U N I T

Flight
Amateur cyclist Bryan Allen had never dreamed of becoming a
pilot. But on June 12, 1979, the cyclist did just that. In addition
to piloting the plane, he also provided the fuel for the first
successful human-powered flight across the English Channel.
The plane he flew was called the Gossamer Albatross. It used
pedal power to rotate its large, double-bladed propeller. Using
just the power produced by Allen’s body, the plane crossed the
35.8 km channel of water in less than 3 hours.
The Gossamer Albatross was especially designed to fly using
only the small amount of power a human being could produce.
The plane had a mass of only 32 kg without a pilot. Its long,
thin wings were like those of a glider. Because of its lightweight
design, the plane was vulnerable to wind and air currents. During
the design process, the engineers had to consider the forces that
act on an object during flight. This unit will introduce you to
these forces. You will discover how aircraft are able to achieve
and maintain flight. You will find out how the design of an
aircraft helps it master the forces that act upon it. Finally, you
will build, modify, and test your own aircraft.

60
 Unit Contents

Chapter 3
Achieving and
Maintaining
Flight 62

Chapter 4
Flight Design 98

• What do an overflowing
bathtub and a hot air
balloon have in common?
• How does a propeller
keep a plane in the air?
• How is a wind tunnel
used to design aircraft?

61
C H A P T E R

Achieving and
• How does a
100 000 kg plane
stay in the air?
• Why do you think a
wing is curved?
• What is the difference
between a jet engine
and a rocket engine?

T he Bumblebee II is the world’s smallest piloted aircraft.

The plane is approximately 2.7 m long and 1.7 m wide. Despite
its small size, the Bumblebee II can achieve a top speed of over
300 km/h. It carries a single pilot.
The Bumblebee II is dwarfed by the An–225 Cossack, the
world’s largest plane. The An–225 Cossack carries only cargo
and a flight crew. It is 84 m long and has a wingspan of 88 m.
The plane has a mass of about 250 000 kg when it is empty and
has a maximum takeoff mass of over 600 000 kg (mass of plane,
cargo, and crew). It was originally built to transport the Buran,
a space shuttle built in the former Soviet Union.
The Bumblebee II and the An–225 Cossack are two very different
aircraft. They are opposites in size, yet the exact same forces act
on these planes during flight. The two planes move forward by
different means. The Bumblebee II has a propeller, while the
An–225 Cossack uses jet engines. In this chapter, you will discover
more about the forces that act on aircraft during flight. These
forces are the keys to achieving liftoff and maintaining flight.
You will also learn about propellers, jet engines, and rocket
engines, which are three different means of propelling aircraft
and spacecraft.

62 MHR • Unit 2 Flight

Maintaining Flight
What You Will Learn Starting Point 3–A
In this chapter, you will learn
• which forces act on an object in flight Paper Toss
The shape of an object can affect how it
• how an aircraft achieves liftoff and stays
airborne interacts with its surroundings. Complete
this activity to find out if the shape of a
• different ways aircraft are propelled through
piece of paper changes the path it follows
the air
through the air.

Why It Is Important What to Do

1. Take an ordinary piece of paper. Hold it
• Every day, humans rely on flight for
out in front of you and drop it. Describe
transportation, trade, defence, emergency
services, and more. how the paper moves as it falls. Pick up
the paper and throw it away from you.
• Understanding how different forces affect
Describe its motion.
an object during flight can help us improve
aircraft performance and efficiency. 2. Roll the paper into a cylinder. The
• Many Canadians are involved in the flight cylinder should be tight and not reopen.
industry. Drop the cylinder and describe how it
moves as it falls. Pick up the cylinder
and throw it away from you. Describe
Skills You Will Use
its motion.
In this chapter, you will
• design a glider and modify it so it will fly 3. Crumple the paper into a small ball.
further Drop the ball and describe its motion
as it falls. Pick up the ball and throw it
• build a hot air balloon and a parachute
away from you. Describe its motion.
• model a principle that explains how
aircraft fly What Did You Find Out?
• determine how wing shape and angle 1. How does the shape of the paper
influence flight affect the way it moves through the air
as it falls?

2. How does the shape of the paper affect

the way it moves through the air when
you throw it away from you?

3. How could you explain the differences

you observed in this activity?
How does this
propeller help
a plane stay in
the air?

Chapter 3 Achieving and Maintaining Flight • MHR 63

 CHAPTER 3

Section 3.1 Forces That Act During

Flight: Gravity and Lift
Key Terms Have you ever wondered how a plane stays in the air? What
buoyancy about a hot air balloon or a dragonfly? All aircraft are subject
lift to forces that act on an object in flight. These forces work in
Bernoulli’s principle four directions: downward, upward, backward, and forward.
They act upon all things that fly, from the smallest insect to
the largest jumbo jet. In the next few pages, you will learn
more about these forces and how they affect an object during
flight. How do you think these forces will affect a paper glider
as it flies through the air?

Figure 3.1 The same forces that act on a large passenger jet act on all
objects during flight, including this dragonfly.

64 MHR • Unit 2 Flight

Find Out ACTIVITY 3–B

My Flying Machine
3. Fly your glider. Measure or observe
one of the factors you chose as a class
in step 2. Record your findings in your
notebook.

4. Repeat step 3 for the other factor.

5. Compare your measurements or

observations with your classmates.

Build a paper glider of your own design in What Did You Find Out?
this activity. 1. Explain how your measurements or
observations compared with those of
What You Will Need
your classmates for the two factors.
paper, various types and sizes
How might your design have affected
books about paper gliders
your glider’s performance in each case?
What to Do 2. Suggest two design changes you
1. Design and construct a paper glider. could make to your glider (such as
You can use the design books smaller wings). How do you think the
provided for inspiration. Your glider glider’s performance would change if
can be any shape or size. Your teacher you made each design change?
will provide different types of paper for
you to choose from. 3. Describe a change you could make
that might make your glider fly further.
2. As a class, brainstorm a list of ways
you could compare how each glider
flies. With your classmates, choose
two of these factors to compare when
you fly your gliders. Determine how
you will measure these factors.

