1.

Define Recursion, Its Types, and Explain with Examples

Definition of Recursion:
Recursion is a programming technique where a function calls itself to solve a problem. It breaks
down a complex problem into smaller, more manageable subproblems until it reaches a base
case, which stops the recursion.

Types of Recursion:

1. Direct Recursion: A function calls itself directly.

python

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def factorial(n):

if n == 0:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

Example: factorial(5) computes 5! = 120.

2. Indirect Recursion: A function calls another function, which in turn calls the first
function.

python

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def is_even(n):

if n == 0:

return True

else:

return is_odd(n - 1)

def is_odd(n):

if n == 0:
 return False

else:

return is_even(n - 1)

Example: is_even(4) returns True.

3. Tail Recursion: A recursive function where the recursive call is the last operation in the
function.

python

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def factorial_tail(n, acc=1):

if n == 0:

return acc

else:

return factorial_tail(n - 1, acc * n)

Example: factorial_tail(5) computes 5! = 120.

4. Non-Tail Recursion: A recursive function where the recursive call is not the last
operation.

python

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def factorial(n):

if n == 0:

return 1

else:

return n * factorial(n - 1)

Example: factorial(5) computes 5! = 120.

2. Discuss Top-Down (Memoization) and Bottom-Up (Tabulation) Approaches with Examples

Top-Down (Memoization):
  Definition: In the top-down approach, the problem is broken down into subproblems,
and the results of these subproblems are stored (memoized) to avoid redundant
computations.

 Example: Fibonacci sequence using memoization.

python

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def fibonacci(n, memo={}):

if n in memo:

return memo[n]

if n <= 1:

return n

memo[n] = fibonacci(n - 1, memo) + fibonacci(n - 2, memo)

return memo[n]

Example: fibonacci(10) returns 55.

Bottom-Up (Tabulation):

 Definition: In the bottom-up approach, the problem is solved by solving the smallest
subproblems first and building up to the solution of the original problem. This is typically
done using iteration and a table (array) to store intermediate results.

 Example: Fibonacci sequence using tabulation.

python

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def fibonacci(n):

if n <= 1:

return n

dp = [0] * (n + 1)

dp[0], dp[1] = 0, 1

for i in range(2, n + 1):

return dp[n]

Example: fibonacci(10) returns 55.

3. Use Memoization to Compute the nth Tribonacci Number

The Tribonacci sequence is a generalization of the Fibonacci sequence where each term is the
sum of the previous three terms. The sequence starts with T(0) = 0, T(1) = 1, and T(2) = 1.

Memoization Approach:

python

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def tribonacci(n, memo={}):

if n in memo:

return memo[n]

if n == 0:

return 0

elif n == 1 or n == 2:

return 1

memo[n] = tribonacci(n - 1, memo) + tribonacci(n - 2, memo) + tribonacci(n - 3, memo)

return memo[n]

Example:

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print(tribonacci(10)) # Output: 149

Explanation:

 The function tribonacci uses a dictionary memo to store the results of previously
computed Tribonacci numbers.
  If the result for a given n is already in memo, it is returned directly, avoiding redundant
calculations.

 The base cases T(0) = 0, T(1) = 1, and T(2) = 1 are handled explicitly.

 For n > 2, the function recursively computes the sum of the previous three Tribonacci
numbers and stores the result in memo.

This approach ensures that each Tribonacci number is computed only once, making the
algorithm efficient with a time complexity of O(n).

2. Discuss top-down (Memorization) and bottom up (Tabulation) approach with examples

Dynamic Programming: Top-Down (Memorization) and Bottom-Up (Tabulation) Approaches

Dynamic programming is a method for solving complex problems by breaking them down into
smaller sub-problems, solving each sub-problem only once, and storing the solutions to sub-
problems to avoid redundant computation. This approach is particularly useful for problems
that have overlapping sub-problems or that can be decomposed into smaller sub-problems.

Top-Down (Memorization) Approach

The top-down approach involves breaking down a problem into smaller sub-problems, solving
each sub-problem, and storing the solutions to sub-problems in a memory. This approach is also
known as memoization.

Example: Fibonacci Series

The Fibonacci series is a classic example of a problem that can be solved using dynamic
programming. The Fibonacci series is defined as:

F(0) = 0

F(1) = 1

F(n) = F(n-1) + F(n-2) for n ≥ 2

To solve this problem using the top-down approach, we can create a recursive function that calls
itself to compute the Fibonacci numbers. We can store the solutions to sub-problems in a
memory to avoid redundant computation.

function fibonacci(n, memo) {

if (n in memo) return memo[n];

memo[n] = fibonacci(n-1, memo) + fibonacci(n-2, memo);

return memo[n];

Bottom-Up (Tabulation) Approach

The bottom-up approach involves building a table of solutions for sub-problems and using the
table to construct the solution for the original problem. This approach is also known as
tabulation.

