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Master artisans mold various types of clay, including porcelain, stoneware, and earthenware, into unique pieces, and mechanical devices are
used to mass-produce items, for example, dinnerware. Some clay is more workable than others, and the color of clay can be affected by the
materials used in the blending process. All clay items are fired, that is, heated in a kiln that can reach temperatures close to 20008F so that
the item is transformed into a hard ceramic. The most common clay defect is cracking while cooling, often caused by the water content in the
clay. However, we can use calculus to determine the rate of change in the temperature. This information would help the clay to dry slowly and
evenly, avoid drying cracks, and save money and resources.

Contents
3 Differentiation Rules
The derivative is all about change and instantaneous change, and there are countless
3.1 Derivatives of Polynomials and real-world applications. We have already seen how to interpret the derivative as the
Exponential Functions slope of a tangent line and how to estimate the derivative of a function numerically.
3.2 The Product and Quotient Rules We also learned how to sketch the derivative of a function defined graphically. We dis-
3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric covered and used the definition of a derivative to calculate the derivatives of functions
Functions defined analytically or by formulas. But we also realized that it can be very tedious to
3.4 The Chain Rule use the definition to compute a derivative.
3.5 Implicit Differentiation
3.6 Inverse Trigonometric Functions and
Their Derivatives
3.7 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions
3.8 Rates of Change in the Natural and
Social Sciences
3.9 Linear Approximations and
Differentials
189
190 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

In this chapter we develop rules for finding derivatives without having to use the definition
directly. These differentiation rules enable us to calculate the derivatives of polynomials,
rational functions, algebraic functions, exponential and logarithmic functions, and trigono-
metric and inverse trigonometric functions. We then use these rules to solve problems involv-
ing rates of change, tangents to parametric curves, and the approximations of functions.

3.1 Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions

y
In this section we learn how to differentiate constant functions, power functions, poly-
nomials, and exponential functions.
c y=c
Consider one of the simplest functions, the constant function f (x) 5 c. The graph of
slope = 0
this function is a horizontal line at y 5 c with slope 0, as shown in Figure 3.1. Therefore,
using the geometric interpretation of the derivative, f 9(x) 5 0.
We can show that this is true for every constant function by using the definition of the
x
derivative.
f (x 1 h) 2 f (x) c2c
f 9(x) 5 lim 5 lim 5 lim 0 5 0
hS0 h h S 0 h hS0
Figure 3.1
The graph of f (x) 5 c is a horizontal Using Leibniz notation, we can write this rule as follows.
line with slope 0.

Derivative of a Constant Function

d
(c) 5 0
dx

■ Power Functions
Consider functions of the form f (x) 5 x n, where n is a positive integer. If n 51, the
graph of f (x) 5 x is a straight line through the origin with slope 1. See Figure 3.2.
Therefore, using the geometric interpretation of the derivative,
d
(x) 5 1 (1)
dx
y
We can also verify this equation using the limit definition of the derivative.

y=x In Exercises 2.7.20 and 2.7.21, we considered the cases n 5 2 and n 5 3. Using the
definition of the derivative,

1x 2 5 2x 1 x 2 5 3x 2
slope = 1
d 2 d 3
(2)
dx dx

x
We are searching for a pattern in the derivative of f (x) 5 x n. Try one more: let f (x) 5 x 4
and use the definition to find f 9(x).
f (x 1 h) 2 f (x) (x 1 h)4 2 x 4
Figure 3.2 f 9(x) 5 lim 5 lim Definition; use f (x) 5 x 4.
hS0 h hS0 h
The graph of f (x) 5 x is a straight line
with slope 1. x 4 1 4 x 3h 1 6 x 2h 2 1 4 x h 3 1 h 4 2 x 4
5 lim Expand.
hS0 h
 Section 3.1 Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions 191

4 x 3h 1 6 x 2h 2 1 4 x h 3 1 h 4

h 1 4 x 3 1 6 x 2h 1 4 x h2 1 h 3 2
5 lim Simplify.
hS0 h

5 lim Factor out h in the numerator.

5 lim 1 4 x 3 1 6 x 2h 1 4 x h2 1 h3 2 5 4 x 3
hS0 h
Cancel h; direct substitution.
hS0

Therefore,

1x 2 5 4x3
d 4
(3)
dx

1 x 2 5 n x n 2 1. This differentiation rule is indeed true.

Equations 1, 2, and 3 suggest a definitive pattern. It seems reasonable to guess that,
d n
when n is a positive integer,
dx

The Power Rule

If n is a positive integer, then

1 x 2 5 nx n21
d n
dx

Proof
Use the definition of the derivative.
f (x 1 h) 2 f (x) (x 1 h)n 2 x n
f 9(x) 5 lim 5 lim Definition; use f (x) 5 x n.
hS0 h hS0 h

c x n 1 n x n 21 h 1 h 1 g 1 n x h n 21 1 hn d 2x n Binomial
n (n 2 1) n 22 2
x
2
5 lim Theorem.
hS0 h
n (n 2 1) n 22 2
n x n 21h 1 x h 1 g 1 n x h n 21 1 h n
2
5 lim Simplify; cancel x n.
hS0 h

5 lim c n x n 21 1 h 1 g 1 n x h n 22 1 h n 21 d
Factor out h
n (n 2 1) n 22
x in the numerator;
hS0 2 cancel h.
5 n x n 21 Direct substitution.
■
A Closer Look
1. The Power Rule can also be verified by using the alternate definition of the
derivative.
2. The Power Rule in words: if n is a positive integer, to find the derivative of x n,
write the exponent times x raised to the (original) exponent minus 1.
3. The Power Rule works for any dependent and independent variable combination.
dq
For example, if q 5 h3, then 5 3h2.
dh
192 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

4. Remember, the Power Rule is used only when the variable, for example, x, is in the
base. Later we will learn how to find the derivative of general exponential functions
with the variable in the exponent. ■

Example 1 shows several basic applications of the Power Rule combined with a variety
of notations.

Example 1 The Power Rule Applied

(a) If f (x) 5 x 6, then f 9(x) 5 6 x 6 21 5 6 x 5.
(b) If g (a) 5 a1000, then g9(a) 5 1000a 999.
dy
(c) If y 5 t 4, then 5 4t 3.
dt

1 r 2 5 3r 2
d 3
(d) ■
dr
It seems reasonable to think that the Power Rule works for all real numbers, not just for
positive integers. Using the definition of the derivative (Exercise 71), we can show that

a b 52 2
d 1 1
dx x x
Here is a way to write this result using exponents:

1 x 2 5 (21) x 22
d 21
dx
Therefore, the Power Rule works for n 5 21. In fact, we will show in Section 3.2 that
the Power Rule is true for all negative integers.
In addition, using the definition of the derivative (Example 3 in Section 2.7), we
showed that

1 !x 2 5
d 1
dx 2!x
This result can also be written using exponents:

1 x 2 5 x21>2
d 1>2 1
dx 2
1
So the Power Rule works for n 5 . In fact, the Power Rule is true for any real number,
2
and we will prove this in Section 3.7.

The Power Rule (General Version)

If n is any real number, then

1 x 2 5 n x n21
d n
dx

Examples 2 and 3 demonstrate applications of this General Version.

 Section 3.1 Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions 193

Example 2 The Power Rule for Negative and Fractional Exponents

Differentiate each function.

(b) g (x) 5 "x 2

1 3
(a) f (x) 5 , x ? 0
x2

Solution
In each case, rewrite the function as x raised to a power.
1
(a) f (x) 5 5 x22
x2

1 x 2 5 22 x2221 5 22 x23 5 2 3
d 22 2
y f 9(x) 5
dx x
(b) g (x) 5 "x2 5 x 2>3
y = g(x)
2 3

1 x 2 5 x (2>3)21 5 x 21>3
1 y = g'(x)
x d 2>3 2 2
–2 –1 1 2 g 9(x) 5 ■
–1 dx 3 3
–2
A Closer Look
2 21>3
Figure 3.3 Figure 3.3 shows the graphs of g (x) 5 x 2>3 and g 9(x) 5
x from Example 2.
Graph of g (x) 5 x 2>3 and the deriva- 3

tive g 9(x) 5 x21>3.

2 We can make some important observations from this illustration.
3 1. The function g is not differentiable at x 5 0, so g9(x) is not defined at 0. The graph
of g has a vertical tangent line at x 5 0, and we can see that the graph of g has a
Note: Remember, if the graph of a
sharp corner, or cusp, at x 5 0.
function f has a sharp corner at x 5 a,
then the derivative does not exist at 2. The function g9(x) is positive whenever the graph of g is increasing and negative
x 5 a. There may be a vertical tangent whenever the graph of g is decreasing. In Chapter 4 we will show that, in general,
line to the graph of f at x 5 a, or there a function is increasing when its derivative is positive and decreasing when its
may be no tangent line at x 5 a. derivative is negative. ■

The Power Rule allows us to find the derivative of certain functions very quickly and
easily. Geometrically, we can now find the slope (and an equation) of the tangent line to
the graph of a power function without having to use the definition of the derivative. In
addition, we can also find an equation of the normal line. The normal line to a curve C
at a point P is the line through P that is perpendicular to the tangent line at P. The nor-
mal line is often used in physics as well as in applications of calculus.

Example 3 Tangent Line and Normal Line Equations

Let f (x) 5 x!x. Find equations of the tangent line and the normal line to the graph of
f at the point (1, 1). Illustrate your results by graphing the function and the two lines.

Solution
Rewrite the function: f (x) 5 x!x 5 x # x 1>2 5 x 3>2.

5 x 5 !x.
3 (3>2)21 3 1>2 3
Use the Power Rule: f 9(x) 5 x
2 2 2

The slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at (1, 1) is f 9(1) 5 !1 5 .

3 3
2 2
194 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

y An equation of the tangent line is

y = f (x)
2 Tangent line 3 3 1
y215 (x 2 1) or y 5 x 2 .
2 2 2
The normal line is perpendicular to the tangent line.
1
3 2
Normal line Therefore, its slope is the negative reciprocal of , which is 2 .
2 3
x
1 2 An equation of the normal line is
2 2 5
y 2 1 5 2 (x 2 1) or y 5 2 x 1 .
Figure 3.4 3 3 3
Graph of f, the tangent line, and the Figure 3.4 shows a graph of f, the tangent line, and the normal line. ■
normal line.

■ New Derivatives from Old

We frequently form new functions from existing functions by addition, subtraction, or
multiplication by a constant. It seems reasonable that the derivative of the new function
is related to the derivative of the old function. The next rule involves the derivative of a
constant times a function.

The Constant Multiple Rule

If c is a constant and f is a differentiable function, then

3 c f (x) 4 5 c c f (x) d
d d
dx dx

Proof
Let g (x) 5 c f (x) and use the definition of the derivative.
g (x 1 h) 2 g (x) c f (x 1 h) 2 c f (x)
g 9(x) 5 lim 5 lim Definition; use g (x) 5 cf (x).
hS0 h h 0
S h

5 lim c c d
f (x 1 h) 2 f (x)
Factor out c in the numerator.
y hS0 h
3 y = 2f (x) f (x 1 h) 2 f (x) Limit Law 3: constants pass
5 c lim
hS0 h freely through limit symbols.
2
y = f (x) 5 c f 9(x) Definition of the derivative of f (x).
1 ■

x
1 2 3
A Closer Look
Figure 3.5
1. In words, this rule says: the derivative of a constant times a function is the constant
Multiplying by c 5 2 stretches the
graph of f vertically by a factor of 2.
times the derivative of the function.
All rises have been doubled, but the Another way to think about this: constants pass freely through the differentiation
runs remain the same. Therefore, the operator.
slopes are doubled also. 2. Figure 3.5 provides a geometric illustration of the Constant Multiple Rule. ■
 Section 3.1 Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions 195

Example 4 provides illustrations of the Constant Multiple Rule.

Example 4 Constant Multiple Rule

Differentiate each function.
(a) f (x) 5 3 x 4 (b) g (x) 5 2x 8

Solution
Use the Constant Multiple Rule (and the Power Rule).

1 3 x 4 2 5 3 1 x 4 2 5 3 1 4 x 3 2 5 12 x 3
d d
(a)
dx dx

12x 8 2 5 3 1212 x 8 4 5 1212 1 x 8 2 5 121 2 1 8 x 7 2 5 28 x 7

d d d
(b) ■
dx dx dx
We can also rewrite the derivative of a sum of two functions.

The Sum Rule

If f and g are differentiable, then

3 f (x) 1 g (x) 4 5
d d d
f (x) 1 g (x)
dx dx dx

Proof
Let F (x) 5 f (x) 1 g (x), and use the definition of the derivative.
F (x 1 h) 2 F (x)
F 9(x) 5 lim Definition of the derivative.
h
3 f (x 1 h) 1 g (x 1 h)4 2 3 f (x) 1 g (x)4
hS0

5 lim Use F (x) 5 f (x) 1 g (x).

hS0 h

5 lim c d
f (x 1 h) 2 f (x) g (x 1 h) 2 g (x)
1 Rearrange terms.
hS0 h h
f (x 1 h) 2 f (x) g (x 1 h) 2 g (x) Limit Law 1: limit of a sum
5 lim 1 lim is the sum of the limits.
hS0 h hS0 h
5 f 9(x) 1 g9(x) Definition of the derivative.
■

A Closer Look
1. In words, the Sum Rule says: the derivative of a sum is the sum of the derivatives.
2. Using prime notation, we can write the Sum Rule as ( f 1 g)9 5 f 9 1 g9.
3. The Sum Rule can be extended to any number of functions. For example, using
this rule twice, we get
( f 1 g 1 h)9 5 3( f 1 g) 1 h49 5 ( f 1 g)9 1 h9 5 f 9 1 g9 1 h9 ■

If we write f 2 g 5 f 1 (21)g, then we can use the Sum Rule and the Constant Multiple
Rule to show the following result.
196 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

The Difference Rule

If f and g are differentiable, then

3 f (x) 2 g (x) 4 5
d d d
f (x) 2 g (x)
dx dx dx

The Constant Multiple Rule, the Sum Rule, and the Difference Rule can be used along
with the Power Rule to differentiate any polynomial. Examples 5–7 illustrate this
concept.

Example 5 Differentiate a Polynomial

Let f (x) 5 x 8 1 12 x 5 2 4 x 4 1 10 x 3 2 6 x 1 5. Find f 9(x).

Solution

1 x 8 1 12 x 5 2 4 x 4 1 10 x 3 2 6 x 1 5 2
d
dx

1 x 8 2 1 12 1 x 5 2 2 4 1 x 4 2 1 10 1 x 3 2 2 6 1 x 2 1 1 5 2
d d d d d d
5

5 8 x 7 1 12 1 5 x 4 2 2 4 1 4 x 3 2 1 10 1 3 x 2 2 2 6 1 1 2 1 0
dx dx dx dx dx dx

5 8 x 7 1 60 x 4 2 16 x 3 1 30 x 2 2 6 ■

Example 6 Horizontal Tangent Lines

Find the points on the graph of f (x) 5 x 4 2 6x 2 1 4 where the tangent line is
horizontal.
Solution
Horizontal tangent lines occur where the derivative is zero.
Start by finding the derivative, f 9(x).

1x4 2 6x2 1 42
d
f 9(x) 5
dx

1x42 2 6 1x22 1 142

d d d
5

5 4 x 3 2 12 x 1 0 5 4 x 1 x 2 2 3 2
dx dx dx

f 9(x) 5 0 1 4 x 1 x 2 2 3 2 5 0
Determine where the derivative of f is zero.

1 4 x 1 x 2 !3 2 1 x 1 !3 2 5 0
1 x 5 0, 2 !3, !3
Difference of two squares.

The graph of f has horizontal tangent lines when x 5 0, 2!3, and !3.
Principle of Zero Products.

1 0, f (0) 2 5 1 0, 4 2 , 12 !3, f 12 !3 2 2 5 12 !3, 25 2 , and 1 !3, f 1 !3 2 2 5 1 !3, 25 2 .

The corresponding points on the graph of f are
 Section 3.1 Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions 197

y Figure 3.6 shows the graph of f and the horizontal lines.

y = f (x)
6 Notice that the horizontal lines occur at the values where f has a relative maximum or
(0, 4)
4 relative minimum value. ■
2
x
–3 –2 –1
–2
1 2 3 Example 7 Particle Motion and Acceleration
–4 The position of a particle moving along a line is given by s(t) 5 2t 3 2 5t 2 1 3t 1 4,
(– 3, –5) –6 ( 3, –5) where s(t) is measured in centimeters and t in seconds. Find the acceleration of the par-
ticle as a function of time. What is the acceleration at t 5 2 seconds?
Figure 3.6
Graph of f (x) 5 x 4 2 6x 2 1 4 and its Solution
horizontal tangent lines. Find the velocity and then the acceleration functions.
ds
v(t) 5 5 6t 2 2 10t 1 3
dt
dv
a(t) 5 5 12t 2 10
dt
The acceleration at t 5 2 is a (2) 5 12(2) 2 10 5 14 cm>s2. ■

■ Exponential Functions
The next rule involves a formula for the derivative of an exponential function. Let
f (x) 5 b x and start by using the definition of the derivative.
f (x 1 h) 2 f (x) b x 1h 2 b x
f 9(x) 5 lim 5 lim Definition; use f (x) 5 b x.
hS0 h hS0 h
b xb h 2 b x b x (b h 2 1)
5 lim 5 lim Properties of exponents; factor out b x.
hS0 h hS0 h
bh 2 1
5 b x lim b x does not depend on h.
hS0 h
The limit in this expression is the value of the derivative of f at 0. That is,
f (0 1 h) 2 f (0) bh 2 1
f 9(0) 5 lim 5 lim .
hS0 h hS0 h
This means that if the exponential function f (x) 5 b x is differentiable at x 5 0, then it is
differentiable everywhere, and
f 9(x) 5 f 9(0) b x (4)

Here is an important interpretation of this equation: the rate of change of any exponen-
tial function is proportional to the function itself. Another way to think about this graph-
h 2h 2 1 3h 2 1 ically is: the slope of the graph of f is proportional to the height.
h h We need to determine whether f 9(0) exists. Table 3.1 provides some numerical evidence
0.1 0.7177 1.1612 for the cases b 5 2 and b 5 3.
0.01 0.6956 1.1047
This table suggests that the limits exist.
0.001 0.6934 1.0992
0.0001 0.6932 1.0987 2h 2 1
For b 5 2, f 9(0) 5 lim ^ 0.69.
hS0 h
Table 3.1
Table of values to help estimate the 3h 2 1
bh 2 1 For b 5 3, f 9(0) 5 lim ^ 1.10.
limit lim . hS0 h
h 0
S h
198 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

In fact, it can be proved that these limits exist and the values, correct to six decimal
places, are

1 2 2 ` 5 0.693147 1 3 2 ` 5 1.098612
d x d x
dx x 50 dx x 50

Using these results with Equation 4, we now have

1 2 2 5 (0.69)2x 1 3 2 5 (1.10)3x
Remember, for f (x) 5 b x, d x d x
(5)
f 9(x) 5 f 9(0)b x. dx dx
Of all the possible choices for b in Equation 4, the simplest differentiation formula
occurs when f 9(0) 5 1. Given our estimates of f 9(0) when b 5 2 and b 5 3, it seems
reasonable that there is a number b between 2 and 3 such that f 9(0) 5 1 . There is!
This number is traditionally denoted by the letter e, and this leads to the following
definition.

The Number e
eh 2 1
e is the number such that lim 5 1.
hS0 h

Geometrically, this means that the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) 5 e x at
(0, 1) is exactly 1. Figures 3.7 and 3.8 illustrate this concept.

y y
y = 3x
y = 2x
slope = e x
5 5 (x, e x)
y = ex

3 3

1 1 slope = 1
y = ex
x x
–1 1 2 3 –2 –1 1 2

Figure 3.7 Figure 3.8

The graph of y 5 e x is between the graphs The slope of the tangent line to the graph of
of y 5 2 x and y 5 3x. f (x) 5 e x at the point (0, 1) is 1.

Now, let b 5 e so that f (x) 5 e x. Similar to the preceding argument,

# eh 2 1
f 9(x) 5 e x lim 5 ex # 1 5 ex
hS0 h
The function f (x) 5 e x is the natural This leads to the following important rule for the derivative of the natural exponential
exponential function because the num- function.
ber e arises naturally in mathematics
and the physical sciences and because

1e 2 5 ex
the derivative is the same function. Derivative of the Natural Exponential Function
d x
dx
 Section 3.1 Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions 199

A Closer Look
1. The exponential function f (x) 5 e x has the unique property that it is its own
derivative.
2. The graphical implications: the slope of a tangent line to the graph of f (x) 5 e x at
(a, f (a)) is f (a), the y-coordinate of the point. ■

Example 8 Derivatives Involving ex

Let f (x) 5 e x 2 x.
(a) Find f 9 and f 0.
(b) Sketch the graphs of f and f 9on the same coordinate axes. Discuss the relationship
between these two graphs.

1e 2 x2 5 1ex2 2 1x2
Solution
d x d d
(a) f 9(x) 5 Difference Rule.
dx dx dx
5 ex 2 1 Differentiation rules.
y
Similarly,

1 e 2 1 2 5 1 e x 2 2 1 1 2 5 e x 2 0 5 e x.
f (x) = e x – x
2 d x d d
f 0(x) 5
dx dx dx
1
f '(x) = e x – 1 (b) The graph of f and f 9 are shown in Figure 3.9.
x
–1 1
Here are some observations.
Figure 3.9 (1) The graph of f has a horizontal tangent when x 5 0.
Graph of f (x) 5 e x 2 x and This corresponds to a zero for f 9, that is f 9(0) 5 0.
f 9(x) 5 e x 2 1.
(2) For x 7 0, f is increasing and f 9(x) is positive.
(3) For x 6 0, f is decreasing and f 9(x) is negative. ■

Example 9 A Point on a Graph with Specified Slope

Find a point on the graph of f (x) 5 e x such that the slope of the tangent line is parallel
to the line y 5 2x.
Solution
f (x) 5 e x 1 f 9(x) 5 e x
y Let (a, f (a)) denote the unknown point.

3 The slope of the tangent line at that point is f 9(a) 5 e a.

(ln 2, 2)
2 y = 2x The slope of the line y 5 2 x is 2.

f (x) = e x
1 These two lines are parallel if their slopes are equal.

The point is 1 a, e a 2 5 1 ln 2, e ln 2 2 5 1 ln 2, 2 2 .
–1 1
x ea 5 2 1 a 5 ln 2

Figure 3.10
Graphs of f (x) 5 e x, y 5 2 x, and the Figure 3.10 shows the graph of f (x) 5 e x and the tangent line that is parallel to the
tangent line. given line, y 5 2x. ■
200 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

3.1 Exercises

1. (a) Write the definition of the number e. 34. f (x) 5 2e x 1 x, (0, 2)

(b) Use technology to estimate the values of the limits
2
35. f (x) 5 x 1 , (2, 3)
2.7h 2 1 2.8h 2 1 x
36. f (x) 5 ! x 2 x, (1, 0)
lim and lim
hS0 h hS0 h 4

What can you conclude about the value of e? Find equations of the tangent line and the normal line to the graph
2. Let f (x) 5 e x. of the function at the given point.
(a) Sketch the graph of f with special attention to how the 37. f (x) 5 x 4 1 2e x, (0, 2) 38. f (x) 5 x 3>2, (1, 1)
graph crosses the y-axis. What is the slope of the tangent
line to the graph of f where it crosses the y-axis? Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of the function
(b) What type of function is f (x) 5 e x? What type of at the given point. Graph the function and the tangent line in the
function is g (x) 5 x e? Find the derivatives, f 9 and g9. same viewing rectangle.
(c) Which function, f or g, grows faster as x increases 39. f (x) 5 3 x 2 2 x 3, (1, 2) 40. f (x) 5 x 2 !x, (1, 0)
without bound? Use the derivatives, f 9 and g9, to justify
your answer. Find f 9(x). Graph f and f 9 in the same viewing rectangle and
explain the relationship between the two graphs.
Differentiate the function.
41. f (x) 5 x 4 2 2 x 3 1 x 2 42. f (x) 5 x 5 2 2 x 3 1 x 2 1
3. f (x) 5 240 4. f (x) 5 e 5
Estimate the value of f 9(a) by zooming in on the graph of f. Then
7 2
5. f (x) 5 5.2 x 1 2.3 6. f (x) 5 x 2 3x 1 12 differentiate f to find the exact value of f 9(a) and compare with
4 your estimate.

!x
7. f (t) 5 2t 3 2 3t 2 2 4t 8. f (t) 5 1.4t 5 2 2.5t 2 1 6.7 1
43. f (x) 5 3x 2 2 x 3, a 5 1 44. f (x) 5 , a54
9. g (x) 5 x 2(1 2 2x) 10. H (u) 5 (3u 2 1)(u 1 2)

(a) Graph f in the viewing rectangle 323, 54 3 3210, 504 .

23>4 45. Let f (x) 5 x 4 2 3 x 3 2 6 x 2 1 7x 1 30.
11. g (t) 5 2t 12. B (y) 5 cy 26
5 (b) Use the graph in part (a) to estimate the slope of the
13. F (r) 5 14. y 5 x 5>3 2 x 2>3
r3 graph of f at various points. Use your estimates to make
16. h (t) 5 ! t 2 4e t
4 a rough sketch of the graph of f 9.
15. R (a) 5 (3a 1 1) 2
17. S ( p) 5 !p 2 p 18. y 5 ! x (2 1 x)
(c) Find f 9(x) and sketch the graph of f 9 using technology.
3
Compare this result with your sketch in part (b).

!x (a) Graph g in the viewing rectangle 321, 44 3 328, 84 .

4 46. Let g (x) 5 e x 2 3x 2.
19. y 5 3e x 1 20. S (R) 5 4pR2
!x 1 x
3

(b) Use the graph in part (a) to estimate the slope of the
21. h (u) 5 Au 1 Bu 2 1 Cu
3
22. y 5 graph of g at various points. Use your estimates to make
x2
!7
24. G (t) 5 !5t 1
a rough sketch of the graph of g9.

!x
x2 1 4 x 1 3 (c) Find g9(x) and sketch the graph of g9 using technology.
23. y 5
t Compare this result with your sketch in part (b).

48. G (r) 5 !r 1 ! r
25. f (x) 5 x 2.4 1 e2.4 26. k (r) 5 er 1 r e

27. G (q) 5 1 1 1 q21 2 2

Find the first and the second derivatives of the function.
3
A 1 Bz 1 Cz 2 47. f (x) 5 0.001x 5 2 0.002x 3
28. F (z) 5
z2 Find the first and second derivatives of the function. Check your
! v 2 2v e
3 v 2 answers by graphing f, f 9, and f 0 in the same viewing rectangle.
1 1 16t
29. f (v) 5 30. D (t) 5
v (4t) 3 49. f (x) 5 2 x 2 5 x 3>4 50. f (x) 5 e x 2 x 3
A 51. A particle moves along a straight line. For t $ 0, the
31. z 5 1 Be y 32. y 5 e x 11 1 1
y 10 position of the particle is given by s(t) 5 t 3 2 3t, where s(t)
is measured in meters and t in seconds.
Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of the function at
(a) Find the velocity function and the acceleration function.
the given point.
(b) Find the acceleration at t 5 2 seconds. Indicate the units
33. f (x) 5 2x 3 2 x 2 1 2, (1, 3) of measure.
 Section 3.1 Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions 201

(c) Find the acceleration when the velocity of the particle is 59. Car tires need to be inflated properly because overinflation
0 m>s. or underinflation can cause premature tread wear. The data in
52. A particle moves along a straight line. For t $ 0, the position the table show tire life L (in thousands of miles) for a certain
of the particle is given by s (t) 5 t 4 2 2t 3 1 t 2 2 t, where s(t) type of tire at various pressures P (in lb>in2).
is measured in meters and t in seconds.
(a) Find the velocity function and the acceleration function. P 26 28 31 35 38 42 45
(b) Find the acceleration at t 5 1 second. L 50 66 78 81 74 70 59
(c) Graph the position, velocity, and acceleration functions in
the same viewing rectangle. (a) Use technology to construct a quadratic model for tire
life as a function of pressure.
53. A particle moves along a straight line. For t $ 0, the position
of the particle is given by s (t) 5 t 3 2 6t 2 1 9t 1 5, where dL
(b) Use your model to estimate when P 5 30 and when
s(t) is measured in inches and t in seconds. Find the velocity dP
of the particle when the acceleration is 0. P 5 40. Explain the meaning of this derivative in the
context of this problem. Indicate the units of measure.
54. A particle moves along a straight line. For t $ 0, the position What is the significance of the sign of the derivative in
of the particle is given by s (t) 5 2 t 3 2 t 2 1 4t 1 3, where this problem?
s(t) is measured in centimeters and t in seconds. Find the
acceleration at the time when the velocity is zero. Indicate the 60. Find the points on the graph of f (x) 5 2 x 3 1 3 x 2 2 12 x 1 1
units of measure. where the tangent line is horizontal.
55. Let f (x) 5 3e x 2 1. Find an equation of the tangent line to 61. For what values of x does the graph of f (x) 5 e x 2 2x have a
the graph of f at the point where x 5 0. horizontal tangent line?
56. A group of research biologists have proposed a cubic 62. Show that the graph of f (x) 5 2e x 1 3x 1 5x 3 has no tangent
polynomial to model the length L of Alaskan rockfish at age A: line with slope 2.

L 5 0.0155 A 3 2 0.372 A 2 1 3.95 A 1 1.21 63. Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of
f (x) 5 x 4 1 1 that is parallel to the line 32 x 2 y 5 15.
where L is measured in inches and A in years. Find

`
64. Find equations of both lines that are tangent to the graph
dL of f (x) 5 x 3 2 3 x 2 1 3 x 2 3 and parallel to the line
dA A512 3x 2 y 5 15.
and explain the meaning of your answer in the context of this 65. Find the point on the graph of f (x) 5 1 1 2 e x 2 3 x where
problem. the tangent line is parallel to the line 3x 2 y 5 5. Graph f and
both lines in the same viewing rectangle.
57. Suppose the length L, measured in mm, of a bluegill fish in

f (x) 5 !x that is parallel to the line 2 x 1 y 5 1.

a Minnesota lake is related to its age A, in years. A proposed 66. Find an equation of the normal line to the graph of
model for L in terms of A is
L (A) 5 24.7 A 2 1 54 A 1 13.1 67. Find an equation of the normal line to the graph of
f (x) 5 x 2 1 1 that also passes through the point (3, 1).
Find L9(5) and explain the meaning of your answer in the
context of this problem. 68. Find an equation of the normal line to the graph of
f (x) 5 x 2 2 1 at the point (21, 0). Find the point where
58. Boyle’s Law states that when a sample of gas is compressed the normal line intersects the graph of f a second time.
at a constant temperature, the pressure P of the gas is Graph f and the normal line, and indicate the two points of
inversely proportional to the volume V of the gas. intersection.
(a) Suppose that the pressure of a sample of air that
occupies 0.106 m3 at 258C is 50 kPa. Write V as a 69. Draw a graph to show that there are two tangent lines to
function of P. the graph of f (x) 5 x 2 that pass through the point (0, 24).
Find the coordinates of the points where these tangent lines
dV
(b) Calculate when P 5 50 kPa. Explain the meaning of intersect the graph of f.
dP
your answer in the context of this problem. Indicate the 70. (a) Find equations of both lines through the point (2, 23)
units of measure. that are tangent to the graph of f (x) 5 x 2 1 x.
(b) Show that there is no line through the point (2, 7) that is
tangent to the graph of f. Draw a graph to illustrate this
result.
202 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

1 85. Suppose a tangent line to the graph of f (x) 5 !x passes

71. Use the definition of the derivative to show that if f (x) 5 ,
x through the point (8, 3). Find the slope of each possible
1
then f 9(x) 5 2 2 . tangent line, or explain why no such tangent line exists.
x
86. A line has positive slope, passes through the origin, and is
(This proves the Power Rule for the case n 5 21.) tangent to the graph of f (x) 5 x 2 1 5. Find the slope of this
72. Find the nth derivative of each function by calculating the line.
first few derivatives and observing the pattern that occurs. 6
1 87. Let l be any tangent line to the graph of f (x) 5 in the first
(a) f (x) 5 x n (b) f (x) 5 x
x quadrant. Show that the area of the triangle formed by l and
73. Find a second-degree polynomial P such that P(2) 5 5, the coordinate axes is the same for any tangent line l.
P9(2) 5 3, and P0(2) 5 2. 88. The graph of f and the tangent line to the graph of f at the
74. Let k be the y-intercept of the tangent line to the graph of point (4, 3) are shown in the figure.
f (x) 5 x 2 1 x passing through the point (1, 22). Find the y
value of k.
75. A tangent line to the graph of f (x) 5 2!x has an x-intercept A
of 29. Find the y-intercept of this tangent line.

