increasing the effi- most mature in Japan and China with trains already in service
ciency of regenerative braking systems discussing three types since 2016 [21]. In Europe, there has been a recent interest

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FIGURE 2. Share of countries investing in trains with OESDs. Based on

data from [9] and [23].

in battery as well as hydrogen fuel cell trains with projects

and orders mostly reported in the U.K., Germany, and Spain.
According to [19], most of the fuel cell trains global market
developments are currently concentrated in Europe with a
potential technology export to North America and Southeast
Asia in the short term.
Fig. 2 shows the countries worldwide with the most rel-
evant investments in trains with OESD showing the share
of each based on the number of projects undertaken. Ger-
many represents the first country to put into service a
hydrogen fuel cell train: the Coradia iLint developed by
Alstom [22].
In this section, the functions of OESDs in railway systems
are described specifying their use for each rail type. OESD
technologies typically used on railway vehicles are presented,
and their characteristics are briefly compared.
FIGURE 3. OESD function in railway. (a) Power assist. (b) Regenerative
braking. (c) Traction. (d) Load leveling.
A. OESD FUNCTION IN RAILWAY
Fig. 3 shows the functions of OESD on railway vehicles; these
are described as follows: OESDs have the potential of improving the quality and the
1) power assist (also called peak shaving), for example, efficiency of the overhead line system and the infrastructure
at weak catenary points and low line voltage [see since they can provide catenary current peak shaving and
Fig. 3(a)]. In this case, the traction power peaks during voltage stabilization [12].
acceleration are supplied by the OESD;
2) regenerative braking recovering the kinetic energy gen- B. OESD FUNCTION PER RAIL TYPE
erated during braking [see Fig. 3(b)] [24]. The recovered The function of OESD on railway vehicles differs based on
power is principally used to feed the auxiliary loads. If the type and purpose of each vehicle. Railway vehicles are
this power is higher than the auxiliary demand, the rest classified based on service to two main categories: passenger
is stored in the OESD (dotted green arrow). Otherwise, and freight services. Based on this, rail types are typically
if it is not sufficient, power is drawn from the catenary classified in four main types: urban, regional, high-speed, and
(dotted red arrow); cargo. These are described as follows discussing the function
3) providing first and last mile (<80 km) [see Fig. 3(c)]; of OESD for each.
4) traction and auxiliary power supply in nonelectrified or
catenaryless sections [see Fig. 3(c)]; 1) URBAN RAIL
5) assisting in emergencies, for example, train traction till Urban rail includes trams, light rail vehicles (LRVs), street
nearest station [see Fig. 3(c)]; cars, and subway. It is usually supplied using overhead cate-
6) load leveling during periods of light loading by storing nary lines, and their service is mainly passenger transport
power in OESD [25]. This can be especially important inside urban areas with speeds up to 70 km/h. An OESD is
for the catenary to suppress load fluctuations and avoid mainly used for emergency running and backup and in some
power pulsation. For gensets, it enables operating at the urban areas where there are gaps in overhead lines or these
optimum point most of the time, which increases the are being removed for aesthetic reasons. Also, OESD has been
efficiency. installed on some urban rail for recovering the braking energy.

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TABLE 1. OESD Characteristics [30]

An example is the Kawasaki’s SWIMO LRV in Japan [26], 4) CARGO/FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVE

which uses energy recovered from braking to accelerate under Cargo locomotives typically have speeds up to 140 km/h.
a low-voltage line or drive the vehicle in catenaryless seg- OESD is used for providing first- and last-mile capability.
ments. An example is the CRRC 5.6-MW cargo locomotive built
for Hungary with a 350-kW 200-kWh Li battery providing
a range of up to 10 km along a flat line for first- and last-mile
2) COMMUTER, REGIONAL, AND INTERCITY operation [29].
These trains are used for transporting passengers between near
cities in the same region with speeds up to 140–160 km/h.
Their main energy source is overhead catenary lines or diesel C. OESD TECHNOLOGIES FOR RAILWAY
engines. OESDs are installed to avoid the use of diesel engine The two relevant differences between OESD technologies
and achieve low carbon emissions especially near urban areas. when considered for railway application are: 1) the required
It is also used for recovering the braking energy and assisting energy and power densities and 2) the number of cycles to
in power peaks. For the case of Europe, coping with the 2050 EoL. This is somehow determinant of the application and
European road map will imply the complete ban of diesel type of vehicle where each OESD technology is used. Table 1
trains [2]; regional train manufacturers are dedicating big in- shows the key characteristics of the most frequently reported
vestments to replacing diesel engines with OESDs. Examples OESD in railway applications [30], and Fig. 4 graphically
are discussed in Sections IV and V. compares their power and energy densities [31]. The consid-
ered OESD technologies are briefly discussed as follows.

3) HIGH-SPEED
These trains are used for longer distances, transporting pas- 1) SUPERCAPACITOR
sengers between regions or countries with speeds up to Characterized by their very high power density, high dynamic
200–400 km/h. The majority of high-speed trains are elec- response, and low energy density, supercapacitors are most
trically driven through overhead catenary lines. In this case, often used when high power peaks are required for very short
OESD is used to assist in power peaks and for backup in periods.
the case of emergency. An example is the Japan N700S bul- Supercapacitors are very suitable for applications where
let train, where Toshiba SCiB LTO batteries were added in high power peaks are frequent [32], [33]. They are usually
2020 [27]. Four of the N700S train’s 16 carts carry bat- used in urban rail transit of all types [34], [35], [36]. Thanks
teries below their frame. The objective of the battery is to to their fast response and their fast charging capability (in the
support operation in the case of disruption of the overhead range of tens of seconds), charging can be performed at any
line, for example, due to an earthquake, in which case it will station during short stops when in service operation as well
be used to drive the train at a lower speed to the nearest as during the braking process. There is a number of trams
station [28]. and metros already in service using supercapacitors. Spain,

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FIGURE 5. Li-ion battery cell and pack volume-weighted price projection

(based on data from electric vehicles, buses, and stationary storage
FIGURE 4. Energy density versus power density of considered OESDs for projects) [41], [43].
railway [31].