Chapter 3 Achieving and Maintaining Flight • MHR 65

 Gravity
When you flew your glider in the last activity, no matter what
design you used or how hard you threw it, it still fell to the
ground eventually. The force of gravity, which pulled your glider
to the ground, acts on all objects. Gravitational attraction pulls
all objects with mass toward each other. However, only very large
objects, such as a planet or star, have a noticeable gravitational
pull. This is because the force of gravity is very small.
The force of gravity acts in a downward direction. If an object
is released above the ground, it will always fall downward due
to Earth’s gravitational pull. Gravity acts on all objects during
flight. However, other forces also act on these objects. Some of
these forces keep aircraft from falling. In the next activity, you
will build several hot air balloons. How do they overcome the
force of gravity to rise into the air? What factors might affect
how high a balloon rises?

gravitational pull

gravitational pull

Figure 3.2 All objects that have mass are influenced

by gravity. Any two objects will always attract each
other with gravitational force.

Figure 3.3 Because the force of gravity is very

small, only very large objects, such as our planet,
have a noticeable gravitational pull.

66 MHR • Unit 2 Flight

Type of Force Examples:
• Gravity • If you toss an object in the air, it will always fall downward
eventually.
Direction of Force • You can jump much higher on the Moon than you can on
• Downward Earth. This is because the Moon has less mass than Earth.
How does it work? Its gravitational pull is much smaller.
• Gravitational attraction
pulls all objects with mass
toward each other. However,
the force of gravity is small.
This means that only very
large objects, such as
Earth, have a noticeable
gravitational pull. Earth
pulls all objects toward it.

Have you ever let go of a helium balloon and watched it

float away? Like hot air balloons, helium balloons can
overcome the force of gravity and rise into the air. When
you hold onto a helium balloon, your mass keeps it from floating up into the
atmosphere. If enough are used, helium balloons can lift you off the ground.
In 1982, a man filled 45 large weather balloons with helium. He tied them to
his lawn chair and quickly became airborne. He had risen over 4800 m when
passing jet planes spotted him and alerted air traffic controllers to the flight
hazard. The man landed safely after deflating some of the balloons with shots
from a pellet gun. He was fined $4000 for his unauthorized flight.

Chapter 3 Achieving and Maintaining Flight • MHR 67

 S K I L L C H E C K
Observing

Problem Solving

Modelling

Compare and Contrast

Build a Balloon
Humans have been sailing the skies in hot air 5 Repeat step 4 for the large garbage bag.
balloons for centuries. In this investigation,
you will make several hot air balloons out of Part 2
different materials.
Draw the shape
Question shown on a piece of
construction paper.
What causes a hot air balloon to float in the air?
Safety Precautions 30 cm 30 cm

Materials
1 small plastic garbage bag tissue paper
1 large plastic garbage bag wire
scissors glue 20 cm
ruler construction paper
Place a sheet of tissue paper over the
hairdryer balance
outline. Trace the outline onto the tissue
pencils
paper and cut it out.
Procedure Repeat step 2 seven more times. You will
Part 1 need to make eight sections for your balloon.
As a class, brainstorm a list of factors that Glue the sections together as shown below.
might affect how high a balloon rises. Leave the ends of the bottom sections
Record this list in your notebook or unglued. Use glue sparingly, as it can
science journal. increase the mass of your balloon, but
make sure the seams are sealed.
Working with a partner, weigh both
garbage bags. Record the mass of each bag.
In your notebook, record the number of
litres that each garbage bag can hold. You
will find this value written on the packages
the bags came in or your teacher may
provide it.
Fill the small garbage bag with hot air
from the hairdryer. Let go of the bag once
it is of full of hot air. Estimate how high
the balloon rises. Record your observa- Glue along dotted lines.
tions in your notebook. Do not glue the bottom
of the balloon closed.

68 MHR • Unit 2 Flight

5 Cut a piece of wire so that it is long 7 Release the balloon when it is filled with
enough to go around the hole at the hot air. Estimate how high the balloon
bottom of the balloon. Form a square with rises. Record your observations.
the wire. Fold the paper around the wire
8 Try flying your tissue paper balloon out-
and glue it together so that the wire stays
side. Pick a cool day with very little wind.
in place.
6 Once the glue has dried, set the hair
dryer to high. Place the balloon over the
hairdryer nozzle and fill it with hot air.

Analyze Conclude and Apply

1. Compare results with other students 4. Hot air balloons fly best in cold weather.
in your class. Were they the same or Explain this statement.
different? If they were different, explain
5. Once a hot air balloon is up in the air, in
why this might be the case.
which direction will it fly? If you took a
2. With your partner, review the list of balloon ride and wanted to go over your
factors you brainstormed with your house, where should your launch site be?
class in Part 1, step 1. These are factors
6. Full-size hot air balloons carry heavy
that might have affected how high each
weights called ballast. What do you think
balloon rose in the air. Which of these
is the purpose of ballast?
factors do you think played the biggest
role in this investigation? Explain your 7. Commercial balloons are enormous in
reasoning. size. Provide a reason why bigger may be
better when it comes to balloons.
3. Draw or describe two possible design
changes to your tissue paper balloon.
Explain how you think each of these
changes would affect the height to which
the balloon could rise.

Chapter 3 Achieving and Maintaining Flight • MHR 69

 Gravity is the force that pulls an object downward. When
you constructed hot air balloons in the previous activity, they
rose into the air. This means that there must be an upward force
that, if strong enough, can overcome the force of gravity. In the
case of a hot air balloon, this force is called buoyancy.