1 q !x has a horizontal tangent line

(4, 3)

!x
p
76. The graph of f (x) 5
at the point (4, 12). Find the values of p and q. x
O B
77. Determine the values of a and b such that the line y 5 5 x 1 6
b It is known that f 9(x) 5 22x 1 7. The tangent line forms a
is tangent to the graph of f (x) 5 ax 2 at the point where triangle with the coordinate axes. Find the area of DABO.
x
x 5 1.
89. The graph of any quadratic function f (x) 5 ax 2 1 bx 1 c is a
parabola. Show that the average of the slopes of the tangent lines
78. The equation y0 1 y9 2 2y 5 x 2 is called a differential
to the parabola at the endpoints of any interval [ p, q] equals
equation because it involves an unknown function y and
the slope of the tangent line at the midpoint of the interval.
some of its derivatives, in this case, y9 and y0. Find constants
A, B, and C such that the function y 5 Ax 2 1 Bx 1 C satisfies 90. Let

f (x) 5 e
this equation.
x2 if x # 2
2
79. Find the parabola with equation y 5 a x 1 b x whose tangent mx 1 b if x 7 2
line at (1, 1) has equation y 5 3x 2 2.
Find the values of m and b such that f is differentiable
80. Suppose f (x) 5 x 4 1 a x 3 1 b x 2 1 cx 1 d. The tangent line to everywhere.
the graph of f at x 5 0 has equation y 5 2 x 1 1, and at x 5 1
has equation y 5 2 2 3x. Find the values of a, b, c, and d. x 1000 2 1
91. Evaluate lim .
xS1 x 2 1
81. For what values of a and b is the line 2 x 1 y 5 b tangent to
the graph of f (x) 5 a x 2 at the point where x 5 2? 92. Draw a diagram showing two perpendicular lines that
intersect on the y-axis and are both tangent to the parabola
3
82. Find the value of c such that the line y 5 x 1 6 is tangent y 5 x 2. Where do these lines intersect?
2
to the graph of f (x) 5 c!x. 1
93. If c 7 , how many lines through the point (0, c) are normal
83. Find the value of c such that the line y 5 2x 1 3 is tangent to 2
1
the graph of f (x) 5 c x 2. lines to the graph of the parabola y 5 x 2? What if c # ?
2
84. Find, if it exists, a value c in the interval [1, 4] such that the
94. Sketch the parabolas y 5 x 2 and y 5 x 2 2 2 x 1 2. Do you

!x
6
instantaneous rate of change of f (x) 5 at c is the same as think there is a line that is tangent to both curves? If so, find
an equation of this line. If not, why not?
the average rate of change of f over the interval [1, 4].
 Section 3.1 Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions 203

Applied Project Building a Better Roller Coaster

Suppose you are asked to design the first ascent and drop (the first hill) for a new roller coaster.
Research of your favorite coasters suggests that the slope of the ascent should be 0.8 and the
slope of the drop should be 21.6. The two straight stretches modeled by y 5 L1(x) and y 5 L2 (x)
will be connected with part of a parabola y 5 f (x) 5 ax 2 1 bx 1 c, where x and f (x) are
measured in feet.
In order for the track to be smooth, there cannot be an abrupt change in direction, so the
linear segments L1 and L2 must be tangent to the parabola at the transition points P and Q.
See Figure 3.11. To simplify the equations, place the origin at the point P.

f
x
P
L1

Q
Figure 3.11
L2
The design for the first ascent
and drop.
1. (a) Suppose the horizontal distance between P and Q is 100 ft. Write equations in a, b,
and c that will ensure that the track is smooth at the transition points.
(b) Solve the equations in part (a) for a, b, and c to find a formula for f (x).
(c) Plot L1, f, and L2 to verify graphically that the transitions are smooth.
(d) Find the difference in elevation between P and Q.
2. The solution in Problem 1 might look smooth, but, riding the roller coaster, it might not
feel smooth because the piecewise defined function [consisting of L1(x) for x 6 0, f (x)
for 0 # x # 100, and L 2 (x) for x 7 100] doesn’t have a continuous second derivative.
In order to improve the design, use a quadratic function q(x) 5 ax 2 1 bx 1 c only on the
interval 10 # x # 90 and connect it to the linear functions by using two cubic functions:
g (x) 5 kx 3 1 lx 2 1 mx 1 b 0 # x 6 10
h (x) 5 px 3 1 qx 2 1 rx 1 s 90 6 x # 100
(a) Write a system of equations in 11 unknowns that ensure that the functions and their
first two derivatives agree at the transition points.
(b) Solve the equations in part (a) using technology (a computer algebra system) to find
formulas for q (x), g (x), and h (x).
(c) Plot L1, g, q, h, and L2, and compare with the plot in Problem 1(c).
204 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

3.2 The Product and Quotient Rules

The formulas in this section enable us to differentiate functions that are products or quo-
tients without resorting to the limit definition.

■ The Product Rule

Suppose a new function h is a product of two functions: h (x) 5 f (x) g (x). Analogous
to the Sum and Difference Rules, we might be tempted to guess that the derivative of a
product is the product of the derivatives. However, this guess is incorrect. For example,
let f (x) 5 x and g (x) 5 x 2.
h (x) 5 f (x) # g (x) 5 x # x 2 5 x 3
h9(x) 5 3x 2 ? f 9(x) # g9(x) 5 1 # 2 x 5 2 x
Therefore, ( f g)9 ? f 9g9. The correct formula was discovered by Leibniz (after a false
Dv u Dv Du Dv start) and is called the Product Rule.
Before we state and apply the Product Rule, let’s consider how we might discover the
v uv v Du explicit formula. Assume that u 5 f (x) and v 5 g (x) are differentiable functions. The
product uv can be interpreted as the area of a rectangle of length u and width v (see
Figure 3.12). If x changes by an amount Dx, then the corresponding changes in u and
u Du v are
Figure 3.12 Du 5 f ( x 1 Dx) 2 f (x) Dv 5 g (x 1 Dx) 2 g (x)
The geometry of the Product Rule.
The value of the product (u 1 Du)(v 1 Dv) can be interpreted as the area of the large
rectangle of length u 1 Du and width v 1 Dv in Figure 3.12, provided that Du and Dv
are positive.
The change in the area is
D(uv) 5 (u 1 Du)(v 1 Dv) 2 uv
5 uv 1 uDv 1 vDu 1 DuDv 2 uv
5 uDv 1 vDu 1 DuDv (1)
5 the sum of the three shaded areas
Divide both sides of this equation by Dx.
D(uv) Dv Du Dv
5u 1v 1 Du
Dx Dx Dx Dx
As Dx S 0, this leads to the definition of the derivative of uv.

5 lim a u b
d D (uv) Dv Du Dv
(uv) 5 lim 1v 1 Du
dx Dx S 0 Dx Dx S 0 Dx Dx Dx

1 a lim Du b a lim b
Dv Du Dv
5 u lim 1 v lim
Dx S 0 Dx Dx S 0 Dx Dx S 0 Dx S 0 Dx
dv du # dv
5u 1v 10
dx dx dx
d dv du
(uv) 5 u 1 v (2)
dx dx dx
 Section 3.2 The Product and Quotient Rules 205

Notice that Du S 0 as Dx S 0 because f is differentiable and therefore continuous.

For this geometric interpretation, we assumed that all quantities are positive. However,
Equation 1 is always true. And the algebra is valid for positive or negative values of u,
v, Du, and Dv. Therefore, Equation 2 is always true and is known as the Product Rule.

The Product Rule

If f and g are both differentiable, then

3 f (x) g (x) 4 5 f (x) 3 g (x) 4 1 g (x) 3 f (x) 4

d d d
dx dx dx

A Closer Look
1. In words, the Product Rule says: the derivative of the product of two functions
is the first function times the derivative of the second function plus the second
function times the derivative of the first function.
Or, one could say, the derivative of the product of two functions is the second
function times the derivative of the first function plus the first function times the
derivative of the second function.
Note: Consider the pattern of the
2. Here is the Product Rule using prime notation: ( f g)9 5 fg9 1 g f 9.
three expressions on the right of the
equation in the third note: 3 functions; 3. The Product Rule can be extended to the product of three functions. If f, g, and h
3 terms summed; each term consists are differentiable functions, then
of the product of 3 functions – 2 of
the given functions and the derivative
( f g h)9 5 f g h9 1 f g9h 1 f 9g h ■
of the remaining function such that
the derivative of each given function
occurs once. Example 1 The Product Rule and the nth Derivative
Let f (x) 5 x e x.
(a) Find f 9(x).
(b) Find the nth derivative, f (n)(x).

Solution

1 xe x 2
(a) Use the Product Rule.
d
f 9(x) 5

1 e 2 1 e x (x)
dx
d x d
5x Product Rule.
dx dx
5 xe x 1 e x # 1 5 (x 1 1) e x Derivatives; simplify.
(b) Start by using the Product Rule a second time.

1 e 2 1 e x (x 1 1)
d x d
f 0(x) 5 (x 1 1)
dx dx
5 (x 1 1)e x 1 e x # 1 5 (x 1 2) e x
206 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

y Further applications of the Product Rule show

f' f
f -(x) 5 (x 1 3) e x and f (4)(x) 5 (x 1 4) e x.
3

2
You can probably recognize the pattern: each successive differentiation adds another e x
term.
1
Therefore, f (n)(x) 5 (x 1 n) e x.
x
–2 –1 1 Figure 3.13 shows the graph of f and f 9. Notice that f 9(x) is positive when f is increas-
Figure 3.13 ing and negative when f is decreasing. ■
Graphs of f and f 9.

Example 2 The Product Rule, or Expand First

Let f (t) 5 !t (a 1 bt), where a and b are constants. Find f 9(t).

Solution 1
Use the Product Rule.

f 9(t) 5 !t (a 1 bt) 1 (a 1 bt) 1 !t 2

d d
Product Rule.
dt dt

5 !t # b 1 (a 1 bt) # 1 21>2
t Basic differentiation rules.
2

5 b !t 1
a 1 bt a 1 3bt Simplify.
5
2!t 2!t

Solution 2
If we multiply out, or expand, f (t) first, then we can find f 9(t) without the Product Rule.
f (t) 5 a!t 1 bt!t 5 at 1>2 1 bt 3>2
1 21>2 3 1>2 a 3b!t a 1 3bt
f 9(t) 5 at 1 bt 5 1 5
2 2 2!t 2 2!t
This is the same answer as we found in Solution 1. ■

Example 2 shows that sometimes it is easier to simplify a product of functions before

differentiating than to use the Product Rule. In Example 1, the Product Rule is the only
method possible.

Let f (x) 5 !x
Example 3 The Product Rule and an Evaluation
# g (x), where g (4) 5 2 and g9(4) 5 3. Find f 9(4).
Solution

3!x # g (x) 4 5 !x 3 g (x) 4 1 g(x) 3!x 4

d d d
f 9(x) 5 Product Rule.
dx dx dx
5 !x # g9(x) 1 g(x) # 1 21>2
t Power Rule.

5 !x
2
# g9(x) 1 g (x) Simplify.
2!x
 Section 3.2 The Product and Quotient Rules 207

We can now evaluate f 9(4).

f 9(4) 5 !4 g9(4) 1
g (4) 2 13
52 # 31 5 ■
2!4 2#2 2

Example 4 Interpreting the Terms in the Product Rule

A regional satellite TV provider would like to estimate the number of new home
television line installations that it will need to install during the upcoming month. At
the beginning of January, the company had 100,000 subscribers, each of whom had
2.3 televisions, on average. The company estimated that its subscribership was
increasing at the rate of 1000 monthly. A survey of existing subscribers suggested
that each intended to install an average of 0.02 new televisions by the end of January.
Estimate the number of new television installations the company will have to install in
January by finding the rate of increase of lines at the beginning of the month.
Solution
Let s (t) be the number of subscribers and let n (t) be the number of television lines per
subscriber at time t, where t is measured in months and t 5 0 corresponds to the begin-
ning of January.
The total number of television lines is L(t) 5 s(t) n(t).
We need to find L9(0). Use the Product Rule to find L9(t).

3 s(t) n(t) 4 5 s(t)

d # d # d
L 9(t) 5 n(t) 1 n(t) s(t)
dt dt dt
We are given s(0) 5 100,000 and n(0) 5 2.3.
The company’s estimates concerning rates are s9(0) ^ 1000 and n9(0) ^ 0.02.
L9(0) 5 s(0) n9(0) 1 s9(0) n(0)
^ 100,000 # 0.02 1 1000 # 2.3 5 4300
The company will need to install approximately 4300 new television lines in homes in
January.
Notice that the two terms arising from the Product Rule come from two different
sources: old subscribers and new subscribers. One contribution to L9 is the number of
existing subscribers (100,000) times the rate at which they order new television lines
(about 0.02 per subscriber monthly). A second contribution is the average number of
television lines per subscriber (2.3 at the beginning of the month) times the rate of
increase of subscribers (1000 monthly). ■

■ The Quotient Rule

We can find a rule for differentiating the quotient of two differentiable functions
u 5 f (x) and v 5 g (x) using a method similar to the derivation of the Product Rule.
Suppose x, u, and v change by amounts Dx, Du, and Dv, respectively. The correspond-
u
ing change in the quotient is
v

Da b 5
u u 1 D u u (u 1 D u) v 2 u (v 1 D v) v D u 2 u D v
2 5 5 .
v v 1 Dv v v (v 1 Dv) v (v 1 Dv)
208 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

Consider the definition of the derivative.

Da b
u Du Dv

a b 5 lim
v 2u
d u v Dx Dx
5 lim
dx v Dx S 0 Dx Dx S 0 v (v 1 Dv)

As Dx S 0, Dv S 0 also, because v 5 g (x) is differentiable and therefore continuous.

Using Limit Laws,
Du Dv du dv

a b5
v lim
2 u lim v 2u
d u Dx S 0 Dx Dx S 0 Dx dx dx
5 .
dx v v lim (v 1 Dv) v 2
Dx S 0

This method leads to the following rule.

Common Error

c d
The Quotient Rule
d f (x)
If f and g are differentiable, then
dx g (x)

3 g (x) 4 2 g (x) 3 f (x) 4 3 f (x) 4 2 f (x) 3 g (x) 4

d d d d

c d5
f (x) g (x)
3 g (x) 4 2 3 g (x) 4 2
dx dx d f (x) dx dx
5
dx g (x)
Reversing the order of functions in the
numerator results in the derivative with
an incorrect sign. A Closer Look
Correct Method 1. In words, the Quotient Rule says: the derivative of a quotient is the denominator
Because the terms in the numerator times the derivative of the numerator minus the numerator times the derivative of
are subtracted, the order matters in this the denominator, all divided by the denominator squared.

2. Here is the Quotient Rule using prime notation: a b 5

rule.
f 9 g f 9 2 fg9
.
g g2
3. Remember, the derivative of a quotient is not the quotient of the derivatives.

c d ?
d f (x) f 9(x)
■
dx g (x) g9(x)

Example 5 Using the Quotient Rule

x2 1 x 2 2
Let f (x) 5 . Find f 9(x).
x3 1 6

1x3 1 62 1x 1 x 2 22 2 1x2 1 x 2 22 1x3 1 62

Solution
d 2 d

1x 1 62
dx dx Quotient Rule.
f 9(x) 5

1x3 1 62 12x 1 12 2 1x2 1 x 2 22 13x22

3 2

1x3 1 62 2
5 Derivative of polynomial.

1 2 x 4 1 x 3 1 12 x 1 6 2 2 1 3 x 4 1 3 x 3 2 6 x 2 2
1x3 1 62 2
5 Expand in the numerator.

2 x 4 2 2 x 3 1 6 x 2 1 12 x 1 6 Simplify.
5
(x 3 1 6) 2
 Section 3.2 The Product and Quotient Rules 209

y Figure 3.14 shows graphs of f and f 9. Notice that when f grows rapidly (near 22), the
f' values of f 9 are large. And when f grows slowly, the values of f 9 are near 0.
1 ■
f
x Example 6 The Quotient Rule and a Tangent Line

at the point a 1, b .
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
ex e
–1 Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) 5 2
11x 2
Solution
Figure 3.14
Use the Quotient Rule to find f 9(x).

11 1 x22 1e x2 2 e x 11 1 x22
Graphs of f and f 9. Notice the
relationship between the two graphs. d d

11 1 x222
dx dx Quotient Rule.
f 9(x) 5

1 1 1 x 22 e x 2 e x (2 x) e x 1 1 2 2 x 1 x 2 2
11 1 x2 22 11 1 x222
5 5 Derivatives in the numerator;
factor out e x.

11 1 x22 2
e x(1 2 x) 2
5 Simplify; quadratic is a perfect square.

The slope of the tangent line at a 1, b is

e
2

11 1 122 2
y e 1(1 2 1) 2
f 9(1) 5 5 0.
f
2 Therefore, the tangent line at this point is horizontal.
y = 2e 1, 2e
e
1 The equation is y 5 .
f' 2
x Figure 3.15 shows the graphs of f, f 9 and the tangent line. Notice that the graph of f is
–1 1 2 3
always increasing. ■
Figure 3.15
Graphs of f, f 9 and the tangent line. Note: It isn’t always necessary to use the Quotient Rule to find the derivative of
Notice the value of f 9 where the graph a quotient. Often we can rewrite the original quotient in a simpler form before
of f has a horizontal tangent line. differentiating. For example, consider the function
3x 2 1 2!x
f (x) 5
x
It is certainly possible to find f 9(x) using the Quotient Rule. However, we can first
rewrite the function in a simpler form using division.

5 3x 1 2x 21>2
3x 2 2!x
f (x) 5 1
x x
Now, differentiate term by term.

f 9(x) 5 3 1 2 a2 b x 23>2 5 3 2 x 23>2

1
■
2
210 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

The following table is a summary of the differentiation rules we have learned so far.

Table of Differentiation Formulas

1 x 2 5 n x n21 1e 2 5 ex
d d n d x
(c) 5 0
dx dx dx

(c f )9 5 c f 9 ( f 1 g)9 5 f 9 1 g9 ( f 2 g)9 5 f 9 2 g9

a b 5
f 9 g f 9 2 f g9
( f g)9 5 f g9 1 g f 9
g g2

3.2 Exercises

1. Let f (x) 5 1 1 1 2 x 2 2 1 x 2 x 2 2 . Find the derivative using 13. f (z) 5 1 1 2 e z 2 1 z 1 e z 2

the Product Rule. Find the derivative by multiplying first to x2 1 1 !x
obtain a polynomial. Do your answers agree? 14. y 5 15. y 5
x 4 2 5x 3 1 !x
x3 2 1 21x
2. Let g (x) 5 . t 3 1 3t 1
x2 16. y 5 2
17. y 5
t 2 4t 1 3 t 3 1 2t 2 2 1

18. y 5 e p 1 p 1 p!p 2
Find the derivative using the Quotient Rule. Find the
derivative by simplifying first. Show that your answers ae r
19. h (r) 5
s 2 !s
21. y 5 1 z 2 1 e z 2 !z
are equivalent. Which method do you prefer in this case b 1 er
and why?
20. y 5
s2
!t
2
x
3. Let h (x) 5 . 3
x21 41t
22. f (t) 5 23. V (t) 5
(a) Find the derivative using the Quotient Rule. t23 te t
(b) Rewrite h(x) using negative exponents and find the
x 2e x At
derivative using the Product Rule. 24. f (x) 5 25. F (t) 5
(c) Show that your answers in parts (a) and (b) are x 1 ex
2
Bt 1 Ct 3
2

equivalent. x ax 1 b
26. f (x) 5 27. f (x) 5

4. f (x) 5 1 2 x 2 2 5x 2 e x 5. g (x) 5 1 2 1 2 !x 2 e x
Differentiate the function. c cx 1 d
x1
x

28. f (x) 5 1 x 3 1 1 2 e x
Find f 9(x) and f 0(x).
29. f (x) 5 !x e x
x ex
6. y 5 7. y 5
ex 1 2 ex
112 x2 2 2 x2 x
8. g (x) 5 9. G (x) 5 30. f (x) 5 31. f (x) 5

10. H (u) 5 1 u 2 !u 2 1 u 1 !u 2
3 2 4x 2x 1 1 1 1 ex 2
x 21

11. J (v) 5 1 v 2 2v 2 1 v 2
Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of the given
3 24 22 function at the specified point.
1v

12. F (y) 5 a 2 2 4 b 1 y 1 5y 3 2
x2 2 1
1 3 32. f (x) 5 2
, (1, 0)
x 1x11
y y
 Section 3.2 The Product and Quotient Rules 211

a 0, b
11x 1 45. Let f (x) 5 (x 2 2 1) e x.
33. f (x) 5 ,
1 1 ex 2 (a) Find f 9(x) and f 0(x).
(b) Graph f, f 9, and f 0 in the same viewing rectangle.
Find equations of the tangent line and the normal line to the graph Explain the relationship between the three graphs.
of the given function at the specified point.
x2
x 2x 46. Let f (x) 5 . Find f 0(1).
34. f (x) 5 2 x e , (0, 0) 35. f (x) 5 2 , (1, 1) 11x
x 11
x
36. Let f (x) 5 xe x. Find the value(s) of x where the graph 47. Let g (x) 5 . Find g (n)(x).
of f has a horizontal tangent line. ex

4x 48. Suppose that f (5) 5 1, f 9(5) 5 6, g (5) 5 23, and g9(5) 5 2.

37. Let f (x) 5 . Find the value(s) of x where the graph of Find each of the following values.
1 1 x2
(b) a b (5) (c) a b (5)
f has a horizontal tangent line. f 9 g 9
(a) ( f g)9(5)
x2 g f
38. Let f (x) 5 . Find the value(s) of x where the graph of
4x 1 1 49. Suppose that f (4) 5 2, g (4) 5 5, f 9(4) 5 6, and
f has a horizontal tangent line. g9(4) 5 2 3. Find h9(4) for each of the following functions.
39. A particle moves along a line so that its position at time t, (a) h (x) 5 3 f (x) 1 8g (x) (b) h (x) 5 f (x) g (x)
t
t $ 0, is given by s(t) 5 2 . What is the position of the f (x) g (x)
t 15 (c) h (x) 5 (d) h (x) 5
g (x) f (x) 1 g (x)
particle when it is at rest?
50. The differentiable functions f and g are defined for all real
numbers x. Values of f, f 9, g, and g9 for various values of x
1
40. The graph of the function f (x) 5 is called a witch of are given in the table.
1 1 x2
Maria Agnesi.
(a) Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of this x f (x) f 9(x) g (x) g9(x)

function at the point a21, b .

1 1 24 10 3 3
2 2 3 25 16 1
(b) Illustrate your solution by graphing the function and the
3 1 8 24 24
tangent line in the same viewing rectangle.
4 16 24 1 2
x
41. The graph of the function f (x) 5 is called a
1 1 x2 Find each value.
3 !x # f (x) 4 at x 5 4
serpentine.
(a) Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of this d
(a)
function at the point (3, 0.3). dx

c d at x 5 2
(b) Illustrate your solution by graphing the function and the d g (x)

42. Let f (x) 5 1 x 3 2 x 2 e x.

tangent line in the same viewing rectangle. (b)
dx f (x)
51. The differentiable functions f and g are defined for all real
(a) Find f 9(x).
numbers x. Values of f, f 9, g, and g9 for various values of x
(b) Graph f and f 9 in the same viewing rectangle. Explain
are given in the table.
the relationship between the two graphs.
ex x f (x) f 9(x) g (x) g9(x)
43. Let f (x) 5 2
.
2x 1 x 1 1 1 28 5 23 1
(a) Find f 9(x).
4 1 6 21 8
(b) Graph f and f 9 in the same viewing rectangle. Explain
the relationship between the two graphs.
Find the derivative of each function at the given value.
x2 2 1
44. Let f (x) 5 2 . (a) h9(1), where h (x) 5 2 x 1 g (x)
x 11
(a) Find f 9(x) and f 0(x). g (x)
(b) q9(1), where q (x) 5
(b) Graph f, f 9, and f 0 in the same viewing rectangle. f (x)
Explain the relationship between the three graphs.
212 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

52. Suppose h is a function that is differentiable for all real 59. If g is a differentiable function, find an expression for the
numbers x, h (2) 5 7, and h9(2) 5 22. Find derivative of each of the following functions.

c d`
x
d h (x) (a) y 5 x g (x) (b) y 5
g (x)
dx x x 52
g (x) ex
53. If h (2) 5 4 and h9(2) 5 23, find (c) y 5 (d) y 5

d`
x g (x)
c
d h (x)
60. If f is a differentiable function, find an expression for the
dx x x 52
derivative of each of the following functions.
54. Let f (x) 5 e xg (x) and suppose g (0) 5 2 and g9(0) 5 5. Find f (x)
(a) y 5 x 2 f (x) (b) y 5 2
f 9(0). x
55. Let g (x) 5 x f (x), and suppose f (3) 5 4 and f 9(3) 5 22.
!x
x2 1 1 x f (x)
Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of g at the (c) y 5 (d) y 5
f (x)
point where x 5 3.
56. Suppose f (2) 5 10 and f 9(x) 5 x 2 f (x) for all x. Find f 0(2). !x 1 2
61. Let f (x) 5 . Find a value x, 1#x#4, such that f 9(x)
57. The graphs of f and g are shown in the figure. x2 1 4
is equal to the average rate of change of f over this interval.
y
x
62. How many tangent lines to the graph of f (x) 5 pass
4 x11
through the point (1, 2)? For each tangent line, find the point
3 of tangency on the graph of f.
f
2 g 63. Find an equation for each tangent line to the graph of
1 x21
f (x) 5
x x11
–1 1 2 3 4 5 6
that is parallel to the line x 2 2y 5 2.
f (x) 64. Find R9(0), where
Let u(x) 5 f (x) g (x) and v (x) 5 .
g (x) x 2 3x 3 1 5x 5
(a) Find u9(1). R(x) 5
1 1 3x 3 1 6x 6 1 9x 9
(b) Find v9(5).
58. The graphs of F and G are shown in the figure. Hint: Instead of finding R9(x) first, let f (x) be the numerator
and g (x) the denominator of R(x), and compute R9(0) from
y f (0), f 9(0), g (0), and g9(0).
65. Use the method described in Exercise 64 to compute Q9(0),
5
F where
4
1 1 x 1 x 2 1 xe x
3 Q(x) 5
1 2 x 1 x 2 2 xe x
2
G 66. The Quotient Rule can be derived from the Product Rule in
1 the following way.
x
f (x)
(1) Let h (x) 5 .
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 g (x)
(2) Multiply both sides by g (x).
(3) Differentiate both sides using the Product Rule.
F (x) f (x)
Let P(x) 5 F (x) G(x) and Q(x) 5 . (4) Replace h(x) with and solve for h9(x).
G(x) g (x)
(a) Find P9(2). (a) Verify that this process works.
(b) Find Q9(7). 3x 1 2
(b) Use this approach to find the derivative of f (x) 5 .
4x 2 5
 Section 3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 213

67. In 2018, the population in Boston was 694,583, and the and increasing at a rate of 0.14 g>week. At what rate is the
population was increasing by approximately 9624 people per biomass increasing when t 5 4?
year. The average annual income was $ 41,794 per capita, and
71. (a) Use the Product Rule twice to prove that if f, g, and h are
suppose this average was increasing by about $1200 per year.
differentiable, then ( f gh)9 5 f 9gh 1 f g9h 1 f gh9.
Use the Product Rule and these figures to estimate the rate
(b) Let f 5 g 5 h in part (a). Show that
at which total personal income was rising in Boston in 2018.
3 f (x) 4 3 5 3 3 f (x) 4 2 f 9(x)
Explain the meaning of each term in the Product Rule in the d
context of this problem. dx
68. A manufacturer produces bolts of a fabric with a fixed width. (c) Use part (b) to differentiate f (x) 5 e 3x.
The quantity q of this fabric (measured in yards) that is sold
is a function of the selling price p (in dollars per yard), so we 72. Let F (x) 5 f (x) g (x), where f and g have derivatives of all
can write q 5 f (p). Then the total revenue earned with selling orders.
price p is R (p) 5 p f (p). (a) Show that F 0 5 f 0g 1 2 f 9g9 1 f g0.
(a) What does it mean to say that f (20) 5 10,000 and (b) Find similar formulas for F - and F (4).
f 9(20) 5 2350 in the context of this problem? (c) Try to recognize the pattern and guess a formula for F (n).
(b) Assuming the values in part (a), find R9(20) and interpret 73. Find expressions for the first five derivatives of f (x) 5 x 2e x.
your answer in the context of this problem. Try to determine the pattern in these expressions. Guess a
69. The Michaelis–Menten equation for the digestive enzyme formula for f (n)(x) and prove it using mathematical induction.
chymotrypsin is 74. If g is differentiable, the Reciprocal Rule is given by

c d52
0.015 1 3S4 3 g (x) 4 2
0.243S4 d 1 g9(x)
v5
dx g (x)
where v is the rate of an enzymatic reaction and [S] is the (a) Use the Quotient Rule to prove the Reciprocal Rule.

d 3S4
dv (b) Use the Reciprocal Rule to differentiate the function
concentration of a substrate S. Calculate and interpret
1
this expression in the context of this problem. f (x) 5
x 3 1 2x 2 2 1
70. The biomass B (t) of a fish population is the total mass of the (c) Use the Reciprocal Rule to verify that the Power Rule is
members of the population at time t. It is the product of the valid for negative integers, that is

1 x 2 5 2n x 2n21
number of individuals N (t) in the population and the average
mass M (t) of a fish at time t. In the case of guppies, breeding d 2n
occurs continuously. Suppose that at time t 5 4 weeks, the dx
population is 820 guppies and the population is growing at a
for all positive integers n.
rate of 50 guppies per week, while the average mass is 1.2 g

3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Recall that the sine function, f (x) 5 sin x, is defined for all real numbers x. It is under-
stood that sin x means the sine of the angle whose radian measure is x.
A similar convention holds for the other trigonometric functions: cos, tan, csc, sec,
and cot. For example, cos x means the cosine of the angle whose radian measure is x.
Remember, all of the trigonometric functions are continuous at every number in their
domains.
Remember, we always measure angles To gain some insight into the derivative of the function f (x) 5 sin x , first sketch the
in radians. graph of f. Use the interpretation of f 9(x) as the slope of the tangent line to the graph of
the sine curve in order to sketch the graph of f 9. See Figure 3.16.
214 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

1
y = f (x) = sin x

x
–2 – 3  – 2   3 2
2 2 2
–1

y
y = f '(x)
1

x
–2 – 3  – 2   3 2
2 2 2
Figure 3.16
–1
Graph of y 5 f 9(x) using the slope
interpretation.

Notice that the graph of f 9 looks like the graph of the cosine function. We can try to
confirm this guess, that f 9(x) 5 cos x, by using the definition of the derivative.
Let f (x) 5 sin x.
f ( x 1 h) 2 f (x) sin(x 1 h) 2 sin x
f 9(x) 5 lim 5 lim Definition; use f (x) 5 sin x.
hS0 h hS0 h
sin x cos h 1 cos x sin h 2 sin x
5 lim Trigonometric identity: sin(a 1 b).
hS0 h

5 lim c d
sin x cos h 2 sin x cos x sin h
1 Write as two fractions.
hS0 h h

5 lim c sin x a b 1 cos x a bd

cos h 2 1 sin h
Factor each expression.
hS0 h h

# cos h 2 1 # sin h
5 lim sin x lim 1 lim cos x lim Limit Laws.
hS0 hS0 h hS0 hS0 h
Two of these four limits are straightforward. As h S 0, the variable x is treated as a
constant. Therefore,
lim sin x 5 sin x and lim cos x 5 cos x.
hS0 hS0

D sin h
The limit lim isn’t so obvious. In Chapter 2, we investigated this limit and guessed
hS0 h
B the value using numerical and graphical evidence. This analysis suggested
sin u
lim 51 (1)
1 uS0 u
E
We can give a geometric argument to prove Equation 1. Assume that u lies between
0 and p>2. Figure 3.17 shows a sector of a circle with center O, central angle u, and
 radius 1. The segment BC is drawn perpendicular to OA. By definition of radian mea-
O
C A sure, we have arc AB 5 u. In addition, u BC u 5 u OB u sin u 5 sin u.
Using Figure 3.17,
Figure 3.17
Sector of a circle with radius 1. u BC u 6 u AB u 6 arc AB
 Section 3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 215

Therefore, substituting,
sin u
sin u 6 u so 6 1
u
Let the tangent lines at A and B intersect at E. Figure 3.18 shows that the circumference
of a circle is less than the length of the circumscribed polygon. This means that
B
arc AB 6 u AE u 1 u EB u
E
Therefore,
O A
u 5 arc AB 6 u AE u 1 u EB u
6 u AE u 1 u ED u Triangle geometry.