Portugal, and China are considered innovators and leading as well as lower charging duration (see Fig. 4 and Table 1).
countries in the adoption of this technology. Li-ion battery has seen significant developments during the
An example is the CRRC low-floor LRV tram in China, last decade with its cost being reduced by more than 80%
which is fitted with two supercapacitor banks of 45 F, 528 V; in specific sectors, as shown in Fig. 5 [41], [42]. It can be
each is composed of 11 series 3 parallel assembly of 48-V observed that the cell price accounts for around 80% of the
modules [37]. Another example is the CAF urban tramway in pack total cost. It is noted that the current costs of Li-ion bat-
Seville, Spain; it is fitted with supercapacitors on the rooftop teries for railways are significantly larger than those shown in
providing a range of approximately 3.2 km being charged at Fig. 5. However, similar trends would be expected for railways
stops in around 30 s [38]. Also, another example is the Altsom if mass production becomes viable.
RATP Citadis tramway in Paris developed within the STEEM There are several chemistries of Li-ion batteries reported
project; it uses 54-V 130-F supercapacitor modules assem- for railway trains; they use liquid electrolytes and only two
bled in series–parallel with a total of 48 modules where the anode materials: graphite and LTO. The main three rival Li-
usable energy is 1.6 kWh [39]. The Brussels tram line (Bom- ion technologies for railway applications are: 1) NMC having
bardier Flexity tram T3000) is another example; it is supplied a graphite anode and NMC cathode; 2) LTO having an LTO
from a 700-V dc catenary and onboard supercapacitors of anode and NMC cathode; and 3) lithium iron phosphate (LFP)
around 580 V in addition to the Blackpool and the Mannheim having a graphite anode and LFP cathode. LTO has a faster
tramways in the U.K. Several metro lines are already using charging rate and a significantly higher number of cycles to
supercapacitors, like Madrid and Brussels. EoL than NMC and LFP (i.e., superior cyclic life) [44], [45].
On the other hand, LTO has a relatively lower energy density
2) BATTERY attributed to the lower cell voltage (2.4 V) compared to NMC
Batteries are characterized by their high energy density and (3.7 V) and LFP (3.2 V) [46]. Regarding safety, theoretically,
lower power density compared to supercapacitors, as shown LFP is considered the safest of the three technologies since
in Table 1, but noting that significant differences can exist its cathode material (LFP) has the highest thermal runaway
depending on the battery technology. Onboard battery storage temperature (270◦ C) compared to NMC and LTO (210◦
systems have been reported for almost all rail types; how- C), which both have NMC cathodes. Recently, the rolling
ever, their function differs for each of them, as explained in stock sector has been seeing a tendency toward LTO for
Section II-B. Examples of trains integrating battery OESD are OESDs due to the need to significantly cut down the battery
discussed in Section IV. In some onboard systems, superca- charging time and increase its lifetime, in this case compro-
pacitors are used to support the battery during power peaks, mising volume and weight [45], [47], [48]. On the other hand,
for example, during acceleration and braking, which leads to a some manufacturers are still going for NMC batteries to en-
better stabilization of the catenary voltage and a higher battery hance energy density like the case of Alstom for the Coradia
lifetime [34], [40]. iLint [22], [49].
Battery types reported for use in railways are mainly Li-ion Other types of batteries, such as redox flow batteries, are not
and lead-acid (Pb-acid). Nowadays, the majority of appli- reported for railway application; the reason can be contributed
cations use Li-ion due to the environmental issues related to their higher weight and size (i.e., lower energy density) and
to Pb-acid since it contains toxic and hazardous materials. the lack of commercial solutions, and therefore, they do not
Furthermore, Li-ion has higher energy and power densities provide a competitive alternative.

242 VOLUME 4, 2023

 FIGURE 7. Share of fuel cell manufacturers in railway projects and
operating trains with OESDs. Based on reviewed data.

efficiency of a fuel cell versus battery energy storage systems

starting from generation using renewable energy.
Finally, the battery has a higher power density than the
fuel cell (see Table 1), and for this reason, a fuel cell system
for railway usually includes a battery. While the fuel cell
FIGURE 6. Energy efficiency of battery versus hydrogen fuel cell storage
systems. Based on a study by the Administrador de Infraestructuras provides the average power, the battery absorbs fast power
Ferroviarias [52], [53]. changes (i.e., recovering kinetic energy during braking) and
provides peak power during acceleration [54]. The battery is
also used to provide the start-up power for auxiliary loads
3) HYDROGEN FUEL CELL (i.e., air and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC)
Hydrogen gas has a high gravimetric energy density of compressors, motor ventilation fans, etc.) [34], [55] .
33 kWh/kg, but, at atmospheric pressure and normal ambient Regarding the type of fuel cells used in rail applications, the
temperature, each kg occupies 11.2 Nm3 , having, therefore, Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell, also known as polymer
a very low volumetric energy density of around 3 kWh/Nm3 electrolyte membrane (PEM), represents the most selected
(i.e., at NTP). Consequently, it has to be compressed to be type due to its low operating temperature (60–120◦ C), fast
transportable. start-up, low corrosion, and maintenance as well as the flexi-
There are several aspects to take into consideration when bility to scale up the system [56].
comparing hydrogen fuel cells and batteries: 1) gravimet- Hydrogen storage tanks typically used in railways are type
ric/volumetric energy densities and their variation with the IV cylinders, which are made of composite material composed
required OESD capacity mainly determined based on the of carbon fiber with a polymer liner [57]. Compared to types
target autonomy and the vehicle size; 2) the overall system I–III, which are based on metallic composites (steel and alu-
efficiency; and 3) power density. minum), the weight is significantly reduced making it very
The gravimetric (Wh/kg) and volumetric (Wh/m3 ) energy convenient for use in railway [9]. Hydrogen is normally com-
densities of batteries are more or less constant (i.e., achieving pressed given its very low volumetric energy density where
higher capacity is done by paralleling battery packs), meaning typical pressure levels used in railways are 200, 350, and 700
that doubling the kWh doubles the volume and weight. This bars. Hydrogen liquefaction can be used to further reduce the
is not the same for fuel cells where the overall system con- volume; however, this process is less efficient compared to
sisting of the fuel cell and the hydrogen storage tank has an compression resulting in almost 25% lower overall system
increasing specific energy as the kWh increases [50]. For this efficiency [9]. The most commonly reported manufacturers
reason, batteries are preferred for shorter distances and lighter of hydrogen fuel cells for railways are Ballard [58], Cum-
vehicles, while for higher millage and heavier vehicles where mins [59], and Toyota [60]. Fig. 7 shows the share of each
more kWh is required, the fuel cell starts to be competitive manufacturer in reported railway projects and operating trains
since it could provide a better overall volume and weight than using hydrogen fuel cell technology. The most commonly re-
batteries [50]. That is the reason why, at the moment, the ported manufacturers of hydrogen storage solutions are [57]:
railway market scope for hydrogen fuel cells is focused on NPROXX [61], Hexagon Purus [62], and Luxfer [63].
regional trains with more than 80 km of nonelectrified route,
relatively lower frequency of trains, and limited inactive time, 4) FLYWHEEL
which does not permit battery charging [9]. Flywheels were investigated for some railway projects mainly
Regarding efficiency, a fuel cell has significantly lower ef- in urban rail LRV and locomotives. An example is the British
ficiency compared to a battery (50% and 85%, respectively). Parry People Mover railcar powered by a flywheel, which
This is due to the electrochemical reaction known as reverse had been in service since 2010 [64]. Also, SNCF France
electrolysis used to generate electrical energy by combin- and Alstom in their PLATHEE Project (Energy Efficient and
ing hydrogen and oxygen. The reaction by-products are heat Environmentally Friendly Train Platform) have investigated
and water vapor [51]. Fig. 6 shows a comparison between the use of flywheel on a hybrid diesel locomotive, but it did

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TABLE 2. Train Types Categorized by the Type of Hybridization

not enter service [40]. Another example is the Alstom Citadis

flywheel tram, which had undergone tests in Rotterdam since
2005 [39]; however, no clear plans for entering commercial
service were publicly reported. Research is going on for devel-
oping robust flywheel systems for railway traction; however,
the technology has not proven sufficient maturity for passen-
ger trains till the moment, one of the reasons being mechanical
safety concerns.