Buoyancy
Buoyancy is an upward force that is produced by a liquid or
gas surrounding an object. Have you ever tried to swim to the
bottom of a swimming pool? If you have, you know what buoy-
ancy is. It is the force that pushes you up. When you enter the
water, you displace (take the place of) water. The surrounding
water exerts the same amount of upward force on you that it
had exerted on the water that you displaced. This is the force
of buoyancy. If the force of buoyancy is greater than that of
gravity, you will rise toward the surface. If the force of gravity
acting upon you is more than the force of buoyancy, you will
sink. A hot air balloon works in a similar way.

buoyancy

gravity

Figure 3.4 If the force of gravity

acting upon a balloon is less than Figure 3.5 You displace water when you sit down in a
the force of buoyancy, the balloon bathtub filled with water. If the tub is too full, the water
will float. will run over.

70 MHR • Unit 2 Flight

 Both buoyancy and gravity act on a hot air balloon. Instead
of being immersed in water, a balloon is surrounded by air.
Both liquids and gases produce buoyancy. When the air in a
hot air balloon is heated, several things happen.
• First, the air particles in the balloon gain energy when they
are heated. They move around and bump into each other.
As they collide, the particles move apart and the air expands,
taking up more room. It displaces the air that was there before.
The surrounding air exerts the same pressure on the balloon
that it had exerted on the air that was displaced. Since the
balloon is lighter than the air it displaced, this pressure causes
the balloon to rise.
Use the term
• Second, as the balloon rises, its altitude increases. As altitude
buoyancy to explain
increases, air pressure decreases. As a result, there is less pres- how a balloon rises.
sure acting on the balloon. The balloon eventually stops rising.

Figure 3.6 Air pressure decreases as Figure 3.7 Ballooning is a balancing act. A balloon
altitude increases. continues to rise until the forces of gravity and buoyancy
acting on the balloon are equal.

Chapter 3 Achieving and Maintaining Flight • MHR 71

 Type of Force
• Buoyancy
Direction of Force
• Upward
How does it work?
• A liquid or gas is displaced by an
object, such as a body in water
or a hot air balloon in air. The
surrounding liquid or gas exerts the same pressure on the object that it had exerted
on the displaced liquid or gas. If the object is lighter than the liquid or gas that it
displaced, the pressure will create an upward force. If this force (buoyancy) is
greater than that of gravity, the object rises.
Examples:
• The hot air in a balloon displaces the cooler, heavier air around it. The surrounding
air exerts the same pressure on the balloon that it had exerted on the displaced air.
Because the balloon is lighter than the air it displaced, the pressure causes it to rise.
• A blimp is essentially a balloon filled with a gas that is lighter than air. The force of
buoyancy is greater than the force of gravity, and the blimp rises.

The hot air in a balloon is lighter than the cooler air outside
the balloon. For this reason, a balloon is called a lighter-than-
air aircraft. What about aircraft that are heavier-than-air, such
as gliders, planes, helicopters, rockets, and even living things?
How do these aircraft take off and stay airborne? How do they
overcome the force of gravity?

Not all would-be aircraft are able to take off and stay
airborne. Many of the earliest aircraft designers unsuc-
cessfully tried to mimic the flight of birds. These flying
machines, known as ornithopters,
flapped their wings to fly. Large
ornithopters, such as the one
shown below, cannot stay in the
air for long. However, that does
not keep people from building them.
In 2006, a team from the University
of Toronto launched one from a jet.
It made a 14-second flight before
falling to the ground!

72 MHR • Unit 2 Flight

 S K I L L C H E C K
Identify the Problem

Decide on Design Criteria

Plan and Construct

Evaluate and Communicate

Winged Vehicles
Challenge Plan and Construct
Working as a group, use the materials provided With your group, plan how you will
to design and construct a winged vehicle that design your winged vehicle.
will become airborne when rolled down a ramp.
After you have determined your design,
Test and modify your vehicle to determine
work together to construct your vehicle.
which design will propel it furthest through
Use the rain gutter to set up your ramp.
the air.
Safety Precautions Create a data table to record how far your
vehicle flies.

Test your vehicle several times by letting it

Materials roll down the ramp. Measure and record
vinyl rain gutter the distance it flew in each case.
K’nex™ kit that contains wheels
ticket board 5 Modify your design to try to achieve a
masking tape greater flight distance. Test your design
plastic straws several times after each modification.
stiff paper, such as manila paper or a used Measure and record the distance travelled.
file folder
photocopy or printer paper
measuring tape Evaluate
scissors 1. Describe some of the variables that
influenced how far your vehicle flew.
Design Criteria
2. What role did the wheels play in the
A. You may use only the materials provided movement of your vehicle?
to construct your winged vehicle.
3. What role did gravity play in the
B. You may not push or propel your vehicle movement of your vehicle?
in any way when you release it to roll
down the ramp. 4. Explain why you think your vehicle
became (or did not become) airborne.
C. You may modify your design up to three
times to achieve the furthest flight distance.

Chapter 3 Achieving and Maintaining Flight • MHR 73

 Lift
In the last activity, you modified a winged vehicle to determine
which design would enable it to become airborne and carry it
the furthest distance. By modifying your design, you increased
the upward force experienced by the aircraft. The force that acts
upward on an aircraft, helping it become and remain airborne,
is called lift .
Like gravity, lift acts on all objects during flight, even a
passenger jet that has a mass of over 100 000 kg. You may wonder
how a heavy airplane can fly without being pulled down by
gravity. If you look at the wings of just about any airplane, you
will notice that they are not flat. While wings come in a variety
of shapes, most planes have wings that are somewhat curved.

wing

Cross-section of wing

Figure 3.8 Wings come in a variety of shapes and sizes.