5 u AD u 5 u OA u tan u Definition of tangent.

Figure 3.18
Circle with circumscribed polygon. 5 tan u Circle of radius 1.

The inequality u # tan u can be proved directly from definition of the length of an arc,
without resorting to geometric intuition. Therefore,
sin u
u 6
cos u
cos u
and multiplying both sides by 7 0,
u
cos u #u6 cos u # sin u sin u
1 cos u 6 6 1
u u cos u u
u approaches 0 from the right here We know that lim 1 5 1 and lim cos u 5 1. By the Squeeze Theorem, we have
uS0 uS0
because we assumed that u is between
0 and p>2. sin u
lim1 51
uS0 u
sin u
The function is an even function. Therefore, the right and left limits at 0 must be
u
equal. So,
sin u
lim 51
uS0 u

This proves Equation 1.

Here is how we find the remaining limit.

5 lim c # cos u 1 1 d 5 lim

cos u 2 1 cos u 2 1 cos 2 u 2 1 Multiply by 1 in a
lim
uS0 u uS0 u cos u 1 1 uS0 u (cos u 1 1) convenient form.

5 2 lim c d
2 sin2 u sin u sin u Trigonometric
5 lim # identity; rewrite
uS0 u (cos u 1 1) uS0 u cos u 1 1 product.
sin u # sin u
5 2 lim lim Limit Law.
uS0 u uS0 cos u 1 1

a b 50
# 0 Known limit; direct
5 21
111 substitution.
216 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

This shows
cos u 2 1
lim 50 (2)
uS0 u
Putting all of these results together,

# cos h 2 1 # sin h
f 9(x) 5 lim sin x lim 1 lim cos x lim
hS0 hS0 h hS0 hS0 h
5 (sin x) # 0 1 (cos x) # 1 5 cos x Use the limit results.

This proves the rule for the derivative of the sine function,
d
(sin x) 5 cos x (3)
dx

y Example 1 Derivative Involving sin x

f' 3 f Let f (x) 5 x 2 sin x. Find f 9(x).
2
Solution
1
x Use the Product Rule and Equation 3.

1 sin x 2 1 sin x 1 x 2 2
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–1
–2 d d
f 9(x) 5 x 2
–3 dx dx Product Rule.
2
5 x cos x 1 2 x sin x Equation 3; Power Rule.
Figure 3.19
Graphs of f and f 9. Notice the rela- Figure 3.19 shows the graphs of f and f 9. Notice that whenever f 9(x) 5 0, the graph of
tionship between the two graphs. f has a horizontal tangent line. ■

To find the derivative of f (x) 5 cos x, we can use the same methods as in the proof of
Equation 3 (see Exercise 22).
d
(cos x) 5 2sin x (4)
dx
We can use Equations 3 and 4 and the Quotient Rule to find the derivative of the tangent
function.

a b
d d sin x
(tan x) 5 Definition of tangent function.
dx dx cos x
d d
cos x (sin x) 2 sin x (cos x)
dx dx
5 Quotient Rule.
cos 2 x
cos x # cos x 2 sin x # (2sin x)
5 Derivatives of sin x and cos x.
cos 2 x
cos 2 x 1 sin 2 x
5 Simplify.
cos 2 x
1 Trigonometric identity;
5 5 sec 2 x
cos 2 x definition of secant function.
 Section 3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 217

This calculation shows

d
(tan x) 5 sec 2x (5)
dx
The derivatives of the remaining trigonometric functions – csc, sec, and cot – can also
be found using the Quotient Rule. The differentiation rules for the six basic trigono-
metric functions are listed for reference. Remember that these are valid only when x is
measured in radians.

Note that minus signs are associated Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

with the derivatives of the cofunctions,
that is, cosine, cosecant, and d d
(sin x) 5 cos x (csc x) 5 2csc x cot x
cotangent. dx dx
d d
(cos x) 5 2sin x (sec x) 5 sec x tan x
dx dx
d d
(tan x) 5 sec2x (cot x) 5 2csc 2x
dx dx

Example 2 Trigonometric Derivatives

sec x
Let f (x) 5 . For what values of x does the graph of f have a horizontal
1 1 tan x
tangent?

Solution
d d
(1 1 tan x) (sec x) 2 sec x (1 1 tan x)
dx dx
f 9(x) 5 Quotient Rule.
(1 1 tan x)2
(1 1 tan x)(sec x tan x) 2 sec x # sec 2 x
5 Derivatives of trigonometric functions.
(1 1 tan x)2
sec x (tan x 1 tan 2 x 2 sec 2 x)
5 Distribute; factor out sec x.
(1 1 tan x)2
sec x 3tan x 1 (sec 2 x 2 1) 2 sec 2 x4 Trigonometric identity.
5
(1 1 tan x)2
sec x (tan x 2 1) Simplify.
5
(1 1 tan x)2
The derivative is 0 where the graph of f has a horizontal tangent.
sec x (tan x 2 1)
f 9(x) 5 50
(1 1 tan x)2
A fraction that is 0 in the numerator and
1 sec x (tan x 2 1) 5 0 nonzero in the denominator equals zero.

1 sec x 5 0 or tan x 2 1 5 0 Principle of Zero Products.

218 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

sec x is never 0.
p
tan x 5 1 when x 5 np 1 where n is an integer.
4
We need to check that the denominator is nonzero at these values of x. Otherwise, the
derivative at these values would be indeterminate.
p
For x 5 np 1 1 tan x 5 1 1 (1 1 tan x)2 5 4.
4
Figure 3.20 shows graphs of f and the horizontal tangent lines.
y

2 f

x
– – 2   3
2 2
–1
Figure 3.20
–2
Graphs of f and the horizontal tangent
lines. ■

Trigonometric functions are often used to model real-world phenomena. For example,
vibrations, waves, elastic motions, and other quantities that vary in a periodic manner
can be described using trigonometric functions. The next example involves simple har-
monic motion.

Example 3 Analyzing the Motion of a Spring

An object at the end of a vertical spring is stretched downward 4 cm beyond its rest
position and released at time t 5 0. See Figure 3.21 and note that the downward direc-
tion is negative. Its position at time t is s(t) 5 24 cos t. Find the velocity and accelera-
0 tion at time t and use these functions to analyze the motion of the object.
−4 Solution
The velocity and acceleration functions are:
s
ds d d
Figure 3.21 v(t) 5 5 (24 cos t) 5 24 (cos t) 5 (24)(2sin t) 5 4 sin t
dt dt dt
An object at the end of a vertical
spring. dv d d
a(t) 5 5 (4 sin t) 5 4 (sin t) 5 4 cos t
dt dt dt
y
Figure 3.22 shows the graphs of the position, velocity, and acceleration of the object on
4 v s a the same coordinate axes. ■
2
The graph of s suggests that the object oscillates from the lowest point (s 5 24 cm) to
x
 2 the highest point (s 5 4 cm). The period of oscillation is 2p, the period of cos t.
–2
–4 The speed of the object is u v u 5 4 u sin t u . This expression is greatest when u sin t u 5 1,
(2n 1 1)p
that is, when t 5 , or when cos t 5 0. Therefore, the object moves fastest
Figure 3.22 2
Graphs of s, v, and a. as it passes through its equilibrium position (s 5 0). The speed of the object is 0 when
sin t 5 0, at times when the position function is at its highest or lowest point.
 Section 3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 219

The acceleration of the object, a 5 4 cos t 5 0 when s 5 24 cos t 5 0. This occurs

(2n 1 1)p
where the speed of the object is greatest, at t 5 . The acceleration is greatest
2
when t 5 np. ■

Example 4 Higher Order Derivatives

Find the 27th derivative of cos x.
Solution
Example 4 illustrates the importance Consider the first few derivatives of f (x) 5 cos x.
of pattern recognition in problem
solving. f 9(x) 5 2sin x
f 0(x) 5 2cos x
f -(x) 5 sin x
f (4)(x) 5 cos x
f (5)(x) 5 2 sin x
The pattern here suggests that successive derivatives occur in a cycle of length 4.
For example, f (n)(x) 5 cos x whenever n is a multiple of 4.
Therefore, f (24)(x) 5 cos x, and differentiating three more times,
f (27)(x) 5 sin x. ■

3.3 Exercises

Find the derivative of the function. d

20. Prove that (sec x) 5 sec x tan x.
1. f (x) 5 x 2 sin x 2. f (x) 5 x cos x 1 2 tan x dx

3. f (x) 5 e x cos x 4. f (x) 5 2 sec x 2 csc x d

21. Prove that (cot x) 5 2csc 2 x.
dx
5. g (x) 5 sec x tan x 6. g (x) 5 e x(tan x 2 x)
22. Prove, using the definition of derivative, that if f (x) 5 cos x,
cot t then f 9(x) 5 2sin x.
7. f (t) 5 t cos t 1 t 2 sin t 8. f (t) 5
et
x Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of the given
9. f (x) 5 10. g (u) 5 sin u cos u function at the specified point.
2 2 tan x
sin u cos x 23. f (x) 5 sin x 1 cos x, (0, 1)
11. f (u) 5 12. g (x) 5
1 1 cos u 1 2 sin x 24. f (x) 5 e x cos x, (0, 1)
t sin t sin t 25. f (x) 5 cos x 2 sin x, (p, 21)
13. f (t) 5 14. g (t) 5
11t 1 1 tan t 26. f (x) 5 x 1 tan x, (p, p)
p !2p
a , b
15. f (u) 5 u cos u sin u 16. f (t) 5 t e t cot t
27. f (x) 5 2x sin x,
2x 4 4
17. f (x) 5 18. f (x) 5 2 x cos x 2 3 sin x
sin x tan x 28. Let f (x) 5 2x sin x.
(a) Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at
the point a , p b .
d p
19. Prove that (csc x) 5 2csc x cot x.
dx 2
220 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

(b) Illustrate part (a) by graphing f and the tangent line in the 40. A particle moves along a line so that its position at time t,
same viewing rectangle. t $ 0, is given by s(t) 5 4 cos t sin t 2 4 sin t. Find the first
29. Let f (x) 5 3x 1 6 cos x. time t for which the particle is at rest.
(a) Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at 41. A particle moves along a line so that its position at time t,
the point a , p 1 3b .
p cos t
t $ 0, is given by s(t) 5 . Find the first time t for
3 21sin t
which the particle is at rest.
(b) Illustrate part (a) be graphing f and the tangent line in the
same viewing rectangle. 42. A mass on a spring vibrates horizontally on a smooth,
level surface as shown in the figure. Its equation of motion
30. Let f (x) 5 sec x 2 x.
is x (t) 5 8 sin t, where t is measured in seconds and x in
(a) Find f 9(x).
centimeters.
p
(b) Graph f and f 9 for u x u 6 and describe the
2
relationship between the two graphs. Equilibrium
31. Let f (x) 5 e x cos x. position
(a) Find f 9(x) and f 0(x).
(b) Graph f, f 9, and f 0 in the same viewing rectangle and
describe the relationship between the three graphs. x
0 x
32. Let g (x) 5 x sin x. Find g9(x) and g0(x).
33. Let f (x) 5 sin x cos x. Find f 9(x) and f 0(x). (a) Find the velocity and acceleration at time t.

34. Let f (t) 5 sec t. Find f 0 a b .

(b) Find the position, velocity, and acceleration of the mass
p
2p
4 at time t 5 . In what direction is the mass moving at
3
35. Let the function f be defined by that time? Justify your answer.
tan x 2 1 43. An elastic band is hung on a hook and a mass is hung on the
f (x) 5 lower end of the band. When the mass is pulled downward
sec x
and then released, it vibrates vertically. The equation of
(a) Use the Quotient Rule to find f 9(x). motion is s(t) 5 2 cos t 1 3 sin t, t $ 0, where s is measured
(b) Simplify the expression for f (x) by writing it in terms of in centimeters and t in seconds. (Assign the positive direction
sin x and cos x, and then find f 9(x). to be downward.)
(c) Show that your answers in parts (a) and (b) are equivalent. (a) Find the velocity and acceleration at time t.
36. Let f (x) 5 tan x. (b) Graph the velocity and acceleration functions.
sin x (c) When does the mass pass through the equilibrium position
(a) Rewrite f (x) 5 and find the derivative using the (the position when the system is at rest) for the first time?
cos x
Quotient Rule. (d) How far from its equilibrium position does the mass
(b) Rewrite f (x) 5 sin x (cos x) 21 and find the derivative travel?
using the Product Rule. (e) When is the speed the greatest?
(c) Show that your answers in parts (a) and (b) are 44. A ladder 10 ft long rests against a vertical wall. Let u be the
equivalent. angle between the top of the ladder and the wall, and let x be

37. Suppose f a b 5 4 and f 9 a b 5 22.

p p the distance from the bottom of the ladder to the wall. If the
bottom of the ladder slides away from the wall, how fast does
3 3 p
x change with respect to u when u 5 ?
cos x 3
Let g (x) 5 f (x) sin x and h (x) 5 . Find 45. An object with weight W is dragged along a horizontal plane
f (x)

(a) g 9 a b (b) h 9 a b
by a force acting along a rope attached to the object. If the
p p rope makes an angle u with the plane, then the magnitude of
3 3 the force is
For what values of x does the graph of f have a horizontal mW
tangent? F5
m sin u 1 cos u
38. f (x) 5 x 1 2 sin x 39. f (x) 5 e x cos x
where m is a constant called the coefficient of friction.
 Section 3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 221

(a) Find the rate of change of f with respect to u. sin 3x sin 5x

53. lim
(b) When is this rate of change equal to 0? xS0 x2
(c) If W 5 50 lb and m 5 0.6, draw the graph of f as a
function of u and use it to locate the value of u for which sin u
54. lim
dF uS0 u 1 tan u
5 0. Is the value consistent with your answer to
du
part (b)? 55. A semicircle with diameter PQ sits on an isosceles triangle
PQR to form a region shaped like a two-dimensional
Determine the indicated derivative by finding the first few
ice-cream cone, as shown in the figure.
derivatives and recognizing the pattern that occurs.
d 99 d 35
46. (sin x) 47. (x sin x)
dx 99 dx 35 A()

48. Find constants A and B such that the function P Q

y 5 A sin x 1 B cos x satisfies the differential equation B()
y0 1 y9 22y 5 sin x.
10 cm 10 cm
49. (a) Use the substitution u 5 5x to evaluate

sin 5x
lim
xS0 x R

(b) Use part (a) and the definition of a derivative to find If A(u) is the area of the semicircle and B(u) is the area of the
d triangle, find
(sin 5x)
dx A(u)
lim
50. (a) Evaluate lim x sin a b .
1 uS01 B(u)
xS` x 56. The figure shows a circular arc of length s and a chord of

(b) Evaluate lim x sin a b .

length d, both subtended by a central angle u.
1
xS0 x s

(c) Illustrate parts (a) and (b) by graphing y 5 x sin a b .

d
1
x 

51. For each trigonometric identity, differentiate both sides to

obtain a new (or familiar) identity.
sin x
(a) tan x 5
cos x s
Find lim1 .
1 uS0 d
(b) sec x 5

!12cos 2x
cos x x
57. Let f (x) 5 .
11cot x
(c) sin x 1 cos x 5 (a) Graph f. What type of discontinuity does it appear to
csc x
have at 0?
Use Equation 1, page 27, and trigonometric identities to evaluate (b) Calculate the left and right limits of f at 0. Do these
the limit. values confirm your answer to part (a)? Explain your
tan 6t reasoning.
52. lim
tS0 sin 2t
222 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

3.4 The Chain Rule

Although we already have many differentiation rules, we need to consider one more
common combination of functions. Suppose
F 1x2 5 1x 2 1 3x 1 72 10
To find F9 1x2 using the differentiation rules we have learned so far, we would have to
first expand F 1x2 , that is, multiply out F 1x2 to obtain a polynomial of degree 20. We
could then take the derivative term by term. There has to be a better way to find this
derivative.

tion. If we let y 5 f 1u2 5 u10 and u 5 g 1x2 5 x 2 1 3x 1 7 , then y 5 F 1x2 5 f 1g 1x2 2 ,

Notice that F is a composite function, the composition of a power and a polynomial func-

that is, F 5 f + g. We already know how to differentiate f and g, so it seems reasonable

to have a rule that tells us how to find the derivative of F 5 f + g in terms of the deriva-
tives of f and g.
It turns out that the derivative of the composite function f + g is the product of the deriv-
atives of f and g. This fact is one of the most important of the differentiation rules and is
called the Chain Rule. It seems plausible if we interpret derivatives as rates of change.
du dy
Think of as the rate of change of u with respect to x, as the rate of change of
dx dy du
y with respect to u, and as the rate of change of y with respect to x. If u changes
dx
twice as fast as x, and y changes three times as fast as u, then it seems reasonable that y
changes six times as fast as x, and so we expect that
dy dy du
5
dx du dx

F9 1x2 5 f 9 1g 1x22
Common Error The Chain Rule

F 5 f + g defined by F 1x2 5 f 1g 1x2 2 is differentiable at x and F9 1x2 is given by the

If g is differentiable at x and f is differentiable at g (x), then the composite function
Correct Method

F9 1x2 5 f 9 1g 1x2 2 # g9 1x2

The derivative of a composite function product
is the product of the derivative of the

In Leibniz notation, if y 5 f 1u2 and u 5 g 1x2 are both differentiable functions, then
outer function evaluated at the inner
function and the derivative of the inner
function.
dy dy du
5
dx du dx

Comments on the Proof of the Chain Rule

Let Du be the change in u that corresponds to a change, Dx, in x.
Du 5 g 1x 1 Dx2 2 g 1x2
The corresponding change in y is
Dy 5 f 1u 1 Du2 2 f 1u2 .
Now, consider the derivative of y with respect to x.
 Section 3.4 The Chain Rule 223

dy Dy
5 lim Definition of the derivative.
dx Dx 0 Dx
S

5 lim a b
Dy
# Du Multiply by 1 in a convenient form.
Dx S 0 Du Dx Assume Du ? 0.

5 a lim b a lim b
Dy
# Du
Limit Laws.
Dx S 0 Du Dx S 0 Dx

5 a lim b a lim b
Dy
# Du
As Dx S 0, Du S 0 because g is continuous.
Du S 0 Du Dx S 0 Dx

dy du
5 Definition of the derivative.
du dx
This is not a complete proof because Du could be 0, even when Dx ? 0, and we can’t
divide by 0. However, this argument does at least suggest that the Chain Rule is true. A
full proof of the Chain Rule is given at the end of this section. ■

A Closer Look
1. In words, the derivative of the composition of two functions is the product of the
derivative of the outer function evaluated at the inner function and of the derivative

2. Other notation: 1 f + g2 9 5 f 9 1g 1x2 2 # g9 1x2

of the inner function.

3 f 1g 1x2 2 4 5 f 9 1g 1x2 2 # g9 1 x 2
d
3. And more notation:
dx
4. Leibniz notation is easy to remember if the symbols representing the derivatives
are treated as quotients.
dy du dy 1
5 # 5 dy
du dx 1 dx dx
du
However, du has not been defined, and should not be considered an actual
dx
quotient.
5. The variable introduced in Leibniz notation is often referred to as an intermediate

6. Given 1 f + g2 1x2, here is a procedure for finding 1 f + g2 9 1x2 using the Chain Rule.
variable.

Step 1 Identify f 1x2 and g 1x2 .

Step 2 Find f 9 1x2 and g9 1x2 .
Step 3 Write the final answer as f 9 1g 1x2 2 g9 1x2 . ■

!x 2 1 1.
Example 1 Using the Chain Rule
Find F 9 1x2 if F 1x2 5

F 1x2 5 1 f + g2 1x2, where

Solution

f 1x2 5 !x and g 1x2 5 x 2 1 1

224 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

f 9 1x2 5 and g9 1 x 2 5 2x
1 21>2 1
x 5
2 2!x

F9 1x2 5
2 !x 1 1 !x 1 1
1 # x
2x 5

f 9 1g 1x2 2 g 9 1x2
2 2

Using Leibniz notation,

let y 5 f 1u2 and u 5 g 1x2 with

y 5 !u and u 5 x2 1 1

dy 1 21>2 1 du
5 u 5 and 5 2x
du 2 2!u dx

1 2x 2 5 1 2x 2 5
!x 2 1 1
dy dy du 1 1 x
5 5 ■
dx du dx 2!u 2!x 2 1 1
dy
When using Leibniz notation, remember that means the derivative of y where y is
dx
considered a function of x (also read as the derivative of y with respect to x). The expres-
dy
sion refers to the derivative of y where y is considered as a function of u (the deriva-
du
tive of y with respect to u). In Example 1, notice that

5 F 9 1x2 5 5 f 9 1u2 5
!x 1 1 2 !u
dy x dy 1
and
dx 2 du

Note: In applying the Chain Rule, we work from the outside to the inside. The Chain
Rule says that we differentiate the outer function f [at the inner function g (x)] and then
we multiply by the derivative of the inner function.

1g 1x2 2 1g 1x2 2 g9 1x2

d
f 5 f9 ?
dx
outer evaluated derivative evaluated derivative
function at inner of outer at inner of inner
function function function function
Another way to think about the Chain Rule: when we take the derivative of a composite
function, we start at the outside and work our way in, taking derivatives along the way.
After each derivative, we peel away that function and take the derivative of the next
innermost function.

Differentiate (a) y 5 sin 1x 2 2 and (b) y 5 sin2 x.

Example 2 The Chain Rule and Trigonometric Functions

(a) If y 5 sin 1x 2 2 , the outer function is sine, and the inner function is the squaring
Solution

function, x 2.
Use the Chain Rule.
 Section 3.4 The Chain Rule 225

dy d
5 sin (x 2) 5 cos (x 2) ? 2x
dx dx
outer evaluated derivative evaluated derivative
function at inner of outer at inner of inner
function function function function

5 2x cos 1x 2 2
(b) Remember, sin2 x 5 1sin x2 2.
Here the outer function is the squaring function and the inner function is the sine
function.
Using the Chain Rule,
dy
5
d 1sin x2 2 5 2 1sin x2 ? cos x
dx dx
inner derivative evaluated derivative
function of outer at inner of inner
function function function

5 2 sin x cos x 5 sin 2x Trigonometric identity.

■

In Example 2(a), we used the Chain Rule and the rule for differentiating the sine func-
tion. In general, if y 5 sin u, where u is a differentiable function of x, then, using the
Chain Rule,
dy dy du du
5 5 cos u
dx du dx dx
and

1 sin u 2 5 cos u
d du
dx dx

All the rules for differentiating trigonometric functions can be combined with the
Chain Rule in a similar manner.

function. If y 5 3g 1x2 4 n, then we can write y 5 f 1u2 5 un, where u 5 g 1x2 . Use the
There is a common special case of the Chain Rule where the outer function is a power

Chain Rule and the Power Rule to find the derivative of y with respect to x.

5 nun 21 5 n 3 g 1 x 2 4 n 21g9 1 x 2
dy dy du du
5
dx du dx dx
Here is this result stated more formally.

If n is any real number and u 5 g 1x2 is differentiable, then

The Power Rule Combined with the Chain Rule

1 u 2 5 nun 21
d n du
(1)
dx dx

3 g 1 x 2 4 n 5 n 3 g 1 x 2 4 n 21 # g9 1 x 2
d
Alternatively,
dx
226 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

Differentiate y 5 1x 3 2 12 100.
Example 3 The Power Rule and Chain Rule

Let u 5 g 1x2 5 x 3 2 1 and n 5 100 and use Equation 1.

Solution

1 x 2 1 2 100 5 100 1 x 3 2 1 2 99 1x 2 12
dy d 3 d 3
5
dx dx dx
5 100 1x 3 2 12 99 # 3x 2 5 300x 2 1x 3 2 12 99 ■

Example 4 The Power Rule and Chain Rule; Rational Exponent

Let f 1 x 2 5 . Find f 9 1x2 .

!x 1 x 1 1
1
3 2

Rewrite f : f 1x2 5 1x 2 1 x 1 12 21>3.

Solution

f 9 1 x 2 5 2 1 x 2 1 x 1 1 2 24>3 1 x 2 1 x 1 1 2
1 d
Power Rule; Chain Rule.

2 12x 1 12
3 dx

5 2 1 x 1 x 1 1 2 24>3 1 2x 1 1 2 5 3
3 ! 1 x2 1 x 1 1 2 4
1 2 Derivative of the inner
3 function; write as a fraction.

2 12x 1 12
3 1x 2 1 x 1 12 ! 1x 2 1 x 1 12
5 3 Simplify denominator.
■

Example 5 The Power Rule and Chain Rule; Quotient as the Inner Function

Find the derivative of the function g 1 t 2 5 a b .

t22 9
2t 1 1
Solution
To find the derivative, we need to use the Power Rule, the Chain Rule, and the Quotient
Rule, in that order.

g9 1t2 5 9 a b a b
t22 8 d t22
Power Rule; Chain Rule.
dt 2t 1 1
t 2 2 8 12t 1 12 # 1 2 2 1t 2 22
2t 1 1

5 9a b
12t 1 12 2
Quotient Rule.

45 1t 2 22 8
2t 1 1

12t 1 12 10
5 Simplify.
■

Find the derivative of f 1x2 5 12x 1 12 5 1x 3 2 x 1 12 4.

Example 6 The Product Rule and the Chain Rule

To find f 9 1x2 , we need to use the Product Rule before we use the Chain Rule.
Solution
 Section 3.4 The Chain Rule 227

f 9 1 x 2 5 1 2x 1 1 2 5
1 x 2 x 1 1 2 4 1 (x3 2 x 1 1)4 1 2x 1 1 2 5
y d 3 d
Product Rule.
dx dx
5 12 x 1 12 5 # 4 1x 3 2 x 1 12 3 1x 3 2 x 1 12
f'
5 d
dx
1 (x 3 2 x 1 1)4 # 5 1 2x 1 1 2 4 1 2x 1 1 2
x
–1.5 –1.0 –0.5 0.5
d
–5 Chain Rule.
dx
5 4 12x 1 12 5 1x 3 2 x 1 12 3 13x 2 2 12 1 (x 3 2 x 1 1)4 # 5 12x 1 12 4 # 2
f
–10

5 2 12x 1 12 4 1x 3 2 x 1 12 3 117x 3 1 6x 2 2 9x 1 32
Figure 3.23
Factor and simplify, if desired.
Graphs of f and f 9.

rapidly and f 9 1x2 5 0 when the graph of f has a horizontal tangent line.
The graphs of f and f 9 are shown in Figure 3.23. Notice that f 9 is large when f increases
■

Find the derivative of f 1x2 5 esin x.

Example 7 Exponential Function and the Chain Rule

Solution
The outer function is the exponential function, e x, and the inner function is the sine
function, sin x.

f 9 1 x 2 5 esin x 1 sin x 2 5 esin x cos x

d
■
dx
We can also use the Chain Rule to differentiate any exponential function where the
base is b 7 0. Since the natural exponential function and the natural log function are
inverses, we have b 5 eln b. Therefore,

b x 5 1e ln b 2 x 5 e 1ln b2 x

Here is a more general rule for the Use the Chain Rule to find the derivative.
derivative of an exponential function

1 b 2 5 1 e 1ln b2 x 2 5 e 1ln b2 x 3 1 ln b 2 x 4
for which the Chain Rule is necessary: d x d d

1 e 2 5 eu
Chain Rule.
d u du dx dx dx
dx dx 5 e 1ln b2 x # ln b 5 b x ln b b is a constant.
Be careful. In this formula, x is in the
exponent. In the Power Rule, x is in This leads to the following general result.

1 b 2 5 b x ln b
the base:
1 x 2 5 nx n2 1
d n d x
(2)
dx dx
Consider the special case with b 5 2.

1 2 2 5 2 x ln 2
d x
(3)
dx
Earlier we found the following estimate.

1 2 2 5 1 0.693 2 2 x
d x
dx
This is consistent with the exact formula in Equation 3 because ln 2 ^ 0.693147.
228 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

cated composite functions, or longer chains. Suppose y 5 f 1u2 , u 5 g 1x2 , and x 5 h 1t2 ,
The reason for the name Chain Rule becomes clear when we consider more compli-

where f, g, and h are differentiable functions. In order to find the derivative of y with
respect to t, we use the Chain Rule twice.
dy dy dx dy du dx
5 5
dt dx dt du dx dt

Find the derivative of f 1x2 5 sin 1cos 1tan x2 2 .

Example 8 Use the Chain Rule Twice

Solution

f 9 1 x 2 5 cos 1 cos 1 tan x 2 2 3 cos 1 tan x 2 4

d
The outermost function is the sine.
dx

5 cos 1 cos 1 tan x 2 2 3 2sin 1 tan x 2 4 1 tan x 2

d
The next outer function is the cosine.
dx
5 2cos 1cos 1tan x2 2 sin 1tan x2 sec2 x The inner function is the tangent.
■

Find the derivative of f 1x2 5 esec 3x.

Example 9 Use the Chain Rule Twice; Exponential Function

Solution

f 9 1 x 2 5 esec 3x 1 sec 3x 2
d
Derivative of the exponential function.
dx

1 3x 2
d
5 esec 3x sec 3x tan 3x Derivative of the secant function.
dx
5 3esec 3x sec 3x tan 3x Derivative of 3x.
■

■ Tangents to Parametric Curves

by the parametric equations x 5 f 1t2 and y 5 g 1t2 . If f and g are differentiable functions
Suppose we want to find an equation of the tangent line at a point on the graph defined

and y is also a differentiable function of x, then we can use the Chain Rule to find the
derivative of y with respect to t.
dy dy
5 # dx
dt dx dt
If you think about a particle moving dx dy
dy dx If ? 0, we can solve for .
along a curve, then and are the dt dx
dt dt
vertical and horizontal velocities of the dy
particle. Equation 4 says that the slope dy dt dx
of the tangent line is the ratio of these 5 if ?0 (4)
dx dx dt
velocities.
dt
 Section 3.4 The Chain Rule 229

A Closer Look
1. You can remember Equation 4 if you think of canceling the dt’s.
dy
2. This equation enables us to find the slope of the tangent line at a point on the
dx
graph defined by parametric equations without having to eliminate the parameter t.

dy dx
3. The graph has a horizontal tangent line when 5 0, provided that ? 0.
dt dt
dx dy
The graph has a vertical tangent line when 5 0, provided that ? 0.
dt dt
This information is useful for sketching curves defined parametrically. ■

Example 10 Tangent Line to a Parametric Curve

Find an equation of the tangent line to the parametric curve
x 5 2 sin 2t y 5 2 sin t
at the point 1 !3, 12 . Find the points on the curve where the tangent line is horizontal
or vertical.

Solution
Find the slope at the point with parameter t.

1 2 sin t 2
dy dy > dt
d

dx dx > dt 2 1 cos 2t 2 1 2 2 2 cos 2t

dt 2 cos t cos t

1 2 sin 2t 2
5 5 5 5
d
dt
The point 1 !3, 12 corresponds to the parameter value t 5
p
y
.
6
The slope of the tangent line at that point is
!3
2

!3
p
cos
( 3, 1) dy 6 2
dx t5p>6
1 5 5 5 .
p 1 2
x
2 cos 2 #
–2 –1 1 2
3 2
An equation of the tangent line is
!3 !3
–1

1 x 2 !3 2
1
–2 y215 or y5 x2 .
2 2 2
Figure 3.24 shows a graph of the curve and the tangent line.
Figure 3.24
Graph of the curve and the tangent line. dy dy
The curve has a horizontal tangent line when 5 0, that is, when 5 cos t 5 0 and
dx dt
dx
5 2 cos 2t ? 0.
dt
Note that the entire curve is given by dy p 3p
5 2 cos t 5 0 1 t5 ,
0 # t # 2p. dt 2 2
230 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

dx dx
t5p > 2 t53p > 2
5 4 cos p 5 24 ? 0 and 5 2 cos 3p 5 24 ? 0
dt dt
Therefore, the curve has horizontal tangent lines at the points (0, 2) and 10, 222 , as
suggested by the graph in Figure 3.24.
dx dy
The curve has a vertical tangent line when 5 0 and ? 0.
dt dt
dx p 3p 5p 7p dy
5 4 cos 2t 5 0 1 t 5 , , , and 5 2 cos t ? 0 for these values of t.
dt 4 4 4 4 dt
The curve has vertical tangent lines at the four points ( {2, { !2 ) . ■

Recall, if y 5 f 1x2 and x changes from a to a 1 Dx, we define the increment of y as

■ Proving the Chain Rule

Dy 5 f 1a 1 Dx2 2 f 1a2
Using the definition of the derivative,

5 f 9 1a2
Dy
lim
Dx S 0 Dx

Let P denote the difference between the difference quotient and the derivative. Then

lim P 5 lim a 2 f 9 1a2 b 5 f 9 1a2 2 f 9 1a2 5 0

Dy
Dx S 0 Dx S 0 Dx
But

2 f 9 1a2 Dy 5 f 9 1 a 2 Dx 1 PD x
Dy
P5 1
Dx
If we define P to be 0 when Dx 5 0 , then P becomes a continuous function of Dx .
Thus, for a differentiable function f, we can write
Dy 5 f 9 1a2 Dx 1 P Dx where P S 0 as Dx S 0 (5)

This property of differentiable functions is what enables us to prove the Chain Rule.