D. CLASSIFICATIONS OF RAIL VEHICLES WITH OESD

Existing trains with OESD can be retrofitted or new.
Retrofitted trains can either replace a diesel engine with an
OESD or add an OESD to a catenary-fed existing series train.
An example is the CAF hydrogen retrofit Renfe Civia train
for the FCH2Rail European project [65], which is based on
adding a hydrogen fuel cell and a battery to the existing Renfe
3-car commuter unit belonging to CIVIA series [9]. New
series trains are those newly designed including an OESD
as a primary energy source. Actual railway vehicles with
OESD are a retrofit of an existing series, and consequently,
they are not optimized. Trains with OESD can be classified
based on the energy sources used for supplying the traction
chain and other onboard systems, in other words, the type of
FIGURE 8. (a)–(h) Train converter structure based on the type of
hybridization of the energy sources feeding the train. This is hybridization. Converter marked with * can exist or not depending on
summarized in Table 2 showing a real example of each train topology characteristics (i.e., dc catenary and/or battery can be connected
type for multiple-unit trains. A multiple-unit train consists directly to the dc link). The symbol ? indicates ac or dc depending on the
catenary type. Blue and red connections stand for dc and ac voltages,
of several traction motors incorporated within its cars with respectively.
no need for a locomotive car. The same types are applicable
to locomotives. Both locomotives and multiple units can be
fed electrically using catenary overhead lines, a diesel en- III. POWER CONVERTER ARCHITECTURES
gine/genset, an OESD, or a combination of the previous. The The onboard power converter structure differs based on the
latter is called multimode rail vehicles comprising multiple type of train and hybridization concept. Fig. 8 shows the pos-
energy sources, which enable supplying the train auxiliary and sible onboard power converter architectures being categorized
propulsion system from different sources [12]. by the type of hybridization of the train.

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TABLE 3. Summary of General Characteristics of Trains With OESD

The main power converters forming the train electrical sys- stage. However, for dc bus voltage above 1 kV, the topology
tem are the catenary converter, the auxiliary converter, the can be formed by a dc–dc converter followed by a dc–ac
traction inverter, and the OESD converter. These are discussed inverter. It can include an isolation stage depending on the
in this section as follows. dc-link voltage level and the standards in the country of
Table 3 shows the general characteristics of some of the service. Generally, for voltages below 1 kV, no isolation is
trains with OESDs either in service or under commissioning required, while for voltages above 1 kV, it is, in the majority
indicating the converter architecture for each train (referred to of cases, compulsory to integrate an isolation transformer for
Fig. 8). complying with safety standards. The isolation stage can be
either integrated into the dc–dc converter, e.g., using a dual
active bridge (DAB), or a low-voltage transformer is added at
A. AUXILIARY CONVERTER the ac output.
It is used to supply the auxiliary circuits and devices on
the train, for example, the lighting system, air conditioning,
single-phase plugs in passenger vehicles, as well as air brak- B. CATENARY CONVERTER
ing compressors and motors ventilation fans. The auxiliary The catenary converter, also called the main converter, is
converter has a dc–ac topology where the input is connected used to supply the train from the catenary overhead line. Its
to the train dc bus and the output 400 Vac forms the train topology is dependent on the type and characteristics of the
low-voltage grid. It is typically formed by a dc–ac inverter catenary system. The railway electrification systems can be

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classified into dc and ac; dc overhead catenaries include 600 The converter includes a differential mode filter normally
Vdc, 750 Vdc, 1.5 kVdc, and 3 kVdc, while ac catenaries used in all the dc–dc converters to filter switching ripple.
include 25 kVac at 50 Hz, 15 kVac at 16.7 Hz, and 20 kVac This ripple should be attenuated to levels that would not
at 50/60 Hz. The power converters in the traction chain of compromise battery health. Recently, several studies have in-
electrically powered trains depend on the type of catenary vestigated this issue; and it is becoming one of the important
system, and the voltage level at which it is intended to operate. criteria for differential filter design [75]. A common choice
In the case of a dc catenary, a dc–dc converter can be is an L or an LC filter [24], [70], [71], while an LCL fil-
used; however, in the majority of cases, this converter is not ter is less often used. Interleaving is repeatedly reported for
used. This is commonly reported for 600- or 750-V catenaries, battery applications to reduce the current ripple achieving
usually used for urban rail. As for 1.5- and 3-kV dc catenaries, a smaller filter design and providing redundancy [74], [76],
removing this converter would very likely implicate the use [77], [78]. In [74], a volume reduction of 30% was reported
of an isolation stage for feeding the train auxiliary circuitry when redesigning the battery dc–dc converter of a tram to use
(i.e., in the auxiliary converter) to comply with the railway interleaving as well as full-SiC power devices.
standards of many countries for dc buses above 1 kV. An In addition to the differential mode filter, a common-mode
additional concern, if the catenary converter is not used, is filter is very often necessary to protect the battery from
that the voltage fluctuations allowed in the catenary will be common-mode voltage, which could compromise its oper-
transferred directly to the dc link, consequently affecting to ation or falsely trigger battery management system (BMS)
other converters. This is typically solved using an LC filter. protections. It is typically implemented using coupled induc-
In ac catenaries, the converter is compulsory and usually tors and Y capacitors (i.e., series capacitors with the midpoint
denoted as active front end (AFE). An active four-quadrant connected to ground) [79].
converter (4QC) is typically reported in railway applications The control of this converter differs according to the state
for providing active and reactive power control, power factor of the battery (i.e., charging/discharging). During battery
correction, and, in some cases, harmonic current filtering [67], charge, the control would start by fixing the current, and then,
[68], [69]. A transformer is mandatory to step down the high when the battery reaches the required SoC, it would fix the
voltage of the catenary (20 kV/50–60 Hz, 25 kV/50–60 Hz, or voltage. On the other hand, when the battery is feeding the dc
15 kV/16.7 Hz) to a lower level typically in the range of 400 bus (discharging), the converter would be required to regulate
Vac up to 2 kVac to be handled by the AFE. either the bus voltage or the delivered power depending on the
overall control strategy. If another converter is regulating the
dc bus voltage, then the battery dc–dc converter would regu-
C. DIESEL GENSET CONVERTER
late power, tracking a certain reference provided by the power
For diesel trains (DMU, EDMU, and hybrid DMU), similar
management strategy (PMS) and energy management strategy
to the case of ac catenary, an ac–dc converter is required to
(EMS). Droop control can also coordinate different converters
rectify the ac voltage output of the diesel genset to form the
connected to the dc bus and contributing to its regulation [80].
dc bus. This ac–dc converter is unidirectional and, therefore,
This would be applied through the PMS and EMS [37]. In the
can either be a diode rectifier or a controlled rectifier.
case of voltage control, a cascaded control can be used with
an inner current loop regulating battery current and an outer
D. BATTERY DC–DC CONVERTER voltage loop regulating the bus [70].
This converter is used to interface the battery to the train dc It is possible to remove this converter with the objective of
bus and to control battery charge and discharge. reducing size, weight, cost, and losses as well as simplifying
Regarding the topology, the most common choice of dc–dc the overall system. However, this has to be carefully analyzed
converter for the battery energy storage system in railway is since it directly affects, not only battery health but also the
the nonisolated bidirectional two-level (2L) buck–boost con- operation of the other converters connected to the dc bus
verter [70], [71]. A three-level (3L) buck–boost converter has since the battery would fix the bus voltage. As mentioned
been proposed in literature [72]; however, it has not been previously, Li-ion batteries are the most common selection
reported in any real train project. A review of other dc–dc in railway traction batteries. These are characterized by their
converter topologies proposed for integrating battery energy low ohmic resistance, in the range of tens of milliohms, so a
storage onboard rail vehicles can be found in [73]. ripple in dc-link voltage as low as 5 V can cause large current
SiC technology provides a promising solution for battery ripples at the battery side. A ripple of 20 V in the dc link
dc–dc converter allowing operation at higher switching fre- could lead to a blown battery fuse. For this reason, battery
quencies, which helps reduce the size and weight of passive manufacturers usually tend to recommend the use of a dc–dc
filter components [74]. On the other hand, employing SiC converter. An example appears with ac catenaries. The fact
dc–dc converters has several issues impeding commercial use that the catenary is single phase implies the generation of a 2F
in rail vehicles such as electromagnetic interference (EMI) (2 × frequency) superimposed ac component in the dc-link
due to the large dv/dt and di/dt, complicating the design of voltage (i.e., low-frequency ripple). This can easily cause a
filters. Also, the lower current rating compared to Si impli- ripple as high as 50 V, which cannot be applied directly to the
cates the use of several devices in parallel [74]. battery. In this case, a 2F filter should be used; the size of this

