RAGHU ENGINEERING

COLLEGE
(Autonomous)

Department of Computer Science & Engineering-Cyber Security

(Accredited by NBA, NAAC with A Grade, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Permanently Affiliated to JNTU Vizianagaram)
Dakamarri, Bheemunipatnam Mandal, Visakhapatnam Dist. – 531 162 (A.P.)
Ph: +91-8922-248001, 248002, Fax : + 91-8922-248011
e-mail: [email protected], website: www.raghuenggcollege.com

Branch:CSE-CS
Year: II B.tech
Semester:II
Name of the Subject: Computer Networks
Subject Code:20CS4012
Date of Examination:30-03-2024
Name of the Subject Coordinator: Mrs. K.PAPAYAMMA

ANSWER KEY
REGULAR EXAMINATIONS – May 2024
Q Detailed Answer Allocatio
No. n of
Marks
1 A Define data communication?explain the components of data communication 10
with neat diagram?

Communication is defined as a process in which more than one computer transfers

information, instructions to each other and for sharing resources. Or in other words,
communication is a process or act in which we can send or receive data. A network of
computers is defined as an interconnected collection of autonomous computers.
Autonomous means no computer can start, stop or control another computer.

Components of Data Communication

A communication system is made up of the following components:

1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one

person to another. It could be a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.
2. Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a computer,
mobile, telephone, laptop, video camera, or workstation, etc.
3. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer, telephone
mobile, workstation, etc.
4. Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication channels
are the medium that connect two or more workstations. Workstations can be
connected by either wired media or wireless media.
5. Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it should be
understandable to the receiver also otherwise it is meaningless. For example,
Sonali sends a message to Chetan. If Sonali writes in Hindi and Chetan cannot
understand Hindi, it is a meaningless conversation.
Therefore, there are some set of rules (protocols) that is followed by every computer
connected to the internet and they are:

● TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is responsible for dividing messages

into packets on the source computer and reassembling the received packet at the
destination or recipient computer. It also makes sure that the packets have the
information about the source of the message data, the destination of the message
data, the sequence in which the message data should be re-assembled, and checks
if the message has been sent correctly to the specific destination.
● IP(Internet Protocol): Do You ever wonder how computer determines which
packet belongs to which device. What happens if the message you sent to your
friend is received by your father? Scary Right. Well! IP is responsible for handling
the address of the destination computer so that each packet is sent to its proper
destination.

Type of data communication

As we know that data communication is communication in which we can send or

receive data from one device to another. The data communication is divided into three
types:

1. Simplex Communication: It is one-way communication or we can say that

unidirectional communication in which one device only receives and another
device only sends data and devices uses their entire capacity in transmission. For
example, IoT, entering data using a keyboard, listing music using a speaker, etc.
2. Half Duplex communication: It is a two-way communication, or we can say that
it is a bidirectional communication in which both the devices can send and receive
data but not at the same time. When one device is sending data then another
device is only receiving and vice-versa. For example, walkie-talkie.
3. Full-duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it
is a bidirectional communication in which both the devices can send and receive
data at the same time. For example, mobile phones, landlines, etc.

Communication Channels

Communication channels are the medium that connects two or more workstations.
Workstations can be connected by either wired media or wireless media. It is also
known as a transmission medium. The transmission medium or channel is a link that
carries messages between two or more devices. We can group the communication
media into two categories:

● Guided media transmission

● Unguided media transmission

1. Guided Media: In this transmission medium, the physical link is created using
wires or cables between two or more computers or devices, and then the data is
transmitted using these cables in terms of signals. Guided media transmission of the
following types:
1. Twisted pair cable: It is the most common form of wire used in communication. In
a twisted-pair cable, two identical wires are wrapped together in a double helix. The
twisting of the wire reduces the crosstalk. It is known as the leaking of a signal from
one wire to another due to which signal can corrupt and can cause network errors. The
twisting protects the wire from internal crosstalk as well as external forms of signal
 interference. Types of Twisted Pair Cable :

● Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): It is used in computers and telephones widely.