However, most planes have curved wings like the one shown.

A large passenger jet such as a

Boeing 747 must attain a speed
of 290 km/h to achieve liftoff.
The commercial airliner has a
mass of over 360 000 kg.

74 MHR • Unit 2 Flight

Bernoulli’s Principle
As an airplane flies, air travels over and under its wings. Because
the wings are curved, air that passes over the wing travels further
than the air that passes under the wing. However, the air passing
over the wing reaches the back of the wing at the same time as
the air passing under it. This means it has to travel faster. It
must cover a greater distance in the same amount of time. You
can compare this to taking a detour to get to a destination. The
detour means you have to travel a greater distance. To get to
your destination in the same amount of time as the direct route
took, you need to travel faster.

Figure 3.9 An airplane’s wings

are rounded. This means that the
air passing over the wing travels
faster than the air passing under it.

Destination

3 1 Figure 3.10 When you take a

Blocks Block detour, you have to travel a greater
distance to get to your destination.
If you want to make it there in the
same amount of time, you need to
travel faster. When air travels around
the curve of a wing, it travels further.
It must therefore travel faster to
reach the back of the wing at the
Detour you are same time as the air travelling under
here the wing.

Chapter 3 Achieving and Maintaining Flight • MHR 75

 In the 1700s, a Swiss mathematician named Daniel
Bernoulli showed that a liquid or gas creates less
pressure as its speed increases. This principle is called
Bernoulli’s principle . In the case of an airplane, air
moves faster as it travels over the wing. This causes the
air pressure above the wing to fall. As a result, the wing
is pushed upward by the higher-pressure air flowing
underneath it. The end result is that the wing is lifted
up. In the next activity, you will design an investigation
that will demonstrate Bernoulli’s principle.

Figure 3.11 Daniel Bernoulli

explained lift long before the first Faster moving air
airplane left the ground. Cross section (Low Pressure)
of wing

Slower moving air

(High Pressure)

Figure 3.12 Air moves faster as it travels over a curved wing. Bernoulli’s
principle explains that air creates less pressure as its speed increases. The
pressure above the wing falls, and the wing is pushed upward by the higher-
pressure air flowing underneath it. The wing is lifted up as a result.

Table 3.1 Understanding Bernoulli’s Principle and Lift

How does Part of Wing Shape Air Speed Pressure Wing Action
Bernoulli’s principle top curved faster lower
pushed up
explain lift?
bottom flat slower higher

76 MHR • Unit 2 Flight

Type of Force Examples:
• Lift • An owl’s wing has a curved shape. Air travels faster over the top
of the wing, creating a pressure difference that lifts the wing.
Direction of Force • A Boeing 747 is hundreds of thousands of times heavier than an owl.
• Upward However, it experiences the same lift as a bird does.
How does it work?
• Because wings are curved, air passes
over a wing more quickly than air
passes under it. A liquid or gas creates
less pressure as its speed increases.
The air pressure above the wing falls.
The higher-pressure air flowing
underneath the wing pushes it upward.
As a result, the wing is lifted up.

Find Out ACTIVITY 3–E

Demonstrate Bernoulli’s Principle

Bernoulli’s principle explains how a wing 3. Assign one group member as recorder.
generates lift. If you were Daniel Bernoulli, As a group, determine how your activity
could you demonstrate your principle to demonstrates Bernoulli’s principle.
other scientists? Have the recorder write down your
ideas. Review the ideas to make sure
What You Will Need all group members agree on them.
materials for your demonstration, different
for each group 4. Present your demonstration to your
activity handout class. Have the recorder explain how
your activity demonstrates Bernoulli’s
What to Do principle.
1. Review the activity handout provided
What Did You Find Out?
by your teacher. You will be performing
this activity to demonstrate Bernoulli’s 1. How could you modify your demon-
principle to your classmates. With your stration to improve it? Explain your
group, discuss how you will carry out reasoning.
your demonstration. 2. Describe the demonstrations presented
2. As a group, gather the materials you by other groups. How does each
need to complete your demonstration. demonstration illustrate Bernoulli’s
Set up your demonstration. Practise it principle?
before you present it to your class.

Chapter 3 Achieving and Maintaining Flight • MHR 77

 Section 3.1 Summary
The forces that act on an object during flight work in four directions:
downward, upward, backward, and forward. These forces act on
both flying organisms and machines.
• Gravitational attraction pulls all objects with mass toward each
other. Only very large objects, such as a planet or star, have a
noticeable gravitational pull. This is because the force of gravity
is very small. Earth’s gravitational pull pulls objects downward.
• Buoyancy is an upward force that is produced when an object
displaces a liquid or gas. A hot air balloon or blimp floats
when its buoyancy is greater than the force of gravity acting on it.
• The upward force that acts on an object in flight is called lift.
Bernoulli’s principle explains lift. This principle states that a
moving liquid or gas creates less pressure as its speed increases.

Key Terms Check Your Understanding

buoyancy
1. Use the term buoyancy to explain why a hot air balloon rises.
lift
Bernoulli’s principle 2. A robin breaks its wing. When it heals, the wing is no longer
curved. Do you think the songbird is still able to fly? Explain
your reasoning.
3. The An–225 Cossack has a mass of about 250 000 kg when
it is empty. How does such a heavy plane achieve liftoff and
remain airborne?
4. Draw and label an example of a situation that demonstrates
Bernoulli’s principle.
5. Gravitational attraction pulls all objects with mass toward each
other. The Sun has a mass that is much greater than Earth.
Explain why an aircraft is pulled toward Earth and not the Sun
during its flight.