Example: Fibonacci Series

To solve the Fibonacci series problem using the bottom-up approach, we can create a table to
store the Fibonacci numbers. We can fill the table iteratively using the recurrence relation.

function fibonacci(n) {

let fib = new Array(n+1);

fib[0] = 0;

fib[1] = 1;

for (let i = 2; i <= n; i++) {

fib[i] = fib[i-1] + fib[i-2];

return fib[n];

Comparison of Top-Down and Bottom-Up Approaches

Both the top-down and bottom-up approaches have their advantages and disadvantages. The
top-down approach is often easier to implement, but it can be less efficient than the bottom-up
approach for large problems. The bottom-up approach can be more efficient, but it often
requires more memory to store the table of solutions.
In conclusion, dynamic programming is a powerful method for solving complex problems by
breaking them down into smaller sub-problems, solving each sub-problem only once, and
storing the solutions to sub-problems to avoid redundant computation. The top-down
(memorization) approach and the bottom-up (tabulation) approach are two common methods
for implementing dynamic programming. The choice of approach depends on the specific
problem and the trade-offs between efficiency, memory usage, and implementation complexity.

3. Use memorization to compute the nth Tribonacci number (each term is the sum of the
previous three terms).

Computing the nth Tribonacci Number using Memorization

The Tribonacci sequence is a generalization of the Fibonacci sequence, where each term is the
sum of the previous three terms. The sequence is defined as:

T(1) = T(2) = T(3) = 1

T(n) = T(n-1) + T(n-2) + T(n-3) for n ≥ 4

Computing the nth Tribonacci number using a naive recursive approach can be inefficient due to
the repeated computation of the same sub-problems. To overcome this, we can employ a
memorization technique to store the results of previously computed Tribonacci numbers.

Memorization Approach

The memorization approach involves storing the results of previously computed Tribonacci
numbers in a memory, typically an array or a dictionary. The basic idea is to check if the result of
a sub-problem is already stored in the memory before computing it.

The following is a Python implementation of the memorization approach for computing the nth
Tribonacci number:

def tribonacci(n, memo = {}):

if n in memo:

return memo[n]

if n <= 3:

return 1

memo[n] = tribonacci(n-1, memo) + tribonacci(n-2, memo) + tribonacci(n-3, memo)

return memo[n]

Analysis
The time complexity of the memorization approach is O(n), as each sub-problem is computed
only once and stored in the memory. The space complexity is also O(n), as we need to store the
results of all previously computed Tribonacci numbers.

The memorization approach provides a significant improvement over the naive recursive
approach, which has a time complexity of O(3^n). However, for very large values of n, the
memorization approach may still be impractical due to the large memory requirements.

In conclusion, the memorization approach provides an efficient method for computing the nth
Tribonacci number. By storing the results of previously computed Tribonacci numbers, we can
avoid redundant computations and improve the performance of the algorithm. However, for
very large values of n, more efficient algorithms or approximations may be necessary.

Part 2: Matrix Chain Multiplication

1. Why Greedy Algorithms Fail to Solve the Matrix Chain Multiplication Problem Optimally

Greedy algorithms fail to solve the matrix chain multiplication problem optimally because they
make locally optimal choices without considering the global optimality. In the context of matrix
chain multiplication, a greedy algorithm would choose the next multiplication operation based
on the minimum number of scalar multiplications required for the current operation, without
considering the overall optimal multiplication order.

However, this approach can lead to suboptimal solutions, as the locally optimal choice may not
result in the globally optimal solution. For example, consider the matrix chain A1A2A3A4A5. A
greedy algorithm may choose to multiply A1 and A2 first, resulting in a matrix with dimensions
(10 × 5). However, this may not be the optimal choice, as it may lead to more scalar
multiplications in the subsequent operations.

To determine the optimal order of matrix multiplication using dynamic programming, we can
use the Matrix Chain Multiplication algorithm. The goal is to find the best way to parenthesize
the multiplication of matrices to minimize the number of scalar multiplications.

Step 1: Define the Problem

We have the following matrices and their dimensions:

 A1:10×30A_1: 10 \times 30A1:10×30

 A2:30×5A_2: 30 \times 5A2:30×5

 A3:5×60A_3: 5 \times 60A3:5×60

 A4:60×10A_4: 60 \times 10A4:60×10

The dimensions can be represented as an array:

 p=[10,30,5,60,10,20]p = [10, 30, 5, 60, 10, 20]p=[10,30,5,60,10,20]

Step 2: Initialize the Cost Matrix

Let m[i][j]m[i][j]m[i][j] represent the minimum number of scalar multiplications needed to

1. Initialize a 2D array mmm with dimensions 5×55 \times 55×5 (since we have 5 matrices).

2. Set m[i][i]=0m[i][i] = 0m[i][i]=0 for all iii (the cost of multiplying one matrix is zero).

Step 3: Compute Costs

Now we will compute the minimum costs for chains of increasing length.