As the name suggests, there is no external shielding so it does not protects from
external interference. It is cheaper than STP.
● Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): It offers greater protection from crosstalk due to
shield. Due to shielding, it protects from external interference. It is heavier and
costlier as compare to UTP.
2. Coaxial Cable: It consists of a solid wire core that is surrounded by one or more
foil or wire shields. The inner core of the coaxial cable carries the signal and the outer
shield provides the ground. It is widely used for television signals and also used by
large corporations in building security systems. Data transmission of this cable is
better but expensive as compared to twisted pair.
3. Optical fibers: Optical fiber is an important technology. It transmits large amounts
of data at very high speeds due to which it is widely used in internet cables. It carries
data as a light that travels inside a thin glass fiber. The fiber optic cable is made up of
three pieces:

1. Core: Core is the piece through which light travels. It is generally created using
glass or plastic.
2. Cladding: It is the covering of the core and reflects the light back to the core.
3. Sheath: It is the protective covering that protects fiber cable from the
environment.
2. Unguided Media: The unguided transmission media is a transmission mode in
which the signals are propagated from one device to another device wirelessly. Signals
can wave through the air, water, or vacuum. It is generally used to transmit signals in
all directions. Unguided Media is further divided into various parts :
1. Microwave: Microwave offers communication without the use of cables.
Microwave signals are just like radio and television signals. It is used in long-distance
communication. Microwave transmission consists of a transmitter, receiver, and
atmosphere. In microwave communication, there are parabolic antennas that are
mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna. The higher the tower, the
greater the range.
2. Radio wave: When communication is carried out by radio frequencies, then it is
termed radio waves transmission. It offers mobility. It is consists of the transmitter and
the receiver. Both use antennas to radiate and capture the radio signal.
3. Infrared: It is short-distance communication and can pass through any object. It is
generally used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, etc.

1 B What is the Internet? 5M

The Internet is a short form for an interconnected network. It has become

a vital part of our lives, helping us connect with people worldwide. The
Internet is made of a large number of independently operated networks. It
is fully distributed with no central control. Each independently-operated
system is motivated to ensure that there is end-to-end connectivity of
every part of the network.
The Internet is simply a wire that runs underground and allows two
computers to communicate with each other. A server is a particular
computer that is connected directly to the Internet. When we talk about
specific web pages, they are simply files that are stored on the server’s
hard drive. Every server has a unique protocol address or an IP address. IP
addresses are essential for computers to find each other.
A short note of the history of the Internet will help you understand when,
where, and how the Internet was developed.

History of the Internet

The first question that pops into your mind is probably, “Who started the
internet?”. The Internet was developed by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf in the
1970s. They began the design of what we today know as the ‘internet.’ It
was the result of another research experiment which was called
ARPANET, which stands for Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network. This was initially supposed to be a communications system for
the Defense Team of the United States of America - a network that would
also survive a nuclear attack. It eventually became a successful
nationwide experimental packet network. But when was the first Internet
started? It is believed that on 6 August 1991, when the World Wide Web
opened to the public.

How Does the Internet Work?

Computers that we use every day are called clients because they are
indirectly connected to the Internet through an internet service provider.
When you open a webpage on your computer, you connect to the
webpage, and then you can access it. Computers break the information
into smaller pieces called packets, which are reassembled in their original
order.

If we put the right address on a packet and send it to any computer which
is connected as part of the internet, each computer would figure out which
cable to send it down next so that it would get to its destination. With
several computers on a network, it may create confusion even with unique
addresses. This transfer of messages is handled by the Packet Routing
Network, and hence a router is required to set up.

The Transfer Control Protocol is another system that makes sure no

packet is lost or left behind because it might create a disrupted message at
the receiving end.The below are the steps for how the message is
transferred.
First, Computer1 sends a message by IP address to Computer2The
message sent by Computer1 is broken into small pieces- packets.These
small pieces- packets are transferred concerning Transfer Protocol so that
the quality is maintained.Finally, these small pieces- packets reach
Computer2 and are reassembled at their IP address.

The Internet works in a more complex manner than these above-given

steps, but this might give a basic idea of how the internet works.

Father of the Internet: Tim Berners-Lee

Tim Berners-Lee was the man, who led the development of the World
Wide Web, the defining of HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol), HTML
(hypertext markup language) used to create web pages, and URLs
(Universal Resource Locators). The development of WWW, HTTP,
HTML and URLs took place between 1989 and 1991. Tim Berners-Lee
was born in London and he graduated in Physics from Oxford University
in 1976. Currently, Tim Berners-Lee is the Director of the World Wide
Web Consortium, the group that sets technical standards for the web.

Tim Berners-Lee, Vinton Cerf is also named as an internet daddy other

than Tim Berners-Lee. After being out for 10 years from high school, he
began co-designing and co-developing the protocols and structure of what
became the internet.

