Static Characteristics
The performance characteristics of instruments and measurement
systems can be divided into two distinct categories, viz., the Static
characteristics, and the Dynamic characteristics.
• The static characteristics of a measurement system are those which
must be considered when the system or instrument is used under a
condition not varying with time.
Range: The region between the limits(upper and lower) within
which an Instrument is designed to operate for measuring ,
indicating a physical quantity.
Span : is the difference between the higher range value and the
lower range value of an Instrument.
Ex: -
1. Range - 10 °C to 80 °C Span=90 °C
2. Range 5 bar to 100 bar Span=100-5=95 bar
3. Range 0 v to 75v Span=75volts
Accuracy: Accuracy indicates the closeness of the measured
value with the actual or true value, and is expressed in the form of
the maximum error (measured value – true value) as a percentage
of full scale reading.
o The accuracy may be expressed as point accuracy, percent of true
value or percent of scale range.
o True value may be defined as the mean of the infinite number of
measured values when the average deviation due to the various
contributing factors tends to zero.
Precision: Precision indicates the repeatability or
reproducibility of an instrument (but does not indicate
accuracy).
o It is the degree of agreement of the repeated measurements of a quantity
made by using the same method, under similar conditions.
o Precision means repetition of successive readings, but it does not
guarantee accuracy; successive readings may be close to each other, but
far from the true value. On the other hand, an accurate instrument has
to be precise also, since successive readings must be close to the true value
• Repeatability:The ability of the measuring instrument
to repeat the same results during the act of measurements
for the same quantity is known as repeatability.
Random in nature
Doesn’t assure accuracy
Desirable
• Reproducibility: Reproducibility is the closeness
between successive measurements of same measured
quantity where individual measurement are made by
different operator, at different locations with different
measuring instruments over a time period.
o The reproducibility is specified for a period of time.
• Sensitivity: It can be defined as the ratio of the
incremental output and the incremental input.
or
The ratio of the change of instrument indication to the change
of quantity being measured is termed as sensitivity.
oAbility to detect small variations in input quantity
oRelation with accuracy
oExcessive sensitivity is not desirable
Problem 1
The following resistance values of a platinum resistance thermometer were
measured at a range of temperatures. Determine the measurement sensitivity
of the instruments in ohm/ °C. Resistance (Ω) Temperature (°C)
307 200
314 230
321 260
328 290
• Consistency: When successive readings of the measured
quantity obtained from the measuring instrument are same all the
time, the equipment is said to be consistent.
• Resolution: The smallest increment of change in the measured
value that can be determined from the instrument’s readout scale.
Or
Resolution indicates the minimum change in input variable that is
detectable.
Example: A weighing machine in a gymnasium normally
senses weight variations in kilograms, whereas a weighing
machine in a jewellery shop can detect weight in
milligrams.
Naturally, the weighing machine in the jewellery shop has a
superior resolution than the one at the gymnasium
• Hysteresis : Hysteresis is a phenomenon which depicts
different output effects while loading and unloading
o If the value of measured quantity remains same irrespective
of order (ascending or descending) of measurement, the
measurement is said to be free from hysteresis.
Examples: Slack motion in bearings and gears , storage of
strain energy in the system
For example, the deflection of a
diaphragm type pressure gauge
may be different for the same
pressure, but one for increasing
and other for decreasing, as
shown in Fig
• Dead Zone: The range of different input values over which
there is no change in output.
Or
The largest change in input quantity for which the instrument
does not give any response (output).
• Example: The input applied to the instrument for may not be
sufficient to the over come the friction and will in that case, not move
at all. It will only move when the input is such that it produces a
driving force which can overcome friction forces
Numerical: -
The dead zone in a certain pyrometer is 0.125% of span.
The calibration is 400 °c to 1000 °c. What temperature
change might occur before it is detected?