Suppose u 5 g 1x2 is differentiable at a and y 5 f 1u2 is differentiable at b 5 g 1a2 . If Dx

Chain Rule Proof

is a change in x and Du and Dy are the corresponding changes in u and y, then we can
use Equation 5 to write
Du 5 g9 1a2 Dx 1 P1 Dx 5 3g9 1a2 1 P1 4 Dx (6)

where P1 S 0 as Dx S 0. Similarly,
Dy 5 f 9 1b2 Du 1 P2 Du 5 3 f 9 1b2 1 P2 4 Du (7)

where P2 S 0 as Du S 0.
Substitute the expression for Du from Equation 6 into Equation 7.
Dy 5 3 f 9 1b2 1 P2 43g9 1a2 1 P1 4 Dx
 Section 3.4 The Chain Rule 231

Divide both sides by Dx.

5 3 f 9 1 b 2 1 P2 43 g9 1 a 2 1 P1 4
Dy
Dx
As Dx S 0, Equation 6 shows that Du S 0. So both P1 S 0 and P2 S 0 as Dx S 0.
Therefore,

5 lim 3 f 9 1 b 2 1 P2 43 g9 1 a 2 1 P1 4
dy Dy
5 lim
dx Dx S 0 Dx Dx S 0
5 f 9 1b2g9 1a2 5 f 9 1g 1a2 2 g9 1a2 P1 S 0 and P2 S 0.

And this proves the Chain Rule! ■

3.4 Exercises

1r 2 2 12 3
u 5 g 1x2 , and the outer function, y 5 f 1u2 . Then find the 29. H 1 r 2 5 30. J 1 u 2 5 tan2 1nu 2
For the given composite function, identify the inner function,

dy 1 2r 1 1 2 5

31. F 1t2 5 e t sin 2t 32. F 1 t 2 5

derivative, .

!t 3 1 1
dx t2
1. y 5 !1
3
1 4x 2. y 5 12 x 3 1 52 4
4. y 5 sin 1cot x2 33. G 1x2 5 4c>x 34. U 1 y 2 5 a
y4 1 1
b
5

!2 2 e x
3. y 5 tan px
5. y 5 e!x
2
y 11
6. y 5
35. y 5 cos a b
2x
12e
36. y 5 x 2e 21>x

!1 1 xe 2 2x
Find the derivative of the function.
7. F 1x2 5 15x 6 1 2x 3 2 4 8. F 1x2 5 11 1 x 1 x 2 2 99
1 1 e2x
37. y 5 cot2 1sin u2 38. y 5

9. f 1x2 5 !5x 1 1 10. f 1 x 2 5 39. f 1t2 5 tan 1sec 1cos t22 40. y 5 esin 2x 1 sin 1 e2x 2
!x 2 1 !x 1 !x 1 !x
1

41. f 1 t 2 5 sin2 1 esin t 2

3 2

11. f 1 u 2 5 cos 1 u2 2 12. g 1 u 2 5 cos2 u

2
42. y 5
43. g 1x2 5 12r a 1 n2
14. f 1t2 5 t sin pt
4x
rx p
44. y 5 23
45. y 5 cos !sin 1tan px2 46. y 5 3 x 1 1 x 1 sin2 x 2 3 4 4
13. y 5 x2e23x
15. f 1t2 5 eat sin bt 16. g 1 x 2 5 e x
2
2x

17. f 1x2 5 12x 2 32 4 1x 2 1 x 1 12 5

Find y9 and y0.

18. g 1x2 5 1x 2 1 12 3 1x 2 1 22 6 47. y 5 cos 1sin 3u2

11 1 tan x2 2
1
48. y 5
19. h 1t2 5 1t 1 12 2>3 12 t 2 2 12 3
49. y 5 !1 2 sec t
20. F 1t2 5 13t 2 12 4 12t 1 12 23
x
50. y 5 ee
Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at the given
22. y 5 a x 1 b
Åx 1 1
x 1 5 point.
51. f 1x2 5 2x, 10, 12
21. y 5
x

tan u
24. f 1 t 2 5 2 t 3
52. f 1x2 5 !1 1 x 3, 12, 32
53. f 1x2 5 sin 1sin x2, 1p, 02
23. y 5 e

25. g 1 u 2 5 a b 26. s 1 t 2 5 54. f 1x2 5 x e 10, 02

Å 1 1 cos t
u3 2 1 8 1 1 sin t
2x 2
,
u3 1 1

27. r 1t2 5 102!t 28. f 1z2 5 ez>1z212 55. Let f 1 x 2 5

2
.
1 1 e 2x
232 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

(a) If F 1x2 5 f 1 f 1x22 , find F 9 122 .

(a) Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at 65. Let f and g be the functions in Exercise 64.

(b) If G 1x2 5 g 1g 1x22 , find G9 132 .

the point (0, 1).
(b) Graph f and the tangent line in the same viewing
rectangle.

56. The graph of f 1 x 2 5

66. The differentiable functions p and q are defined for all real

!2 2 x 2
uxu
is called a bullet-nose curve. numbers x. Values of p, p9, q, and q9 for various values of x
are given in the table.

p9 1x2 q9 1x2
(a) Find an equation of the tangent line to this curve at the
point (1, 1). x p (x) q (x)
(b) Graph f and the tangent line in the same viewing
4 10 8 4 2

57. Let f 1x2 5 x !2 2 x 2.

rectangle.
5 4 9 16 7

(a) Find f 9 1x2 . (a) If f 1 x 2 5 p 1 !q 1 x 2 2 , find f 9 152 .

q 1x2
(b) If h 1 x 2 5 , find h9 142 .
(b) Graph f and f 9 in the same viewing rectangle and explain
the relationship between the two graphs.
58. The function f 1x2 5 sin 1x 1 sin 2x2 , 0 # x # p, arises in
x

applications to frequency modulation (FM) synthesis. 67. The differentiable functions f and g are defined for all real
(a) Use technology to sketch the graph of f. Use the graph of numbers x. Values of f, f 9, g, and g9 for various values of x

(b) Find f 9 1x2 . Use technology to sketch the graph of f 9 and

f to sketch a graph of f 9. are given in the table.

compare your results with your sketch in part (a). Explain x f (x) f 9 1x2 g(x) g9 1x2
any differences. 2 23 1 5 22
59. Find all the points on the graph of the function 5 7 21

f 1x2
4 2

f 1x2 5 2 sin x 1 sin x

(a) If h 1 x 2 5 , find h9 122 .
g 1x2
2

(b) If h 1x2 5 f 1g 1x22 , find h9 122 .

at which the tangent line is horizontal.

(c) If h 1x2 5 !f 1x2 , find h9 152 .

60. Find the x-coordinates of all points on the curve
y 5 sin 2x 2 2 sin x at which the tangent line is horizontal.
61. Find the point on the graph of f 1x2 5 !1 1 2x such that the 68. The differentiable functions f and g are defined for all real
tangent line to the graph of f at that point is perpendicular to numbers x. Values of f, f 9, g, and g9 for various values of x
the line 6x 1 2y 5 1. are given in the table.
62. If F 1x2 5 f 1g 1x22 , where f 1212 5 8, f 9 1222 5 4,
f 9 1x2 g9 1x2
f 9 152 5 3, g 152 5 22, and g9 152 5 6, find F 9 152 .
x f (x) g(x)

63. If h 1x2 5 !4 1 3f 1x2 , where f 112 5 7 and f 9 112 5 4, find

4 6 1 25 25

h9 112 .
6
5 4 10 7 2

3 f 1x24
64. The differentiable functions f and g are defined for all real
If D 1 x 2 5 , find D9 142 .
2
numbers x. Values of f, f 9, g, and g9 for various values of x
are given in the table. x

f 9 1x2 g9 1x2
69. A particle moves along a line so that its position at time t
is given by s 1t2 5 cos t 2 cos2 t for 0 # t #
x f (x) g (x) 3p
. Find the
1 3 4 2 6 2
position of the particle when it changes direction from left to
2 1 5 8 7
right.
3 7 7 2 9

(a) If h 1x2 5 f 1g 1x22 , find h9 112 .

70. A particle moves along a line so that its position at time t, for

(b) If H 1x2 5 g 1 f 1x22 , find H9 112 .

2 # t # 6, is given by

3 sin a b
pt

s 1t2 5
2
t
Find the time t at which the particle is at rest.
 Section 3.4 The Chain Rule 233

f 1 x 2 5 !6x 2 1 3. Find the coordinates of the point of

71. The line y 5 2x 1 k is tangent to the graph of 78. The graph of the function f and the tangent line to the graph
of f at the point where x 5 3 are shown in the figure.

72. Let f 1 x 2 5 sin 1 p !x 2 1 3 2 . Find the slope of the line tangent

tangency. y

to the graph of f at the point where x 5 1. 4

73. If g 9 1x2 5 !2x 2 1 1 and y 5 g 1sec2 x2 , find the value of

dy 3
dx
p 2
when x 5 . f
4
1

f 112 5 2, f 9 112 5 1, g 112 5 21, and g9 112 5 0. If

74. Suppose f and g are differentiable functions such that
x
h 1x2 5 x 2 f 1x2 g 1x2 , find the value of h9 112 .
1 2 3 4 5 6

75. Let f 1x2 5 1ax 1 b2 n, where a, b ? 0 and n is a positive Let g 1x2 5 !f 1x2 . Find g9 132 .
integer. Find a general expression for f 1n2 1x2 in terms of a, b, 79. Use the table to estimate the value of h9 10.52 , where
and n. h 1x2 5 f 1g 1x22 .
76. The graphs of the functions f and g are shown in the figure.
y x 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
f (x) 12.6 14.8 18.4 23.0 25.9 27.5 29.1
5 g (x) 0.58 0.40 0.37 0.26 0.17 0.10 0.05
f

80. If g 1x2 5 f 1 f 1x22 , use the table to estimate the value of g9 112 .
4

2 x 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

g
1 f (x) 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.4 3.1 4.4

F 1x2 5 f 1xa 2 and G 1x2 5 3 f 1x24 a. Find an expression for each

1 2 3 4 5 6 81. Suppose f is differentiable on R and a is a real number. Let

Let u 1x2 5 f 1g 1x22 , v 1x2 5 g 1 f 1x22 , and w 1x2 5 g 1g 1x22 . Find

(a) F 9 1x2 (b) G9 1x2
derivative.

82. Suppose f is differentiable on R. Let F 1x2 5 f 1e x 2 and

each derivative, if it exists. If it does not exist, explain why.
(a) u9 112 (b) v9 112 (c) w9 112
G 1x2 5 e f 1x2. Find an expression for each derivative.
77. The graph of the function f is shown in the figure. (a) F 9 1x2 (b) G9 1x2
83. Let g 1x2 5 ecx 1 f 1x2 and h 1x2 5 ekxf 1x2 , where f 102 5 3,
y
f 9 102 5 5, and f 0 102 5 22.
4
(a) Find g9 102 and g0 102 in terms of c.
(b) Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of h at
3
the point where x 5 0, in terms of k.
84. Let r 1x2 5 f 1g 1h 1x222 , where h 112 5 2, g 122 5 3, h9 112 5 4,
f

g9 122 5 5, and f 9 132 5 6. Find r9 112 .

2

1
85. Suppose g is a twice differentiable function (the first

f 1x2 5 x g 1x 2 2 . Find f 0 in terms of g, g9, and g0.

x derivative g9 and the second derivative g0 exist) and
1 2 3 4 5

Let h 1x2 5 f 1 f 1x22 and g 1x2 5 f 1x 2 2 . Use the graph of f 86. Suppose F 1x2 5 f 13 f 14 f 1x222 , where f 102 5 0 and f 9 102 5 2.
Find F 9 102 .
(a) h9 122 (b) g9 122
to estimate the value of each derivative.
234 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

87. Suppose F 1x2 5 f 1x f 1x f 1x22 , where f 112 5 2, f 122 5 3,

f 9 112 5 4, f 9 122 5 5, and f 9 132 5 6. Find F 9 112 .
where s is measured in centimeters and t in seconds. Find
the velocity at t seconds and graph both the position and
88. Show that the function y 5 e2x 1A cos 3x 1 B sin 3x2 satisfies
velocity functions for 0 # t # 2.
the differential equation y0 2 4y9 1 13y 5 0. 98. Under certain circumstances a rumor spreads according to
rx the equation
89. Find the values of r such that the function y 5 e satisfies the
p 1t2 5
differential equation y0 2 4y9 1 y 5 0. 1
90. Find the 50th derivative of y 5 cos 2x. 1 1 ae2kt

91. Find the 1000th derivative of f 1x2 5 xe2x. where p(t) is the proportion of the population that has heard

92. The line tangent to the graph of f 1 x 2 5 e x , at the point where

2
the rumor at time t and a and k are positive constants.
(a) Find lim p(t).
x 5 1, forms a triangle in the fourth quadrant with the x- and tS `
(b) Find the rate of spread of the rumor at time t.
y-axes. Find the area of this triangle.
(c) Graph p for the case a 5 10, k 5 0.5, with t measured
93. The position of a particle on a vibrating string is given by the
equation s 1 t 2 5 10 1 sin 1 10pt 2 , where s is measured in
in hours. Use the graph to estimate the length of time
1 for 80% of the population to hear the rumor.
4
centimeters and t in seconds. Find the velocity of the particle 99. The average blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of eight
at t seconds. subjects was measured after consumption of 15 mL of
ethanol (corresponding to one alcoholic drink). The

s 1t2 5 A cos 1vt 1 d2 , the particle is said to undergo simple

94. If the equation of motion of a particle is given by resulting data were used to model the concentration function

harmonic motion. C 1t2 5 0.0225te20.0467t

(a) Find the velocity of the particle at time t.
where t is measured in minutes after consumption and C is
(b) When is the velocity 0?
measured in mg/mL.
95. A Cepheid variable star is a star whose brightness alternately (a) Find the rate of change of the BAC at time t 5 10
increases and decreases. The most easily visible such star minutes. Interpret your answer in the context of this
is Delta Cephei, for which the interval between times of problem.
maximum brightness is 5.4 days. The average brightness of (b) Find the rate of change of the BAC half an hour later.
this star is 4.0, and its brightness changes by {0.35. Interpret your answer in the context of this problem.
Using this information, the brightness of Delta Cephei at
100. In Chapter 1, we modeled the world population from 1900
time t, where t is measured in days, has been modeled by the
to 2020 with the exponential function
11.014712 t
function
#
B 1 t 2 5 4.0 1 0.35 sin a b
P(t) 5 1368.59
2pt
5.4 where t 5 0 corresponds to the year 1990 and P(t) is
measured in millions. Use this model to find the rate of
(a) Find the rate of change of the brightness at time t days. change in the world population in 1950, 1990, and 2020.
(b) Find the rate of change of brightness at time t 5 1 day

by s 1t2 , velocity at time t, v(t), and acceleration at time t,

and interpret your answer in the context of this 101. A particle moves along a line with position at time t given
problem.
a(t). Show that
a 1t2 5 v 1t2
96. In Chapter 1, we modeled the length of daylight (in hours) in dv
Philadelphia on the t th day of the year: ds

L 1 t 2 5 12 1 2.8 sin c 1 t 2 80 2 d
2p dv dv
365 Explain the meaning of the derivatives and in the
dt ds
context of this problem.
Use this model to compare the rate of change of daylight in
102. Air is being pumped into a spherical weather balloon. At
Philadelphia on March 21 and May 21.
any time t, the volume of the balloon is V(t) and its radius is
97. The motion of a spring that is subject to a frictional force or r(t).
a damping force (such as a shock absorber in a car) is often dV dV
modeled by the product of an exponential function and a sine (a) Interpret the derivatives and in the context of
dr dt
or cosine function. Suppose the equation of motion (position) this problem.
of a point on such a spring is dV dr
s 1t2 5 2e
(b) Express in terms of .
21.5t
sin 2pt dt dt
 Section 3.4 The Chain Rule 235

103. The flash unit on a camera operates by storing charge on a 109. x 5 10 2 t 2, y 5 t 3 2 12t
capacitor and releasing it suddenly when the flash is set off.
110. Show that the curve with parametric equations
y 5 sin 1t 1 sin t2
The data given in the table describe the charge Q remaining
on the capacitor (measured in microcoulombs, mC) at time t x 5 sin t
(measured in seconds).
has two tangent lines at the origin and find their equations.
t 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 Illustrate this result by graphing the curve and these tangent
Q 100.00 81.87 67.03 54.88 44.93 36.76 lines in the same viewing rectangle.

(a) Use technology to find an exponential model for the 111. The curve C is defined by the parametric equations x 5 t 2,
y 5 t 3 2 3t.
(b) The derivative Q9 1t2 represents the electric current
charge.
(a) Show that C has two tangents at the point (3, 0) and
(measured in microamperes, mA) flowing from the find their equations.
capacitor to the flash bulb. Use your answer in part (a) (b) Find the points on C where the tangent line is
to estimate the current when t 5 0.04 s. horizontal or vertical.
(c) Illustrate parts (a) and (b) by graphing C and the
104. The table gives the population of Texas in millions from tangent lines in the same viewing rectangle.
112. The cycloid x 5 r 1u 2 sin u2 , y 5 r 11 2 cos u2 was dis-
1900 to 2020.

Year Population Year Population cussed in Section 1.6.

(a) Find an equation of the tangent line to the cycloid at the
1900 3.05 1970 11.20
point where u 5 p>3.
1910 3.90 1980 14.23 (b) At what points is the tangent line to the cycloid
1920 4.66 1990 16.99 horizontal? Where is it vertical?
1930 5.82 2000 20.85 (c) Graph the cycloid and its tangent lines for the case r 5 1.

113. Let f 1 x 2 5
1940 6.41 2010 25.24

Åx4 1 x 1 1
x4 2 x 1 1
1950 7.71 2020 29.47 .
1960 9.58 (a) Use a CAS to find f 9 1x2 and simplify the result.
(b) Find the values of x where the graph of f has horizontal
(a) Use technology to fit an exponential function to the tangent lines.
data. Graph the data points and the exponential model. (c) Graph f and f 9 in the same viewing rectangle. Are these
Use this graph to explain whether this model provides a graphs consistent with your answer to part (b)? Explain
good fit to the data. any discrepancies.
(b) Use the table to estimate the rate of population growth
in 1950 and in 2000. 114. Use the Chain Rule to prove the following.
(c) Use the exponential model in part (a) to estimate the (a) The derivative of an even function is an odd function.
rates of growth in 1950 and in 2000. Compare these (b) The derivative of an odd function is an even function.
estimates with your answers in part (b). 115. Use the Chain Rule and the Product Rule to give an
(d) Use the exponential model to predict the population in alternative proof of the Quotient Rule.
f 1x2
5 f 1 x 23 g 1 x 24 21.
2021. Compare this answer to the actual population.

g 1x2
Try to explain the discrepancy.
Hint: Write

Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve at the point 116. Suppose n is a positive integer.
corresponding to the given value of the parameter. (a) Show that
1 sinn x cos nx 2 5 n sinn21 x cos 1 n 1 1 2x
d
105. x 5 t 4 1 1, y 5 t 3 1 t; t 5 21
dx
106. x 5 cos u 1 sin 2u, y 5 sin u 1 cos 2u; u50 (b) Find a formula for the derivative of y 5 cosn x cos nx
!t 2 that is similar to the one in part (a).
107. x 5 e , y 5 t 2 ln t ; t51

graph of y 5 f 1x2 always lies above the x-axis and never

117. Suppose the function f is differentiable everywhere, the
Find the points on the curve where the tangent line is horizontal or
vertical. Use technology to sketch the curve to check your answer. has a horizontal tangent. For what value of y is the rate
of change of y5 with respect to x eighty times the rate of
108. x 5 2t 3 1 3t 2 2 12t, y 5 2t 3 1 3t 2 1 1 change of y with respect to x?
236 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

118. Use the Chain Rule to show that if u is measured in degrees, (b) If f 1x2 5 u sin x u , find f 9 1x2 and sketch the graphs of f

(c) If g 1x2 5 sinu x u , find g9 1x2 and sketch the graphs of g

then and f 9. Where is f not differentiable?
1 sin u 2 5
d p
cos u
du 180 and g9. Where is g not differentiable?
This is one reason for the convention that radian measure is 120. If y 5 f 1u2 and u 5 g 1x2 , where f and g are twice differen-
always used when dealing with trigonometric functions in tiable functions (the first derivatives, f 9 and g9, and the sec-
calculus. The differentiation rules that we have developed ond derivatives, f 0 and g0, exist), show that

a b 1
are not true for degree measure.
d 2y d 2 y du 2 dy d 2u

function is u x u 5 !x 2.
119. Recall that an alternate definition for the absolute value 5
dx 2 du 2 dx du dx 2

(a) Use the Chain Rule to show that 121. If y 5 f 1u2 and u 5 g 1x2 , where f and g have third derivatives,

1uxu2 5
d x d 3y
find a formula for 3 similar to the one given in Exercise 120.
dx uxu dx

Laboratory Project Bézier Curves

Bézier curves are used in computer-aided design and, in general, computer graphics to construct
smooth curves. They are named after the French mathematician Pierre Bézier (1910–1999), who
worked in the automotive industry for Renault cars.
A cubic Bézier curve is determined by four control points, P0 1x0, y0 2 , P1 1x1, y1 2 , P2 1x2, y2 2 , and
P3 1x3, y3 2 , and is defined by the parametric equations
x 5 x0 11 2 t2 3 1 3x1t 11 2 t2 2 1 3x 2t 2 11 2 t2 1 x 3 t 3
y 5 y0 11 2 t2 3 1 3y1t 11 2 t2 2 1 3y2 t 2 11 2 t2 1 y 3 t 3
where 0 # t # 1. Notice that when t 5 0, 1x, y2 5 1x0, y0 2 , and when t 5 1, 1x, y2 5 1x3, y3 2 , so
the curve starts at P0 and ends at P3.
1. Use technology to graph the Bézier curve with control points P0 14, 12 , P1 128, 82 ,
P2 150, 422 , and P3 140, 52 . In the same viewing rectangle, graph the line segments P0 P1,
P1P2, and P2 P3. Notice that the middle control points, P1 and P2, do not lie on the curve,
the curve starts at P0, heads toward P1 and P2 without actually reaching them, and then
ends at P3.
2. The graph in Problem 1 suggests that the tangent line at P0 passes through P1 and the
tangent line at P3 passes through P2. Prove these results about the tangent lines.
3. Try to produce a Bézier curve with a loop by changing the second control point in
Problem 1.
4. Some laser printers use Bézier curves to represent letters and other symbols. Experiment
with control points until you find a Bézier curve that produces a reasonable representation
of the letter C.
5. More complicated shapes can be represented by joining two or more Bézier curves.
Suppose the first Bézier curve has control points P0, P1, P2, P3, and the second one has
control points P3, P4, P5, P6. If we want these two pieces to join together smoothly, then
the tangents at P3 should match. Therefore, the points P2, P3, and P4 all have to lie on this
common tangent line. Using this principle, find control points for a pair of Bézier curves
that represent the letter S.
 Section 3.5 Implicit Differentiation 237

Applied Project Where Should a Pilot Start Descent?

An approach path for an aircraft landing is shown in Figure 3.25 and satisfies the following
conditions:
(i) The cruising altitude is h when descent starts at a horizontal distance l from touchdown at
the origin.
(ii) The pilot must maintain a constant horizontal speed v throughout descent.
(iii) The absolute value of the vertical acceleration should not exceed a constant k (which is
much less than the acceleration due to gravity).

y = P(x)
h

Figure 3.25 x
The path of an airplane’s descent. l

1. Find a cubic polynomial P 1x2 5 ax 3 1 bx 2 1 cx 1 d that satisfies condition (i) by impos-

ing suitable conditions on P(x) and P9 1x2 at the start of descent and at touchdown.
2. Use conditions (ii) and (iii) to show that
6 hv 2
#k
l2
3. Suppose that an airline decides not to allow vertical acceleration of a plane to exceed
k 5 860 mi>h2. If the cruising altitude of a plane is 35,000 ft and the speed is 300 mi/h,
how far away from the airport should the pilot start descent?
4. Graph the approach path for the conditions stated in Problem 3.

3.5 Implicit Differentiation

In the functions we have been working with so far, the variable y has been expressed

y 5 !x 3 1 1
explicitly as a function of x. For example,
or y 5 x sin x
or, in general, y 5 f 1x2 . However, some functions are defined implicitly by an equation
involving the variables x and y, such as
x 2 1 y 2 5 25 (1)

or
x3 1 y3 5 6xy (2)
238 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

For example, if we solve Equation 1 for y, we get y 5 { !25 2 x 2. Therefore, there are
In some cases, it is possible to solve such an equation explicitly for y as a function of x.

f 1 x 2 5 !25 2 x 2 and g 1 x 2 5 2 !25 2 x 2 . The graphs of f and g are the upper and
actually two functions defined implicitly by the expression in Equation 1:

lower semicircles of the circle defined by x 2 1 y 2 5 25. See Figure 3.26.

y y y

5 5 5

x x x
–5 5 –5 5 –5 5

–5 –5 –5
y

f 1x2 5 !25 2 x g 1x2 5 2 !25 2 x 2

4 (a) Graph of the circle (b) Graph of (c) Graph of
x3 + y3 = 6xy
3 defined by x 2 1 y 2 5 25 2

2 Figure 3.26
1 The equation x 2 1 y 2 5 25 implicitly defines y as two functions of x.
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1
It’s not easy to solve Equation 2 for y explicitly as a function of x by hand. Here is an

1 2x 3 1 !232 x 3 1 x 6 2 1>3
–2
expression for y obtained using a computer algebra system.

2 # 21>3x
–3

1 2x 3 1 !232 x 3 1 x 6 2 1>3 21>3

–4
y5 1
Figure 3.27
Graph of the folium of Descartes. So it can be done, but it’s complicated. The graph of Equation 2 is called the folium of
Descartes and is shown in Figure 3.27.
Remember, a curve is the graph of a
function if it passes the Vertical Line There are actually three functions defined implicitly by Equation 2. The graphs of these
Test. three functions are shown in Figure 3.28.

y y y

4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
x x x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1 –1 –1
–2 –2 –2
–3 –3 –3
–4 –4 –4

Figure 3.28
Graphs of three functions defined by the folium of Descartes.
 Section 3.5 Implicit Differentiation 239

It is important to understand that when we say that f is a function defined implicitly by

Equation 2, we mean that the equation
x 3 1 3 f 1x2 4 3 5 6 x f 1x2
is true for all values of x in the domain of f.
Fortunately, we do not need to solve an equation for y in terms of x in order to find the
derivative of y. Instead, we can use the method of implicit differentiation. This method
consists of differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x and then solving
the resulting equation for y9.

(1) Let y 5 f 1x2 , that is, consider y as a function of x.

Procedure for Implicit Differentiation

(2) Differentiate implicitly: differentiate both sides of the equation with respect
to x. Since y is a function of x, use the Chain Rule to find the derivative of an
expression involving y.
dy
(3) Solve for ; this expression may be in terms of both x and y.
dx

In the examples and exercises of this section, we assume that the given equation deter-
mines y implicitly as a differentiable function of x so that the method of implicit differ-
entiation can be used.

Example 1 Finding a Tangent Line Implicitly

dy
(a) If x 2 1 y 2 5 25, find .
dx
(b) Find an equation of the tangent line to the circle x 2 1 y 2 5 25 at the point (3, 4).
Solution
(a) Use the implicit differentiation procedure.

1x 1 y 22 5 1 25 2
d 2 d
Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x.
dx dx

1x 2 1 1y 2 5 0
d 2 d 2
Derivative of a sum; derivative of a constant.
dx dx
dy
2 x 1 2y 50 y is a function of x; use the Chain Rule.
dx
dy x dy
52 Solve for .
dx y dx

When using implicit differentiation (b) At the point (3, 4): x 5 3 and y 5 4.
to find the derivative at a point, we
The slope of the tangent line is

`
almost always need both the x- and
y-coordinates. dy 3
1x, y2 5 13, 42
52 .
dx 4
An equation of the tangent line to the circle at (3, 4) is

y 2 4 5 2 1x 2 32
3 3 25
or y52 x1 .
4 4 4
240 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

Here is an alternate solution to this problem.

Solve for y in terms of x in the equation x 2 1 y 2 5 25 1 y 5 { !25 2 x 2.

The point (3, 4) lies on the upper semicircle, y 5 !25 2 x 2.

Therefore, we use the function f 1 x 2 5 !25 2 x 2.

This example shows that even when Find the derivative f 9 1x2 .

f 9 1 x 2 5 1 25 2 x 2 2 21>2 1 25 2 x 2 2
it is possible to solve an equation
explicitly for y in terms of x, it may be 1 d
Chain Rule.
easier to use implicit differentiation. 2 dx

5 1 25 2 x 2 2 21>2 1 22 x 2 5 2
!25 2 x 2
1 x Derivative of the inner
y
2 function; simplify.
5 (3, 4)
The slope of the tangent line is

f 9 132 5 2
!25 2 3
3 3
52 .
4
2

Therefore, we obtain the same equation for the tangent line, y 2 4 5 2 1 x 2 3 2 .

x
–5 5 3
4
Figure 3.29 shows a graph of the circle and the tangent line. ■

–5
dy x
Note: The expression 5 2 in Example 1 gives the derivative in terms of both
dx y
x and y. It is correct for every function y that is implicitly defined by the equation (a
Figure 3.29
remarkable result).

!25 2 x 2,
Graph of the circle and the tangent

For example, if y 5 f 1x2 5

line.

!25 2 x 2
dy x x
52 52 ,

and for y 5 g 1x2 5 2 !25 2 x 2,

dx y

2 !25 2 x !25 2 x 2
dy x x x
52 52 5 .
dx y 2

Example 2 Implicit Differentiation and the Folium of Descartes

(a) Find y9 if x 3 1 y 3 5 6 x y.
(b) Find an equation of the tangent line to the folium of Descartes at the point (3, 3).
(c) Find the point in the first quadrant at which the tangent line to the folium of
Descartes is horizontal.
Solution
Note: Here we are using the symbol (a) Use the implicit differentiation procedure.

1x 3 1 y 32 5 16 x y2
y9 to represent the derivative of y with
respect to x. d d
Differentiate both sides with respect to x.
dx dx
3 x 2 1 3y 2 y 9 5 6 x y 9 1 6y 112 Chain Rule; Product Rule.
 Section 3.5 Implicit Differentiation 241

y x 2 1 y 2 y9 5 2 x y9 1 2y Divide both sides by 3.

4
y 2 y9 2 2 x y9 5 2y 2 x 2 Isolate terms involving y9.

1 y 2 2 2 x2 y 9 5 2y 2 x 2
(3, 3)
3
2 Factor out y9.
1
2y 2 x 2
x y9 5 Solve for y9; divide both sides by y 2 2 2 x.
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 y2 2 2x
–1
–2 (b) Find the slope of the tangent line at the point (3, 3).
–3 2 # 3 2 32
y9 5 5 21
–4 32 2 2 # 3

y 2 3 5 21 1x 2 32
An equation of the tangent line is
Figure 3.30
The folium of Descartes and the or y 5 2x 1 6.
tangent line to the graph at the
point (3, 3).
Figure 3.30 shows the graphs of the folium of Descartes and the tangent line.
(c) The tangent line is horizontal if y9 5 0.

2y 2 x 2 5 0 1 y 5 x 2 1 provided y 2 2 2 x ? 0 2
2y 2 x 2 1
y9 5 2
5 0 1
y 2 2x 2
Substitute into the original equation to obtain one equation in one unknown.

x3 1 a x2b 5 6x a x2b
3
1 1 1 2
Use the expression y 5 x .
2 2 2
1 6
x3 1 x 5 3x 3 Expand; simplify.
8
Collect terms on one side;
x 6 2 16 x 3 5 0
x 3 1x 3 2 162 5 0
y clear fractions: multiply both sides by 8.
Factor.
4
(24/3, 25/3) 3 3
3 x 5 0 or x 2 16 5 0 Principle of Zero Products.
2 x3 5 0 1 x50 However, x ? 0 in the first quadrant.

x 5 161>3 5 2 4>3 and y 5 1 28>3 2 5 25>3

1
1
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
x x 3 2 16 5 0 1
2
Therefore, the tangent line is horizontal at the point 12 4>3, 2 5>3 2 ^ 12.520, 3.1752 . See
–1
–2
–3 Figure 3.31. ■
–4

Find y9 if sin 1x 1 y2 5 y 2 cos x.