History of HTML
In 1945, Vannevar Bush first introduced the basics of hypertext. In 1990,
Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web, HTML (hypertext
markup language), HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) and URLs
(Universal Resource Locators. Along with his colleagues at CERN (an
international scientific organization based in Geneva, Switzerland), Tim
Berners-Lee was the primary author of HTML (hypertext markup
language).

Evolution of the Internet

Although the Internet was developed much earlier, it only became popular
in households in the 1990s. The emergence of the Internet can be tracked
by how many businesses and homes started changing the way they
worked and started connecting their laptops and other devices to the
Internet. However, the concept of hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) as
we know it today, was created only during this time. This meant that
people could access the same web pages on their devices now and share
information.

There has been a dramatic growth in the number of internet users since its
inception. As a result, the number of computer networks that are
connected has grown exponentially too. It started with only connecting
less than ten computers initially. Today, 440 million computers can be
connected directly, making life easier for people across the globe. Sharing
information and knowledge has become extremely easy for those that
have access to the Internet. The country with the highest number of
internet users is China, with 1.4 billion users, followed by India with 1.3
billion and the United States of America with a little over 0.3 billion
users.

The Two Main Types of Computer Networks

There are different computer network types, depending on how large they
are and how much geographical area they cover. The most common types
are Local Area Network (LAN) and Wireless Local Area Network
(WAN).
Local Area Network: This is a group of devices such as computers,
servers, switches, and printers that are located in the same building. These
 are near each other. The most common use of LAN is in houses or offices.
A common type of LAN is an Ethernet LAN, where two or more
computers are connected to the Internet through switches.
Wireless Local Area Network: This is a local area network that uses
wireless communication instead of wired communication. In WLAN, two
computers use wireless communication to form a local area network. A
wifi router is very common in this case. There are no cables involved in
this case.
Advantages of Internet
The internet has become a popular name since the introduction of its easy
installation and setup. The Internet was first invented for only military
and government uses. But now, it is found in every house across the
world. The following are the advantages of the internet.It is a great
medium of sharing and has increased connectivity.With the internet,
banking has now become easier. Long tiresome waiting lines have been
eliminated since the introduction of e-banking platforms.

E-commerce websites are one of the great advantages of the internet. One
can buy groceries, clothes, household items, and much more with the
internet.The Internet is also a great source of entertainment. One can
watch videos and movies, listen to music, and play games, without any
hassle.Social media platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter have
brought the world closer.The education system has also transformed. With
the internet, any student across the world can attend online classesThe
most powerful motivator for the Internet to work is the fact that
knowledge and information have to be shared amongst people. The article
provided useful information about the internet such as its history, working
and evolution etc.

OR
2 A Discuss about LAN,WAN,MAN breif with example? 10 M
Types of Networks
According to the communication requirements, multiple types of network
connections are available. The most basic type of network classification depends
on the network's geographical coverage.

Below mentioned are different types of networks:

● PAN (Personal Area Network)

● LAN (Local Area Network)

● MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

 ● WAN (Wide Area Network)

Let’s look into each of the network types in detail.

What Is Local Area Network (LAN)?

The Local Area Network (LAN) is designed to connect multiple network

devices and systems within a limited geographical distance. The devices are
connected using multiple protocols for properly and efficiently exchanging
data and services.

Attributes of LAN Network:

The data transmit speed in the LAN network is relatively higher than the
other network types, MAN and WAN.

LAN uses private network addresses for network connectivity for data and
service exchange, and it uses cable for network connection, decreasing error
and maintaining data security.

2
What is Computer networks and neat diagram?
Computer Network tutorial provides basic and advanced concepts of Data
Communication & Networks (DCN). Our Computer Networking Tutorial is
designed for beginners and professionals.
Our Computer Network tutorial includes all topics of Computer Network
such as introduction, features, types of computer network, architecture,
hardware, software, internet, intranet, website, LAN, WAN, etc.
What is Computer Network?
A computer network is a set of devices connected through links. A node can
be computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending or receiving
the data. The links connecting the nodes are known as communication
channels.
Computer Network uses distributed processing in which task is divided
among several computers. Instead, a single computer handles an entire task,
each separate computer handles a subset.

o Security: It provides limited interaction that a user can have with

the entire system. For example, a bank allows the users to access
 their own accounts through an ATM without allowing them to
access the bank's entire database.
o Faster problem solving: Multiple computers can solve the problem
faster than a single machine working alone.
o Security through redundancy: Multiple computers running the
same program at the same time can provide the security through
redundancy. For example, if four computers run the same program
and any computer has a hardware error, then other computers can
override it.