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TABLE 4. Summary of Typical Power Converters Characteristics for Reviewed Railway Applications

filter is directly proportional to the catenary voltage and the

dc bus voltage, leading in the end to a bulky solution. Further-
more, the filter design would be inefficient because it should
be made based on the battery minimum voltage (worst case),
and therefore, most of the time, it would be operating away
from its optimum point resulting in reduced efficiency. This
is also the case for all the other components connected to the
bus since the battery would fix the bus voltage, and therefore,
these must be rated for the minimum battery voltage. This is FIGURE 9. Types of OESD installation in railway vehicles.
dependent on the battery SoC, for example, a pack with 850-V
nominal voltage can have as low as 700 V at 30% SoC. This
would result in overrating of the current for all components
(e.g., cables, auxiliary converter, traction inverter, etc.) most
probably leading to a higher cost and size.
In conclusion, using a dc–dc converter for the battery is a
tradeoff that has to be studied for each train system depending
on its specifications.

E. FUEL CELL CONVERTER

A dc–dc converter is necessary at the output of the fuel cell to
FIGURE 10. Rolling stock manufacturers share of battery train projects.
regulate the power delivered. This converter is unidirectional
Based on reviewed data.
since power is delivered only from the fuel cell to the system.
Isolation is not necessary for this converter since the fuel cell
output voltage is usually several tens of volts below the dc IV. BATTERY TRAINS
bus voltage. Reported fuel cell converters could have an input In this section, some of the relevant railway vehicles with
voltage in the range of 500–800 V and an output voltage in an onboard battery system are described. The section is not
the range of 600–1500 V. Typically, the employed topology intended to provide an exhaustive revision, but an overview of
in most reported projects is a nonisolated unidirectional boost the current situation and trends.
dc–dc converter [34], [37]. A differential filter is necessary in Table 5 shows a summary of the characteristics of the
order to reduce the high-frequency current ripple seen by the considered battery trains. Unlike fuel cells, the Li-ion battery
fuel cell being induced by the dc–dc converter switching. market for railway is much wider with several battery man-
ufacturers supplying modules and packs especially designed
F. TRACTION INVERTER for rail providing several mounting possibilities (underframe
It is used to drive the traction motor having a dc–ac topology or underfloor, rooftop, inside the car, and technical car, as
being supplied from the train dc bus. The most typically used illustrated in Fig. 9), as shown in Table 5. Fig. 10 shows the
topologies in railways are 2L three-phase inverters and 3L share of relevant rolling stock manufacturers in the recent
neutral-point-clamped (NPC) inverters. As seen from the dc development of battery railway vehicles based on reported
link, it is normally modeled as a constant power source. data.
Table 4 shows a summary of the typical ratings, charac- Examples of battery pack suppliers with railway com-
teristics, as well as functionality of each of the converters mercial systems already installed on battery trains are Saft,
comprising the railway main drive and reviewed in this Leclanché, Hoppecke, and ABB [89], [90], [91]. Examples of
section. LTO cell manufacturers are Toshiba, Hitachi, and Saft [21],

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TABLE 5. Characteristics of Battery Trains

FIGURE 11. Share of traction battery providers in railway projects and

operating trains with OESDs. Based on reviewed data.

FIGURE 12. DENCHA battery train converter architecture and

placement [12], [21].
[27], [92]. Fig. 11 shows the share of each in the reported
railway projects.
It is observed that battery packs used in railway vehicles where a high-voltage battery is used to avoid installing the
have a wide voltage range with most of the reported systems battery dc–dc converter. The battery structure consists of three
having a nominal voltage in the range of 500–800 V with a battery packs, each containing 72 series modules of Hitachi
current rating in the range of 200–240 A. high-energy-density Li-ion 75-Ah battery module [21]. Each
pack has a capacity of about 120 kWh/pack providing a total
A. HITACHI—JR KYUSHU SERIES BEC819 DENCHA capacity of 360 kWh and a voltage of 1598 V. The battery
DENCHA (Dual Energy Charge) BEMU train is the world’s system provides an autonomy range of 30 km.
first battery-powered train charged from ac overhead lines
in Japan [21]. It was developed in a collaboration between B. STADLER FLIRT AKKU
Hitachi and Kyushu Railway Company Japan (JR Kyushu). FLIRT (Fast Light Intercity and Regional Train) Akku train
The DENCHA is designed for ac catenary of 20 kV/60 Hz is Stadler’s first battery-powered train. It is equipped with
with a traction power of 380 kW. a 180-kWh Li-ion battery and traction converters provided
The train has the structure of a BEMU [see Fig. 8(d)]. The by ABB for a total of 55 BEMUs [90]. The battery system
converters architecture and placement are shown in Fig. 12, provides an autonomy of 150 km and it was demonstrated