78 MHR • Unit 2 Flight

 CHAPTER 3

Section 3.2 Forces That Act During

Flight: Drag and Thrust
In Section 3.1, you learned about the forces that act upward and Key Terms
downward on objects during flight—gravity, buoyancy, and lift. drag
The other forces that act on aircraft act in a forward and backward thrust
direction. The force that acts backward on an object during
flight can cause it to slow down and even fall to the ground.
Aeronautical engineers create aircraft designs that reduce this force
as much as possible. How might this force act upon a paper
glider? How could you reduce the effect this force has on a glider?

Find Out ACTIVITY 3–F

My Flying Machine: Flying Further

How can you reduce the backward force 4. Evaluate your glider’s performance. How
that acts on a glider during flight? In this could you reduce the backward force
activity, you will create paper gliders of experienced by the glider? Brainstorm
different materials and sizes to learn the a list of possible modifications with
answer to this question. your partner. You may modify your
design in any way or construct your
What You Will Need glider from a different material.
paper of various thicknesses
and smoothness 5. Repeat steps 2 and 3. Make sure
measuring tape the same partner throws the plane.
glider instructions What Did You Find Out?
What to Do 1. How did you modify your glider? Were
you able to decrease the backward
1. With a partner, construct a paper glider
force on the glider? Explain.
using the instructions provided. You
can choose any type of paper and 2. How did you determine whether the
make your glider any size. backward force had been reduced?

2. Throw the glider. One partner will throw 3. Explain why you completed three trials
the glider, and the other will measure for each glider design.
and record how far the glider flew.
4. Suggest one way you might change
3. Repeat two more trials. Calculate the the design of your glider to make it
average distance the glider travelled for more stable (meaning it wobbles less
all three trials. or flies for a longer period of time).
Explain your reasoning.

Chapter 3 Achieving and Maintaining Flight • MHR 79

 S K I L L C H E C K
Observing

Modelling

Plan and Construct

Compare and Contrast

Design a Parachute
Sometimes we want to increase the backward Copy the table provided below into your
force experienced by an object during flight. notebook.
In this investigation, you will design your own
Parachute Trials: Design #1
parachute and see if you can reduce the speed
at which an object falls. Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
Time object took to
fall with parachute
Question (seconds)
Do different parachutes make an object fall at
different speeds?
5 Working with a partner, design a para-
Safety Precautions
chute on paper. Use the list you helped
brainstorm in step 1 to help you create
your design. What shape and size will the
Materials canopy (the part of a parachute that holds
construction paper tissue paper air) be? What material will you use? You
cloth plastic will be attaching a weighted object to the
string paperclips bottom of your parachute with strings.
glue small weight How long will the strings be? How many
masking tape stapler will you use? Draw an illustration of your
scissors tape measure parachute. Record the materials you will use
timer and the measurements of your parachute
next to your drawing.
Procedure 6 Make your parachute according to your
As a class, brainstorm a list of factors that design. Attach strings to the canopy of
might increase the amount of backward your parachute. Tie the weighted object to
force acting on a parachute. Record these the ends of the strings as shown below.
ideas in your notebook.

Your teacher will demonstrate how long it

takes a weighted object to fall to the ground
from a certain height. In your notebook,
record the height the object fell from and
the time it took to fall. You will be dropping
your parachute from the same height,
using the same weight.

On a wall, measure the height from which

you will be dropping your parachute.
Mark the height with masking tape.

80 MHR • Unit 2 Flight

7 Drop the parachute and weight from the 10 Draw two more tables like the one you
height you marked earlier. Time how long drew in step 4 for your second and third
it takes to fall to the ground. Record your designs.
results in your table.
11 Complete three trials for each new design.
8 Complete two more trials.
12 If there is an opportunity to do so, take your
9 Design and build at least two more best parachute and carefully roll it up so that
parachutes. Try to improve your original you can throw it. Go outside and throw it
design to make the weight fall more slowly. as high as you can. See if you can get it to
Draw an illustration of each parachute. unroll and come down like a real parachute.
Record the materials you used and the
measurements of your parachutes.

Analyze Conclude and Apply

1. Did the object fall at a different speed 5. How do you think each of the following
when you attached it to a parachute? design changes would affect the amount
Explain why you think this happened. of time it takes a parachute to fall to the
ground?
2. How did you try to improve on your (a) increasing the mass of the object tied
original design for your second and third to the parachute
parachutes? Were you successful? Explain. (b) increasing the mass of the material
3. Which of your parachute designs took used for the canopy
the longest to reach the ground? Explain (c) decreasing the size of the canopy
why you think this design was the most (d) adding a hole to the top of the canopy
effective.

4. Identify the controlled, independent, and

dependent variables in this investigation.

Chapter 3 Achieving and Maintaining Flight • MHR 81

 Drag
Drag only occurs when a solid The force that acts backward on an object in flight
object passes through a liquid or is called drag . Drag slows down a solid object as it
gas. If an object moves through a
moves through a liquid or gas. The liquid or gas
vacuum, there is no drag. Would
a satellite travelling through space particles must be pushed out of the way or pulled
experience drag? along with the object, causing it to slow down. As
the speed of an object increases, so does drag. When
drag occurs in the air, it is sometimes called air
resistance. An aircraft experiencing a lot of drag
www.mcgrawhill.ca/links/ will not fly as fast as an aircraft experiencing less
ns+science6 drag. If drag is too great, the aircraft will stop
Cars also experience drag. Vehicles moving forward and will fall to the ground.
designed from the 1930s through the When you tested your glider in Activity 3-F,
1960s were not very aerodynamic.
what factors influenced the distance your aircraft
They did not need to be. Their pow-
erful engines overcame the effects travelled? You may have found that the shape and
of drag. After the 1970s, fuel became texture of an object affects drag. An object that
more expensive. The automobile has a smooth texture and a streamlined shape
industry responded by using tech- experiences less drag. Such an object is described
nology to reduce the amount of drag
that cars experienced. This meant they
as being aerodynamic. Airplanes and helicopters are
could go faster but still burn less designed to reduce drag. Long, thin wings experi-
fuel. Today, concern about energy ence less drag. Similarly, the surface of a plane is
use, cost, and the environment still smooth, and its design is streamlined.
pushes designers to make more
aerodynamic cars. Go to the above
web site and click on Web Links to
find out where to go next. Type of Force
• Drag
Direction of Force
• Backward
How does it work?
• Liquid or gas particles
must be pushed out of the
way or pulled along with
the object, causing it to
slow down.
Examples:
• A fighter jet is streamlined
so that it can fly at high
speeds with minimal drag.
• A falcon like the one shown here forms a bullet-like
shape as it dives after its prey. This shape reduces
drag at high speeds.