Solution: -
• Span = 1000 –400 = 600 °c
• Dead zone = (0.125/ 100) x 600
• A change of 0.75 °c must occur before it is detected
• Drift : Undesired gradual departure of Instrument output over
a period of time that is unrelated to changes in input operating
condition or load.
or
The gradual shift in the output over a period of time wherein
the input variable does not change.
o Primarily due to environmental factors like stray electric and
magnetic fields, changes in temperature, vibrations etc.
o Drift could be:
o Zero
o Span (or Sensitivity)
o Combined (or Zonal)
Zero Drift:- if the whole calibration is shifted by the same amount
due to slippage or due to undue warming up of tube of electronic
tube circuits, zero drift sets in. zero setting can prevent this.
Span Drift or Sensitivity Drift: - If there is proportional change in
the indication all along upward scale, the drift is called span drift or
sensitivity drift. Hence higher calibrations get shifted more than
lower calibrations.
Zonal Drift: - In case the drift occur over a portion of span of
instrument, while remaining portion of the scale remains unaffected,
it is called zonal drift.
Numerical: -
A spring balance is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 20 °C and has the
following deflection/load characteristic.
It is then used in an environment at a temperature of 30 °C and the following
deflection/load characteristic is measured.
Determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift per °C change in ambient temperature ?
Solution
• Backlash: Mechanical system often shows a small
difference in length as the direction of applied force is
reverse. This is caused by looseness of a joint in mechanical
joint. it is backlash
o Often referred as Mechanical Hysteresis
o lost motion or free play which is inherent in mechanical
elements like gears, linkages or other transmission elements.
• Threshold: If the input to the instrument is gradually
increased from zero, a minimum value of that input is
required to detect the output. This minimum value of the
input is defined as the threshold of the instrument. The
numerical value of the input to cause a change in the
output is called the threshold value of the instrument.
• Ex: Car Speedometer
Dynamic Characteristics
• The behaviour of the measuring system under the varying
conditions of input with respect to time is known as the
dynamic response.
OR
• The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are
changes rapidly with time, is called ‘dynamic
characteristics’.
• Speed of response: In measuring Instrument the
speed of response is defined as the speed with which the
measuring instrument responds to the changes in the
measured quantity.
o Some delay or lag is always present
o It shows how active and fast the system is
• Measuring lag: It is defined as the retardation or delay,
in the response of a system to the changes in the input
o Due to natural inertia of the system
• Example: human eye cannot detect any event whose
duration is more than one-tenth of a second; thus the
dynamic performance of human eye cannot be said to be
very satisfactory.
Two types:
oRetardation Type
oTime delay type
Retardation lag:
As soon as there is a changes in the measured quantity, the measurement system
begins to respond.
Time delay:
The response of the measurement system starts after a dead time, once the input is
applied. They cause dynamic error.
• Fidelity: It refers to the ability of the system to reproduce
the output in the same form as input
Or
It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system
is capable of faithfully reproducing the changes in input,
without any dynamic error.
• Dynamic Error: Difference between the true value of a
physical quantity under consideration that changes with time
and the value indicated by the measuring system if no static
error is assumed
• Overshoot: Due to mass and inertia, a moving part, the
pointer of the instrument does not come to rest in the final
deflection position. The pointer goes beyond the steady, it
overshoot.
• The dynamic performance of an instrument is
normally expressed by a differential equation
relating the input and output quantities.
• It is always convenient to express the input-output
dynamic characteristics in form of a linear
differential equation.
Standard Inputs
• Example of Zero order System : potentiometer-
the output voltage changes instantaneously as the slider is
displaced along the potentiometer track.
• Example of First order System : The thermocouple
is a good example of a first-order instrument.
• Example of Second order System : Seismic sensor
is a second order system.
Numerical
Solution
Let the temperature reported by the balloon at some general time t be Tr.
Then Tx is related to Tr by the relation
It is given that x = 5t, thus
The transient or complementary function part of the solution (Tx =0) is given by
The particular integral part of the solution is given by
Thus, the whole solution is given by
Applying initial conditions: At t = 0, Tr = 10,
Thus C=0.75 and the solution can be written as
Tr = 10-0.75e -t/15 -0.05(t-15)
Using the aforementioned expression to calculate Tr for various values of t, the
following table can be constructed:
x = 5t
Tr = 10-0.75e -t/15 -0.05(t-15)