3 A Explain about guided and unguided transmission media?

5M
Types of Transmission Media 10M
In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path
between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the channel through which data is
sent from one place to another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the
following types:

1. Guided Media: It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media.

Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using
physical links.
Features:

● High Speed

● Secure

● Used for comparatively shorter distances

There are 3 major types of Guided Media:
(i) Twisted Pair Cable –
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other.
Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the
most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:

● Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another. This type
of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical
shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Advantages:
Least expensive

Easy to install

High-speed capacity
Disadvantages:
Susceptible to external interference
 Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP

Short distance transmission due to attenuation

Applications:
Used in telephone connections and LAN networks

● Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a foil
shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in
voice and data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages:
Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP

Eliminates crosstalk

Comparatively faster
Disadvantages:
Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture

More expensive

Bulky
Applications:
The shielded twisted pair type of cable is most frequently used in extremely cold
climates, where the additional layer of outer covering makes it perfect for
withstanding such temperatures or for shielding the interior components.
(ii) Coaxial Cable –
It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon
and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover. The
coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable
bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable
TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.

Advantages:

● High Bandwidth

● Better noise Immunity

● Easy to install and expand

● Inexpensive
Disadvantages:

● Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network

Applications:
Radio frequency signals are sent over coaxial wire. It can be used for cable television
signal distribution, digital audio (S/PDIF), computer network connections (like
Ethernet), and feedlines that connect radio transmitters and receivers to their antennas.
(iii) Optical Fiber Cable –
It uses the concept of refraction of light through a core made up of glass or plastic.
The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It
is used for the transmission of large volumes of data.
The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division
Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.

Advantages:

● Increased capacity and bandwidth

● Lightweight

● Less signal attenuation

● Immunity to electromagnetic interference

● Resistance to corrosive materials

Disadvantages:

● Difficult to install and maintain

● High cost

● Fragile
Applications:

● Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.

● Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.

● For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.

● Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in designing
the interior and exterior of automobiles.
(iv) Stripline
Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium invented by
Robert M. Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge Research Centre in the 1950s. Stripline
is the earliest form of the planar transmission line. It uses a conducting material to
transmit high-frequency waves it is also called a waveguide. This conducting material
is sandwiched between two layers of the ground plane which are usually shorted to
provide EMI immunity.
(v) Microstripline
In this, the conducting material is separated from the ground plane by a layer of
dielectric.
2. Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical
medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:
 ● The signal is broadcasted through air

● Less Secure

● Used for larger distances

There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:
(i) Radio waves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM
radios and cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.

Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.

(ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be
properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly
proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These
are majorly used for mobile phone communication and television distribution.

Microwave Transmission
(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate
through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency
Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard,
printer, etc.

3 B Explain in detail FDM,TDM,CDM 5

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Frequency division multiplexing or FDM is inherently an analog technology.

As the name specifies, in Frequency Division Multiplexing, the frequency
dimension spectrum is split into smaller frequency bands. It combines
several smaller distinct frequency ranges signals into one medium and sends
them over a single medium. In FDM, the signals are electrical signals.
FDM's most common applications are a traditional radio or television
broadcasting, mobile or satellite stations, or cable television.
For example: In cable TV, you can see that only one cable is reached to the
customer's locality, but the service provider can send multiple television
channels or signals simultaneously over that cable to all customers without
any interference. The customers have to tune to the appropriate frequency
(channel) to access the required signal.
In FDM, several frequency bands can work simultaneously without any time
constraint.

Advantages of FDM
o The concept of frequency division multiplexing (FDM) applies to
both analog signals and digital signals.
o It facilitates you to send multiple signals simultaneously within a
single connection.

Disadvantages of FDM
o It is less flexible.
o In FDM, the bandwidth wastage may be high.

Usage
It is used in Radio and television broadcasting stations, Cable TV etc.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

The Time Division Multiplexing or (TDM) is a digital or analog technology (in

rare cases) that uses time, instead of space or frequency, to separate the
different data streams. It is used for a specific amount of time in which the
whole spectrum is used.
The Time frames of the same intervals are divided so that you can access
the entire frequency spectrum at that time frame.

Advantages of TDM
o It facilitates a single user at a time.
o It is less complicated and has a more flexible architecture.

Disadvantages of TDM
o It isn't easy to implement.

Usage
 o It is mainly used in telephonic services.

Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)

The Code Division Multiplexing or (CDM) allots a unique code to every

channel so that each of these channels can use the same spectrum
simultaneously at the same time.