82 MHR • Unit 2 Flight

 Sometimes we design things to increase drag, rather than to
reduce it. We do this when we want objects to fall more slowly.
When you designed a parachute earlier, you were able to reduce
the speed at which an object falls. The canopy of a parachute
provides a large surface area. It is not streamlined, so it increases
drag, slowing its fall so that the object or person it is carrying
lands safely. Some parachute designs do more than increase
drag. They have wing-like properties that allow skydivers to
control where they land (see Figure 3.14).
Aircraft need to generate a forward force that overcomes the
backward force of drag if they want to become and stay airborne.
Living things such as birds, insects, and other flying and gliding
organisms also need to generate this force. What force opposes
the force of drag? How do living things create enough forward
force to overcome drag?

Figure 3.13 A parachute is designed to Figure 3.14 Modern parachutes have wing-like
increase drag. This allows things to fall slowly. properties that allow skydivers to land on very
specific targets.

Chapter 3 Achieving and Maintaining Flight • MHR 83

 S K I L L C H E C K
Observing

Compare and Contrast

Plan and Design

Communicate

Two Flying Organisms

Think About It
Many different organisms are able to fly or glide
through the air. This includes birds, insects,
mammals, reptiles, fish, and amphibians. In this
investigation, you will compare the movements
of two different organisms as they fly or glide.

What to Do
Read the handout your teacher has provided
about different organisms that fly or glide.

In your group, choose two organisms 5 As a group, create a poster, comic, video,
that fly or glide that you would like to poem, dance, or other creative display
compare. Use your own observations that compares the movement of the two
and the information in the handout to organisms. Be sure to refer to the unique
compare the movements of these organ- structures and traits that enable your
isms when they fly or glide. organisms to fly or glide.
Create a list of the ways the organisms
move differently during flight. Create
another list of the similarities in the ways
Analyze
they move. 1. Are your organisms’ movements during
flight more similar than different? Or is
Describe any unique structures and traits the reverse true? Explain.
that enable your organisms to fly or glide.

84 MHR • Unit 2 Flight

Thrust
As you saw in the last activity, living things use
different means to generate a forward force to
overcome drag. This force is known as thrust.
Thrust pushes a flying machine or organism
forward during flight.
Wings get their lift when air flows around
them. However, the air must be set in motion
for this to happen. This means that an airplane A

must be moving forward in order to experience

lift. It must have thrust to become airborne.
In order to stay aloft, a plane must experience
more thrust than drag. Without thrust, an
aircraft cannot remain in the air. It will crash
to the ground. Propellers, jet engines, rocket
engines, wing muscles, and even gravity can
generate thrust.
In the next section, you will learn more about
the different ways aircraft generate thrust. You B
will explore how advances in technology have
helped humans generate enough thrust to not Figure 3.15 How does this bat (A)
only fly through the air but also into space. generate thrust? How about this plane (B)?

Type of Force
• Thrust
Direction of Force
• Forward
How does it work?
• A force is generated by wings, propellers, or other
means. This force overcomes drag and moves the object
forward through the air.
Examples:
• A bee flaps its wings about 190 times per second to
generate the thrust it needs to take off and fly forward.
• A rocket uses its powerful engines to create the thrust it
needs to escape Earth’s gravitational pull and enter orbit.

Chapter 3 Achieving and Maintaining Flight • MHR 85

 lift

Why must thrust be

thrust
greater than drag
for an aircraft to
stay in the air?

gravity Figure 3.16 A wing experiences the forces of

drag gravity, lift, thrust, and drag while in flight.

Table 3.2 Comparing the Forces That Act During Flight

Force Direction How It Works
gravity downward • Earth pulls all objects downward.
• Only very large objects, such as Earth, have a noticeable
gravitational pull.

buoyancy upward • An object displaces a liquid or gas (for example, a hot air balloon
displaces air).
• The surrounding liquid or gas exerts the same pressure on the object
that it had on the liquid or gas that was displaced. If the object is
lighter than the liguid or gas it displaced, the pressure will cause it
to rise.

lift upward • Wings are curved.

• Air passes over a curved wing more quickly than under it, as it must
travel further.
• Air pressure decreases as air speed increases.
• Higher-pressure air flowing under the wing pushes it upward.
• The wing is lifted up.

drag backward • Liquid or gas particles must be pushed out of the way or pulled along
with the object, causing it to slow down.
• As the speed of an object increases, so does drag.

thrust forward • Force is generated by wings, propellers, or other means.

• If the force overcomes drag, the plane moves forward through the air.

86 MHR • Unit 2 Flight

Section 3.2 Summary
Forces also act on aircraft in a forward and backward direction
during flight.
• Drag slows an organism or aircraft down during flight. A stream-
lined aircraft experiences reduced drag. A parachute is designed to
increase drag, allowing a person or object to fall more slowly.
• Thrust pushes an aircraft forward. Thrust must be greater than
drag or an aircraft will not remain in the air.

Check Your Understanding Key Terms

drag
1. Give an example of an aircraft that is designed to increase drag.
thrust
How does increased drag help it perform its function?
2. Describe the difference between air resistance and drag.