Example 3 Implicit Differentiation Involving Trigonometric Functions
Figure 3.31
The folium of Descartes and the
Solution
horizontal tangent line to the graph
in the first quadrant. Differentiate implicitly with respect to x.
Remember, we consider y as a function of x.

cos 1x 1 y2 # 11 1 y 9 2 5 y 2 1 2 sin x2 1 (cos x) 12 y y 9 2 Chain Rule; Product Rule.

242 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

cos 1x 1 y2 # y 9 2 12 y cos x2 # y 9 5 2 y 2 sin x 2 cos 1x 1 y2 Collect terms that involve y9.

2 y 2 sin x 2 cos 1x 1 y2
y

cos 1x 1 y2 2 2 y cos x
2
y9 5 Solve for y9.

Figure 3.32 shows part of the graph defined by sin 1x 1 y2 5 y 2 cos x . Notice
1
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1 that y9 5 21 when x 5 y 5 0 and it also appears from the graph that the slope is
approximately 21 at the origin. ■
–2
Figures 3.33–3.35 show three curves defined by complex equations. You will have the
Figure 3.32 opportunity to create and examine some unusual curves like these in the exercises.

sin 1x 1 y2 5 y 2 cos x.
A portion of the graph defined by

y y
y
10
5
2 5

x x
x –10 –5 5 10 –5 5
–4 –2 2 4
–5
–2 –5
–10

1x 2 2 12 1x 2 2 42 1x 2 2 92 5 y 2 1y 2 2 42 1y 2 2 92 cos 1x 2 sin y2 5 sin 1y 2 sin x2 sin 1x y2 5 sin x 1 sin y

Figure 3.33 Figure 3.34 Figure 3.35

Example 4 Finding a Second Derivative Implicitly

Find y0 if x 4 1 y 4 5 16.
Solution
Differentiate the equation implicitly with respect to x, and solve for y9.
4 x 3 1 4 y 3y9 5 0
x3
y9 5 2
y3
To find y0, differentiate this expression using the Quotient Rule.
Remember, y is a function of x.

1x 2 2 x 3 1y 32
d 3 d

a2 3 b 5 2
y3

1 y 32 2
d x3 dx dx
y0 5 Quotient Rule.
dx
y 3 # 3x 2 2 x 3 13y 2 y 9 2
y

52 Chain Rule.
y6

3x 2 y 3 2 3x 3y 2 a 2 b
x3
y3
52 Use the expression for y9.
y6
 Section 3.5 Implicit Differentiation 243

y 3 1x 2 y 4 1 x 6 2 3x 2 1 y 4 1 x 4 2
x4 + y4 = 16 52 52 Simplify.
y7 y7
3x 2 1162
2
x2
1 52 7 5 248 Use the original equation x 4 1 y 4 5 16.
y y7

x
Figure 3.36 shows the graph of the equation x 4 1 y 4 5 16. Notice that it is a stretched
–2 –1 1 2 and flattened version of the circle defined by x 2 1 y 2 5 16. Therefore, this graph is
often called a fat circle. The graph is very steep on the far left and far right but quite flat
–1 in between. This characteristic is supported by the expression

a b .
–2
x3 x 3
y9 5 2 5 2
y3 y
Figure 3.36
For small values of y, this expression is large in absolute value. For small values of x,
Graph of a fat circle.
this expression is close to 0. ■

3.5 Exercises

For each expression, 24. cos 1x y2 1 sin y 5 x y 25. 2 x e x 1 2y e y 5 4

(a) Find y9 by implicit differentiation. 26. If f 1x2 1 x 2 3 f 1x24 3 5 10 and f 112 5 2, find f 9 112 .
(b) Solve the equation explicitly for y and differentiate to get y9 27. If g 1x2 1 x sin g 1x2 5 x 2, find g9 102 .
in terms of x.
Assume y is the independent variable and x is the dependent
(c) Check that your solutions to parts (a) and (b) are consistent. dx
Substitute the expression for y into your solution for part (a) variable and use implicit differentiation to find .
dy
and simplify if necessary. 28. x 4 y 2 2 x 3 y 1 2 x y 3 5 0
1. 9x 2 2 y 2 5 1 2. 2 x 2 1 x 1 x y 5 1
3. !x 1 !y 5 1 4. cos x 1 !y 5 5
29. y sec x 5 x tan y

Use implicit differentiation to find an equation of the tangent line

5. Find the slope of the tangent line to y 2 1 x 5 5 at the point to the curve at the given point.
where y 5 2. 30. x 2 y 1 2 x 5 15, 13, 12

a , b
6. Find the slope of the tangent line to the circle with equation p p
x 2 1 y 2 5 a 2, where a ? 0. 31. y sin 2 x 5 x cos 2y,

32. sin 1x 1 y2 5 2 x 2 2 y, 1p, p2

2 4
7. Find y0 if x 2 2 y 2 5 25.

33. x 2 2 xy 2 y 2 5 1, 12, 12
12, 12
dy
Find by implicit differentiation. 2 2
dx 34. x 1 2 x y 1 4 y 5 12,

35. x 2 1 y 2 5 1 2 x 2 1 2 y 2 2 x 2 2, a 0, b 1 cardioid 2
2 2 2 2
8. x 2 4 x y 1 y 5 4 9. 2 x 1 x y 2 y 5 2 1
4 2 2
10. x 1 x y 1 y 5 5 3 3
11. x 2 x y 1 y 5 12 3 2
y
x2
12. 5 y2 1 1 13. x e y 5 x 2 y

15. cos 1x y2 5 1 1 sin y

x1y
0.5
14. y cos x 5 x 2 1 y 2
16. !x 1 y 5 x 4 1 y 4
!x 2 1 y 2
17. e y sin x 5 x 1 x y
x
18. e x>y 5 x 2 y 19. xy 5 –0.5 0.5 1.0

20. y sin 1x 2 2 5 x sin 1 y 2 2 21. x sin y 1 y sin x 5 1

22. sin 1x y2 5 cos 1x 1 y2 23. tan 1 x 2 y 2 5

–0.5
y
1 1 x2
244 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

36. x 2>3 1 y 2>3 5 4, 123 !3, 12 1astroid2 43. Find the coordinates of the point on the curve

12, 12 .
x 2 1 x y 1 y 2 5 7 where the slope is the same as at the point
y
8 dy
44. Consider the equation e y 5 sin x. Find .

5 !25 2 y , find the value of 2 at the point where

dx
4 dy 2
d 2y
45. If
dx dx
y 5 3.
x
–8 –4 4 8 46. The graph of the equation y 2 5 5x 4 2 x 2 is called a kampyle
of Eudoxus.

point 11, 22 .
–4 (a) Find an equation of the tangent line to this graph at the

(b) Illustrate your solution to part (a) by sketching the graph

–8 and the tangent line in the same viewing rectangle.
37. 2 1x 2 1 y 2 2 2 5 25 1x 2 2 y 2 2, 13, 12 (lemniscate) 47. The graph of the equation y 2 5 x 3 1 3x 2 is called the
y Tschirnhausen cubic.

point 11,222 .
(a) Find an equation of the tangent line to this graph at the
1
(b) At what points does this graph have horizontal tangents?
x (c) Illustrate parts (a) and (b) by graphing the curve and the
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1 tangent lines in the same viewing rectangle.

38. y 1y 2 42 5 x 1x 2 52, 10, 222

Find y0 by implicit differentiation.
2 2 2 2
(devil’s curve) 48. x 2 1 4y 2 5 4 49. x 2 1 x y 1 y 2 5 3
y
50. sin y 1 cos x 5 1 51. x 3 2 y 3 5 7
3
52. If x y 1 e y 5 e, find the value of y0 at the point where x 5 0.
2 53. If x 2 1 x y 1 y 3 5 1, find the value of y- at the point where

54. Consider the equation y 1 y 2 2 12 1 y 2 22 5 x 1x 2 12 1x 2 22 .

x 5 1.
1

x (a) Sketch a graph of this equation. At how many points

–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 does this graph have horizontal tangents? Estimate the
–1 x-coordinates of these points?
(b) Find equations of the tangent lines to the graph at the
–2 points (0, 1) and (0, 2).
(c) Find the exact x-coordinates of the points in part (a).
–3
55. Consider the equation 2y 3 1 y 2 2 y 5 5 x 4 2 2 x 3 1 x 2.
(a) The graph of this equation has been referred to as a

39. Consider the equation tan 1x y2 5 x. Find

bouncing wagon. Sketch a graph of this equation and
dy
. explain why.
dx (b) At how many points does this graph have horizontal
40. Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of tangent lines? Find the x-coordinates of these points.
x 2 2 3x y 1 y 2 5 220 at the point (6, 4), or explain why no dy
56. (a) If x 2 1 y 2 5 16, find .
such tangent line exists. dx
41. Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of dy
(b) If x 2 1 y 2 5 25, find .
x 2 2 12 x 3 y 1 y 3 5 215 at the point (1, 2), or explain why dx
no such tangent line exists. (c) Compare the derivatives in parts (a) and (b). Make a
conjecture about the derivative for any equation for a
42. Find the slope of the normal line to the curve
circle.
3x 1 x y 1 y 2 5 9 at the point where y 5 2.
 Section 3.5 Implicit Differentiation 245

57. Find the points on the lemniscate in Exercise 37 where the 69. The van der Waals equation for n moles of a gas is

aP 1 b 1 V 2 nb 2 5 nRT
tangent line is horizontal.
n 2a
58. Use implicit differentiation to show that the tangent line to V2
the ellipse
where P is the pressure, V is the volume, and T is the tem-
x2 y2
1 51 perature of the gas. The constant R is the universal gas con-

at the point 1x0, y0 2 is

a2 b2 stant and a and b are positive constants that are characteristic
of a particular gas.
x 0x y 0 y (a) If T remains constant, use implicit differentiation to find
1 2 51 dV
a2 b .
59. Find an equation of the tangent line to the hyperbola dP
(b) Find the rate of change of volume with respect to
x2 y2 pressure of 1 mole of carbon dioxide at a volume
2 51

at the point 1x0, y0 2 .

a2 b2 of V 5 10 L and a pressure of P 5 2.5 atm. Use
a 5 3.592 L2 atm>mole2 and b 5 0.04267 L/mole.

line to the graph of !x 1 !y 5 !c is equal to c.

60. Show that the sum of the x- and y-intercepts of any tangent 70. Consider the equation x 2 1 x y 1 y 2 1 1 5 0.
(a) Use implicit differentiation to find y9.
(b) Sketch the graph of this equation. What do you see? Try
61. Use implicit differentiation to show that any tangent line to prove that what you see is correct.
at a point P to a circle with center O is perpendicular to the
radius OP. 71. The equation x 2 2 x y 1 y 2 5 3 represents a rotated ellipse,
that is, an ellipse whose axes are not parallel to the coordinate
62. The Power Rule can be proved using implicit differentiation axes. Find the points at which this ellipse crosses the x-axis
p
for the case where n is a rational number, n 5 , and and show that the tangent lines at these points are parallel.
y 5 f 1x2 5 x n is assumed to be a differentiable function. If
q
72. Consider the equation of the rotated ellipse x 2 2 x y 1 y 2 5 3.

121, 12 intersect the ellipse a second time?

(a) Where does the normal line to this ellipse at the point
y 5 x p>q, then y q 5 x p. Use implicit differentiation to show
that
p 1 p > q2 2 1 (b) Graph the ellipse and the normal line in the same viewing
y9 5 x rectangle.
q
73. Find all points on the graph of the equation x 2 y2 1 x y 5 2
Two curves are orthogonal if their tangent lines are perpendicu- where the slope of the tangent line is 21.
lar at each point of intersection. Show that the given families of
curves are orthogonal trajectories of each other; that is, every 74. Find equations of both tangent lines to the ellipse
x 2 1 4y 2 5 36 that pass through the point (12, 3).
75. The Bessel function of order 0, y 5 J 1x2 , satisfies the
curve in one family is orthogonal to every curve in the other fam-
ily. Sketch both families of curves on the same coordinate axes.

and its value at 0 is J 102 5 1.

63. x 2 1 y 2 5 r 2, a x 1 b y 5 0 differential equation x y0 1 y9 1 x y 5 0 for all values of x,

(a) Find J9 102 .

64. x 2 1 y 2 5 a x, x 2 1 y 2 5 b y
65. y 5 cx 2, x 2 1 2y 2 5 k (b) Use implicit differentiation to find J0 102 .
66. y 5 ax 3, x 2 1 3y 2 5 b 76. The figure shows a lamp located three units to the right

x 2 1 4y 2 # 5. If the point 125, 02 is on the edge of the

of the y-axis and a shadow created by the elliptical region
x2 y2
67. Show that the ellipse 2 1 2 5 1 and the hyperbola shadow, how far above the x-axis is the lamp located?
y2 a b
x2 y
2 5 1 are orthogonal trajectories if A2 6 a 2 and
A2 B 2
a 2 2 b 2 5 A2 1 B 2 (so the ellipse and the hyperbola have the
same foci).
?

curves y 5 1x 1 c2 21 and y 5 a 1x 1 k2 1>3 are orthogonal

68. Find the value of the number a such that the families of x
–5 3
trajectories as defined in Exercises 63–66. x2 + 4y2 = 5
246 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

3.6 Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Their Derivatives

Recall from Section 1.5 that the only functions that have inverse functions are one-
to-one functions. The six basic trigonometric functions do not have inverse functions
because they are not one-to-one; each graph fails the Horizontal Line Test. However,
if we restrict the domains, these new functions are one-to-one and, therefore, have
inverses.

function, y 5 sin x, is not one-to-one. However, the new function, f 1x2 5 sin x,
Figure 3.37 shows graphically, using the Horizontal Line Test, that the sine

2p>2 # x # p>2, is one-to-one (see Figure 3.38). The inverse function of this
restricted sine function f exists and is denoted by sin 21 or arcsin. It is called
the inverse sine function or arcsine function.

y y
1 y = sin x
1

x x
–2 –  2 – 2 
2

–1 –1

Figure 3.37 Figure 3.38 p p

The graph of y 5 sin x is not one-to-one. The graph of y 5 sin x, 2 # x # .
2 2

Apply the definition of an inverse function to obtain

1 p p
Note: sin21 x ? . sin21 x 5 y 3 sin y 5 x and 2 # y #
sin x 2 2
Therefore, if 21 # x # 1, then sin21 x is a number (angle) between 2p>2 and p>2
whose sine is x.

Example 1 Inverse Trigonometric Evaluations

Evaluate (a) sin 21 a b and (b) tan a arcsin b .

1 1
2 3
Solution

(a) sin 21 a b 5 because sin a b 5 and lies between 2 and .

1 p p 1 p p p
2 6 6 2 6 2 2
1 1
(b) Let u 5 arcsin , therefore, sin u 5 .
3 3 3
1
Draw a right triangle with angle u as in Figure 3.39.
The third side has length !9 2 1 5 2!2.

The Pythagorean Theorem.

tan a arcsin b 5 tan u 5

2 2

2 !2
1 opp 1
Figure 3.39 5 Read from the triangle.
Right triangle with angle u. 3 adj ■
 Section 3.6 Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Their Derivatives 247

y The cancellation equations associated with sine and arcsine are

sin 21 1 sin x 2 5 x for 2 # x #

p p

sin 1sin21 x 2 5 x for 2 1 # x # 1


2 2 2

x The inverse sine function, sin 21 , has domain 321, 14 and range 32p>2, p>24 . The
–1 1 graph of the inverse sine function is shown in Figure 3.40. This graph may be obtained
by reflecting the graph of the restricted sine function across the line y 5 x.

– 2 We can use implicit differentiation to find the derivative of the inverse sine function,
assuming that it is differentiable. The differentiability certainly seems reasonable from
the graph in Figure 3.40.
Figure 3.40
Graph of y 5 sin21 x 5 arcsin x. Let y 5 sin21 x. Then sin y 5 x and 2p>2 # y # p>2. Differentiate the expression
Remember, cos y could be positive or sin y 5 x implicitly with respect to x.
negative but is positive here because of dy dy 1
the range of y 5 sin21 x. cos y 5 1 or 5
dx dx cos y
The same method can be used to find p p

cos y 5 !1 2 sin2 y 5 !1 2 x 2
an expression for the derivative of any Since 2 # y # , then cos y $ 0, and
2 2
inverse function.

Therefore,

dx cos y !1 2 x 2
dy 1 1
5 5

and

1 sin21 x 2 5
!1 2 x 2
d 1
21 6 x 6 1 (1)
dx

Example 2 Derivative of an Inverse Trigonometric Function

If f 1 x 2 5 sin 21 1 x 2 2 12 , find (a) the domain of f, (b) f 9 1x2 , and (c) the domain of f 9.

(a) Since the domain of the inverse sine function is 321, 14 , the domain of f is
Solution

5 x u 2 1 # x 2 2 1 # 16 5 5 x u 0 # x 2 # 26
5 5x u u x u # !26 5 3 2 !2, !24
y
f'

(b) Use Equation 1 and the Chain Rule to find f 9 1x2 .

2
f

f 9 1x2 5 1x 2 12
x

!1 2 1x 2 12 dx
–1 1 1 d 2
–2 Equation 1; Chain Rule.
2 2

!1 2 1x 2 2x 1 12 !2x 2 2 x 4
1 2x Derivative of the inner function;
Figure 3.41 5 2x 5
4 2 simplify.

(c) Since the denominator of f 9 1x2 cannot equal 0, the domain of f 9 is

Graphs of f and f 9.

5x u 2 1 6 x 2 2 1 6 16 5 5x u 0 6 x 2 6 26
5 5x u 0 6 u x u 6 !26 5 1 2 !2, 02 h 10, !22
248 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

The graphs of f and f 9 are shown in Figure 3.41. Notice that f is not differentiable at 0;
there is a sharp edge, or corner, in the graph at the point where x 5 0. This is consistent
with the fact that the graph of f 9 makes a sudden jump at x 5 0. ■

restricted cosine function f 1x2 5 cos x, 0 # x # p, is one-to-one (see Figure 3.42)

We can find the derivative of the inverse cosine function in a similar manner. The

and so it has an inverse function denoted by cos 21 or arccos.

cos 21 x 5 y 3 cos y 5 x and 0 # y # p
The inverse cosine function, cos , has domain 321, 14 and range 30, p4 and is a contin-
21

uous function whose graph is shown in Figure 3.43. Its derivative is given by

1 cos21 x 2 5 2
!1 2 x 2
d 1
21 6 x 6 1 (2)
dx

y y


1

x 
 2
2 
–1
x
–1 1

Figure 3.42 Figure 3.43

Graph of y 5 cos x, 0 # x # p. Graph of y 5 cos21 x 5 arccos x.

y Equation 2 can be proved using the same methods as for Equation 1, and is left as an
exercise.
4

12p>2, p>22 . Therefore, the inverse tangent function is defined as the inverse of the
The tangent function can be made one-to-one by restricting the domain to the interval

function f 1x2 5 tan x , 2p>2 6 x 6 p>2, as shown in Figure 3.44. It is denoted by

2

x tan 21 or arctan.

– 2 2
p p
–2 tan21 x 5 y 3 tan y 5 x and 2 6 y 6
2 2
–4

Simplify the expression cos 1tan21 x2 .

Example 3 Simplification
Figure 3.44
Graph of the restricted tangent
p p Solution 1
function, y 5 tan x, 2 6 x 6 . p p
2 2 Let y 5 tan21 x, then tan y 5 x and 2 6 y 6 .
2 2
We need cos y, but since tan y is known, find sec y first.
sec 2 y 5 1 1 tan 2 y 5 1 1 x 2 Trigonometric identity.

sec y 5 !1 1 x 2 sec y 7 0 for 2p>2 6 y 6 p>2.

cos 1 tan21 x 2 5 cos y 5

!1 1 x 2
1 1
5 Definition of cosine.
sec y
 Section 3.6 Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Their Derivatives 249

Solution 2
If y 5 tan21 x, then tan y 5 x.
1 + x2 Draw a right triangle with angle y as in Figure 3.45.
x
Find the remaining side using the Pythagorean Theorem, and read the solution from the
y
triangle.

cos 1 tan21 x 2 5 cos y 5

1

hyp !1 1 x 2
adj 1
Figure 3.45 5 ■
Right triangle with angle y.
The inverse tangent function has domain R and range 12p>2, p>22 . The graph is
shown in Figure 3.46.
We know that
y

x S 1p>22 2 x S 2 1p>22 1
lim tan x 5 ` and lim tan x 5 2 `

2

and so the lines x 5 p>2 and x 5 2p>2 are vertical asymptotes of the graph of
–4 –2 2 4
x y 5 tan x . Since the graph of y 5 tan21 x is obtained by reflecting the graph of the
restricted tangent function across the line y 5 x, it follows that the lines y 5 p>2 and
– 2 y 5 2p>2 are horizontal asymptotes of the graph of y 5 tan21 x. This fact is expressed
by the following limits:
Figure 3.46
Graph of the inverse tangent function, p p
lim tan21 x 5 lim tan21 x 5 2 (3)
y 5 tan 21 x 5 arctan x. xS ` 2 x S 2` 2

Example 4 Limit Involving the Inverse Tangent

Evaluate lim1 arctan a b.

1
xS2 x22
Solution
1
Let t 5 . Then as x S 2 1 , t S `.
x22
Use the first limit in Equation 3.

lim1 arctan a b 5 lim arctan t 5

1 p
■
xS2 x22 tS ` 2
The formula for the derivative of the arctangent function is derived in a way that is sim-
ilar to the method we used for arcsine. If y 5 tan 21 x, then tan y 5 x. Differentiate this
later equation implicitly with respect to x:
dy
sec2 y 51
dx
dy 1 1 1
and so 5 5 5
dx sec2 y 1 1 tan2 y 1 1 x 2

1 tan 21 x 2 5
d 1
(4)
dx 1 1 x2
250 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

Example 5 Derivatives Involving the Inverse Tangent Function

and (b) f 1x2 5 x arctan!x.

1
Differentiate (a) y 5
tan 21 x
Solution

5 1 tan21x 2 21 5 2 1 tan21 x 2 22 1 tan21 x 2

dy d d
(a) Power Rule; Chain Rule.
dx dx dx

1tan 21 x2 2 11 1 x 2 2
1
52 Derivative of tan 21 x; simplify.

(b) f 9 1 x 2 5 x ° ¢ a x 21>2 b 1 arctan !x # 1

1 1 1 !x 2 2
1 1
Product Rule; Chain Rule.
2

!x
1 arctan !x
2 11 1 x2
5 Simplify.
■

The inverse sine, cosine, and tangent functions discussed in this section occur most fre-
quently in applications. The differentiation formulas for the remaining inverse trigono-
metric functions are shown below and on Reference Page 5.
And include the remaining three formulas here. They should fit at the bottom of this
page, on a single line. (They are numbers 22 - 24.)

3.6 Exercises

Find the exact value of each expression.

!3
Graph the collection of functions on the same coordinate axes.

1. (a) sin 21 a b (b) cos 21 1 2 12

Explain how these graphs are related.
2 p p
# x # ; y 5 sin 21 x; y 5 x
2. (a) tan 21 a b
13. y 5 sin x, 2

!3
1 2 2
(b) sec 21 2 p p
14. y 5 tan x, 2 6 x 6 ; y 5 tan21 x; y 5 x

(b) sin 21 a b
2 2

!2 1 cos 21 x 2 5 2
1

!1 2 x 2
3. (a) arctan 1 d 1
15. Prove that using the same
dx
4. (a) tan 21 a tan b (b) cos a arcsin b
3p 1 method as for Equation 1.
4 2

5. tan a sin 21 a b b 6. csc a arccos b

p
2 3 16. (a) Prove that sin 21 x 1 cos 21 x 5 .
2

7. sin 12 tan 21 !22 8. cos 1tan 21 2 1 tan 21 32

3 5
(b) Use part (a) to prove Equation 2.

!1 2 x 2
Find the derivative of the function. Simplify where possible.

9. Prove that cos 1 sin 2 1 x 2 5 17. y 5 1tan 21 x2 2 18. y 5 tan 21 1x 2 2

19. y 5 sin 21 12x 1 12 20. F 1u2 5 arcsin!sin u
21. G 1x2 5 !1 2 x arccos x 22. y 5 cos21 1e 2 x 2
Simplify each expression.
10. tan 1sin 21 x 2
23. y 5 tan 2 1 1 x 2 !1 1 x 2 2
2

11. sin 1tan 21 x 2 24. y 5 arctan 1cos u2

12. sin 12 arccos x2
 Section 3.7 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions 251

25. y 5 cos 21 1sin 21 t2 26. y 5 arcsin a b

1

!1 2 x 2
t 41. (a) Suppose f is a one-to-one differentiable function and its
inverse function f 21 is also differentiable. Use implicit
Å1 1 x
12x
27. y 5 x sin 2 1 x 1 28. y 5 arctan differentiation to show that

29. y 5 arccos a b, 1f 2 9 1x2 5

f91 f 1x22
b 1 a cos x 1
0 # x # p, a 7 b 7 0 21
a 1 b cos x 21

Find the derivative of the function. Find the domain of the provided that the denominator is not 0.
(b) If f 142 5 5 and f 9 1 4 2 5 , find 1 f 21 2 9 152 .
function and its derivative.
30. f 1x2 5 arcsin 1e x 2 31. g 1x2 5 cos 21 13 2 2x2
2
3
42. The function f 1x2 5 2x 1 cos x is one-to-one.
1xy2 5 1 1 x y. 112 .
1x>42 1 !16 2 x , find g9 122 .
21 2 21
32. Find y9 if tan (a) Find f
33. If g 1x2 5 x sin 21 2
(b) Use the formula from Exercise 41(a) to find 1 f 21
2 9 112 .

y 5 3 arccos(x/2) at the point 11, p2 .

34. Find an equation of the line tangent to the curve 43. Use the formula from Exercise 41(a) to prove

Find f 9 1x2 . Graph f and f 9 in the same viewing rectangle and

(a) Equation 1 (b) Equation 4
44. (a) Sketch the graph of the function f 1x2 5 sin 1sin 21 x2 .
(b) Sketch the graph of the function g 1x2 5 sin 21 1sin x2 ,
!1 2 x 2 arcsin x
explain the relationship between the two graphs.
35. f 1x2 5 36. f 1x2 5 arctan 1x 2 2 x2 x [ R.
(c) Show that g 9 1 x 2 5
cos x
.
u cos x u
(d) Sketch the graph of h 1x2 5 cos 21 1sin x2 , x [ R, and find
Find the limit.
38. lim arccos a b
1 1 x2
37. lim 1 sin 21 x
1 1 2x 2
39. lim arctan 1e x 2 40. lim1 tan 21 1ln x2
x S 21 xS ` its derivative.

xS ` xS0

3.7 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions

It seems reasonable that logarithmic functions are differentiable – think about their
graphs. In fact, it can be proved that they are differentiable and implicit differentiation
can be used to find the derivatives of the logarithmic function y 5 log b x and the natural
logarithmic function y 5 ln x.
The general differentiation rule for the logarithmic function is

1 loga x 2 5
d 1
(1)
dx x ln a
Proof
Let y 5 loga x, then a y 5 x.
1 a x 2 5 a x ln a .
d
Recall: Differentiate this expression implicitly with respect to x.
dx

a y 1 ln a 2
dy
51 Derivative of an exponential function; Chain Rule.
dx
dy 1 1 dy
5 5 Solve for .
dx a y ln a x ln a dx
■
252 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

If we let a 5 e in Equation 1, then ln a 5 ln e 5 1. This leads to the derivative of the

natural logarithmic function, loge x 5 ln x.

1 ln x 2 5
d 1
(2)
dx x
Equations 1 and 2 suggest one of the reasons that natural logarithms (logarithms with
base e) are used in calculus: the log differentiation rule is simplest (most natural) when
a 5 e because ln e 5 1.

Differentiate y 5 ln 1x 3 1 12 .
Example 1 Derivative of a Natural Logarithmic Function

Solution
Use the Chain Rule: let y 5 ln u and u 5 x 3 1 1.
dy dy du 1 du
5 5 Derivative of logarithmic function; Chain Rule.
dx du dx u dx

1 2
1 2 3x 2
5 3x 5 Use u 5 x 3 1 1; simplify.
x3 1 1 x3 1 1 ■

Example 1 suggests that we can combine Equation 2 and the Chain Rule to obtain the

g9 1x2
following, more general, rules.

1 ln u 2 5 3 ln g 1 x 2 4 5
g 1x2
d 1 du d
or (3)
dx u dx dx

Example 2 Chain Rule Application

3 ln 1 sin x 2 4 .
d
Find
dx
Solution
The argument of the natural log is a function of x: use Equation 3.

3 ln 1 sin x 2 4 5 1 sin x 2 5
d 1 # d 1
cos x 5 cot x ■
dx sin x dx sin x

Let f 1x2 5 ! ln x. Find f 9 1x2 .

Example 3 A Logarithm as the Inner Function

Solution
Use the Chain Rule: notice that the logarithm is the inner function.
Rewrite the original function: f 1x2 5 1ln x2 1>2.

f 9 1 x 2 5 1 ln x 2 21>2 1 ln x 2 5
2 !ln x 2x !ln x
1 # d 1 # 15 1
■
2 dx x
 Section 3.7 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions 253

Let f 1x2 5 log10 12 1 sin x2 . Find f 9 1x2 .

Example 4 Derivative of a Common Logarithm

Solution
Use Equation 1 with a 5 10.

f 9 1x2 5 3 log10 1 2 1 sin x 2 4

d
dx
# d 1 2 1 sin x 2
12 1 sin x2 ln 10 dx
1
5 Equation 1; Chain Rule.

12 1 sin x2 ln 10
cos x
5 Derivative of the inner function.
■

Example 5 Simplify Before Differentiating

Let f 1 x 2 5 ln . Find f 9 1x2 .

!x 2 2
x11

Solution 1

f 9 1x2 5 c d
dx !x 2 2
1 # d x11

a b
Equation 1; Chain Rule.

!x 2 2
x11

!x 2 2 # !x 2 2 1 2 1 x 1 1 2 2 1 x 2 2 2
y # #1 2 1>2
Simplify fraction;
f
5
x11 x22 Quotient Rule.

x 2 2 2 1x 1 12
2
1
1

1x 1 12 1x 2 22
x 2
2 4 6 8 5 Multiply fractions.
–1

2 1x 1 12 1x 2 22
f' x25
–2 5 Simplify.

Figure 3.47

check of our calculation. Notice that f 9 1x2 is large negative when the graph of f is
Graphs of f and f 9. Notice the relation- Figure 3.47 shows the graphs of the functions f and f 9. This provides a cursory visual

decreasing very quickly. In addition, f 9 1x2 is close to 0 as the graph of f flattens out.
ship between the two graphs. Can you
find the domain of f and f 9?

Solution 2
Another way to find the derivative in this problem is to use the Laws of Logarithms
first to write the function as a difference of two logarithms.

c ln d 5 c ln 1 x 1 1 2 2 ln 1 x 2 2 2 d
!x 2 2
d x11 d 1
Laws of Logarithms.
dx dx 2

2 a b
1 1 1
5 Derivative of each term.
x11 2 x22
The derivative can be left in this form. However, if we combined terms using a
common denominator, we would obtain the same answer as in Solution 1. ■
254 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

Let f 1x2 5 lnu x u . Find f 9 1x2 .

Example 6 An Important Result Involving the Natural Logarithm

Solution
Before we can differentiate, we need to find an equivalent expression for f without the
absolute value notation. Use the definition of the absolute value function to write f as a
piecewise defined function. Note that x 5 0 is not in the domain of f.

f (x) 5 e
ln x if x 7 0
ln (2x) if x 6 0
y To find the derivative of f, we consider each piece, or branch, of f.
3
2 f' 1
if x 7 0
f 1 x
x
f 9 (x) 5 d
1 1
–3 –2 –1
–1
1 2 3 (21) 5 if x 6 0
2x x
–2

Therefore, f 9 1 x 2 5
–3 1
for all x ? 0.
Figure 3.48 x
Graphs of f and f 9. Notice the relation- Figure 3.48 shows the graphs of f and f 9. For x close to 0, the graph of f is steep and
ship between the two graphs. therefore, as x S 0 1 , f 9 (x) S ` , and as x S 0 2 , f 9 (x) S 2 ` . ■

This important result will be used throughout the rest of this text.
d 1
lnu x u 5 (4)
dx x

■ Logarithmic Differentiation
In order to find the derivative of a complicated function involving products, quotients,
and/or powers, we often simplify first by taking logarithms. The method used in the next
example is called logarithmic differentiation.

x 3>4 !x 2 1 1
Example 7 Logarithmic Differentiation

13x 1 22 5
Differentiate y 5 .