Advantages of CDM
o It is highly efficient.
o It faces fewer Inferences.

Disadvantages of CDM
o The data transmission rate is low.
o It is complex.

Usage
o It is mainly used in Cell Phone Spectrum Technology (2G, 3G etc.).

OR
4 A Applications and advantages of guided ,unguided media? 10
Types of Transmission Media
In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path
between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the channel through which data is
sent from one place to another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the
following types:

1. Guided Media: It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media.

Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using
physical links.
Features:

● High Speed
● Secure

● Used for comparatively shorter distances

There are 3 major types of Guided Media:
(i) Twisted Pair Cable –
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other.
Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the
most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:

● Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another. This type
of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical
shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Advantages:
Least expensive

Easy to install

High-speed capacity
Disadvantages:
Susceptible to external interference

Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP

Short distance transmission due to attenuation

Applications:
Used in telephone connections and LAN networks

● Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a foil
shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in
voice and data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages:
Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP

Eliminates crosstalk

Comparatively faster
Disadvantages:
Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture

More expensive

Bulky
Applications:
The shielded twisted pair type of cable is most frequently used in extremely cold
climates, where the additional layer of outer covering makes it perfect for
withstanding such temperatures or for shielding the interior components.
(ii) Coaxial Cable –
It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon
and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover. The
coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable
bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable
TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.

Advantages:

● High Bandwidth

● Better noise Immunity

● Easy to install and expand

● Inexpensive
Disadvantages:

● Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network

Applications:
Radio frequency signals are sent over coaxial wire. It can be used for cable television
signal distribution, digital audio (S/PDIF), computer network connections (like
Ethernet), and feedlines that connect radio transmitters and receivers to their antennas.
(iii) Optical Fiber Cable –
It uses the concept of refraction of light through a core made up of glass or plastic.
The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It
is used for the transmission of large volumes of data.
The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division
Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.

Advantages:

● Increased capacity and bandwidth

● Lightweight

● Less signal attenuation

● Immunity to electromagnetic interference

● Resistance to corrosive materials

Disadvantages:

● Difficult to install and maintain

● High cost
● Fragile
Applications:

● Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.

● Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.

● For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.

● Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in designing
the interior and exterior of automobiles.
(iv) Stripline
Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium invented by
Robert M. Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge Research Centre in the 1950s. Stripline
is the earliest form of the planar transmission line. It uses a conducting material to
transmit high-frequency waves it is also called a waveguide. This conducting material
is sandwiched between two layers of the ground plane which are usually shorted to
provide EMI immunity.
(v) Microstripline
In this, the conducting material is separated from the ground plane by a layer of
dielectric.
2. Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical
medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:

● The signal is broadcasted through air

● Less Secure

● Used for larger distances

There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:
(i) Radio waves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM
radios and cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.

Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.

(ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be
properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly
proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These
are majorly used for mobile phone communication and television distribution.
 Microwave Transmission
(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate
through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency
Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard,
printer, etc.

4 B Explain about Digital to analog 5M

conversion 10M
Digital to Analog Conversion:
Digital Signal –
A digital signal is a signal that represents data as a sequence of discrete
values; at any given time it can only take on one of a finite number of
values.
Analog Signal –
An analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time varying
feature of the signal is a representation of some other time varying
quantity i.e., analogous to another time varying signal. The following
techniques can be used for Digital to Analog Conversion:
1. Amplitude Shift keying –
Amplitude Shift Keying is a technique in which carrier signal is analog
and data to be modulated is digital. The amplitude of analog carrier signal
is modified to reflect binary data. The binary signal when modulated
gives a zero value when the binary data represents 0 while gives the
carrier output when data is 1. The frequency and phase of the carrier
signal remain constant.

Advantages of amplitude shift Keying –

● It can be used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.

● The receiver and transmitter have a simple design which also makes it
comparatively inexpensive.
● It uses lesser bandwidth as compared to FSK thus it offers high
bandwidth efficiency.
Disadvantages of amplitude shift Keying –

● It is susceptible to noise interference and entire transmissions could be

lost due to this.
● It has lower power efficiency.
2. Frequency Shift keying –
In this modulation the frequency of analog carrier signal is modified to
reflect binary data. The output of a frequency shift keying modulated
wave is high in frequency for a binary high input and is low in frequency
for a binary low input. The amplitude and phase of the carrier signal
remain constant.

Advantages of frequency shift Keying –

● Frequency shift keying modulated signal can help avoid the noise
problems beset by ASK.
● It has lower chances of an error.