3. Name three means of generating thrust.

4. Some cars and planes are designed to be very aerodynamic.

Use the term “drag” to explain this statement.

Chapter 3 Achieving and Maintaining Flight • MHR 87

 CHAPTER 3

Section 3.3 Powered Flight

Key Terms Many aircraft appear to fly without power. However, these
propeller crafts are actually gliders. Gliders, such as glider planes, hang
propulsion gliders, and even paper gliders, take off or are released from a
jet engine height. They “fly” until the force of gravity pulls them down
rocket engine to Earth. Their flight is not sustained over time. In order to
generate the thrust required to maintain sustained flight, aircraft
must be powered in some way. They must generate continual
thrust. Organisms such as birds, bats, and insects use their wing
muscles to generate thrust. However, human chest muscles are
too weak to generate the type of power these creatures use to
fly. Instead, we have to rely on technology. There are three
ways that mechanical aircraft generate thrust. These are the
propeller, the jet engine, and the rocket engine.

Propellers
Helicopters, as well as many planes, use propellers to gain and
maintain lift. How does a propeller work? A propeller is made
up of two or more twisted blades. An engine makes these blades
turn like a pair of spinning wings. The tips of the propeller blades
spin faster than the centre of the propeller. This creates an air
pressure difference. It is very similar to the pressure difference
that occurs between the top and bottom side of a wing in flight.
As described by Bernoulli’s principle, a force is generated. But
unlike a wing in flight, where the wing lifts upward, this force
pushes air backward. Air rushes toward the rear of the aircraft.

A helicopter propeller is called a rotor. The blades of

a rotor are long and thin. The lift they provide not only
lifts the helicopter, but it also provides the thrust the
helicopter needs to
travel forward. To
move horizontally,
the pilot simply tilts
the rotor slightly
forward, causing
the air to be pushed
toward the rear of
the aircraft. Figure 3.17 A propeller is made up of
two or more twisted blades.

88 MHR • Unit 2 Flight

Find Out ACTIVITY 3–I
Fold edge up here

Build a Helicopter Cut slots here

In this activity, you will make an aircraft
that uses a propeller to generate thrust.

Safety Precautions
Fold edge here

What You Will Need

straw or wooden dowel
scissors
ruler
pencil
stiff paper, such as a used file folder
or manila paper 6. To fly the helicopter, place it between
your hands and tilt the propeller slightly
What to Do down and away from you. Push one
1. Cut a 4 cm by 20 cm piece of stiff paper. hand forward at the same time as you
pull the other hand backward. Be sure
2. Draw a line that runs width-wise across the folded edge is moving forward.
the centre of the paper. This line should
be 10 cm from each edge. 7. See if you can modify your propeller
so that it will fly better. Describe your
3. Cut slots as shown in the diagram. modifications in your notebook. Test
Each slot should be 2 cm long and your modified helicopter, and record
3 cm from the centre line you just your observations.
created. Fold the edges of the paper
upward as shown. This will become What Did You Find Out?
the helicopter’s propeller. 1. Describe how your helicopter moved
when you released it.
4. Poke a hole in the centre of the paper.
Make the hole slightly smaller than the 2. Based on your observations, what is
diameter of a straw. the best size and shape for the propeller
in this activity?
5. Push the straw through the paper
as shown.

Chapter 3 Achieving and Maintaining Flight • MHR 89

 Why do you think a plane moves forward when air moves
toward the rear of the plane? When a particle pushes against
another particle, the second particle will react by applying the
Propellers were same force back. When air is forced backward, away from the
used in ships long
before they played
propeller, it strikes other air particles. These air particles apply
a role in flight. The a force back. This force is thrust. It is exactly as strong as the
first propellers were force of the air that was pushed backward by the propeller.
not very efficient. Thrust results in the propulsion , or forward motion, of the
Surprisingly, pro-
plane. The amount of thrust and propulsion a propeller creates
pellers used to be
shaped a lot like depends on the angle of the blades and how quickly they spin.
screws. Then one Aircraft also use jet engines as a means of propulsion. How
day, the tip of a does a jet engine work? Can you create a model of a jet engine
pointed propeller and show how it generates thrust?
broke off in the
water. Amazingly,
the boat travelled
much more quickly
with the broken
propeller. Since
then, propellers
have been designed
with a flat front.

Figure 3.18 Many planes, such as this Canadian-designed de Havilland

Buffalo, use propellers.

90 MHR • Unit 2 Flight

Type of Propulsion
• Propeller
How does it work?
• The tips of the propeller blades spin faster
than the centre of the propeller. This
creates an air pressure difference. As
explained by Bernoulli’s principle, a force
is generated and air is pushed backward.
The air strikes other air particles, which
apply a force back, resulting in the forward
motion of the plane.
Examples:
• A propeller plane uses one or more propellers to generate thrust to move it forward.
• A helicopter uses a propeller to generate both lift and thrust.

Find Out ACTIVITY 3–J

Balloon Jets
You can observe the force that propels 3. Blow up the balloon. Ask a partner to
a jet plane by making your own jet with tape the balloon to the straw while you
a balloon. hold the mouth of the balloon shut.

4. Keep squeezing the balloon end while

you pull your balloon rocket to one end
of the string.

5. Release the balloon.

What You Will Need
balloons of different sizes 6. Blow up the balloon again. Stop when it
drinking straw is half filled with air. Repeat the activity.
masking tape
7. Repeat the activity with different-sized
5 m length of string
balloons.
What to Do
What Did You Find Out?
1. Thread the string through the straw.
1. Explain why the balloon moved when
2. Tie each end of the string to a sturdy you released the air.
post about 2 m above the ground.
Make sure the string is tight and level. 2. What affects the speed at which the
balloon travels?