Solution
Take the (natural) logarithm of both sides of the equation, and use the Laws of
Logarithms to simplify the right side.

ln y 5 ln x 1 ln 1 x 2 1 1 2 2 5 ln 1 3x 1 2 2
3 1
4 2
Differentiate both sides with respect to x.
1 dy 3 # 111 # 2x # 3
5 25
y dx 4 x 2 2
x 11 3x 1 2
dy
Solve for .
dx
 Section 3.7 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions 255

5 ya 1 2 b
dy 3 x 15
2
dx 4x x 1 1 3x 1 2
Use the explicit expression for y to obtain a final answer in terms of x.

dy x 3>4 !x 2 1 1 3
a 1 2 b
13x 1 22
x 15
5 5
2
dx 4x x 11 3x 12

Note: To find the derivative without using logarithmic differentiation, we would have
to use the Quotient Rule and the Product Rule. The calculations using this method are a
little longer. ■

Here is the procedure for logarithmic differentiation.

Procedure for in Logarithmic Differentiation

(1) Given y 5 f 1x2 , we want to find y 9 5 .

dy

(2) Take the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation: ln y 5 ln f 1x2 .
dx

Use the Laws of Logarithms to simplify ln f (x).

(3) Differentiate implicitly with respect to x.
(4) Solve for y9. Then replace y by the given, original expression f (x).

Note: If f 1x2 6 0 for some values of x, then ln f (x) is not defined. However, we can
write u y u 5 u f 1x 2 u and use the result in Example 6; the logarithmic differentiation
procedure is the same. We use this procedure in the proof of the general version of the
Power Rule.
Using this procedure, we can now prove and use the Power Rule for any real number in
the exponent.

If n is any real number and f 1x2 5 x n, then

The Power Rule

f 9 1x2 5 n x n 21

If x 5 0, we can show that f 9 102 5 0 Proof

for n 7 1 directly from the definition Let y 5 x n and use logarithmic differentiation.
of a derivative.
ln u y u 5 lnu x u n 5 n ln u x u , x ? 0 Natural logarithm of both sides; Laws of Logarithms.

y9 n
5 Implicit differentiation, on both sides with respect to x.
y x
y xn
y9 5 n 5 n 5 n x n21 Solve for y9; use the expression for y.
x x
■

A Closer Look

1 x n 2 5 n x n 2 1, where the base is

d
Be careful to distinguish between the Power Rule
dx
the variable and the exponent is a constant, and the rule for differentiating exponential
functions 1 a x 2 5 a x ln a, where the base is constant and the exponent is the variable.
d
dx
256 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

There are four cases for exponents and bases.

1 a 2 5 0 1 a and b are constants 2

d b
1. Constant base, constant exponent.
dx

13 2 5 0
d p
Example:
dx

3 f 1 x 2 4 b 5 b 3 f 1 x 2 4 b 21 f 9 1 x 2
d
2. Variable base, constant exponent.
dx

1 x 3 1 sin x 2 7 5 7 1 x 3 1 sin x 2 6 1 3x 2 1 cos x 2

d
Example:
dx

3 a 4 5 a g 1x2 1 ln a 2 g9 1 x 2
d g 1x 2
3. Constant base, variable exponent.
dx

Example: 2sin x 5 2sin x 1 ln 2 2 cos x

d
dx

3 f 1 x 2 4 g 1x2 (use logarithmic differentiation)

d
4. Variable base, variable exponent.

Example: y 5 1sin x2 x
dx

ln y 5 x ln(sin x)
y9
5x # cos x 1 ln 1 sin x 2 # 1
y sin x
y9 5 1sin x2 x 1x cot x 1 ln 1sin x2 2 ■

Example 8 Variable Base, Variable Exponent

Differentiate y 5 x!x.
Solution 1
The base and the exponent both contain variables. Therefore, use logarithmic
differentiation.
ln y 5 ln 1 x!x 2 5 !x ln x Natural logarithm of both sides; Laws of Logarithms.

5 !x
y9
# 1 1 ln x # 1 Implicit differentiation with respect to x;
y x 2!x Chain Rule; Product Rule.

y9 5 y a b 5 x !x a b
!x 2!x
1 ln x 2 1 ln x
y 1 Solve for y9; simplify.
2!x
2
Solution 2
1 f An alternate solution method starts by rewriting the original expression.
x x!x 5 1 e ln x 2 !x 5 e!x ln x

1 x 2 5 1 e!x ln x 2 5 e!x ln x 1 !x ln x 2
1 2
–1 f' d !x d d Derivative of an exponential function;
dx dx dx Chain Rule.
Graphs of y 5 f 1 x 2 5 x!x and
Figure 3.49

y 5 f 9 1x2 . The graph of f is very 5 x !x a b 5 x !x a b

!x 2!x
1 ln x 2 1 ln x
1 Product Rule; simplify.
2!x
Figure 3.49 shows graphs of f 1 x 2 5 x!x and its derivative.
steep near 0 and therefore as x S 0 1 ,
f 9 (x) S 2 ` . ■
 Section 3.7 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions 257

■ The Number e as a Limit

We have seen that if f 1x2 5 ln x, then f 9 1 x 2 5 and therefore f 9 112 5 1. We can use
1
x
these facts to produce a definition of the number e involving a limit.
Use the definition of the derivative to write f 9 112 .
f 11 1 h2 2 f 112 f 11 1 x2 2 f 112
f 9 1 1 2 5 lim
Definition of derivative;
5 lim change variables.

ln 11 1 x2 2 ln 1
hS0 h xS0 x

5 lim ln 1 1 1 x 2 Use f 1x2 5 ln x, ln 1 5 0.

1
5 lim
x xS0 x

5 lim ln 1 1 1 x 2 1>x
xS0

Properties of logarithms.

Because f 9 112 5 1, we know the value of this limit.

xS0

lim ln 1 1 1 x 2 1>x 5 1
xS0

Since the (natural) exponential function is continuous,

5 lim eln11 1x2 5 lim 1 1 1 x 2 1>x

lim ln (1 1 x)1/x 1>x
e 5 e1 5 e x S 0
xS0 xS0

This is the limit definition of e

e 5 lim 1 1 1 x 2 1>x (5)

Figure 3.50 is a graph of the function y 5 11 1 x2 1>x, and Table 3.2 presents values of
xS0

this function for x close to 0. Both confirm that e ^ 2.7182818.

x 11 1 x2 1>x y
0.1 2.59374246
0.01 2.70481383 4
0.001 2.71692393 3
0.0001 2.71814593 y = (1 + x)1/x
2
0.00001 2.71826824
0.000001 2.71828047 1
0.0000001 2.71828169 x
0.00000001 2.71828180 –1 1 2 3

Graph of y 5 11 1 x2 1>x.
Table 3.2 Figure 3.50
Table of values for x close to 0.

1
If we let n 5 in Equation 5, then n S ` as x S 0 1 . This leads to an alternate limit
x
expression for e.

e 5 lim a 1 1 b
1 n
(6)
nS ` n
258 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

3.7 Exercises

Find the domain of f and the derivative f 9 1x2 .

1. Explain why the natural logarithm function, y 5 ln x, is used

46. f 1 x 2 5 47. f 1x2 5 !2 1 ln x

more frequently in calculus than other logarithmic functions,

1 2 ln 1 x 2 1 2
y 5 loga x. x

48. f 1x2 5 ln 1x 2 2 2x2 49. f 1x2 5 ln 1ln 1ln x22

Differentiate the function.

2. f 1x2 5 x ln x 2 x 3. f 1 x 2 5 2
ln x
x 50. If f 1x2 5 ln 1x 1 ln x2 , find f 9 112 .
4. f 1x2 5 sin 1ln x2 5. f 1x2 5 ln 1sin x2 2
51. If f 1x2 5 cos 1ln x 2 2 , find f 9 112 .
6. f 1 x 2 5 ln 7. g 1 x 2 5
1 1
Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of the function at

8. f 1x2 5 log10 11 1 cos x2 9. f 1x2 5 log10 !x

x ln x the given point.
52. f 1x2 5 ln 1x 2 2 3x 1 12 ,
10. g 1x2 5 ln 1x e 2 11. g 1t2 5 !1 1 ln t
(3, 0)
53. f 1x2 5 x ln x,
!x 2 2 12
22x

12. F 1t2 5 1ln t2 2 sin t 13. h 1x2 5 ln 1x 1 54. f 1 x 2 5 ln 1 xe 2 , (1, 1)

2
(1, 0)

12y 1 12 5
x2

14. G 1 y 2 5 ln 15. P 1 v 2 5 55. If f 1x2 5 sin x 1 ln x, find f 9 1x2 . Graph f and f 9 in the same
!y 2 1 1
ln v
12v
16. F 1s2 5 ln 1ln s2
viewing rectangle and check that your answer is reasonable
17. y 5 lnu 1 1 t 2 t 3 u
18. T 1z2 5 2z log2 z 19. y 5 ln 1csc x 2 cot x2
by explaining the relationship between the graphs.
56. Find an equation of the tangent lines to the graph of

20. y 5 ln 1e 2x 1 x e 2x 2 21. H 1 z 2 5 ln f 1x2 5 at the point (1, 0) and at the point a e, b . Graph
ln x 1
Åa2 1 z2
2 2
a 2z
x e

22. y 5 tan3ln 1ax 1 b24 23. y 5 log2 1x log5 x2

f and the tangent lines in the same viewing rectangle.

57. A line tangent to the graph of f 1x2 5 2 ln x has y-intercept 4.

24. f 1x2 5 2 25. f 1x2 5 3 xx 3
27. g 1x2 5 e 2 x ln !x 2 1 4
sin 2x

26. y 5 3ln 11 1 e x 24 2
Find the slope of this line.

58. Let f 1 x 2 5
1
. For 0 6 x 6 1, find the point on the graph
x ln x
Use logarithmic differentiation to find the derivative of the of f at which the tangent line is horizontal.
function.
28. y 5 1x 2 1 22 2 1x 4 1 42 4 59. Let g 1 x 2 5
e 2x cos2 x ln x
29. y 5 2 . Find the points on the graph of g at which
x 1x11

!x e x
x

1x 1 12 2>3
Å x4 1 1
x21 the tangent line is horizontal.

1ln x2 2
2
2x
30. y 5 31. y 5

32. y 5 x x 33. y 5 x cos x 60. Let g 1 x 2 5 . Find the points on the graph of g at which

35. y 5 1 !x2 x
x
the tangent line is horizontal.
34. y 5 x sin x
36. y 5 1cos x2 x 37. y 5 1sin x2 ln x 61. Let f 1x2 5 cx 1 ln 1cos x2 . Find the value of c such that
38. y 5 1tan x2 1>x 39. y 5 1ln x2 cos x f 9 a b 5 6.
p
4
Find y9 and y0. 62. Let f 1x2 5 log a 13x 2 2 . Find the value of a such that f 9 112 5 3.
40. y 5 x 2 ln 12x2
ln x

t given by s 1t2 5 ln 11 1 t 2 2 for t $ 0. Find the position of the

41. y 5 2 63. A particle moves along a horizontal line with position at time
x

42. y 5 !x ln x
ln x particle at the first time the acceleration is zero.
43. y 5

45. y 5 ln 11 1 ln x2
1 1 ln x
44. y 5 lnu sec x u
 Section 3.7 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions 259

1 x ln x 2 .
64. A particle moves along a horizontal line with position at time d9 8
t given by s 1 t 2 5 1 ln t for t 7 0. Find the value of t at
1 68. Find
dx 9
t

ln 11 1 x2
which the acceleration of the particle is zero. 69. Use the definition of the derivative to prove that

65. Find y9 if y 5 ln 1x 2 1 y 2 2 .
lim 51
xS0 x

66. Find y9 if x y 5 y x. 70. Show that for any x 7 0,

67. Find a general formula for f 1n2 1x2 if f 1x2 5 ln 1x 2 12 . lim a 1 1 b 5 e x

x n
nS ` n

Discovery Project Hyperbolic Functions

Certain combinations of the exponential functions e x and e 2x arise so frequently in mathematics
and applications that they are given special names. This project explores the properties of
the hyperbolic functions: the hyperbolic sine, hyperbolic cosine, hyperbolic tangent, and
hyperbolic secant functions, defined as follows:
e x 2 e2x e x 1 e2x
sinh x 5 cosh x 5
2 2
sinh x 1
tanh x 5 sech x 5
cosh x cosh x
The reason for these function names is that they are related to the hyperbola in much the same
way that trigonometric functions are related to the circle.
1 x 1
1. (a) Without using technology, sketch the graphs of the functions y 5 e and y 5 e 2 x on
2 2
the same coordinate axes, and then use these graphs to draw the graph of y 5 cosh x.
(b) Check the accuracy of your sketch in part (a) by using technology to graph y 5 cosh x.
What are the domain and range of this function?
2. One of the most common applications of the hyperbolic functions is the use of the hyper-
bolic cosine to describe the shape of a hanging wire. It can be proved that if a heavy flex-

at the same height, then it takes the shape of a curve with equation y 5 a cosh 1x>a2 . This
ible cable (for example, a power line or cable TV line) is suspended between two points

of the family of functions y 5 a cosh 1x>a2 . Explain how the graph changes as a varies.
curve is called a catenary. The Latin word catena means “chain.” Graph several members

3. Graph the functions y 5 sinh x and y 5 tanh x. Using their graphs, which of the functions
y 5 sinh x, y 5 cosh x, and y 5 tanh x are even? Which are odd? Use the definitions of
even and odd functions to prove your assertions.
4. Prove the identity cosh2 x 2 sinh2 x 5 1.
5. Prove the identity sinh 1x 1 y2 5 sinh x cosh y 1 cosh x sinh y.
6. The identities in Problems 4 and 5 are similar to well-known trigonometric identities. Try
to discover some other hyperbolic identities by using known trigonometric identities as
motivation.
260 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

7. The differentiation formulas for the hyperbolic functions are analogous to those for the
trigonometric functions, but the signs are sometimes different.
(a) Show that 1 sinh x 2 5 cosh x.
d
dx
(b) Find formulas for the derivatives of y 5 cosh x and y 5 tanh x.
8. (a) Explain why y 5 sinh x is a one-to-one function.
(b) Find a formula for the derivative of the inverse hyperbolic sine function y 5 sinh 21 x.

(c) Show that sinh 21 x 5 ln 1x 1 !x 2 1 12 .

Hint: Consider the method used to find the derivative of y 5 sin 21 x.

(d) Use the result in part (c) to find the derivative of y 5 sinh 21 x. Compare this result
with your answer in part (b).
9. (a) Explain why y 5 tanh x is a one-to-one function.
(b) Find a formula for the derivative of the inverse hyperbolic tangent function
y 5 tanh 21 x.

ln a b.
1 11x
(c) Show that tanh 21 x 5
2 12x
(d) Use the result in part (c) to find the derivative of y 5 tanh 21 x. Compare this result
with your answer in part (b).
10. Find the point on the graph of y 5 cosh x where the tangent line has slope 1.

3.8 Rates of Change in the Natural and Social Sciences

We have learned that if y 5 f 1x2 , then the derivative,
dy
, can be interpreted as the rate of
dx
change of y with respect to x. In this section, we will apply this interpretation to many
different areas of study.
Recall the basic concept of a rate of change: if x changes from x1 to x2, then the change
in x is
Dx 5 x2 2 x1
and the corresponding change in y is
Dy 5 f 1x2 2 2 f 1x1 2

D y f 1x2 2 2 f 1x1 2
The difference quotient

5
Dx x2 2 x1
is the average rate of change of y with respect to x over the interval 3x1, x2 4 .
The difference quotient can be interpreted as the slope of the secant line PQ as in
Figure 3.51.
 Section 3.8 Rates of Change in the Natural and Social Sciences 261

y Q(x2, f(x2)) The limit of the average rate of change, as Dx S 0, is the derivative f 9 1x1 2 , which can

of the tangent line to the graph of f at the point P 1x1, f 1x1 2 2 . Using Leibniz notation, we
be interpreted as the instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x or the slope
f (x2)
P(x1, f(x1))
Dy = f (x2) – f (x1)
write this limit as
f(x1)
Dx = x2 – x1 dy Dy
5 lim
x dx Dx S 0 Dx
If the function y 5 f 1x2 has a specific interpretation, then its derivative f 9 1x2 also has
x1 x2

Figure 3.51

m 5 f 9 1x1 2 5 instantaneous rate of

mPQ 5 average rate of change. a specific interpretation as a rate of change in the context of the problem. Recall that
dy
the units for are the units for y divided by the units for x. Let’s consider several real-
change of f at P. dx
world applications involving rates of change.

■ Physics
Ds
If s(t) is the position function of a particle moving along a line, then represents the
Dt ds
average velocity of the particle over a time interval of length Dt . The function v 5
dt
represents the instantaneous velocity of the particle, the rate of change of position with

acceleration: a 1t2 5 v9 1t2 5 s0 1t2 . These formulas and notation were introduced earlier.
respect to time. The instantaneous rate of change of velocity with respect to time is

However, using the many differentiation rules we have learned, we are now able to solve
a wider variety of problems involving particle motion.

Example 1 Analyzing the Motion of a Particle

s 1t2 5 t 3 2 6t 2 1 9t, where t is measured in seconds and s in meters.

A particle moves along a straight line. For t $ 0, the position of the particle is given by

(a) Find the velocity at any time t.

(b) Find the velocity at time t 5 2 and t 5 4.
(c) Find all times t when the particle is at rest.
(d) When is the particle moving in the positive direction?
(e) Draw a diagram to represent the motion of the particle.
(f) Find the total distance traveled by the particle over the time interval [0, 5].
(g) Graph the position, velocity and acceleration functions for 0 # t # 5.
(h) When is the particle speeding up? When is it slowing down?
Solution
(a) The velocity function is the derivative of the position function.

v 1t2 5
ds
5 3t 2 2 12 t 1 9
dt
The units are meters divided by seconds, or meters/second.
(b) Use the general expression v(t) to find the (instantaneous) velocity at t 5 2 and
t 5 4.
v(2) 5 3(2)2 2 12(2) 1 9 5 2 3 m>s
v(4) 5 3(4)2 2 12(4) 1 9 5 9 m>s
262 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

(c) The particle is at rest when the velocity is 0.

v 1 t 2 5 3t 2 2 12t 1 9
3 1t 2 12 1t 2 32 5 0 Factor completely.
t 2 1 5 0 or t 2 3 5 0 Principle of Zero Products.
t 5 1 or t 5 3 Solve each equation.

The particle is at rest at times t 5 1 s and t 5 3 s.

(d) The particle moves in the positive direction when v 1t2 7 0, that is, when
3t 2 2 12t 1 9 5 3 1 t 2 12 1 t 2 32 7 0.
This inequality is true when both factors are positive (t 7 3) or when both factors
are negative (t 6 1). Therefore, the particle is moving in the positive direction
t=3 when 0 # t 6 1 and when t 7 3. It moves in the negative direction when
s=0
1 6 t 6 3.
We can also use a sign chart to visualize the motion of the particle.
s
t=0 t=1 + 0 – 0 + v(t)
s=0 s=4 0 1 3 t
Figure 3.52
A diagram to represent the motion of (e) Use the function s and the information about the velocity to sketch the motion of
the particle. the particle as in Figure 3.52. Remember that the particle is moving back and forth
along the straight line (the s-axis).
Common Error (f ) The results in parts (d) and (e) indicate that we need to calculate the distance trav-
Total distance traveled is the same as eled during the time intervals [0, 1], [1, 3], and [3, 5] separately.
displacement. The distance traveled in the first second is
Correct Method
The total distance traveled by a u s(1) 2 s(0) u 5 u 4 2 0 u 5 4 m
particle is a scalar quantity and is the
From t 5 1 to t 5 3, the distance traveled is
total ground covered by the particle
over a time interval. The displacement u s(3) 2 s(1) u 5 u 0 2 4 u 5 4 m
of a particle is a vector quantity that
indicates the change in position of the From t 5 3 to t 5 5, the distance traveled is
particle over a time interval – by how
much and in which direction. u s(5) 2 s(3) u 5 u 20 2 0 u 5 20 m

The total distance traveled is 4 1 4 1 20 5 28 m.

20 (g) The acceleration is the derivative of the velocity function.

10 v a d 2s dv
s a(t) 5 5 5 6t 2 12
dt 2 dt
The units for acceleration are meters > second divided by seconds, or m>s2.
t
1 2 3 4
–10
a(4) 5 6(4) 2 12 5 12 m>s2
Figure 3.53
Graphs of s, v, and a. (h) Figure 3.53 shows the graphs of s, v, and a.
 Section 3.8 Rates of Change in the Natural and Social Sciences 263

Speed (i) The speed of the particle is the absolute value of the velocity. That is, u v 1t2 u is the
speed at time t. Figure 3.54 shows a graph of u v u .
20
Using Figure 3.54, the particle is slowing down when 0 # t 6 1 and when
2 6 t 6 3. The particle speeds up when 1 6 t 6 2 and when t 7 3.
10
v Alternatively, the particle is speeding up when the velocity is positive and
increasing (v and a are both positive) and when the velocity is negative and
t decreasing (v and a are both negative).
1 2 3 4
Figure 3.54 In other words, the particle speeds up when the velocity and acceleration have the
Graph of u v u , the speed of the particle. same sign. The velocity is pushed in the same direction the particle is moving.
Using Figure 3.53, the particle speeds up when 1 6 t 6 2 and when t 7 3.
The particle slows down when v and a have opposite signs – when 0 # t 6 1 and
when 2 6 t 6 3. Figure 3.55 summarizes the motion of the particle.

20

10 a
v
s
t
1 2 3 4

–10

forward backward forward

1 2 3 4

slows speeds slows speeds

down up down up
Figure 3.55 v>0 v<0 v<0 v>0
Summary of the motion of the particle. a<0 a<0 a>0 a>0 ■

Example 2 Linear Density

uniform and is defined as the mass per unit length 1r 5 m>l2 and is measured in
If the mass of a rod or a piece of wire is homogeneous, then its linear density is

kilograms per meter.

left end to a point x, is m 5 f 1x2 , as shown in Figure 3.56.

Suppose, however, that the rod is not homogeneous and its mass, measured from the

Figure 3.56 x1 x2
A nonhomogeneous rod. This part of the rod has mass f (x).

The mass of the rod that lies between x 5 x1 and x 5 x2 is given by

Dm 5 f 1x2 2 2 f 1x1 2 .

D m f 1x2 2 2 f 1x1 2
The average density of that part of the rod is

average density 5 5 .
Dx x2 2 x1
264 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

As Dx S 0, or equivalently, as x2 S x1, we can compute the average density over

smaller and smaller intervals.
The linear density r at x1 is the limit of these average densities as Dx S 0.
That is, the linear density is the rate of change of mass with respect to length:
Dm dm
r 5 lim 5
Dx S 0 Dx dx
Therefore, the linear density of the rod is the derivative of mass with respect to length.
For example, if m 5 f 1x2 5 !x, where x is measured in meters and m in kilograms,
then the average density of the part of the rod given by 1 # x # 1.2 is
D m f 11.22 2 f 112 !1.2 2 1
5 5 5 0.477 kg > m
Dx 1.2 2 1 0.2
The density of the rod at x 5 1 is

` ` 5 0.50 kg >m
dm 1
r5 5 ■
dx x 51 2!x x 51

–
–
– – Example 3 Electrical Current
– – –
A current exists whenever electrical charges move. Figure 3.57 shows part of a wire
Figure 3.57 and electrons moving through a plane surface, indicated by the red shaded circle.
Electrons moving through a plane
If DQ is the net charge that passes through this surface during a time period Dt, then
surface indicated by the red circle.
the average current during this time interval is defined as
DQ Q2 2 Q1
average current 5 5
Dt t2 2 t1
The limit of this average current over smaller and smaller time intervals is the current I
at a given time t1:
DQ dQ
I 5 lim 5
Dt S 0 Dt dt
Therefore, the current is the rate at which charge flows through a surface. It is measured
in units of charge per unit time (often coulombs per second, called amperes, denoted A).
■

In addition to velocity, density, and current, many other important rates of change occur
in physics. Others include power (the rate at which work is done), the rate of heat flow,
temperature gradient (the rate of change of temperature with respect to position), and
the rate of decay of a radioactive substance in nuclear physics.

■ Chemistry

Example 4 Rate of Reaction

A chemical reaction results in the formation of one or more substances, called prod-
ucts, from one or more starting materials, called reactants. For example, the equation
2H2 1 O2 S 2H2O
 Section 3.8 Rates of Change in the Natural and Social Sciences 265

indicates that two molecules of hydrogen and one molecule of oxygen combine to form
two molecules of water.

Consider the reaction A 1 B S C,

where A and B are reactants and C is the product. The concentration of a reactant A
is the number of moles (1 mole 5 6.022 3 1023 molecules) per liter and is denoted by
[A]. The concentration varies during a reaction. Therefore, [A], [B], and [C] are all
functions of time t.

The average rate of reaction of the product C over a time interval t1 # t # t2 is

D3C4 3C4 1t2 2 2 3C4 1t1 2

5 .
Dt t2 2 t2

Chemists are often interested in the instantaneous rate of reaction, obtained by taking

d 3C4
the limit of the average rate of reaction as the time interval Dt approaches 0:
D3C4
rate of reaction 5 lim 5
Dt S 0 Dt dt

d 3C4
Since the concentration of the product increases as the reaction proceeds, the derivative
will be positive, and so the rate of reaction of C is positive. The concentrations
dt

d 3A4 d 3B4
of the reactants, however, decrease during the reaction, so, to indicate positive rates of

reaction of A and B, we can use negative signs in front of the derivatives and .
dt dt

d 3C4 d 3A4 d 3B4

Since [A] and [B] each decrease at the same rate that [C] increases, we can write

rate of reaction 5 5 2 52
dt dt dt
More generally, for any reaction of the form aA 1 bB S cC 1 d D, we have
1 d 3A4 1 d 3B4 1 d 3C4 1 d 3D4
2 52 5 5
a dt b dt c dt d dt
The rate of reaction can be determined from data and graphical methods. In some cases,
explicit formulas for the concentrations as functions of time enable us to compute the
rate of reaction. ■

Example 5 Compressibility
One quantity of interest in thermodynamics is compressibility. If a given substance is
kept at a constant temperature, then its volume V depends on its pressure P. We can con-
dV
sider the rate of change of volume with respect to pressure, that is, the derivative . As
dP
dV
P increases, V decreases, so 6 0.
dP
The compressibility is defined by changing the sign and dividing this derivative by the
volume V:
1 dV
isothermal compressibility 5 b 5 2
V dP
 266 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

Therefore, b measures how fast, per unit volume, the volume of a substance decreases
as the pressure on it increases at constant temperature.
For example, suppose the volume V (in cubic meters) of a sample of air at 258C is
5.3
related to the pressure P (in kilopascals) by the equation V 5 .
P
The rate of change of V with respect to P when P 5 50 kPa is

` 52 2 ` 5 20.00212 m3 > kPa

dV 5.3 5.3
52
dP P 550 P P550 2500
The compressibility at that pressure is

5 0.02 1 m3 > kPa 2 > m3

1 dV 0.00212
b52 5 ■
V dP P 550 5.3
50

■ Biology

Let n 5 f 1t2 be the number of individuals in an animal or plant population at time t. The
Example 6 Growth Rate

change in the population size between the times t 5 t1 and t 5 t2 is Dn 5 f 1t2 2 2 f 1t1 2 ,
and the average rate of growth during the time period t1 # t # t2 is
D n f 1t2 2 2 f 1t1 2
average rate of growth 5 5 .
n Dt t2 2 t1
The instantaneous rate of growth is obtained from the average rate of growth by
letting the time period Dt approach 0.
Dn dn
growth rate 5 lim 5
Dt S 0 Dt dt

population function n 5 f 1t2 is a step function that is discontinuous whenever a birth or

0 t This equation for growth rate is not quite accurate because the actual graph of a
Figure 3.58
death occurs and, therefore, n is not differentiable. However, for a large animal or plant
A smooth curve that approximates a
growth function.
population, we can approximate the graph by a smooth curve as shown in Figure 3.58.
Here is a more specific example: consider a population of bacteria in a homogeneous
nutrient medium. Suppose that by sampling the population at certain intervals, it is
determined that the population doubles every hour. If the initial population is n0 and the
time t is measured in hours, then
f 112 5 2f 102 5 2n0,
f 122 5 2f 112 5 22n0,
f 132 5 2f 122 5 23n0,
fusebulb/Shutterstock.com

and, in general,
f 1t2 5 2t n0.
Figure 3.59 The population function is n 1t2 5 n02t.
E. coli bacteria are about 2 microme-
ters (mm) long and 0.75 mm wide. In Section 3.8, we learned that

1 a 2 5 a x ln a.
d x
dx
 Section 3.8 Rates of Change in the Natural and Social Sciences 267

Therefore, the rate of growth of the bacteria population at time t is

5 1 n0 2t 2 5 n0 2t ln 2.
dn d
dt dt
For example, suppose that we start with an initial population of n0 5 100 bacteria.
Then the rate of growth at time t 5 4 hours is
dn
5 100 # 2 4 # ln 2 5 1600 ln 2 ^ 1109.
dt t54
In the context of this example, this means that at time t 5 4 hours, the bacteria popula-
tion is growing at a rate of approximately 1109 bacteria per hour. ■

Example 7 Blood Flow

Consider the flow of blood through a blood vessel, such as a vein or artery. Suppose we
model the blood vessel by a cylindrical tube with radius R and length l, as illustrated in
Figure 3.60.

R r

Figure 3.60
Blood flow through an artery. l

For more detailed information, see Because of friction at the walls of the tube (blood vessel), the velocity v of the blood is
W. Nichols and M. O’Rourke (eds.), greatest along the central axis of the tube and decreases as the distance r from the axis
McDonald’s Blood Flow in Arteries: increases until v becomes 0 at the wall. The relationship between v and r is given by the
Theoretical, Experimental, and law of laminar flow discovered by the French physician Jean-Louis-Marie Poiseuille
Clinical Principles, 6th ed. (Boca in 1840. This law states that
Raton, FL, 2011).

1R 2 r 22
P 2
v5 (1)
4hl
where h is the viscosity of the blood and P is the pressure difference between the start
and end of the tube. If P and l are constant, then v is a function of r with domain [0, R].
The average rate of change of the velocity as we move from r 5 r1 outward to r 5 r2 is

D v v 1r2 2 2 v 1r1 2
given by

5 .
Dr r2 2 r1
and if we let Dr S 0, we obtain the velocity gradient, that is, the instantaneous rate of
change of velocity with respect to r:
Dv dv
velocity gradient 5 lim 5
Dr S 0 Dr dr
Use Equation 1 and find the derivative of v with respect to r.

1 0 2 2r 2 5 2
dv P Pr
5
dr 4hl 2hl
For one of the smaller human arteries, we can take h 5 0.027, R 5 0.008 cm, l 5 2 cm,
and P 5 4000 dynes>cm2. The equation for v is

1 0.000064 2 r 2 2 ^ 1 1.85 3 10 4 2 1 6.4 3 10 25 2 r 2 2.

4 1 0.027 2 2
4000
v5
268 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

At r 5 0.002 cm the blood is flowing at a speed of

v 10.0022 ^ 11.85 3 104 2 164 3 10 26 2 4 3 10 26 2 5 1.11 cm>s,

4000 10.0022
and the velocity gradient at that point is

` ^ 274 1 cm > s 2 > cm.