● It provides high signal to noise ratio.

● The transmitter and receiver implementations are simple for low data
rate application.
Disadvantages of frequency shift Keying –

● It uses larger bandwidth as compared to ASK thus it offers less

bandwidth efficiency.
● It has lower power efficiency.
3. Phase Shift keying –
In this modulation the phase of the analog carrier signal is modified to
reflect binary data.The amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal
remains constant.
 It is further categorized as follows:
1. Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK): BPSK also known as phase
reversal keying or 2PSK is the simplest form of phase shift keying.
The Phase of the carrier wave is changed according to the two binary
inputs. In Binary Phase shift keying, difference of 180 phase shift is
used between binary 1 and binary 0. This is regarded as the most
robust digital modulation technique and is used for long distance
wireless communication.
2. Quadrature phase shift keying: This technique is used to increase
the bit rate i.e we can code two bits onto one single element. It uses
four phases to encode two bits per symbol. QPSK uses phase shifts of
multiples of 90 degrees. It has double data rate carrying capacity
compare to BPSK as two bits are mapped on each constellation points.
Advantages of phase shift Keying –

● It is a more power efficient modulation technique as compared to ASK

and FSK.
● It has lower chances of an error.

● It allows data to be carried along a communication signal much more

efficiently as compared to FSK.
Disadvantages of phase shift Keying –

● It offers low bandwidth efficiency.

● The detection and recovery algorithms of binary data is very complex.

● It is a non coherent reference signal.

OR
5 B Connection oriented and connection less services ?and explain tcp/ip 5M
protocol suite?
S.NO Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service

1. Connection-oriented service is related to Connection-less service is related to

the telephone system. the postal system.

2. Connection-oriented service is preferred by Connection-less Service is preferred

long and steady communication. by bursty communication.

3. Connection-less Service is not

Connection-oriented Service is necessary.
compulsory.

4. Connection-less Service is not

Connection-oriented Service is feasible.
feasible.

5. In connection-oriented Service, Congestion In connection-less Service,

is not possible. Congestion is possible.

6. Connection-oriented Service gives the Connection-less Service does not give

guarantee of reliability. a guarantee of reliability.

7. In connection-oriented Service, Packets In connection-less Service, Packets do

 follow the same route. not follow the same route.

8. Connection-oriented services require a Connection-less Service requires a

bandwidth of a high range. bandwidth of low range.

9. Ex: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) Ex: UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

10. Connection-oriented requires Connection-less Service does not

authentication. require authentication.

5 B EXPLAIN ABOUT VARIOUS TYPES OF TOPOLOGIES? 5M

Types of Network Topology

Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a

network. There are six types of network topology which are Bus Topology,
Ring Topology, Tree Topology, Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid
Topology.

1) Bus Topology

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o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are
connected through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable
or directly connected to the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a
message over the network. All the stations available in the network
will receive the message whether it has been addressed or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4
standard networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to
other topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which
the message is broadcast to all the stations.
o The most common access method of the bus topologies
 is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access).

CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data
integrity is maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost. There are two
alternative ways of handling the problems that occur when two nodes send
the messages simultaneously.
o CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method
used to detect the collision. Once the collision is detected, the
sender will stop transmitting the data. Therefore, it works on
"recovery after the collision".
o CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method
used to avoid the collision by checking whether the transmission
media is busy or not. If busy, then the sender waits until the media
becomes idle. This technique effectively reduces the possibility of
the collision. It does not work on "recovery after the collision".

Advantages of Bus topology:

o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to

the cable without passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost
of installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly
used in bus-based networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the
installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known, and
hardware components are easily available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on
other nodes.

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it

requires a lot of cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to
determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it
would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages
simultaneously, then the signals of both the nodes collide with each
other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would
slow down the network.
o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication
issues. Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal.

2) Ring Topology
 o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
o The node that receives the message from the previous computer
will retransmit to the next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless
loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other
node and having no termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token
passing.

o Token passing: It is a network access method in which

token is passed from one node to another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Working of Token passing

o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer

to computer until it reaches the destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with
the data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the
destination address matches. Once the token received by the
destination device, then it sends the acknowledgment to the
sender.
o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.

Advantages of Ring topology:

o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the

network without bringing the network down.
o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for
network operation and monitoring are available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available.
Therefore, the installation cost is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication
system is not dependent on the single host computer.

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to

determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it
would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the
overall network.
 o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would
slow down the network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number
of nodes. Adding new devices increases the communication delay.