248 VOLUME 4, 2023

in a test a 224 km in battery-only mode breaking the world E. CRRC CARGO LOCOMOTIVE
record for battery-powered train autonomy. The batteries are The 5.6-MW ac four-axle locomotive, built by CRRC for
charged while the trains are operating in electrified sections Rail Cargo Hungaria (RCH), has a top speed of 140 km/h
and at selected locations of the route. The traction converter and a traction force of 300 kN. It is fitted with a 350-kW
ensures that the battery energy storage systems can be charged 200-kWh Li battery. It can be supplied from ac catenary of
with 400 V or 1 kV in operating and charging modes without 15 kV/16.7 Hz or 25 kV/50 Hz [29]. The locomotive provides
the need for additional power electronic equipment than what first- and last-mile operation capability using the onboard
is required for an ac EMU train [81]. It has a charging time of battery system covering a range of up to 10 km along a flat
15 min under catenary [66]. line. CRRC has built two hybrid freight locomotives and two
The converter architecture is that of a BEMU [see Fig. 8(d)] hybrid shunting locomotives for RCH [85].
with an ac–dc catenary converter; however, there is no pro-
vided information about the usage of a dc–dc converter for F. KAWASAKI’S SWIMO LRV
the battery. This three-section 15-m-long prototype vehicle is developed
by Kawasaki Japan. It can be fed from 600-V catenary
overhead lines as well as the onboard nickel-metal-hydride
C. BOMBARDIER TALENT 3 BEMU
(Ni-MH) Kawasaki GIGACELL battery [26]. The battery has
Bombardier has designed a three-car BEMU train based on its a 240-A 7.6-kWh rating and a nominal voltage of 576 V.
Talent 3 train platform [82]. The project was funded by the It provides an autonomy of 10 km at a maximum speed
German federal government in the framework of an innova- of 40 km/h on a 5-min charge [88]. The converter archi-
tion program for electromobility. Design rights were divested tecture is the one shown in Fig. 8(d), where no catenary
to CAF in 2021 as a condition of the European Commission converter is used since it is fed from dc 600-V catenary. The
for the clearance of Alstom acquisition of Bombardier. The battery is connected to the dc bus using a nonisolated buck–
train can be fed from 15-kV ac catenary as well as from the on- boost bidirectional dc–dc converter having a voltage range of
board Li-ion NMC MITRAC (Modular Integrated TRACtion 576–600 V, 250 kW and uses pulsewidth modulation at a
system) batteries developed by Primove and installed on the switching frequency of 4 kHz [26].
rooftop [23]. The battery system consists of two parallel packs
each equipped with a BMS and the system has a common ther-
G. HITACHI BLUES
mal conditioning unit. According to [23], each pack contains
12 battery modules with 49 kWh of total energy and a nominal It is a trimode train developed by Hitachi for Trenitalia. It is
voltage of 532 V. The total battery system weight is 837 kg, a retrofit of Hitachi Caravaggio platform with three- and four-
and the volume is approximately 0.9 m3 [23]. The train has car models. The train can be fed from diesel onboard battery
a maximum speed of 140 km/h. The converter architecture or 3-kV dc overhead catenary. It is scheduled to enter service
is that of a BEMU shown in Fig. 8(d). It has a dc link of in 2023 [95]. The Blues converter architecture is based on the
3 kV, and consequently, the battery is integrated through an one shown in Fig. 8(h).
isolated medium-frequency dc–dc converter where a modular Other examples of battery trains are the Vivarail British
DAB topology was considered [93]. BEMU, the Siemens Desiro ML cityjet eco for ÖBB Austria,
which is a retrofit of their Desiro diesel platform, the CAF
civity BEMU train, and the Seibu 2000 commuter train in
D. SIEMENS MIREO PLUS B Japan. These are summarized in Table 5.
This train is developed by Siemens for regional and intercity
operation. It is a variant of their Mireo EMU train plat- V. FUEL CELL TRAINS
form fitted with an onboard battery system. This BEMU can In this section, some of the relevant railway vehicles with
also be fed from overhead ac catenary at 15 kV/16.7 Hz or onboard hydrogen fuel cells are described. The section is
25 kV/50 Hz. The battery system has 700 kWh, which pro- intended to provide an overview of the current situation and
vides up to 80-km range at a maximum speed of 140 km/h trends rather than an exhaustive revision. The design and op-
with a traction power up to 1.7 MW and can be charged via the eration of the fuel cell system will be strongly conditioned by
25-kV overhead line [84]. It currently uses LTO batteries, but the onboard battery system. For this reason, the battery system
Siemens reports that it would be going for the niobium tita- for each case will be discussed to a certain level of detail.
nium oxide (i.e., referring to the anode material) [94]. Siemens Table 6 shows a summary of the characteristics of the con-
is codeveloping the batteries with Toshiba using their SciB sidered hydrogen fuel cell rail vehicles. It is remarked that
TM
LTO battery [47]. The battery system is mounted underframe Ballard has the highest share of hydrogen fuel cells in the
and is installed in two battery containers (see Fig. 9). railway market with competition from Toyota and Cummins
The converter architecture of the train is that of a BEMU (previously Hydrogenics). It is observed that the fuel cell
shown in Fig. 8(d), where Siemens reports the use of SiC modules used in railway vehicles have a voltage range of
devices for the battery dc–dc converter similar to their Mireo 500–800 V and a power range of 100–200 kW where hydro-
plus H hydrogen train. gen is typically stored at 350 bar.

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TABLE 6. Characteristics of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Trains

A. ALSTOM CORADIA ILINT systems are designed for railway operation and comply with
The Coradia iLint developed by Alstom is a two-car hydrogen regulations IEC 61508 and EN 12663, and the modular sub-
fuel cell HMU train intended for regional service [103]. It systems are tested in accordance with EN 61373, EN 50121,
was developed within cooperation between Germany, Austria, EN 60529, and UN 38.3 [22]. The iLint is currently used for
and Holland and operated on evb German railway company a nonelectrified rail line of 125 km, where it is able to reach
network. The train was announced in 2016 and in September 140 km/h and travel 600–800 km on a full tank of hydrogen.
2018, a Coradia iLint entered service in Germany with daily Details of the battery and fuel cell systems installed onboard
passenger service according to the regular timetable since the train are summarized in Table 6.
then [22]. RMV transport company in Frankfurt ordered 27 The power converter structure of the Coradia iLint has the
iLint to be delivered in December 2022 with more orders in architecture of an HMU [see Fig. 8(f)], where the battery is di-
France and the U.K. [9]. rectly connected to the dc bus without a dc–dc converter [22].
The train is developed on a version of Alstom Lint 54 DMU The architecture and placement of converters are shown in
(54 m, 160 seats) replacing the diesel engine by a fuel cell and Fig. 13.
a battery system [22].
The hydrogen fuel cell is provided by Cummins having a
power of 200 kW. It takes 15 min to refuel the iLint, which B. HYDROFLEX
holds 178 kg of hydrogen stored in 32 Type IV cylinders at The prototype was developed within a collaboration between
350 bar (consumed at an approximate rate of 0.25–0.3 kg/km) the University of Birmingham and the British Rolling stock
sufficient for a total autonomy of up to 1000 km. The battery company Porterbrook [17], [105]. The current prototype vehi-
system is composed of two packs (one per car), and each cle does not have the installation to be fed from the overhead
pack is composed of three modules of 18 AKM 46 POC catenary. However, it is reported that the production version
Li-ion batteries from AKASOL, Germany [49]. The pack is of the train would be bi-mode [96]. The hydroFLEX uses
liquid-cooled providing 111 kWh, 800 V, an average power an 84-kWh battery system from Denchi group [106] and a
of 221 kW, and peak power of 450 kW (40 s). The battery 100-kW fuel cell module from Ballard [58] (see Table 6).

250 VOLUME 4, 2023

 under the floor [89]. The battery dc–dc converter uses SiC
technology to achieve a compact design, lightweight, and low
losses [47], [89]. The train is being developed within the
project H2goesrail, which is a collaboration between Siemens
mobility and Deutsche Bahn and is expected to enter regular
passenger service as of 2024 [110].
The power converter structure of the Mireo plus H has the
architecture of an HMU where the battery is connected to the
dc bus through a dc–dc converter [47].

E. TALGO TPH2 LOCOMOTIVE

The TPH2 is a test prototype locomotive for the Talgo Vittal-
FIGURE 13. Alstom Coradia iLint Hydrogen train converter architecture
and placement for one car [12], [104].
One hydrogen train. The train is composed of a Talgo Travca
MS locomotive, which can change gauges and run under dif-
ferent electrification systems, and five Talgo hauled cars. The
According to the university of Birmingham, the most chal- train includes a fuel cell system from Ballard complemented
lenging task for the fuel cell is to design the cooling system by a battery system to boost the power required at start-up and
since it has low efficiency and produces lots of heat [96]. store the energy from regenerative braking [100].
On the other hand, the battery system was regarded to be This bi-mode or dual train can also be powered from over-
much more complicated than the fuel cell due to the increased head catenary lines having the architecture shown in Fig. 8(g).
number of components and protections to handle, mainly due In hydrogen mode, the traction power would be 1.3 MW
to railway environment conditions (noise, EMI, etc.) having a maximum velocity of 140 km/h and an autonomy
The power converter structure of the HydroFLEX has the of 800 km, while, in catenary mode, it could reach 3.2 MW
same architecture as the Coradia iLint without a battery con- and 220-km/h maximum velocity [9].
verter and using a nonisolated dc–dc boost converter for The dynamic tests started in May 2022 with the objective
the fuel cell. The dc–dc converter output voltage range is of testing the correct functionality of the main traction system
580–650 V, while the battery nominal voltage is 625 V [96]. components.