2 10.02722
dv
52
dr r 50.002
In order to better understand this last statement, change the units from centimeters to
micrometers (1 cm 5 10,000 mm). Then the radius of the artery is 80 mm. The velocity
at the central axis is 11,850 mm>s, which decreases to 11,110 mm>s at a distance of
5 274 1 mm > s 2 > mm means that when r 5 20 mm, the
dv
r 5 20 mm. The derivative
dr
velocity is decreasing at a rate of approximately 74 mm>s for each micrometer that we
move away from the center. ■

■ Economics

Example 8 Marginal Cost

Suppose C(x) is the total cost that a company incurs in producing x units of a certain

is increased from x1 to x2, then the additional cost is DC 5 C 1x2 2 2 C 1x1 2 , and the
commodity. The function C is called a cost function. If the number of items produced

D C C 1x2 2 2 C 1x1 2 C 1x1 1 Dx2 2 C 1x1 2

average rate of change of the cost is

5 5 .
Dx x2 2 x1 Dx
The limit of this quantity as Dx S 0, that is, the instantaneous rate of change of cost
with respect to the number of items produced, is called the marginal cost.
DC dC
marginal cost 5 lim 5
Dx S 0 Dx dx
Since x usually takes on only integer values, it may not make practical sense to let
Dx approach 0, but we could approximate C(x) with a smooth curve (as in population
growth).
If Dx 5 1 and n is large (so that Dx is small compared to n), then
C9 1n2 ^ C 1n 1 12 2 C 1n2.

producing one more unit [the 1n 1 12 st unit].

Therefore, the marginal cost of producing n units is approximately equal to the cost of

It is often reasonable to represent a total cost function by a polynomial

C 1x2 5 a 1 bx 1 cx 2 1 dx 3,
where a represents the overhead cost (rent, heat, maintenance) and the other terms
represent the cost of raw materials, labor, and so on. Note that the cost of raw materials
may be proportional to x, but labor costs might depend partly on higher powers of x
because of the overtime costs and inefficiencies involved in large-scale operations.
For example, suppose a company has estimated that the cost (in dollars) of producing x
items is
C 1x2 5 10,000 1 5x 1 0.01x 2.
 Section 3.8 Rates of Change in the Natural and Social Sciences 269

Then the marginal cost function is

C9 1x2 5 5 1 0.02 x.
The marginal cost at the production level of 500 items is
C r(500) 5 5 1 0.02(500) 5 $15 per unit.
This calculation is the rate at which costs are increasing with respect to the production
level when x 5 500, and it predicts the cost of the 501st item.
The actual cost of producing the 501st item is
C 15012 2 C 15002
5 310,000 1 5 15012 1 0.01 15012 2 4 2 310,000 1 5 15002 1 0.01 15002 2 4
5 $15.01
Notice that C9 15002 ^ C 15012 2 C 15002 . ■

Economists also study marginal demand, marginal revenue, and marginal profit, which
are derivatives of the demand, revenue, and profit functions. We will consider these
concepts after we have developed techniques for finding the maximum and minimum
values of functions.

■ Other Sciences
Rates of change occur in all the sciences. A geologist may be interested in knowing
the rate at which an intruded body of molten rock cools by conduction of heat into
surrounding rocks. An engineer may need to know the rate at which water flows into
or out of a reservoir. An urban geographer is often interested in the rate of change
of the population density in a city as the distance from the city center increases. A
meteorologist is concerned with the rate of change of atmospheric pressure with respect
to height.
In psychology, those interested in learning theory study the so-called learning curve,
which graphs the performance P(t) of someone learning a skill as a function of the
training time t. Of particular interest is the rate at which performance improves as time
dP
passes, that is, .
dt
In sociology, differential calculus is used in analyzing the spread of rumors (or
innovations, or fads, or fashions). If p(t) denotes the proportion of a population that
dp
knows a rumor by time t, then the derivative represents the rate of spread of the
dt
rumor.

■ A Single Idea, Many Interpretations

Velocity, density, current, power, and temperature gradient in physics; rate of reaction
and compressibility in chemistry; rate of growth and blood velocity gradient in biology;
marginal cost and marginal profit in economics; rate of heat flow in geology; rate of
improvement of performance in psychology; rate of spread of a rumor in sociology –
these are all special cases of a single mathematical concept, the derivative.
This is an illustration of the fact that part of the power of mathematics lies in its abstract-
ness. A single abstract mathematical concept (such as the derivative) can have different
270 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

interpretations in each of the sciences. When we develop the properties of a mathe-

matical concept, we can then apply these results to all of the sciences. This is much
more efficient than developing properties of special concepts in each separate science.
The French mathematician Joseph Fourier (1768–1830) put it succinctly: “Mathemat-
ics compares the most diverse phenomena and discovers the secret analogies that unite
them.”

3.8 Exercises

particle is given by s 5 f 1t2 , where t is measured in seconds and s

A particle moves along a line. For t $ 0, the position of the 6. Graphs of the position functions of two particles are shown
in the figures, where t is measured in seconds. When is each
in feet. particle speeding up? When is it slowing down? Explain your
(a) Find the velocity at time t. reasoning.
(b) Find the velocity at time t 5 1 second. s s
(c) Find all times t when the particle is at rest.
(d) When is the particle moving in the positive direction?
Negative direction?
t t
(e) Find the total distance traveled by the particle during the first 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
6 seconds.
(f) Draw a diagram to represent the motion of the particle.
(g) Find the acceleration of the particle at time t and at time
t 5 1 second. 7. A projectile is shot vertically upward from a point 2 m above
(h) Graph the position, velocity, and acceleration functions for the ground with initial velocity of 24.5 m/s. The height

h 1t2 5 2 1 24.5t 2 4.9t 2.

0 # t # 6. (in meters) of the projectile at time t seconds is given by
(i) When is the particle speeding up? When is it slowing down?

1. f 1t2 5 t 3 2 8t 2 1 24t 2. f 1 t 2 5
9t (a) Find the velocity of the projectile at times t 5 2 seconds
2 and t 5 4 seconds.
t 19
3. f 1 t 2 5 sin a b 4. f 1t2 5 t 2e 2t
pt (b) When does the projectile reach its maximum height?
2 (c) What is the maximum height?
(d) When does the projectile hit the ground?
5. Graphs of the velocity functions of two particles are shown (e) What is the velocity of the projectile when it hits the
in the figures, where t is measured in seconds. When is each ground?

80 ft/s, then its height after t seconds is s 1t2 5 80t 2 16t 2.

particle speeding up? When is it slowing down? Explain your 8. If a ball is thrown vertically upward with an initial velocity of
reasoning.
(a) What is the maximum height reached by the ball?
v v (b) What is the velocity of the ball when it is 96 feet above
the ground on its way up? On its way down?
9. If a rock is thrown vertically upward on the surface of Mars

h 1t2 5 15t 2 1.86t 2.

t t with velocity 15 m/s, its height after t seconds is given by
1 2 3 1 2 3 4

(a) What is the velocity of the rock at time t 5 2 seconds?

(b) What is the velocity of the rock when its height is 25 m
on its way up? On its way down?
 Section 3.8 Rates of Change in the Natural and Social Sciences 271

10. A particle moves along a line. For t $ 0, the position of the when r is (a) 1 ft, (b) 2 ft, and (c) 3 ft. What conclusion can
particle is given by you make about the rate of increase of surface area?
s 1t2 5 t 4 2 4t 3 2 20t 2 1 20 t 4 3
16. The volume of a growing spherical cell is V 5 pr , where
the radius r is measured in micrometers 11 mm 5 10 26 m2 .
3
where t is measured in seconds and s in meters.
(a) At what time does the particle have a velocity of 20 m/s?
(b) At what time is the acceleration 0? Explain the (a) Find the average rate of change of V with respect to r
significance of this value of t in the context of this when r changes from
problem. (i) 5 to 8 mm (ii) 5 to 6 mm (iii) 5 to 5.1 mm
(b) Find the instantaneous rate of change of V with respect to
11. A company makes computer chips from square wafers of
r when r 5 5 mm.
silicon. It wants to keep the side length of a wafer very close
(c) Show that the rate of change of the volume of a sphere
to 15 mm, and it wants to know how the area A(x) of a wafer
with respect to its radius is equal to its surface area.
(a) Find A9 1152 and explain the meaning of your answer in
changes when the side length x changes.
Explain this result geometrically.
the context of this problem. 17. The mass of the part of a metal rod that lies between its left
(b) Show that the rate of change of the area of a square with end and a point x meters to the right is 3x 2 kg. Find the linear
respect to its side length is half its perimeter. Try to density when x is (a) 1 m, (b) 2 m, and (c) 3 m. Where is the
explain this result geometrically by drawing a square density the highest? The lowest?
whose side length x is increased by an amount Dx. How 18. If a tank holds 5000 gallons of water, which drains from the
can you approximate the resulting change in area, DA, if bottom of the tank in 40 minutes, then Torricelli’s Law gives
Dx is small? the volume V of water remaining in the tank after t minutes as

V 5 5000 a 1 2 t b , 0 # t # 40
12. Sodium chlorate crystals are easy to grow in the shape of
1 2
cubes by allowing a solution of water and sodium chlorate to
evaporate slowly. 40
(a) If V is the volume of a sodium chlorate crystal cube Find the rate at which water is draining from the tank after
dV (a) 5 min, (b) 10 min, (c) 20 min, and (d) 40 min. At what
with side length x, find when x 5 3 and explain the
dx time is the water flowing out the fastest? The slowest?
meaning of your answer in the context of this problem.
19. The quantity of charge Q in coulombs (C) that has passed
(b) Show that the rate of change of the volume of a cube with
given by Q 1t2 5 t 3 2 2t 2 1 6 t 1 2. Find the current when
through a point in a wire up to time t (measured in seconds) is
respect to edge length is equal to half the surface area
of the cube. Explain this result geometrically using an
argument similar to Exercise 11(b). (a) t 5 0.5 s and (b) t 5 1 s. At what time is the current lowest?

13. Recall the area of a circle with radius r is A 5 pr 2. 20. Newton’s Law of Gravitation states that the magnitude F of
(a) Find the average rate of change of the area of a circle the force exerted by a body of mass m on a body of mass M is
with respect to its radius r as r changes from GmM
(i) 2 to 3 (ii) 2 to 2.5 (iii) 2 to 2.1 F5
r2
(b) Find the instantaneous rate of change when r 5 2.
(c) Show that the rate of change of the area of a circle where G is the gravitational constant and r is the distance
with respect to its radius (at any r) is equal to the between the bodies.
circumference of the circle. Try to explain this result dF
(a) Find and explain the meaning of this expression in the
geometrically by drawing a circle whose radius is dr
increased by an amount Dr. How can you approximate context of this problem. What does the minus sign in this
the resulting change in area DA if Dr is small? expression indicate?
14. A stone is dropped into a lake, creating a circular ripple that (b) Suppose it is known that the earth attracts an object
travels outward at a speed of 60 cm/s. Find the rate at which with a force that decreases at the rate of 2 N/km when
the area of the circle is increasing at (a) 1 s, (b) 3 s, and r 5 20,000 km. How fast does this force change when
(c) 5 s. What can you conclude about the rate of change of the r 5 10,000 km?
area of the circle? 21. The force F acting on a body of mass m and velocity v is the
rate of change of momentum: F 5 1 mv 2 . If m is constant,
of the surface area 1S 5 4pr 2 2 with respect to the radius r
15. A spherical balloon is being inflated. Find the rate of increase d
dt
dv
this expression becomes F 5 ma, where a 5 is the
dt
272 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

acceleration. However, in the theory of relativity, the mass of (c) What happens to the concentration as t S ` ?
a particle varies with v and is given by (d) What happens to the rate of reaction as t S ` ?
(e) Using correct units, explain your results in parts (c) and
m0
m5 (d) in the context of this problem.

Å
v2
12 25. Suppose a population of bacteria triples every hour and that
c2 the initial population is 400 bacteria. Find an expression
where m0 is the mass of the particle at rest and c is the speed for the number n of bacteria at time t hours and use it to
of light. Show that estimate the rate of growth of the bacteria population at
2.5 hours.
m0 a
v 2 3>2
a1 2 b
F5 26. The number of yeast cells in a laboratory culture initially
increases rapidly but eventually levels off. The population is
c2 modeled by the function
n 5 f 1t2 5
22. Some of the highest tides in the world occur in the Bay of a
Fundy on the Atlantic Coast of Canada. At Hopewell Cape, 1 1 be 20.7t
the water depth at low tide is about 2.0 m and at high tide it is where t is measured in hours. At time t 5 0 the population is
about 12.0 m. The natural period of oscillation is a little more 20 cells and is increasing at a rate of 12 cells/hour. Find the
than 12 hours and on June 30 high tide occurs at 6:45 am. values of a and b. According to this model, what happens to
This helps explain the following model for the water depth the yeast population in the long run, that is, as t S ` ?
D (in meters) as a function of the time t (in hours after
midnight) on that day: 27. The table gives the population of the world P(t) in millions,

D 1t2 5 7 1 5 cos30.503 1t 2 6.7524

where t is measured in years and t 5 0 correspond to the year
1900.
How fast was the tide rising (or falling) at the following t (millions) t (millions)
times? 0 1650 70 3710
(a) 3:00 am (b) 6:00 am (c) 9:00 am (d) Noon
10 1750 80 4450
23. Boyle’s Law states that when a sample of gas is compressed 20 1860 90 5280
at a constant temperature, the product of the pressure and the
30 2070 100 6080
volume remains constant: PV 5 C.
(a) Find the rate of change of volume with respect to 40 2300 110 6870
pressure. 50 2560 120 7755
(b) A sample of gas is in a container at low pressure and 60 3040
is steadily compressed at constant temperature for
10 minutes. Is the volume decreasing more rapidly at the (a) Estimate the rate of population growth in 1990 and in
beginning or the end of the 10 minutes? Explain your 2010. Indicate the units of measure.
reasoning. (b) Use technology to find a cubic function (a third-degree
(c) Show that the isothermal compressibility is given by polynomial) that models this data.
1 (c) Use your model in part (b) to derive a model for the rate
b5 . of population growth.
P
(d) Use part (c) to estimate the rates of growth in 1990 and
24. If, as explained in Example 4, one molecule of the product in 2010. Compare these results with your estimates in
C is formed from one molecule of the reactant A and one part (a).

A and B have a common value 3A4 5 3B4 5 a moles/L, then

molecule of the reactant B, and the initial concentrations of (e) In Section 1.1, we modeled P(t) with the exponential

f 1t2 5 11358.032 11.014782 t

function

3C4 5
a 2 kt
#
akt 1 1 Use this model to derive a model for the rate of
population growth.
where k is a constant.
(f) Use your model in part (e) to estimate the rate of growth
(b) Show that if x 5 3C4 , then
(a) Find the rate of the reaction at time t.
in 1990 and in 2010. Compare these results with your
estimates in parts (a) and (d).

5 k 1a 2 x22
dx (g) Estimate the rate of growth in 2015 using the model in
dt part (b) and the model in part (e).
 Section 3.8 Rates of Change in the Natural and Social Sciences 273

28. The table shows how the average annual rainfall (in inches) in 31. Suppose that the cost (in dollars) for a company to produce x
a certain county in Nebraska for selected years. pairs of a new line of jeans is

t A(t) t A(t) C 1x2 5 2000 1 3x 1 0.01x 2 1 0.0002x 3

(b) Find C9 11002 and, using correct units, explain the

1950 23.0 1990 25.9 (a) Find the marginal cost function.
1955 23.8 1995 26.3

(c) Compare C9 11002 with the cost of manufacturing the

1960 24.4 2000 27.0 meaning of your answer in the context of this problem.
1965 24.5 2005 28.0
101st pair of jeans.
1970 24.2 2010 28.8
32. The cost function for a certain commodity is
C 1q2 5 84 1 0.16q 2 0.006q 2 1 0.000003q 3
1975 24.7 2013 29.3

(a) Find C9 11002 and interpret your answer in the context of

1980 25.2 2015 29.4
1985 25.5 2018 29.4

(b) Compare C9 11002 with the cost of producing the 101st

this problem.
(a) Use technology to find a fourth-degree polynomial to

(b) Use your answer in part (a) to derive a model for A9 1t2 .
model these data. item.

(c) Estimate the rate of change of rainfall in 1990. 33. If p(x) is the total value of the production when there are
(d) Estimate the rate of change of rainfall in 2015. Does this x workers in a manufacturing facility, then the average
productivity of the workforce at the facility is
p 1x2
estimate agree with the data? Why or why not?

A 1x2 5
(e) Construct a scatter plot of these data and graphs of A and
A9 in the same viewing rectangle.

(a) Find A9 1x2 . Why would the company want to hire more
x

workers if A9 1x2 7 0?
29. Refer to the law of laminar flow presented in Example 7.

(b) Show that A9 1x2 7 0 if p9 1x2 is greater than the average

Consider a blood vessel with radius 0.01 cm, length 3 cm,
pressure difference 300 dynes>cm2, and viscosity h 5 0.027.
(a) Find the velocity of the blood along the centerline r 5 0, productivity.
at radius r 5 0.005 cm, and at the wall r 5 R 5 0.01 cm.
(b) Find the velocity gradient at r 5 0, r 5 0.005, and 34. If R denotes the reaction of the body to some stimulus of
r 5 0.01. strength x, the sensitivity S is defined to be the rate of change
(c) Where is the velocity the greatest? Where is the greatest of the reaction with respect to x. For example, when the
change in velocity? brightness x of a light source is increased, the eye reacts by
decreasing the area R of the pupil. The experimental formula
30. The frequency of vibrations of a vibrating string is given by
40 1 24 x 0.4
R5
2L Å r
1 T 1 1 4 x 0.4
f5
has been used to model the dependence of R on x when R is
where L is the length of the sting, T is the tension, and r is measured in square millimeters and x is measured in appro-
its linear density. [See Chapter 11 in D. E. Hall, Musical priate units of brightness.
Acoustics, 3rd ed. (Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/ Cole, 2002).] (a) Find the sensitivity.
(a) Find the rate of change of the frequency with respect to (b) Illustrate part (a) by graphing both R and S as functions
(i) the length (when T and r are constant), of x. Explain the values of R and S at low levels of
(ii) the tension (when L and r are constant), and brightness. Is this what you would expect?
(iii) the linear density (when L and T are constant). 35. Patients undergo dialysis treatment to remove urea from their
(b) The pitch of a note (how high or low the note sounds) is blood when their kidneys are not functioning properly. Blood
determined by the frequency f. (The higher the frequency, is diverted from the patient through a machine that filters
the higher the pitch.) Use the signs of the derivatives in out urea. Under certain conditions, the duration of dialysis
part (a) to determine what happens to the pitch of a note required, given that the initial urea concentration is c 7 1, is
(i) when the effective length of a string is decreased by

!9c 2 2 8c
given by the equation
placing a finger on the string so a shorter portion of
t 5 ln a b
the string vibrates, 3c 1
(ii) when the tension is increased by turning a tuning 2
peg, and
Find the derivative of t with respect to c and interpret this
(iii) when the linear density is increased by switching to
expression in the context of this problem.
another string.
274 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

36. Invasive species often display a wave of advance as they where r0 is the birth rate of the fish, Pc is the maximum popu-
colonize new areas. Mathematical models based on random lation that the pond can sustain (called the carrying capacity),
dispersal and reproduction have demonstrated that the and b is the percentage of the population that is harvested.

f 1r2 5 2!Dr, where r is the reproductive rate of individuals

speed with which such waves move is given by the function dP
(a) What value of corresponds to a stable population?
dt
and D is a parameter quantifying dispersal. Find the (b) If the pond can sustain 10,000 fish, the birth rate is 5%,
derivative of the wave speed with respect to the reproductive and the harvesting rate is 4%, find the stable population
rate r and explain the meaning of this expression in the level.
context of this problem. (c) What happens if b is raised to 5%?
37. The gas law for an ideal gas at absolute temperature 39. In the study of ecosystems, predator-prey models are often
T (in kelvins), pressure P (in atmospheres), and volume V (in used to study the interaction between species. Consider
liters) is PV 5 nRT , where n is the number of moles of populations of tundra wolves, given by W(t), and caribou,
gas and R 5 0.0821 is the gas constant. Suppose that, at a given by C(t), in northern Canada. The interaction has been
certain instant, P 5 8.0 atm and is increasing at a rate of modeled by the equations
0.10 atm/min and V 5 10 L and is decreasing at a rate
dC dW
of 0.15 L/min. Find the rate of change of T with respect to 5 aC 2 bcW 5 2cW 1 dCW
time at that instant if n 5 10 mol. dt dt
dC dW
38. At a fish farm, a population of fish is introduced into a pond (a) What values of and correspond to stable
and harvested regularly. A model for the rate of change of the dt dt
populations?
fish population is given by the equation

P 1t2
(b) How would the statement “The caribou go extinct” be

5 r0 a 1 2 b P 1t2 2 b P 1t2
dP represented mathematically?
(c) Suppose that a 5 0.05, b 5 0.001, c 5 0.05, and
dt Pc
d 5 0.0001. Find all population pairs (C, W ) that lead to
stable populations. According to this model, is it possible
for the two species to live in balance or will one or both
species become extinct? Explain your reasoning.

3.9 Linear Approximations and Differentials

We have seen that a curve lies very close to its tangent line near the point of tangency. In
fact, if f is differentiable at a and we zoom in near the point (a, f (a)), then the graph of
y 5 f (x) straightens out and looks more and more like its tangent line (see Figure 2.67
in Section 2.6). This observation is the basis for a method of finding approximate values
of functions.

■ Linear Approximations
Suppose the function f is differentiable at x 5 a and the value f (a) is known. Let L be
y the linear function whose graph is the tangent line to the graph of f at the point (a, f (a)).
y = f (x) See Figure 3.61.
y = L(x) It seems very reasonable, and the graph suggests, that we can use the line tangent to the
(a, f(a)) graph of f at (a, f (a)) as an approximation to the graph y 5 f (x) when x is near a. An
f(a)
equation of the tangent line is
y 5 f (a) 1 f 9(a)(x 2 a)
a x
and the approximation
Figure 3.61
Graphs of f and L near (a, f (a)). f (x) ^ f (a) 1 f 9(a)(x 2 a) (1)
 Section 3.9 Linear Approximations and Differentials 275

is called the linear approximation or tangent line approximation of f at a. The linear

function whose graph is the tangent line, that is,
L (x) 5 f (a) 1 f 9(a)(x 2 a) (2)

is called the linearization of f at a.

The following example is typical of situations in which we use a linear approximation to
predict the future behavior of a function given empirical data.

Example 1 Predicting from a Linear Approximation

Suppose a turkey is prepared for roasting and its temperature is 508F. The turkey is then
placed into an oven at temperature 3258F. After 1 hour the meat thermometer indicates
that the temperature of the turkey is 938F and after 2 hours it indicates 1298F. Predict
the temperature of the turkey after 3 hours.
Solution
Let T(t) represent the temperature of the turkey after t hours.
We are given: T(0) 5 50, T(1) 5 93, and T(2) 5 129.
In order to construct a linear approximation with a 5 2, we need an estimate for the
derivative T9(2).
T(t) 2 T(2)
Because T 9(2) 5 lim we could estimate T9(2) using a difference quotient
tS2 t22
with t 5 1:
T(1) 2 T(2) 93 2 129
T 9(2) ^ 5 5 36
122 21
This corresponds to approximating the instantaneous rate of temperature change by the
average rate of change between t 5 1 and t 5 2, which is 368F>h.
With this estimate, the linear approximation for the temperature after 3 hours is
T(3) ^ T(2) 1 T9(2)(3 2 2) ^ 129 1 36 # 1 5 165.
So the predicted temperature after 3 hours is 1658F.
We can obtain a more accurate estimate (in this case) for T9(2) by plotting the given
T data, as in Figure 3.62, and estimating the slope of the tangent line at t 5 2 to be

T9 122 ^
129 2 96
150 5 33
221
100
L Then our linear approximation becomes
T
T(3) ^ T(2) 1 T9(2) # 1 ^ 129 1 33 5 162,
50

0 t
0 1 2 3 and our improved estimate for the temperature is 1628F.

Figure 3.62 Because the actual temperature curve lies below the tangent line, it appears that that the
Graphs of the temperature curve and actual temperature after 3 hours will be somewhat less than 1628F, perhaps closer to
the tangent line at t 5 2. 1608F. ■
276 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

Let f (x) 5 !x 1 3. Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at the point
Example 2 Linear Approximation

where x 5 1 and use this linearization to approximate f (1.05) and f (0.98).

Solution

f (x) 5 !x 1 3 5 (x 1 3)1>2 Rewrite f (x) using an exponent.

(x 1 3) 21>2 5
1 1
Find the derivative of f : f 9(x) 5 .
2 2!x 1 3
The tangent line passes through (1, f (1)) 5 (1, !3 1 1) 5 (1, 2)
1 1
y and has slope f 9(1) 5 5 .
2!1 1 3 4
3 An equation of the tangent line is
(1, 2)
y = 7+ x 2 1 7 x
4 4 y= x+3 y 5 f (1) 1 f 9(1)(x 2 1) 5 2 1 (x 2 1) 5 1 .
4 4 4
1
and the linearization is (the equation of this tangent line)
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 1
L (x) 5 f (1) 1 f 9(1)(x 2 1) 5 2 1 (x 2 1).
Figure 3.63 4
Graphs of f and L near (1, 2). When x is near 1, f (x) ^ L (x). See Figure 3.63.

Therefore,

f (1.05) 5 !1.05 1 3 5 !4.05 ^ L (1.05) 5 2 1

1
(1.05 2 1) 5 2.013,
4

f (0.98) 5 !0.98 1 3 5 !3.98 ^ L (3.98) 5 2 1

1
(3.98 2 1) 5 1.995. ■
4

Technology can certainly provide approximations for values like !3.98 and !4.05,
A Closer Look

but the linear approximation provides an approximation over an entire interval.

The accuracy of the tangent line approximation depends on three factors.
1. The distance between x and a
2. The steepness of the graph of f near a
3. The concavity of the graph of f : whether the graph of f is curved up like a cup or
down like an umbrella. We will learn more about concavity in Chapter 4.
In Example 2 the graph of f is curved down like an umbrella near x 5 1 (concave
down). Therefore, the graph of the tangent line is above the graph of f, and the tangent
line approximation is an overestimate. ■

Example 3 Accuracy of a Linear Approximation

For what values of x is the linear approximation

!x 1 3 ^
7 x
1
4 4
accurate to within 0.5? What about accuracy to within 0.1?
 Section 3.9 Linear Approximations and Differentials 277

Solution
Accuracy to within 0.5 means the functions should differ by less than 0.5:

!x 1 3 2 a 1 b 6 0.5
7 x
4 4
Using the definition of absolute value, an equivalent expression is

!x 1 3 2 0.5 6 1 6 !x 1 3 1 0.5.
7 x
4 4

the curves obtained by shifting the curve y 5 !x 1 3 upward and downward by an

This inequality can be interpreted as the linear approximation should lie between

y 5 !x 1 3 1 0.5 at P and Q.
amount 0.5. Figure 3.64 shows the tangent line y 5 (7 1 x)>4 intersecting the curve

y
y Q
4 Q
y= x + 3 + 0.1
y = x + 3 + 0.5
3
L (x) 2
2 y= x + 3 – 0.1

P y = x + 3 – 0.5 P
1

x x
–2 2 4 6 8 0 2 4
Figure 3.64 Figure 3.65

y 5 !x 1 3 1 0.5 at P and Q. y 5 !x 1 3 1 0.1 at P and Q.

The graph of the tangent line intersects the curve The graph of the tangent line intersects the curve

If we use technology to zoom in, we can estimate the x-coordinate of P in Figure 3.64
is about 22.66 and the x-coordinate of Q is about 8.66.
Therefore, the graph suggests that the approximation !x 1 3 ^ 1 is accurate to
7 x
4 4
within 0.5 when 22.6 6 x 6 8.6 (rounding to be safe).
Similarly, Figure 3.65 suggests that the approximation is accurate to within 0.1 when
21.1 6 x 6 3.9. ■

■ Applications to Physics
Linear approximations are often used in physics. In analyzing a particular model, a
physicist may need to simplify a function by replacing it with its linear approxima-
tion. For example, in deriving a formula for the period of a pendulum, we obtain the
expression aT 5 2g sin u for tangential acceleration. Often we replace sin u by u in this
expression because sin u is close to u if u is small (close to 0).
278 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

We can actually verify this linearization of the function f (x) 5 sin x at a 5 0.

f (x) 5 sin x 1 f 9(x) 5 cos x
At x 5 0: f (0) 5 sin 0 5 0, f 9(0) 5 cos 0 5 1.
Therefore, L (x) 5 f (0) 1 f 9(0)(x 2 0) 5 0 1 1(x 2 0) 5 x.
So, for x close to 0, sin x ^ x.
Another example occurs in the theory of optics, where light rays arriving at shallow
angles relative to the optical axis are called paraxial rays. In paraxial (or Gaussian)
optics, both sin u and cos u are replaced by their linearizations. The linear approximations
sin u ^ u cos u ^ 1
are used because u is close to 0. The results of calculations made with these approxi-
mations became the basic theoretical tool used to design lenses. [See Optics, 5th ed., by
Eugene Hecht, [Boston, 2017], p. 164.]
In Section 8.8 we will present several other applications of the idea of linear
approximations.

■ Differentials
The concept of a linear approximation is often developed using the terminology and
y
notation associated with differentials. If y 5 f (x), where f is a differentiable function,
R
Q
then the differential dx is considered an independent variable; that is, dx can take on
dy the value of any real number. The differential dy is then defined in terms of dx by the
Dy
P equation
dx = Dx S
dy 5 f 9(x) dx (3)
x
x x + Dx Therefore, dy is a dependent variable; it depends on the values of x and dx. If dx is given
a specific value and x is taken to be some specific number in the domain of f, then the
Figure 3.66 numerical value of dy is determined (using Equation 3).
A geometric interpretation of
differentials. Here is a geometric interpretation of differentials. Consider Figure 3.66.
Let P(x, f (x)) and Q(x 1 Dx, f (x 1 Dx)) be points on the graph of f and let dx 5 Dx .
The corresponding change in y is
Dy 5 f (x 1 Dx) 2 f (x)
The tangent line to the graph of y 5 f (x) at the point P and through the point R has slope
dy
f 9(x). This slope must be equal to rise over run, or . Therefore,
dx
dy
f 9(x) 5 1 f 9(x) dx 5 dy.
dx
The differential dy represents the amount that the tangent lines rises or falls (or the
change in the linearization). However, Dy represents the amount that the curve y 5 f (x)
rises or falls when x changes from x by an amount dx. Notice from Figure 3.66 that the
approximation Dy ^ dy becomes better as Dx becomes smaller.
 Section 3.9 Linear Approximations and Differentials 279

Suppose we let dx 5 x 2 a, then x 5 a 1 dx and we can rewrite the linear approxima-

tion (Equation 1) using differential notation:
f (a 1 dx) ^ f (a) 1 dy
For example, for the function f (x) 5 !x 1 3 in Example 1, we have
dx
dy 5 f 9(x) dx 5
2!x 1 3
If a 5 1 and dx 5 Dx 5 0.05, then
0.05
dy 5 5 0.013
2!1 1 3
and !4.05 5 f (1.05) ^ f (1) 1 dy 5 2.013
just as we found in Example 1.
Here is one more example that illustrates the use of differentials to estimate the errors
that occur due to approximate measurements.

Example 4 Error in Approximating the Volume of a Sphere

The radius of a sphere was measured and found to be 21 cm with a possible error in
measurement of at most 0.05 cm. What is the maximum error in using this value of the
radius to compute the volume of the sphere?
Solution
4
If the radius of the sphere is r, then the volume is V(r) 5 pr 3.
3
If the error in the measured value of r is denoted by dr 5 Dr , then the corresponding
error in the calculated value of V is DV . This value can be approximated by
dV 5 V9(r) dr 5 4pr 2 dr.
For r 5 21, dr 5 0.05: dV 5 4p(21)2(0.05) ^ 277.
The maximum error in the calculated volume is approximately 277 cm3. ■

Note: The error in Example 4 seems pretty large. Often, a better way to describe this
kind of inaccuracy is by using the relative error. This is computed by dividing the
error (estimate) by the total volume:
DV dV 4pr 2dr dr
^ 5 53
V V 4 r
pr 3
3
Therefore, in Example 4, the relative error in the volume is about three times the relative
error in the radius.
dr 0.05
Relative error in the radius is approximately 5 ^ 0.0024.
r 21
Relative error in the volume is approximately 3(0.024) ^ 0.0072.
These errors could also be expressed as percentage errors, for example, a 0.24% in the
radius and 0.7% in the volume.
280 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

3.9 Exercises

Find the linearization L(x) of the function at a. 25. Let y 5 !x.

1. f (x) 5 x 3 2 x 2 1 3, a 5 22 (a) Find the differential dy.
(b) Evaluate dy and Dy if x 5 1 and dx 5 Dx 5 1.
p (c) Sketch a graph showing the line segments with lengths
2. f (x) 5 sin x, a 5
6
3. f (x) 5 !x, a 5 4
dx, dy, and Dy.