Length 2

For chains of length 2 (i.e., multiplying two matrices):

 m[1][2]=p[0]×p[1]×p[2]=10×30×5=1500m[1][2] = p[0] \times p[1] \times p[2] = 10 \times

 m[2][3]=p[1]×p[2]×p[3]=30×5×60=9000m[2][3] = p[1] \times p[2] \times p[3] = 30 \times

 m[3][4]=p[2]×p[3]×p[4]=5×60×10=3000m[3][4] = p[2] \times p[3] \times p[4] = 5 \times

 m[4][5]=p[3]×p[4]×p[5]=60×10×20=12000m[4][5] = p[3] \times p[4] \times p[5] = 60 \

Length 3

For chains of length 3:

 m[1][3]m[1][3]m[1][3]:

o Split between A1A2A_1A_2A1A2 and A3A_3A3:

 m[1][2]+m[3]
[3]+p[0]×p[1]×p[3]=1500+0+10×30×60=1500+18000=19500m[1][2] +
m[3][3] + p[0] \times p[1] \times p[3] = 1500 + 0 + 10 \times 30 \times 60
= 1500 + 18000 = 19500m[1][2]+m[3]
[3]+p[0]×p[1]×p[3]=1500+0+10×30×60=1500+18000=19500
 o Split between A1A_1A1 and A2A3A_2A_3A2A3:

 m[1][1]+m[2]
[3]+p[0]×p[2]×p[3]=0+9000+10×5×60=9000+3000=12000m[1][1] + m[2]
[3] + p[0] \times p[2] \times p[3] = 0 + 9000 + 10 \times 5 \times 60 =
9000 + 3000 = 12000m[1][1]+m[2]
[3]+p[0]×p[2]×p[3]=0+9000+10×5×60=9000+3000=12000

o Minimum: m[1][3]=12000m[1][3] = 12000m[1][3]=12000

 m[2][4]m[2][4]m[2][4]:

o Split between A2A3A_2A_3A2A3 and A4A_4A4:

 m[2][3]+m[4]
[4]+p[1]×p[2]×p[4]=9000+0+30×5×10=9000+1500=10500m[2][3] + m[4]
[4] + p[1] \times p[2] \times p[4] = 9000 + 0 + 30 \times 5 \times 10 =
9000 + 1500 = 10500m[2][3]+m[4]
[4]+p[1]×p[2]×p[4]=9000+0+30×5×10=9000+1500=10500

o Split between A2A_2A2 and A3A4A_3A_4A3A4:

 m[2][2]+m[3]
[4]+p[1]×p[3]×p[4]=0+3000+30×60×10=3000+18000=21000m[2][2] +
m[3][4] + p[1] \times p[3] \times p[4] = 0 + 3000 + 30 \times 60 \times 10
= 3000 + 18000 = 21000m[2][2]+m[3]
[4]+p[1]×p[3]×p[4]=0+3000+30×60×10=3000+18000=21000

o Minimum: m[2][4]=10500m[2][4] = 10500m[2][4]=10500

 m[3][5]m[3][5]m[3][5]:

o Split between A3A4A_3A_4A3A4 and A5A_5A5:

 m[3][4]+m[5]
[5]+p[2]×p[3]×p[5]=3000+0+5×60×20=3000+6000=9000m[3][4] + m[5][5]
+ p[2] \times p[3] \times p[5] = 3000 + 0 + 5 \times 60 \times 20 = 3000 +
6000 = 9000m[3][4]+m[5]
[5]+p[2]×p[3]×p[5]=3000+0+5×60×20=3000+6000=9000

o Split between A3A_3A3 and A4A5A_4A_5A4A5:

 m[3][3]+m[4]
[5]+p[2]×p[4]×p[5]=0+12000+5×10×20=12000+1000=13000m[3][3] +
m[4][5] + p[2] \times p[4] \times p[5] = 0 + 12000 + 5 \times 10 \times 20
 = 12000 + 1000 = 13000m[3][3]+m[4]
[5]+p[2]×p[4]×p[5]=0+12000+5×10×20=12000+1000=13000

o Minimum: m[3][5]=9000m[3][5] = 9000m[3][5]=9000

Length 4

For chains of length 4:

 m[1][4]m[1][4]m[1][4]:

o Split between A1A2A_1A_2A1A2 and A3A4A_3A_4A3A4:

 m[1][2]+m[3]
[4]+p[0]×p[1]×p[4]=1500+3000+10×30×10=1500+3000+3000=7500m[1]
[2] + m[3][4] + p[0] \times p[1] \times p[4] = 1500 + 3000 + 10 \times 30 \
times 10 = 1500 + 3000 + 3000 = 7500m[1][2]+m[3]
[4]+p[0]×p[1]×p[4]=1500+3000+10×30×10=1500+3000+3000=7500

o Split between A1A_1A1 and A2A3A4A_2A_3A_4A2A3A4:

 m[1][1]+m[2]
[4]+p[0]×p[2]×p[4]=0+10500+10×5×10=10500+500=11000m[1][1] + m[2]
[4] + p[0] \times p[2] \times p[4] = 0 + 10500 + 10 \times 5 \times 10 =
10500 + 500 = 11000m[1][1]+m[2]
[4]+p[0]×p[2]×p[4]=0+10500+10×5×10=10500+500=11000

o Minimum: m[1][4]=7500m[1][4] = 7500m[1][4]=7500

 m[2][5]m[2][5]m[2][5]:

o Split between A2A3A_2A_3A2A3 and A4A5A_4A_5A4A5:

 m[2][3]+m[4]
[5]+p[1]×p[2]×p[5]=9000+12000+30×5×20=9000+12000+3000=24000m[2
][3] + m[4][5] + p[1] \times p[2] \times p[5] = 9000 + 12000 + 30 \times
5 \times 20 = 9000 + 12000 + 3000 = 24000m[2][3]+m[4]
[5]+p[1]×p[2]×p[5]=9000+12000+30×5×20=9000+12000+3000=24000

o Split between A2A_2A2 and A3A4A5A_3A_4A_5A3A4A5:

 m[2][2]+m[3]
[5]+p[1]×p[3]×p[5]=0+9000+30×60×20=9000+36000=45000m[2][2] +
m[3][5] + p[1] \times p[3] \times p[5] = 0 + 9000 + 30 \times 60 \times 20
= 9000 + 36000 = 45000m[2][2]+m[3]
[5]+p[1]×p[3]×p[5]=0+9000+30×60×20=9000+36000=45000
 o Minimum: m[2][5]=24000m[2][5] = 24000m[2][5]=24000

Length 5

Finally, for the entire chain:

 m[1][5]m[1][5]m[1][5]:

o Split between A1A2A3A_1A_2A_3A1A2A3 and A4A5A_4A_5A4A5:

 m[1][3]+m[4]
[5]+p[0]×p[3]×p[5]=12000+12000+10×60×20=12000+12000+12000=3600
0m[1][3] + m[4][5] + p[0] \times p[3] \times p[5] = 12000 + 12000 + 10 \
times 60 \times 20 = 12000 + 12000 + 12000 = 36000m[1][3]+m[4]
[5]+p[0]×p[3]×p[5]=12000+12000+10×60×20=12000+12000+12000=3600
0

o Split between A1A2A_1A_2A1A2 and A3A4A5A_3A_4A_5A3A4A5:

 m[1][2]+m[3]
[5]+p[0]×p[2]×p[5]=1500+9000+10×5×20=1500+9000+1000=11500m[1]
[2] + m[3][5] + p[0] \times p[2] \times p[5] = 1500 + 9000 + 10 \times 5 \
times 20 = 1500 + 9000 + 1000 = 11500m[1][2]+m[3]
[5]+p[0]×p[2]×p[5]=1500+9000+10×5×20=1500+9000+1000=11500

o Split between A1A_1A1 and A2A3A4A5A_2A_3A_4A_5A2A3A4A5:

 m[1][1]+m[2]
[5]+p[0]×p[1]×p[5]=0+24000+10×30×20=24000+6000=30000m[1][1] +
m[2][5] + p[0] \times p[1] \times p[5] = 0 + 24000 + 10 \times 30 \times
20 = 24000 + 6000 = 30000m[1][1]+m[2]
[5]+p[0]×p[1]×p[5]=0+24000+10×30×20=24000+6000=30000

o Minimum: m[1][5]=11500m[1][5] = 11500m[1][5]=11500

Summary of Minimum Costs

The final costs in the matrix mmm are:

12 3 4 5

1 0 1500 12000 7500 11500

2 0 9000 10500 24000

3 0 3000 9000
 12 3 4 5

4 0 12000

5 0

Optimal Multiplication Order

The optimal multiplication order can be derived from the splits made during the calculations. In
this case, the optimal order is:

 (A1(A2A3))(A4A5)(A_1(A_2A_3))(A_4A_5)(A1(A2A3))(A4A5)

This structure minimizes the total number of scalar multiplications to 11,500.

https://poe.com/s/G1lruRmIxdkpKnZaMli9

https://poe.com/s/7F2nGkx1OASSFXeUdwL6

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