3) Star Topology

o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every

node is connected to the central hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral
devices attached to the server are known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in
a physical star topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network
implementation.

Advantages of Star topology

o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star

topology as compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the
manager has to inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star topology,
all the stations are connected to the centralized network. Therefore,
the network administrator has to go to the single station to
troubleshoot the problem.
o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily
implemented in the star topology. Any changes made in the star
topology are automatically accommodated.
o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with
its own cable, therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire
network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its
tools are cost-effective.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be
added to the open ports on the hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses
inexpensive coaxial cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps.
Ethernet 100BaseT is one of the most popular Star topology
networks.

Disadvantages of Star topology

o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down,

then all the connected nodes will not be able to communicate with
 each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a
significant amount of routing is required.

4) Tree topology

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and

star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are
connected with each other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and
all other nodes are the descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data
transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.

Advantages of Tree topology

o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used

to provide broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long
distances without being attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing
network. Therefore, we can say that tree topology is easily
expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided
into segments known as star networks which can be easily
managed and maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy
in a tree topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the
entire network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual
segments.

Disadvantages of Tree topology

o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it

becomes difficult to troubleshoot the problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very
costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure
in main bus cable will damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes
difficult to reconfigure.
5) Mesh topology

o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which

computers are interconnected with each other through various
redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which
acts as a central point of communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where
communication failures are a critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;

Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

o Fully connected mesh topology
o Partially connected mesh topology

o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is

connected to all the computers available in the network.
o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but
certain computers are connected to those computers with which
they communicate frequently.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link
breakdown will not affect the communication between connected
computers.
Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the
communication between other devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected

devices such as a router and more transmission media than other
topologies.
 o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very
difficult to maintain and manage. If the network is not monitored
carefully, then the communication link failure goes undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that
reduces the efficiency of the network.

6) Hybrid Topology

o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid

topology.
o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and
nodes to transfer the data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is
termed as Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected
with each other will not result in Hybrid topology. For example, if
there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus
topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two
topologies will result in Hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect
the functioning of the rest of the network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding
new devices without affecting the functionality of the existing
network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed
according to the requirements of the organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in
such a way that the strength of the network is maximized and
weakness of the network is minimized.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the

design of the Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the
architecture of the Hybrid network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very
expensive as these hubs are different from usual Hubs used in
other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a
 hybrid network requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.

6 A DIgita to digital conversion? 5M

Line Coding
The process of converting the digital data into digital signal is called as line coding which helps 10M
the receiver to get the original bits. The data that is in the form of text, numbers, audio, or video
is represented internally as series of 1s and 0s. Line coding therefore transforms a set of bits into
a digital signal. The sender side encrypts digital data into digital signals, while the receiving side
decodes the digital signal to regenerate the digital data. The primary goal of utilizing line coding
is to prevent the overlapping of pulses and distortions. The digital signal is discreet in nature.
Example is sending data from computer to printer.
There are basically three different types of line coding technique:

● Unipolar

● Polar

● Bipolar

Unipolar

In Unipolar encoding, only one polarity is used i.e., bit 1 is used to represent positive voltage and
bit 0 is used to represent zero voltage or idle line. It is also known as Unipolar-Non-return-to-
zero. Signaling of this kind is also referred to as on-off signaling.
Problem in Unipolar

● DC Component: When we find out the average amplitude of a unipolar signal, then the
value would always be non-zero because of which it creates DC component. And the signal
having DC component is not able to travel through the medium which cannot handle DC
component.

● Synchronization: When a signal is constant, the receiver cannot distinguish between the
start and finish of each bit. For that the receiver has to rely on a timer to track the starting of
each bit.

Unipolar encoding

Polar

The polar encoding is of four types. In polar encoding two levels of voltage amplitude is used.
The DC component issue of unipolar encoding is minimized, and the average voltage level on the
line is decreased.

● Polar Non-Return to Zero (Polar NRZ): In polar encoding, positive voltage is represented
by bit 1 and negative voltage is represented by bit 0. Here two levels of voltage are used to
represent binary values. If the line is idle, then there is no transition. With each inversion, the
receiver is able to synchronize the timer’s start to the transmission’s real arrival. Again,
Polar Non-Return to Zero (Polar NRZ) has two types: NRZ-L and NRZ-I.
 NRZ-L: Changes its voltage level when different bit is encountered.

NRZ-I: Changes its voltage level when bit 1 is encountered.