26. Let f (x) 5 (x 2 1)2, g(x) 5 e 22x, and h(x) 5 1 1 ln(1 2 2x).
4. f (x) 5 2 x, a 5 0

5. Find the linear approximation of the function f (x) 5 !1 2 x

(a) Find the linearization of f, g, and h at a 5 0. What do you

at a 5 0 and use it to approximate the numbers !0.9 and

notice about these expressions? How do you explain this

!0.99. Use technology to graph f and the tangent line in the

result?
(b) Graph f, g, and h and their linear approximations. For
same viewing rectangle. which function is the linear approximation the best?

6. Find the linear approximation of the function g(x) 5 !1 1 x

Worst? Explain your reasoning.

at a 5 0 and use it to approximate the numbers !

3

!1.1. Use technology to graph g and the tangent line in the

3
0.95 and 27. Suppose the turkey in Example 1 is removed from the oven
3 when its temperature reaches 1858F and is placed on a table
same viewing rectangle. in a room where the temperature is 758F. After 10 minutes the
temperature of the turkey is 1728F and after 20 minutes it is
Verify the given linear approximation at a 5 0. Then determine 1608F. Use a linear approximation to predict the temperature
the values of x for which the linear approximation is accurate to of the turkey after half an hour. Do you think your prediction
within 0.1.

7. !
is an overestimate or an underestimate? Why?
3 1
12x^12 x 8. tan x ^ x 28. Atmospheric pressure P decreases as altitude h increases. At a
3
temperature of 158C, the pressure is 101.3 kilopascals (kPA)
1 at sea level, 87.1 kPa at h 5 1 km, and 74.9 kPa at h 5 2 km.
9. ^ 1 2 8x 10. e x ^ 1 1 x
(1 1 2x)4 Use a linear approximation to estimate the atmospheric
pressure at an altitude of 3 km.
Find the differential dy of each function.
29. The graph illustrates the percentage of the population in the
x11
11. y 5 12. y 5 (1 1 r 3) 22 United States aged 65 and over.
x21
14. y 5 !1 1 ln x
P
13. y 5 etan px
15
Use a linear approximation (or differentials) to estimate the given
number.
10
4 1
15. (1.999) 16.

!
4.002
18. !100.5
5
3
17. 1001
0 t

20. cos a b
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
29p
19. e 0.1
180 Use a linear approximation to predict the percentage of the
Explain, in terms of linear approximations or differentials, why population that will be 65 and over in the years 2030 and 2040.
the approximation is reasonable. Do you think your predictions are too high or too low? Why?

21. sec 0.08 ^ 1 22. (1.01)6 ^ 1.06 30. The table shows the population of Canada (in millions) at the
end of the given year.
23. ln 1.05 ^ 0.05
24. Let y 5 e x>10. t 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
(a) Find the differential dy. N(t) 30.59 32.16 34.15 36.03 37.74
(b) Evaluate dy and Dy if x 5 0 and dx 5 0.1.
Use a linear approximation to estimate the population on
December 31, 2009. Use another linear approximation to
predict the population in 2025.
 Section 3.9 Linear Approximations and Differentials 281

31. The edge of a cube was found to be 30 cm with a possible Show that the relative change in F is about four times the rel-
error in measurement of 0.1 cm. Use differentials to estimate ative change in R. How will a 5% increase in the radius affect
the maximum possible error, relative error, and percentage the flow of blood?
error in computing (a) the volume of the cube and (b) the 38. In his book Physics: Calculus, 2d ed., Eugene Hecht derives
surface area of the cube. the formula T 5 2p!L>g for the period of a pendulum. In
32. The radius of a circular disk was measured as 24 cm with a deriving this formula, he obtains the equation aT 5 2g sin u
maximum error in measurement of 0.2 cm. for the tangential acceleration of the bob of the pendulum. He
(a) Use differentials to estimate the maximum error in the then says, “for small angles, the value of u in radians is very
calculated area of the disk. nearly the value of sin u; they differ by less than 2% out to
(b) What is the relative error? What is the percentage error? about 208.”
(a) Verify the linear approximation at 0 for the sine function:
33. The circumference of a sphere was measured to be 84 cm
with a possible error of 0.5 cm. sin x ^ x
(a) Use differentials to estimate the maximum error in the
calculated surface area. What is the relative error? (b) Use technology to determine the values of x for which
(b) Use differentials to estimate the maximum error in the sin x and x differ by less than 2%. Then verify Hecht’s
calculated volume. What is the relative error? statement by converting from radians to degrees.

34. Use differentials to estimate the amount of paint needed to 39. Suppose f is a functions such that f (1) 5 5 and the graph of
apply a coat of paint 0.05 cm thick to a hemispherical dome its derivative is shown in the figure.
with diameter 50 m. y

35. (a) Use differentials to find a formula for the approximate

4
volume of a thin cylindrical shell with height h, inner
radius r, and thickness Dr. 3
(b) What is the error involved in using the formula from
part (a)? 2

36. One side of a right triangle is known to be 20 cm long and the 1

opposite angle is measured as 308, with possible error of {18. x
(a) Use differentials to estimate the error in computing the 1 2 3 4
length of the hypotenuse.
(b) What is the percentage error? (a) Use a linear approximation to estimate f (0.9) and f (1.1).
(b) Are the approximations in part (a) overestimates or
37. When blood flows along a blood vessel, the flux F (the underestimates? Explain your reasoning.

g9(x) 5 !x 2 1 5.
volume of blood per unit time that flows past a given point) is
proportional to the fourth power of the radius R of the blood 40. Suppose g is a function such that g(2) 5 24 and
vessel:
F 5 kR4 (a) Use a linear approximation to estimate g(1.95).
(b) Are the approximations in part (a) overestimates or
This is known as Poiseuille’s Law. A partially clogged artery underestimates? Explain your reasoning.
can be expanded by an operation called angioplasty, in which
a balloon-tipped catheter is inflated inside the artery in order
to widen it and restore the normal blood flow.

Laboratory Project Taylor Polynomials

The tangent line approximation L (x) is the best first-degree (linear) approximation to f (x)
near x 5 a because f (x) and L (x) have the same rate of change (derivative) at a. For a better
approximation, it seems reasonable to use a second-degree (quadratic) approximation P (x).
Geometrically this means that we approximate the graph of y 5 f (x) near x 5 a by a parabola
instead of a line.
282 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

To make sure that the approximation is good, we impose the following conditions:
(i) P (a) 5 f (a) (P and F should have the same value at a.)
(ii) P9(a) 5 f 9(a) (P and f should have the same rate of change at a.)
(iii) P0(a) 5 f 0(a) (The slopes of P and f should change at the same rate at a.)
1. Find the quadratic approximation P(x) 5 A 1 Bx 1 Cx 2 to the function f (x) 5 cos x
that satisfies conditions (i), (ii), and (iii) for a 5 0. Graph P, f, and the linear approxi-
mation L (x) 5 1 in the same viewing rectangle. Use the graph to explain how well the
functions
P and L approximate f.
2. Determine the values of x for which the quadratic approximation f (x) ^ P (x) in Prob-
lem 1
is accurate to within 0.1. Hint: graph y 5 P(x), y 5 cos x 2 0.1, and y 5 cos x 1 0.1 in
the same viewing rectangle.
3. To approximate a function f by a quadratic function P near a number a, the best form
for the function P is
P(x) 5 A 1 B (x 2 a) 1 C (x 2 a)2
Show that the quadratic function that satisfies conditions (i), (ii), and (iii) is
1
P(x) 5 f (a) 1 f 9(a)(x 2 a) 1 f 0(a)(x 2 a)2
2
4. Find the quadratic approximation to f (x) 5 !x 1 3 at a 5 1. Graph f, the quadratic
approximation, and the linear approximation from Example 2 in Section 3.9 in the
same viewing rectangle. What can you conclude from these graphs?
5. Suppose we want an even better approximation to f at x 5 a. It seems reasonable to use
higher-degree polynomials. Consider an nth-degree polynomial of the form
Tn(x) 5 c0 1 c1(x 2 a) 1 c2(x 2 a)2 1 c3(x 2 a)3 1 g 1 cn(x 2 a)n
such that Tn and its first n derivatives have the same values at x 5 a as f and its first
n derivatives. Differentiate Tn repeatedly, and after each step let x 5 a. Show that if
1
c0 5 f (a), c1 5 f 9(a), c2 5 f 0(a), and in general
2
f (k)(a)
ck 5
k!
where k! 5 k # (k 2 1) # (k 2 2) g 3 # 2 # 1. The resulting polynomial
f 0(a) f (n)(a)
Tn(x) 5 f (a) 1 f 9(a)(x 2 a) 1 (x 2 a)2 1 g 1 (x 2 a)n
2! n!
is called the nth-degree Taylor polynomial of f centered at a.
6. Find the 8th-degree Taylor polynomial centered at a 5 0 for the function f (x) 5 cos x.

325, 54 3 321.4, 1.44 and comment on how well they approximate f (near a 5 0).
Graph f and the Taylor polynomials T2, T4, T6, and T8 in the viewing rectangle
 Chapter 3 Review 283

3 Review
Concepts and Vocabulary

1. State each differentiation rule symbolically and in your (d) Why is the natural logarithmic function y 5 ln x used
own words. more often in calculus than the other logarithmic
(a) The Power Rule (b) The Constant Multiple Rule functions y 5 log a x?
(c) The Sum Rule (d) The Difference Rule
4. (a) In your own words, explain the process of implicit
(e) The Product Rule (f) The Quotient Rule
differentiation. When should this process be used?
(g) The Chain Rule
(b) In your own words, explain the process of logarithmic
2. State the derivative of each function. differentiation. When should this process be used?
(a) y 5 x n (b) y 5 e x
x 5. Explain the method to find the slope of a tangent line to a
(c) y 5 b (d) y 5 ln x
parametric curve x 5 f (t), y 5 g (t).
(e) y 5 logb x (f) y 5 sin x
(g) y 5 cos x (h) y 5 tan x 6. Give several examples of how the derivative can be
(i) y 5 csc x (j) y 5 sec x interpreted as a rate of change in physics, chemistry, biology,
(k) y 5 cot x (l) y 5 sin 21 x economics, and other sciences.
21
(m) y 5 cos x (n) y 5 tan 21 x 7. Write an expression for the linearization of f at a.
3. (a) How is the number e defined? 8. Write an expression for the differential dy. If dx 5 Dx, explain
(b) Express e as a limit. how dy could be an overestimate or an underestimate for Dy.
(c) Why is the natural exponential function y 5 e x used more
often in calculus than the other exponential functions
y 5 a x?

True-False Quiz

Determine whether each statement is true or false. If it is true, 6. If y 5 e 2, then y9 5 2 e.

explain why. If it is false, explain why or give an example that con-
tradicts the statement. d
7. (10 x ) 5 x 10 x 2 1
dx
1. If f and g are differentiable, then

3 f (x) 1 g(x) 4 5 f 9(x) 1 g9(x)

d d 1
8. (ln 10) 5
dx dx 10
2. If f and g are differentiable, then d d

3 f (x)g(x) 4 5 f 9(x)g9(x)
9. (tan 2 x) 5 (sec 2 x)
d dx dx
dx d
10. ( u x 2 1 x u ) 5 u 2x 1 1 u
3. If f and g are differentiable, then dx

3 f (g(x)) 4 5 f 9(g(x))g9(x)
d 11. The derivative of a polynomial is a polynomial.
dx 12. If f (x) 5 (x 6 2 x 4) 5, then f (31)(x) 5 0.
4. If f is differentiable, then 13. The derivative of a rational function is a rational function.
3 !f (x) 4 5
d f 9(x)
14. An equation of the tangent line to the parabola y 5 x 2 at the
dx 2!f (x) point (22, 4) is y 2 4 5 2x(x 1 2).
5. If f is differentiable, then g(x) 2 g(2)
3 f ( !x ) 4 5
d f 9(x) 15. If g(x) 5 x 5, then lim 5 80.
xS2 x22
dx 2!x
16. If Dx 5 dx, then Dy 5 dy.
284 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

Exercises

Find y9.

!x !x
1 1 49. Find y0 if x 6 1 y 6 5 1.
1. y 5 (x 2 1 x 3) 4 2. y 5 2 5 3
1
50. Find f (n)(x) if f (x) 5 .

!x
2
x 2x12 tan x 22x
3. y 5 4. y 5
1 1 cos x
51. If f (x) 5 xe x, find an expression for f (n)(x).
2 21
5. y 5 x sin px 6. y 5 x cos x
Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of the function at
4
t 21 y the given point.

a , 1b
7. y 5 4 8. x e 5 y sin x
t 11 p
mx
52. f (x) 5 4 sin2 x,
9. y 5 ln(x ln x) 10. y 5 e cos nx 6
11. y 5 !x cos !x 12. y 5 (arcsin 2x) 2 x2 2 1
53. f (x) 5 , (0, 21)

!1 1 4 sin x, (0, 1)
e1>x x2 1 1
13. y 5 14. y 5 ln sec x
x2 54. y 5

16. y 5 a 2 b
4
2 u21 55. x 5 ln t, y 5 t 2 1 1, (0, 2)
15. y 1 x cos y 5 x y
u 1u11
17. y 5 !arctan x
56. x 5 t 3 2 2t 2 1 t 1 1, y 5 t 2 1 1, (1, 0)
18. y 5 cot(csc x)

19. y 5 tan a b
Find equations of the tangent line and the normal line to the graph
t of each expression at the given point.
20. y 5 e x sec x
1 1 t2
57. x 2 1 4 x y 1 y 2 5 13, (2, 1)
21. y 5 3x ln x 22. y 5 sec(1 1 x 2)
58. y 5 (2 1 x)e 2x, (0, 2)

! x 1 !x
1
23. y 5 (1 2 x 21) 21 24. y 5 59. y 5 e 2x>(x 11), (4, e 24>5)

26. y 5 !sin!x
3

25. sin(x y) 5 x 2 2 y 60. If f (x) 5 x e sin x, find f 9(x). Graph f and f 9 in the same
viewing rectangle and describe the relationship between the
27. y 5 log5(1 1 2x) 28. y 5 (cos x)x two graphs.
1 (x 2 1 1)4 61. Let f (x) 5 x!5 2 x.
29. y 5 ln sin x 2 sin2 x 30. y 5
2 (2 x 1 1)3(3x 2 1)5 (a) Find f 9(x).
31. y 5 x tan 21(4 x) 32. y 5 e cos x 1 cos(e x) (b) Find equations of the tangent lines to the graph of f at the
points (1, 2) and (4, 4).

!t ln(t 4)
33. y 5 ln u sec 5x 1 tan 5x u 34. y 5 10tan pu (c) Illustrate part (b) by graphing f and the tangent lines in
35. y 5 cot(3x 2 1 5) 36. y 5 the same viewing rectangle.

38. y 5 arctan(arcsin !x)

(d) Graph f and f 9 in the same viewing rectangle and
37. y 5 sin ( tan!1 1 x 3 ) describe the relationship between the two graphs.
2
39. y 5 tan (sin u) 40. x e y 5 y 2 1 p p

!x 1 1(2 2 x)5
62. Let f (x) 5 4x 2 tan x, 2 6 x 6 .
2 2
(x 1 l)4
41. y 5 42. y 5 (a) Find f 9(x) and f 0(x).
(x 1 3)7 x 4 1 l4 (b) Graph f, f 9, and f 0 in the same viewing rectangle and

44. y 5 ln ` `
sin mx x2 2 4 describe the relationship among the three graphs.
43. y 5

45. y 5 cos 1 e!tan 3x 2

x 2x 1 5
46. y 5 sin (cos !sin px)
63. Let f (x) 5 sin x 1 cos x, 0 # x # 2p. Find the points on
2 the graph of f where the tangent line is horizontal.
64. Find the points on the ellipse described by x 2 1 2y 2 5 1
47. If f (t) 5 !4t 1 1, find f 0(2). where the tangent line has slope 1.

48. If g(u) 5 u sin u, find g 0 a b .

p 65. If f (x) 5 (x 2 a)(x 2 b)(x 2 c), show that
6 f 9(x) 1 1 1
5 1 1
f (x) x2a x2b x2c
 Chapter 3 Review 285

(a) Graph f in the viewing rectangle 30, 84 3 322, 84 .

66. (a) Differentiate both sides of the double-angle formula 83. Let f (x) 5 x 2 2 sin x.
cos 2 x 5 cos2 x 2 sin2 x
(b) On what interval is the average rate of change larger:
to obtain the double-angle formula for the sine function. [1, 2] or [2, 3]?
(b) Differentiate both sides of the addition formula (c) At which value of x is the instantaneous rate of change
sin(x 1 a) 5 sin x sin a 1 cos x sin a larger: x 5 2 or x 5 5?
(d) Check your visual estimates in part (c) by computing f 9(x)
to obtain the addition formula for the cosine function. and comparing the numerical values of f 9(2) an f 9(5).
67. Suppose that 84. Let f (x) 5 3ln(x 1 4)4 2. Find the point(s) on the graph of f
f (1) 5 2 f 9(1) 5 3 f (2) 5 1 f 9(2) 5 2 where the tangent line is horizontal.
g(1) 5 3 g9(1) 5 1 g(2) 5 1 g9(2) 5 4
85. Let f (x) 5 e x.
(a) If S(x) 5 f (x) 1 g(x), find S9(1). (a) Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of f that
(b) If P(x) 5 f (x) g(x), find P9(2). is parallel to the line x 2 4y 5 1.
f (x) (b) Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of f that
(c) If Q(x) 5 , find Q9(1).
g(x) passes through the origin.
(d) If C(x) 5 f (g(x)), find C9(2). 86. Find the slope of the line that passes through the point (4, 0)
68. The graphs of the functions f and g are shown in the figure. and is tangent to the graph of f (x) 5 e 2x.
87. Find a parabola y 5 ax 2 1 bx 1 c that passes through the
y
point (1, 4) and whose tangent lines at x 5 21 and x 5 5
have slopes 6 and 22, respectively.
6
g 88. The function C(t) 5 K(e 2at 2 e 2bt), where a, b, and K
5 are positive constants and b 7 a, is used to model the
concentration at time t of a drug injected into the bloodstream.
4
f (a) Show that lim C(t) 5 0.
tS `
3
(b) Find C9(t), the rate of change of drug concentration in the
2 blood.
(c) When is the rate equal to 0?
1 (d) Let a 5 1, b 5 2, and K 5 10. Graph C and C9 in the
x same viewing rectangle. Explain the relationship between
1 2 3 4 5 6 the two graphs in the context of this problem.
f (x) 89. An equation of the form s(t) 5 A e 2ct cos(vt 1 d) represents
Let P(x) 5 f (x)g(x), Q(x) 5 , and C(x) 5 f (g(x)). Find damped oscillation of an object. Find the velocity and
g(x)
(a) P9(2), (b) Q9(2), and (c) C9(2). acceleration of the object at time t.
90. A particle moves along a horizontal line so that its position
Find f 9 in terms of g and g9.
at time t, t $ 0, is given by s(t) 5 3t 4 2 20t 3 2 48t 2 1 48t,
69. f (x) 5 x 2g(x) 70. f (x) 5 g(x 2)
71. f (x) 5 3g(x)4 2
where t is measured in seconds and s in feet.
72. f (x) 5 g(g(x)) (a) Find the average velocity for the first 2 seconds.
(b) When is the particle at rest?
73. f (x) 5 g(e x ) 74. f (x) 5 e g (x) (c) When does the particle change direction?
75. f (x) 5 ln u g(x) u 76. f (x) 5 g(ln x) (d) What is the total distance traveled by the particle for
0 # t # 4? Show the work that leads to your answer.
77. f (x) 5 g(tan 21 x) 78. f (x) 5 tan 21 g(x) (e) What is the acceleration when t 5 1?
Find h9 in terms of f, f 9, g, and g9. (f) Is the speed increasing or decreasing when t 5 0.5?
Justify your answer.

Å g (x)
f (x)g(x) f (x)
79. h(x) 5 80. h(x) 5 91. A particle moves along a horizontal line so that its position at
f (x) 1 g(x)
time t is given by s(t) 5 10 1 t e 2t>5 for 0 # t # 50.
81. h(x) 5 f (g(sin 4x)) 82. h(x) 5 f ( g( f (x) # g(x))) (a) Find the average velocity for 0 # t # 50.
(b) For what values of t is the particle moving to the left?
What is the particle’s leftmost position? Show the
analysis that leads to your conclusion.
286 Chapter 3 Differentiation Rules

(c) Find the acceleration when the particle is first at rest. 99. The mass of a wire is x ( 1 1 !x ) kilograms, where x is
(d) What is the total distance traveled by the particle for measured in meters from one end of the wire. Find the
0 # t # 50? linear density of the wire when x 5 4 cm.
(e) Is the speed increasing or decreasing at t 5 20? 1
100. The volume of a right circular cone is V 5 pr 2h, where r
92. A particle moves along a horizontal line so that its velocity 3
is the radius of the base and h is the height.
at time t, t $ 0, is given by v(t) 5 et sin t 2 1. The particle’s
(a) Find the rate of change of the volume with respect to
position at time t, s(t), is not explicitly given.
the height if the radius is constant.
(a) For what values of t is the particle moving to the right?
(b) Find the rate of change of the volume with respect to
(b) For 2 # t # 4, find all values of t for which the speed
the radius if the height is constant.
of the particle is 0.5.
(c) What is the average acceleration of the particle for 101. The cost, in dollars, of producing x units of a certain
1 # t # 3? Show the computations that lead to your commodity is
answer. C(x) 5 920 1 2 x 2 0.02 x 2 1 0.00007x 3
(d) Find a time t, 1 # t # 3, such that the instantaneous
(a) Find the marginal cost function.
acceleration equals the average acceleration.
(b) Find C9(100) and explain its meaning.
(e) Is the speed increasing or decreasing at time t 5 6?
(c) Compare C9(100) with the cost of producing the
93. A particle moves along a horizontal line so that its position at 101st item.
102. Let f (x) 5 !1 1 3x.
time t, for t $ 0, is given by s(t) 5 t 3 2 2t 2 2 4t 1 5. Find 3
the total distance traveled by the particle for 0 # t # 5.

approximate value for !

(a) Find the linearization of f at a 5 0. Use it to find an
94. A particle moves along the curve given by y 5 x ln x so that 3
1.03.
y increases at a rate of 12 units per second. How fast is x (b) Determine the values of x for which the linear
increasing when the particle is at the point (e2, 2e2)? approximation given in part (a) is accurate to
95. A particle moves along a horizontal line so that its position at within 0.1.
time t is given by s(t) 5 (sin t) # ecos t. How many times does
2
103. A window has the shape of a square surmounted by a
the particle change direction for 0 # t # p? Justify your semicircle. The base of the window is measured as having
answer. width 60 cm with a possible error in measurement of
96. A particle moves along a horizontal line so that its position 0.1 cm. Use differentials to estimate the maximum error
1 possible in computing the area of the window.
at time t, for 0 6 t 6 1, is given by s(t) 5 . Find the
3t ln t Express the limit as a derivative and evaluate.
!
value of t in this interval when the particle is farthest to the
4
right. x17 2 1 16 1 h 2 2
104. lim 105. lim
xS1 x 2 1 h

time t, for t $ 0, is given by s(t) 5 !b2 1 c2t, where b and c

h 0
S
97. A particle moves along a horizontal line so that its position at
cos u 2 0.5 e 23(31h) 2 e 29
u S p>3
106. lim 107. lim
are positive constants. p hS0 h
u2
(a) Find the velocity and acceleration functions. 3

!1 1 tan x 2 !1 1 sin x
(b) Show that the particle always moves in the positive
direction. 108. Evaluate lim .
hS0 x3
98. A particle moves along a vertical line so that its y-coordinate

and f 9(x) 5 1 1 3 f (x)4 2. Show that

at time t is given by 109. Suppose f is a differentiable function such that f ( g(x)) 5 x
3
y(t) 5 t 2 12 t 1 3, t $ 0
1
(a) Find the velocity and acceleration functions. g 9(x) 5
(b) When is the particle moving upward and when is it 1 1 x2
moving downward? 110. Find f 9(x) if it is known that

3 f (2x) 4 5 x 2
(c) Find the total distance the particle travels in the time d
interval 0 # t # 3.
dx
(d) Graph the position, velocity, and acceleration functions
for 0 # t # 3. 111. Show that the length of the portion of any tangent line to
(e) When is the particle speeding up? When is it slowing the graph of the astroid described by x 2>3 1 y 2>3 5 a 2>3 cut
down? off by the coordinate axes is constant.
Focus on Problem Solving
Before reading the solution to the example, consider solving the problem yourself. The
principles of problem solving presented earlier might be helpful.

Example Unique c
For what values of c does the equation ln x 5 cx 2 have exactly one solution?
Solution
One of the most important principles of problem solving is to draw a diagram to
represent the given information, even if the problem doesn’t explicitly involve
geometry.
This problem can be restated as: for what values of c does the curve y 5 ln x intersect
the curve y 5 cx 2 in exactly one point?
Consider the graph of y 5 ln x and the graph of y 5 cx 2 for various values of c.
For c ? 0, y 5 cx 2 is a parabola that opens upward if c 7 0 and downward if c 6 0.
Figure 3.67 shows graphs of the parabolas y 5 cx 2 for several positive values of c.
Most of curves y 5 cx 2 do not intersect y 5 ln x at any point, and one curve intersects
y 5 ln x at two points.
It seems reasonable that there must be a value c (the graphs suggest somewhere
between 0.1 and 0.3) for which the curves intersect exactly once, as in Figure 3.68.

y 3x2 x2 0.5x2 0.3x2 y

y = cx 2
0.1x2 c=?

x x

y = lnx y = lnx

Figure 3.67 Figure 3.68

Graphs of y 5 ln x and y 5 cx 2 for various values Graphs of y 5 ln x and y 5 cx 2.
of c 7 0.

To find that particular value of c, let a be the x-coordinate of the single point of
intersection.
Therefore, a is the unique solution to the equation ln a 5 ca 2.
Figure 3.68 suggests that the two curves just touch and, therefore, have a common
tangent line at the point where x 5 a.

287
 So the curves y 5 ln x and y 5 cx 2 have the same slope when x 5 a:
1
5 2ca
a
Solve the two equations
y 1
ln a 5 ca 2 and 5 2ca simultaneously .
y = lnx a
1 1
x 5 2ca 1 a2 5 Solve for a 2.
a 2c

# 1 1
ln a 5 ca 2 5 c 5 Substitute for a 2.
2c 2
–0.1x 2 a 5 e1>2 Exponentiate both sides of the equation.

3x 2 x 2 0.5x 2 –0.3x 2 ln a ln e1>2 1

c5 5 5 Use the value of a to find c.
a2 e 2e
Figure 3.69
Graphs of y 5 ln x and y 5 cx 2 for For negative values of c, all parabolas y 5 cx 2 intersect y 5 ln x exactly once.
various values of c 6 0. See Figure 3.69.
And of course the curve y 5 0 x 2 5 0 is just the x-axis, which intersects the curve
y 5 ln x exactly once.
1
Finally, the values of c are c 5 and any c # 0. ■
2e

Problems
1. The figure shows a circle of radius 1 inscribed in the parabola y 5 x 2. Find the center of the
circle.
y
y = x2

1 1

2. Find the point where the curves y 5 x 3 2 3x 1 4 and y 5 3 1x 2 2 x2 are tangent to each
other, that is, have a common tangent line. Illustrate your solution by sketching both curves
and the common tangent.
3. Show that the tangent lines to the parabola y 5 a x 2 1 bx 1 c at any two points with
x-coordinates p and q must intersect at a point whose y-coordinate is halfway between
p and q.

288
 4. Show that

a b 5 2cos 2x
d sin2 x cos2 x
1
dx 1 1 cot x 1 1 tan x
sec t 2 sec x
5. If f (x) 5 lim , find the value of f 9(p>4).
tSx t2x
6. If f is differentiable at a, where a 7 0, evaluate the following limit in terms of f 9(a):

x S a !x 2 !a
f (x) 2 f (a)
lim

7. The figure shows a rotating wheel with radius 40 cm and a connecting rod AP with length
1.2 m. The point P slides back and forth along the x-axis as the wheel rotates counter-
clockwise at a rate of 360 revolutions per minute.
y

  x
O P(x, 0)

da p
(a) Find the angular velocity of the connecting rod, , in radians per second, when u 5 .
dt 3
(b) Express the distance x 5 u OP u in terms of u.
(c) Find an expression for the velocity of the point P in terms of u.
8. Tangent lines T1 and T2 are drawn at two points P1 and P2 on the parabola y 5 x 2 and
they intersect at a point P. Another tangent line T is drawn at a point between P1 and P2; it
intersects T1 at Q1 and T2 and Q2. Show that

u PQ1 u u PQ2 u
1 51
u PP1 u u PP2 u
9. Show that
d n ax
(e sin bx) 5 r ne ax sin(bx 1 nu)
dx n
where a and b are positive constants, r 2 5 a2 1 b 2, and u 5 tan 21 (b>a).
10. Find all the values of the constants a and b such that
!
3
ax 1 b 2 2 5
lim 5
xS0 x 12

x2 y2
11. Let T and N be the tangent and normal lines to the ellipse 1 5 1 at any point P on the
9 4
ellipse in the first quadrant. Let xT and yT be the x- and y-intercepts of T and xN and yN be
the intercepts of N. As P moves along the ellipse in the first quadrant (but not on the axes),
what values can xT , yT , xN , and yN take on?

289
 Try to guess the answers by using the figure, and then use calculus to solve the problem.
y
yT
T
2
P

xN xT
x
–3 3
N
yN
–2

12. If f and g are differentiable functions with f (0) 5 g(0) 5 0 and g9(0) ? 0, show that
f (x) f 9(0)
lim 5
x S 0 g(x) g9(0)
13. If
# arctan c d
!a 2 1 !a 2 1 a 1 !a 2 1 1 cos x
x 2 sin x
y5 2
2 2 2

1
show that y9 5 .
a 1 cos x
14. For which positive numbers a is it true that a x $ 1 1 x for all x?
15. For what value of k does the equation e 2x 5 k!x have exactly one solution?
16. (a) The cubic function f (x) 5 x (x 2 2)(x 2 6) has three distinct zeros: 0, 2, and 6. Graph f
and the tangent lines to the graph of f at the arithmetic mean of each pair of zeros. What
do you notice about these tangent lines?
(b) Suppose the cubic function f (x) 5 (x 2 a)(x 2 b)(x 2 c) has three distinct zeros: a,
b, and c. Prove that a tangent line drawn at the arithmetic mean of the zeros a and b
intersects the graph of f at the third zero.
17. (a) Use the trigonometric identity for tan(x 2 y) to show that if two lines L1 and L 2 intersect
at an angle a, then
m2 2 m1
tan a 5
1 1 m1m2

where m1 and m2 are the slopes of L1 and L 2, respectively.

(b) The angle between the curves C1 and C2 at a point of intersection P is defined to be the
angle between the tangent lines to C1 and C2 at P (if these tangent lines exist). Use part
(a) to find, correct to the nearest degree, the angle between each pair of curves at each
point of intersection.
(i) y 5 x 2 and y 5 (x 2 2)2
(ii) x 2 2 y 2 5 3 and x 2 2 4 x 1 y 2 1 3 5 0
18. Let P(x1, y1) be a point on the parabola y 2 5 4px with focus F( p, 0). Let a be the angle
between the parabola and the line segment FP, and let b be the angle between the horizontal
line y 5 y1 and the parabola as in the figure. Prove that a 5 b. (Thus, by a principle of
geometrical optics, light from a source placed at F will be reflected along a line parallel to
the x-axis. This explains why paraboloids, the surfaces obtained by rotating parabolas about
their axes, are used as the shape of some automobile headlights and mirrors for telescopes.)

290
 y

 y = y1
P(x1, y1)

x
F( p, 0)

y2 = 4px

19. Suppose instead of a parabolic mirror, as in Problem 18, we use a spherical mirror. Although
the mirror has no focus, we can show the existence of an approximate focus. In the figure,
C is a semicircle with center O. A ray of light coming in toward the mirror parallel to the
axis along the line PQ will be reflected to the point R on the axis so that /PQO 5 /OQR
(the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection). What happens to the point R as P
moves closer and closer to the axis?

Q
P



A
R O

x2 y2
20. Given an ellipse 1 5 1, where a ? b, find the equation of the set of all points from
a2 b2
which there are two tangents to the curve whose slopes are (a) reciprocals and (b) negative
reciprocals.
21. Find two points on the curve y 5 x 4 2 2 x 2 2 x that have a common tangent line.
22. Suppose that three points on the parabola y 5 x2 have the property that their normal lines
intersect at a common point. Show that the sum of the x-coordinates is 0.
23. A lattice point in the plane is a point with integer coordinates. Suppose that circles with
radius r are drawn using all lattice points as centers. Find the smallest value of r such that
2
any line with slope intersects some of these circles.
5

291