C. STADLER FLIRT H2 F. CRRC LIGHT RAIL FOSHAN TRAMWAY

It is the first hydrogen-powered passenger train intended for This is a three-section low-floor hydrogen fuel cell powered
service in the USA [107]. Stadler has an agreement to deliver tram for the 17-km Gaoming line in Foshan, China [97]. The
25 trains for California following its project for San Bernardo tram has two Ballard FCveloCityÂ-XD fuel cell modules of
county [108]. It is designed for intercity and long-distance 200 kW mounted on the rooftop [58]. Six onboard hydrogen
travel with a range of 460 km, a maximum speed of 127 km/h, cylinders provide a range of 125 km with a maximum speed of
and a maximum power of 700 kW [99]. This train is a retrofit 70 km/h. The tram line began service in December 2019 and
of Stadler’s FLIRT DMU which is being deployed by San has operated for more than 7400 hours and 73 000 km since
Bernardo county transport (SBCTA) in California, USA. The August 2020 [97]. Currently, there are no published details
hydrogen retrofit is the outcome of the SBCTA need to convert about the converter architecture on the CRRC hydrogen tram
the DMUs to a zero-emission technology [98], [108]. nor about the employed battery system.
The FLIRT H2 vehicle consists of two cars and a middle
section referred to as the “powerpack” or “technical car,” VI. ASSESSMENT AND MAIN CHALLENGES FOR OESD
which holds the fuel cells and the hydrogen tanks. The fuel INTEGRATION IN RAILWAY
cell system is based on Ballard FCmove-HD+ 100-kW mod- Studies have shown that OESD is the best alternative when
ule [109]. Stadler provides the option of fitting the train with compared to off-board energy storage and reversible sub-
pantographs for its use under overhead catenary lines [107]. stations in terms of energy recovery, vehicle performance,
catenary-free operation, and safety. On the other hand, OESD
D. SIEMENS MIREO PLUS H adds weight and cost to rail vehicles [111]. Table 7 summa-
It is a two-car hydrogen fuel cell HMU developed based rizes some of the relevant advantages and disadvantages of
on Siemens Mireo EMU train platform with a range of up OESD integration in rail vehicles.
to 800 km. The three-car variant of the train would have a Railway applications can be really demanding from the
range of 1000 km [110]. It features a traction power of 1.7 point of view of operational conditions, regulations, and con-
MW and a maximum speed of up to 160 km/h. Siemens has straints. Adding OESD or replacing gensets by OESD is
developed the fuel cell system in collaboration with Ballard relatively new to many manufacturers and, therefore, raises
where two fuel cell systems are mounted on the rooftop. The a lot of challenges and concerns.
train is also fitted with a high-power battery system (more The first decision is the sizing of OESD especially for
than 1 MW) provided by Saft and placed in a compartment vehicles operating on electrified routes [112]. Typically, this

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TABLE 7. Advantages and Disadvantages of OESD Integration in Rail It is worth noting that sizing of OESD is a function of
Vehicles [111]
vehicle and route characteristics such as speed as indicated in
the above list. However, a key point is the function intended
for the OESD, which differs for each vehicle, as described in
Section II-B. For example, if an OESD is required to provide
traction and auxiliary power supply in catenaryless sections,
then, if higher speeds are required (even in catenaryless sec-
tion), the size of the OESD would likely be increased to
support the higher acceleration peaks. On the other hand, if
the function of the OESD is to provide first- and last-mile
operation or for emergency backup, then this may be done
at a reduced speed meaning the OESD size may not be
significantly affected. However, each vehicle has its specific
characteristics, and a detailed simulation would be necessary
to achieve accurate sizing of each OESD.
It is also interesting to remark that the power handled by
the battery (variable power and peaks) would increase sig-
nificantly as a function of train mass when compared to the
power handled by fuel cell (average fixed power). This can
is a multiobjective task where the main targets are minimiz- be attributed to the increase of inertia and the consequent
ing cost, weight, and volume and maximizing lifetime while increase in power peaks during acceleration [83]. This ex-
complying with the required safety, autonomy, reliability, and plains the reason why OESD is not currently targeted for main
compatibility with railway standards [34], [113]. An example drive traction in large trains, especially for high scheduled
of multiobjective optimization problems is shown in [113], in train frequency, which would make route electrification more
which the use of genetic algorithms for sizing of an OESD viable.
system consisting of battery and supercapacitor on a light tram In the following sections, the challenges specific to fuel
vehicle is proposed. Technical factors to take into considera- cell and battery OESDs are overviewed separately since the
tion include the following [83], [113]: operation, as well as requirements of both systems, is quite
1) vehicle characteristics, including the number of cars, different in railway applications.
maximum admitted load, maximum power at wheel, and
auxiliary power consumption; A. FUEL CELL CHALLENGES
2) train route characteristics including slopes, maximum System validation and certification and lack of infrastructure
velocities, available energy sources (e.g., overhead are two of the main challenges according to rolling stock
lines, third rail, etc.), and country of service; companies (i.e., manufacturers, operators, and infrastructure
3) mission or service profile including schedule, num- managers).
ber and duration of stops, service duration, feed- Till now, there is no published standard with requirements
ing/charging duration, required autonomy, and reliabil- for certification of rail vehicles using hydrogen fuel cells for
ity; traction [83]. Work is being done to develop standards such
4) infrastructure and mechanisms available for charging; as the IEC 63341-1 [115] and IEC 63341-2 [116] planned to
5) energy management system including control strategies be published in 2024/2025. However, for the moment, rolling
and technical capabilities of OESDs control units like stock companies are considering other standards as a refer-
communications, and thermal and power management ence. Some of these are described in Table 8 [9], [22], [83].
units. Infrastructure for green hydrogen generation, distribution,
Once objectives and constraints are defined and vehicle and refueling is one of the reasons for its high price. Con-
models are built, simulation can be used for power and energy struction of large-scale facilities is, therefore, required [9].
analysis. PMS and EMS can be this way defined [113]. The According to Alstom, a float of 14 Coradia iLint trains
availability of several energy sources implicates precise coor- with an average consumption of 0.25–0.3 kg/km (around
dination between available sources and load demands while 10 kWh/km [23]) would require approximately 12 recharges
ensuring the instantaneous power balance [83]. Investigation, and 1600 kg of hydrogen per day [83]. According to [117],
development, and implementation of real-time EMSs repre- this amount of hydrogen, resulting in approximately 4 MW
sent an important challenge and are being extensively handled of traction power, can be produced by electrolysis using 11
in literature [114]. MW of wind power (i.e., taking into consideration losses due
At this point, preliminary sizing is possible by evaluating to conversion, compression, and transportation, as shown in
the resulting overall system efficiency and performance. The Fig. 6). For other mobility applications, this is already being
goodness of the solution is then assessed, and the process is seen worldwide where as of 2022, China had around 250
repeated till an optimal solution is determined. open stations compared to 160 in Japan, 90 in Germany, and

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TABLE 8. Reference Standards for Hydrogen Fuel Cell System in as well as making the system more susceptible to noise
Railway [9], [22]
interference. Consequently, filters are needed. Differential-
and common-mode filters are typically included to attenuate
differential- and common-mode noise. Common-mode filter
still represents an open issue for battery system design [79].
It requires battery manufacturers to have very precise knowl-
edge of their battery pack immunity limits regarding tolerable
dv/dt, common-mode voltage, EMI, etc., and define ac-
ceptable noise levels imposed by other system components
especially switching converters.