Advantages of Polar NRZ
This provides synchronization as whenever a 1 bit is encountered, the signal changes.

● Return to Zero (RZ): This encoding technique uses three different voltage level to
represent binary values. Bit 1 is used to represent positive voltage, bit 0 is used to represent
negative voltage and zero voltage for none. During the second half of each bit, this signal
enters a resting state(zero).
Problems in Return to Zero
This occupies more bandwidth as it requires two signal changes to encode one bit.

Return to Zero (RZ)

● Manchester Encoding: In Manchester encoding negative to positive transition represents

binary 1 and positive to negative represents binary 0. Use the inversion at the middle of each
bit interval. That means bit period is represented by two equal size intervals. Here the logic
level of bit is represented by the first interval and the inverse logic level is represented by the
second interval.

Manchester encoding
● Differential Manchester: In Differential Manchester, the inversion at the middle of the bit
is used. Transition is represented by binary 0 and no transition is represented by binary 1.

Different Manchester

Bipolar Encoding

In Bipolar encoding, three types of different voltage level is used that is positive, negative and
zero. The zero level is used to represent binary 0, positive and negative voltage represents
alternatives 1’s to prevent DC component. Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) and Pseudoternary
are the types of bipolar encoding.

Bipolar Encoding

Table: Comparison of Different Digital-to-Digital Line Encoding Techniques

Line
Encoding Description Advantages Disadvantages
Technique

DC component
Uses only one level of problem,
Unipolar Easy to implement
voltage for bit 0 and bit 1 synchronization
issue

Provides May encounter

Uses two levels of voltage
synchronization, DC problem with long
Polar NRZ for bit 0 and bit 1, no
component issue sequences of 0’s or
transition for idle line
minimized 1’s

Uses three levels of

voltage for bit 0, bit 1 and
Provides Occupies more
RZ idle line, signal enters
synchronization bandwidth
resting state during second
half of bit

Manchester Uses transition from Provides Occupies more

positive to negative and synchronization, bandwidth
negative to positive to self-clocking
represent bit 0 and bit 1
 respectively, bit period
represented by two equal
intervals

Uses transition at the

middle of the bit interval
Provides More complex
Differential to represent bit 0, no
synchronization, encoding and
Manchester transition for bit 1, bit
self-clocking decoding process
period represented by two
equal intervals

Uses three levels of

Provides More complex
voltage for bit 0, bit 1 and
Bipolar synchronization, no encoding and
idle line, alternative 1’s to
DC component decoding process
prevent DC component

6 B Explain multiplexing and de multiplexing concepts? 5M

Multiplexing and Demultiplexing services are provided in almost every protocol 10M
architecture ever designed. UDP and TCP perform the demultiplexing and
multiplexing jobs by including two special fields in the segment headers: the source
port number field and the destination port number field.
Multiplexing –
Gathering data from multiple application processes of the sender, enveloping that data
with a header, and sending them as a whole to the intended receiver is called
multiplexing.
Demultiplexing –
Delivering received segments at the receiver side to the correct app layer processes is
called demultiplexing.

Figure – Abstract view of multiplexing and demultiplexing

Multiplexing and demultiplexing are the services facilitated by the transport layer of
the OSI model.
Figure – Transport layer- junction for multiplexing and demultiplexing
There are two types of multiplexing and Demultiplexing :

1. Connectionless Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

2. Connection-Oriented Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
How Multiplexing and Demultiplexing is done –
For sending data from an application on the sender side to an application at the
destination side, the sender must know the IP address of the destination and port
number of the application (at the destination side) to which he wants to transfer the
data. Block diagram is shown below :

Figure – Transfer of packet between applications of sender and receiver

Let us consider two messaging apps that are widely used nowadays viz. Hike and
WhatsApp. Suppose A is the sender and B is the receiver. Both sender and receiver
have these applications installed in their system (say smartphone). Suppose A wants to
send messages to B in WhatsApp and hike both. In order to do so, A must mention the
IP address of B and destination port number of the WhatsApp while sending the
message through the WhatsApp application. Similarly, for the latter case, A must
mention the IP address of B and the destination port number of the hike while sending
the message.
Now the messages from both the apps will be wrapped up along with appropriate
headers(viz. source IP address, destination IP address, source port no, destination port
number) and sent as a single message to the receiver. This process is called
multiplexing. At the destination, the received message is unwrapped and constituent
messages (viz messages from a hike and WhatsApp application) are sent to the
appropriate application by looking to the destination the port number. This process is
called demultiplexing. Similarly, B can also transfer the messages to A.