Chapter 3 Achieving and Maintaining Flight • MHR 91

 Jet Engines
A jet engine uses expanding gases to propel a plane. A fan at the
front of the engine pulls in large volumes of air. Some of this air
goes into a compressor, which increases the air’s temperature
and pressure. The hot, high-pressure air is mixed with fuel.
The mixture is then ignited. The gases expand and shoot from
the back of the engine. This causes the plane to move forward.
Why do you think the plane moves forward when gas shoots
out the back of the engine? The same reason the balloons shot
forward when you released air from them in the previous activity.
When air shoots out of the back of a jet engine, it strikes other
air particles. These air particles apply a force back. This force
is exactly as strong as the force released by the jet engine. It
causes the plane to shoot forward. This is very similar to the
way a plane moves forward when a propeller pushes air toward
the rear of a plane.

How does a jet

engine work?

Figure 3.19 A World War II jet bomber.

Notice the air intakes at the front of the
jet engines.

Figure 3.20 The Concorde is a passenger

jet that can fly faster than the speed of
sound. However, due to high operational
costs, the plane has been grounded.

92 MHR • Unit 2 Flight

 Type of Propulsion Examples:
• Jet engine • The SR-71 Blackbird can fly at three times the speed of
sound. This jet-propelled aircraft is the fastest in the world.
How does it work? • The Airbus A380, shown below, is the largest passenger
• A fan at the front of the jet in the world. It uses jet engines to transport up to
engine pulls in large volumes 840 people per flight.
of air. Some of this air goes
into a compressor, which
increases the air’s temperature
and pressure. The hot, high-
pressure air is mixed with fuel,
and the mixture is ignited. The
gases expand and shoot from
the back of the engine,
propelling the plane forward.

Rocket Engines
Jet engines allow humans to travel through the atmosphere at
great speeds. Sometimes these speeds are even greater than the
speed of sound. However, jet engines cannot travel into space.
Their use is limited because they use air to generate propulsion.
This is where rocket engines fill an important role.
Rocket propulsion is similar to jet
propulsion in that expanding gases are
responsible for thrust. However, rocket
engines are designed differently from
jet engines. Jet engines take in and
compress air. The gases shoot out of
the rear of the engine, and the plane
moves forward. There is no air in
space. This limits the height at which
a jet can fly.
Rocket engines work in the atmos-
phere too. But unlike jet engines, they Figure 3.21 A rocket engine creates enormous
also work in space. Rocket engines are thrust that carries it into space.

Chapter 3 Achieving and Maintaining Flight • MHR 93

 able to create thrust in space because they generate their own
gases. They do not take in air. Instead, rockets carry a special
chemical that is mixed with fuel. The two chemicals are ignited,
producing hot gases. These gases are pushed out the back of
the engine, providing thrust that pushes the rocket into space.
Table 3.3 compares some different methods of propulsion. At
a glance, could you identify what sort of propulsion an aircraft
or organism uses?

Table 3.3 Comparing Different Means of Propulsion

Aircraft or Organism Means of Propulsion
Wasp Wings

Parachute Gravity

Helicopter Propeller

SR-71 Blackbird Jet Jet Engine

Vostok 1 Rocket Rocket Engine

Type of Propulsion
• Rocket engine
How does it work?
• Rockets carry a special chemical that is mixed with
fuel. The two chemicals are ignited, producing hot
gases. These gases are pushed out the back of the
engine, propelling the rocket forward. The engine
does not need air to run.
Examples:
• The Vostok 1 was the first rocket to take a human
into space. It was powered by 20 rocket engines.
• The Space Shuttle has three main rocket engines.
They were the first reusable rocket engines used in
space flight.

94 MHR • Unit 2 Flight

 S K I L L C H E C K
Observe

Identify

Compare and Contrast

Problem Solving

Propulsion
In this investigation, you will identify and describe the means
of propulsion used by different aircraft and organisms.

Think About It What to Do

Can you determine by observation alone how Look at the pictures on this page.
an aircraft or organism is propelled?
Identify and describe how each type of
aircraft or organism is propelled.

A B C

D E F

Analyze
1. How did you decide how
each aircraft or organism
was propelled?

G H

Chapter 3 Achieving and Maintaining Flight • MHR 95

 Section 3.3 Summary
The propeller, jet engine, and rocket engine each play an important
role in flight.
• A propeller is made up of two or more twisted blades. Their motion
creates an air pressure difference that moves the plane forward.
• A jet engine uses expanding gas to propel a plane. The gas shoots
out of the back of the engine, causing the plane to move forward.
• A rocket engine is similar to a jet engine except that it can be used in
the vacuum of space. Unlike a jet engine, it does not need air to run.

Key Terms Check Your Understanding

propeller
1. How is a propeller similar to a wing?
propulsion
jet engine 2. What is the difference between thrust and propulsion?

rocket engine 3. Compare and contrast how a jet engine and a rocket engine work.

4. An aerospace company has designed a new jet engine. It is more

powerful than any engine that has ever been built. They hope to
market it to NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration
in the United States) for use on the Space Shuttle. Do you think
NASA will buy it? Explain your reasoning.

96 MHR • Unit 2 Flight

 Prepare Your Own Chapter Summary

Summarize Chapter 3 by doing one of • Draw a flow chart that shows what
the following: happens when the air in a hot air
• Create a graphic organizer. balloon is heated.
• Produce a poster. • Create a poster that illustrates the three
• Write a summary to include key ways in which thrust is generated in
chapter ideas. aircraft and spacecraft.
Here are a few ideas to use as a guide: • Draw a diagram to show how lift is
• Make a chart that compares the forces generated using Bernoulli’s principle.
that act on an object during flight.
Next to each force, give the direction
in which it acts.

Chapter 3 Achieving and Maintaining Flight • MHR 97