VII. TENDENCIES AND FUTURE EXPECTATIONS

Tendencies observed for the railway system across the world
are going toward zero emissions, higher efficiency, sustain-
ability, and reduced cost and time to entering service [19],
[123], [124], which will push toward more electrified trains
equipped with onboard energy storage. The following is a
more than 50 in California (i.e., approximate numbers based summary of expected future trends and some insights on their
on [118]). effect to OESD integration in railway vehicles.
Finally, cooling of the fuel cell has been reported to
be a challenge due to its low efficiency, as discussed in A. DIESEL TRAINS PHASE OUT
Section II-C [96]. The tendency to replace diesel engine with alternatives to
comply with regulations regarding decreasing emissions and
B. LI-ION BATTERY INTEGRATION CHALLENGES noise inside and near to urban areas is clear. This has led
Railway systems have very demanding operating conditions to retrofit of existing trains as the fastest solution to replace
including vibrations, conducted and radiated noise, as well as the diesel engine with OESD. However, this does not usually
extreme temperature conditions. These make designing the result in an optimized solution. Alstom has reported a 45%
battery system and its protections a challenging task. Spe- reduction of carbon emissions achieved by its hydrogen train,
cific challenges related to the integration of battery onboard the Coradia iLint, compared to a Diesel Lint unit. This reduc-
railway vehicles include [12], [112], [119]: 1) safety issues, tion is claimed to be possible when hydrogen is produced from
protections, and the consequent high number of electronic natural gas, while up to 95% reduction could be achieved if
components and 2) recharging infrastructure and scheduling. hydrogen is produced from renewable energy [117]. In Japan,
Li-ion batteries can be dangerous if they undergo a thermal only 1% of trains are expected to run on diesel by 2040, and in
runway also called thermal avalanche, which is an irreversible Europe a complete phase out of diesel trains would take place
process that eventually causes the battery cells to catch fire or in several countries starting as early as 2030 [125]. Similarly,
even explode depending on the battery type [120]. Thermal in the USA, restrictions on diesel trains would be applied
runaway is triggered if Li-ion cell safety is compromised starting 2030 specifically in California [126].
when any of its internal components are misused or un-
dergo instability due to extreme operation. The latter situation B. ENERGY EFFICIENCY TREND
would eventually lead to the release of stored energy in an Energy efficiency has become one of the main trends in rail
uncontrolled manner increasing rapidly the cell temperature sector [124]. This would implicate targeting higher efficien-
and leading to the thermal runaway phenomena, most prob- cies for all onboard components. Usage of OESD along with
ably propagating nearby cells and jeopardizing the complete SiC technologies for power converters could provide signif-
battery system. Some of the conditions that could lead to ther- icant improvement in overall efficiency as well as weight.
mal runaway include overvoltage between battery terminals, Almost 30% of reduction in total energy consumption and
overtemperature, overcurrent, isolation failure (i.e., overvolt- 65% reduction in size have been reported by Mitsubishi
age between any terminal and ground), etc. Electric Corporation when employing their all-SiC traction
In order to survive the harsh railway conditions without inverters on Japan-Tokyo metro rail vehicle [111].
compromising cell safety, the battery system needs to be Recovered energy from regenerative braking can contribute
very carefully designed and monitored [120], [121]. For this significantly to efficiency, especially for the case of high-
reason, battery packs are necessarily equipped with a BMS speed operation [127]. Studies have shown that the use of
and a battery thermal management system [122]; these have energy recovery stored in OESD in high-speed railway ve-
direct control over the precharge circuit and the power box hicles can provide almost 30% of energy savings allowing a
containing the main circuit breakers/contactors and fuses. relevant increase in efficiency as well as safety [127], [128],
The presence of these electronic units often adds complex- [129]. In [130], a case study on Trenitalia 9.8-MW high-speed
ity to the system and increases the number of components train developed by Bombardier shows a possible reduction of

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energy consumption by almost 800 MWh/year when employ- reduced by more than 80% between 2013 (US$732 kWh−1 )
ing one energy storage system of 728-kWh nominal energy. and 2023 (US$151 kWh−1 ) [42] and is predicted to reach
US$58 kWh−1 by 2030 [133]. This significant reduction
C. DIGITAL TWIN would support the transition toward a more economic rail
A clear trend toward the use of digital twin in rail sector transport sector. Some studies show that even at a near future
is being observed. Among other uses, it has been recently price of US$100 kWh−1 , battery trains can be comparable to
gaining much interest in system validation, fault diagnosis, diesel trains if environmental costs are considered like carbon
and certification. It is reported that the use of digital twin capture and storage (CCS) [133], [134]. CCS is believed to
could facilitate the faster testing and deployment of more be necessary starting 2030 for abating carbon emissions in
environmentally friendly rail vehicles [123]. Recently, digi- sectors where net zero emission is not achievable [134].
tal twin has been approved for virtual certification as shown Furthermore, AI solutions can be employed to optimize
in some new standards where certain situations allow using energy storage operation, therefore extending its life and
digital twin models instead of costly and complex physical achieving a fast return on investment [135]. AI is expected
tests on track [131]. OESD integration represents a challenge to play a significant role in battery research; some of their
for train manufacturers since the technology is relatively new applications are battery cell diagnosis and fault detection, cell
and still faces lots of challenges and safety concerns. Proper manufacturing, electrode architecture, and material character-
design and implementation of digital twin models can ease the ization [136].
path and speed up time to entering service of trains integrating
new onboard battery and hydrogen energy storage system. F. HIGH-SPEED NETWORK EXPANSION
Digital twin can also make use of artificial intelligence (AI) A global trend of expanding/promoting high-speed rail net-
for enhancing the modeling and parameter estimation of the works has been observed. The most relevant case likely being
system as well as accurate prediction of system behavior. This China, where high-speed rail network is expected to grow by
can allow increasing the lifetime of the overall rail vehicle 30% between 2018 and 2025 and currently accounting for
including the integrated OESD. Finally, a main challenge fac- more than 66% of the global high-speed rail network [137].
ing digital twin would be the data and model sharing between An increase of 60% in the consumed traction power on China
operators, manufacturers, and infrastructure managers [131]. “H” high-speed rail network has been reported between 2013
and 2016 [137]. Also, in Europe, one of the objectives is to
D. FREIGHT SHIFT TO RAIL
double the traffic on high-speed rail by 2030 and triple it
In Europe, freight rail is expected to transport 75% of the in- by 2050 [132]. In May 2023, France has banned domestic
land freight by 2050 where projections show a traffic increase short-haul flights where train alternatives exist, in a bid to
of freight rail by 50% in 2030 and doubling by 2050 [132]. cut carbon emissions [138]. Other European countries are
Globally, it is expected to see a tendency for shifting of a sub- considering similar regulations.
stantial part of freight/cargo carried by road toward transport
by rail [132]. However, more than 60% of rail tracks world-
G. CROSS-BORDER FUNCTIONALITY TREND
wide are not electrified [5], [6], and electrification is in many
cases not viable due to economic or technical issues. Shift to A trend to expand rail network linking different countries is
rail achieving zero emissions and sustainability targets will observed; an example can be seen in Europe where one of
require promoting alternative onboard energy sources instead the objectives of the TEN-T program (Trans-EU transport) is
of diesel engines. putting into action a relevant industrial project called ERTMS
For example, the U.S. freight rail sector is fully depen- standing for “European Railway Traffic Management System”
dent on diesel and is currently transporting approximately with the objective of creating an interoperable railway system
40% of intercity freight with projections of achieving 80% both for passenger and freight [139]. This would promote
by 2050 [133]. At this scale, it is expected that the USA will for hydrogen fuel cell trains since they can easily provide
account for 50% of the global diesel consumption by 2050. cross-border operation and interoperability regardless of the
This scenario has urged national and global environmental different catenary voltage levels [19].
organizations to search for electric alternatives like hydrogen
fuel cell and battery locomotives. H. ACADEMIC RESEARCH
In addition to industry and market trends, some clear tenden-
E. OESD ECONOMICAL TREND cies are observed in academic research:
One important future trend is achieving a more economically 1) optimization of train operation (i.e., optimal speed tra-
competitive rail transport compared to other means of trans- jectory) considering embedded OESD to achieve higher
port to promote increased usage [123], [132]. Consequently, energy-saving rate [140], [141], [142];
rail must deliver more cost-efficient solutions, which would 2) optimal sizing of OESD to minimize the system oper-
implicate lowering the cost of system components. Currently, ating cost and OESD investment cost. Recent studies
the main challenge is the cost of OESD especially Li-ion consider not only economic aspects but also weight and
battery packs. Average battery pack industrial prices have volume [34], [113], [143];

254 VOLUME 4, 2023

 3) optimal PMS and EMS based on available energy Digital twin would allow a faster validation and certification
sources (i.e., fuel cell, battery, catenary, diesel, etc.) processes as well as precise diagnosis during train operation.
[113], [144], [145]; This comes to address the tendency to hasten deployment of
4) battery modeling and online parameter identification rail vehicles. However, the challenge remains to be the data
algorithms [146]. SoC and SoH estimation have been disclosure and sharing between the different rail sectors.
extensively investigated [121], [147];
5) energy saving making use of OESD [148];
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[148] B. Zhang et al., “Impact of on-board hybrid energy storage devices IGOR LARRAZABAL received the M.Sc. degree
on energy-saving operation for electric trains in DC railway systems,” in electrical engineering from the Institut National
Batteries, vol. 8, 2022, Art. no. 167. Polytechnique of Toulouse, Toulouse, France, in
[149] D. Da Fonseca-Soares, J. D. Galvinicio, S. A. Eliziário, and A. F. 1998.
Ramos-Ridao, “A bibliometric analysis of the trends and characteris- From 1998 to 2008, he was with the Traction
tics of railway research,” Sustainability, vol. 14, 2022, Art. no. 13956. Department, Ingeteam, Zamudio, Spain, where he
then joined the Windpower Department. In 2016,
he rejoined the Traction Department, Ingeteam,
MARIAM SAEED (Member, IEEE) received the where he is currently the Product Development
B.Sc. degree from the University of Ain Shams, Director. His research interests include railway ap-
Cairo, Egypt, in 2013, and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. de- plications, traction chains, and power converters.
grees from the University of Oviedo, Gijón, Spain,
in 2015 and 2020, respectively, all in electrical
engineering. DAVID ORTEGA received the Licentiate degree
She is currently a Postdoctoral Researcher with in electrical and electronic engineering from the
the Department of Electrical, Computer and Sys- Universidad Pais Vasco of Bilbao, Bilbao, Spain,
tems Engineering, University of Oviedo. Her re- in 2004.
search interests include electronic power convert- From 2004 to April 2010, he was a Development
ers, energy storage systems, and high-frequency Engineer with the Traction Department, Ingeteam,
transformers. Zamudio, Spain. He then joined Euskotren, Bil-
bao, as a Rolling Stock Maintenance Engineer.
In December 2010, he rejoined the Traction De-
FERNANDO BRIZ (Senior Member, IEEE) re- partment, Ingeteam, where he is currently the
ceived the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in power elec- Technology Coordination Manager. His research
tronics and control from the University of Oviedo, interests include rolling stock architectures, electromagnetic compatibility,
Gijón, Spain, in 1990 and 1996, respectively. noise, efficiency, high-power converters for traction, and energy recovery
He is currently a Full Professor with the De- systems.
partment of Electrical, Computer and Systems
Engineering, University of Oviedo. His research
interests include electronic power converters and VICTOR LOPEZ received the Industrial Technical
ac drives, power systems, machine monitoring and Engineering degree (electronic design specializa-
diagnostics, and digital signal processing. tion) and the Engineering degree in industrial
Dr. Briz was a recipient of the IEEE TRANS- automatics and electronics from the University of
ACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS Award and the nine IEEE Industry Basque Country, Bilbao, Spain, in 2008 and 2010,
Applications Society Conference and IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and respectively.
Exposition (ECCE) Prize Paper Awards. He is the Deputy Editor-in-Chief In 2010, he joined Ingeteam Power Technology,
and a Member of the Steering Committee of IEEE JOURNAL OF EMERGING Zamudio, Spain, where he is currently a Power
AND SELECTED TOPICS IN POWER ELECTRONICS. He is an Associate Editor Electronics Applications Engineer. He is working
for IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS. He is a Member of on his thesis in the field of traction chain optimiza-
the Executive Board of the ECCE. He is the Chair of the Industrial Power tion. His research interests include rolling stock
Conversion System Department (IPCSD) of the IEEE Industry Applications traction chains, power converter design, energy efficiency, system optimiza-
Society. He is the Past Chair of the Industrial Drives Committee of IPCSD. tion, and multiple-source propulsion.
He has served for scientific committees and as the Vice Chair or the Technical
Program Chair for several conferences, including ECCE, IEEE International
Electric Machines and Drives Conference, IEEE International Conference
on Electrical Machines, International Conference on Electrical Machines JUAN JOSE VALERA received the B.Sc. degree in
and Systems, and IEEE International Symposium on Sensorless Control for industrial electronics from Mondragon University,
Electrical Drives. Mondragon, Spain, in 1993, and the M.Sc. de-
gree in electronics and control engineering and the
Ph.D. degree in control engineering, automation,
and robotics from the University of the Basque
JUAN MANUEL GUERRERO (Senior Member, Country, Bilbao, Spain, in 2008 and 2013, respec-
IEEE) received the M.E. degree in industrial engi- tively.
neering and the Ph.D. degree in electrical and elec- Since 2023, he has been a Lecturer and Re-
tronic engineering from the University of Oviedo, searcher with the Electronic and Computing De-
Gijón, Spain, in 1998 and 2003, respectively. partment, Mondragon University. From 1995 to
Since 1999, he has occupied different teach- 2008, he was a Control Engineer for the Industrial Sector with Ingeteam,
ing and research positions with the Department Zamudio, Spain. From 2008 to 2012, he was a Senior Researcher with Tecna-
of Electrical, Computer and Systems Engineering, lia Research Centre, Madrid, Spain, focusing on electric drive and control
University of Oviedo, where he is currently a Full systems for the electromobility sector. From 2012 to 2023, he was with
Professor. In 2002, he was a Visiting Scholar with Ingeteam R&D Europe as a Senior Researcher for electric and hybrid propul-
the University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA. sion systems as well as leading the energy storage and management research
In 2007, he was a Visiting Professor with the Tennessee Technological line. From 2012 to 2022, he was Lecturer with the Department of Control
University, Cookeville, TN, USA. His research interests include control of Engineering, University of the Basque Country, where he was a part-time
electric drives and power converters, electric traction, and renewable energy Associate Professor. He has authored or coauthored more than 30 research
generation. and technical papers in the fields of electric and hybrid vehicles, energy
Dr. Guerrero is an Associate Editor for IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY management systems, control of power systems, and intelligent control at
APPLICATIONS. national and international levels. He has authored two patents.

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