WAVES PART II PHYSICS ' CLASS XI Sass S6. REFLECTION OF WAVES The string fixed to the wall at its left end ‘The string is fastened to a ring, which slides without friction on a rod 7. STATIONARY WAVES NODES & ANTI NODES SOME OF THE NORMAL MODES OF VIBRATION A STRING FIXED AT BOTH THE ENDS series, Harmonic number OF VIBRATION OF A PIPE CLOSED AT ONE END & OTHER END BEING 9. DOPPLER EFFECT Source Moving ; Observer Stationary ‘When the observer is moving towards the source and the source is at rest, Both Source and Observer Moving6. REFLECTION OF WAVES The incident and reflected waves obey the usual laws of reflection. A travelling wave, at a rigid boundary or a closed end, is reflected with a phase reversal but the reflection at an open boundary takes place without any: phase change. Incident pulse Reflected pie @ Reflection of waves at rgié boundary Refraction of wave at open boundary Consider two situations. First, a string is fixed to a rigid wall at its left end. Second, the left end of the string is tied to a ring, which slides up and down without any friction on a rod. ‘The string fixed to the wall at its left end: When the pulse arrives at that end, it exerts an upward force on the wall, By Newton’s third law, the wall exerts an opposite force of equal magnitude on the string. This second force generates a pulse at the support. In a reflection of this kind, there must be no displacement at the support as the string is fixed there. Thus, in case of a travelling wave, the reflection at a rigid boundary will take place with a phase reversal or with a phase: difference of m or 180°. let the incident wave be represented by ys(x, t) =a sin (kx -ct) For reflection at a rigid boundary the reflected wave is represented by, yx, 1) =a sin (kx + ot +). =—asin (kx +01) ‘The string is fastened to a ring, which slides without friction on a ro When the pulse arrives at the left end, the ring moves up the rod. As the ring moves, it pulls on the string, stretching the string and producing a reflected pulse with the same sign and amplitude as the incident pulse. Thus, in such a reflection, the incident and reflected pulses reinforce each other, creating the maximum, displacement of twice the amplitude of either of the pulses at the end of the string. Thus, the reflection is without any additional phase shift. let the incident wave be represented by y,(x, 1) =a sin (kx -cot) For reflection at an open boundary, the reflected wave is represented by y, (x, t) = a sin (kx + wt) 7. STATIONARY WAVES When two waves of same frequency, wave length and amplitude travel in opposite directions, interfere and produce a standing wave. In stationary wave at any point x and at any time t, there are always two waves, one moving to the left and another to the right. The waveform or the disturbance does not move to either side. yi, 0 (kx ot) (wave travelling in the positive direction of x-axis) yolx, t) =a sin (kx + ot) (wave travelling in the negative direction of x-axis) The principle of superposition gives, for the combined wave ¥ (0) = yal, 1) + yalX, =a sin (kx — ot) +a sin (kx + 00)y(x,0) = asin kx) cos ot a er {As the waves move through each other, some points never move and some move the most NODES & ANTI NODES Aen2—1 She n2—1 NODE: The positions of zero amplitude are called nodes. ‘The amplitude is zero for values of kx that give sin kx = 0 Those values are given by kx = nx, form =0, 1, 2, 3.« Substituting k = 2n/2 in this equation, we get x = n2 , forn=0, 1,2,3, .. ANTINODES: The positions of maximum amplitude are called antinodes. ‘The amplitude has a maximum value of 2a, which occurs for the values of kx that give [sin kx Those values are kx =(n+1%4) x forn=0, 1,2, 3, Substituting k = 2n/h in this equation, we get x=(n+%)* forn=0,1,2,3 NOT! + A distance of * or half a wavelength separates two consecutive nodes or antinodes. © Forastretched string of length L, fixed at both ends, the two ends of the string have to be nodes. Sample problems based on Stationary waves Problem 1. The following equation represent progressive transverse waves212A cos (wt—kx) 232A cos («t+ ke) 23=A cos (wt + ky} 245 Acos ( 2@t—2ky) {A stationary wave will be formed by superposing (2) znd z3 (b) Zand z. (c) zand zy (a) sandz Solution : (a) The direction of wave must be opposite and frequencies will be same then by superposition, standing wave formation takes place. ‘The stationary wave produced ana string is represented by the equation y =5 cos (=) (40) where x and y are in cm and tis in seconds. The distance between consecutive nodes is, (Sem (b) zom () 3.0m (4) 40.¢m By comparing with standard equation of stationary wave 2m lew y=acos 2% sin 22M z z We get 2. Ss 2.= 6; Distance between two consecutive nodes SOME OF THE NORMAL MODES OF VIBRATION ON A STRING FIXED AT BOTH THE ENDS: @ @ Fundamental fourth harmonic or first harmonic @ second harmonic © fith harmonic o soc harmonic ANNA AN tarmonk ies fora ationary wave Fundamental mode =< First harmonic First overtone If one of the ends is chosen as position x = 0, then the other end is x = L. In order that this end is a node; the length L must satisfy the condition Len forn=1,2,3 2b String of length L have restricted wavelength given by =—%, forn=1,2,3,... ete ‘The frequencies corresponding to these wavelengths follow as for n=1,2,3,... ete This equation tells us that the natural frequencies ( or modes of oscillation) of a string are integral multiples: of the lowest frequency f = v/ 2L.The oscillation mode with that lowest frequency is called the fundamental mode or the first harmonic. |. The third harmonic corresponds to n = 3 (6 = ¥) and so on. The collection of all possible modes is called the harmonic series and n is called the harmonic number. Mode is strongly dependent on where the string is plucked or bowed. Musical instruments like sitar and violin are designed on this principle Sample problems based on Harmonics in a string Problem1. A wire having a linear density 0.1 kg/m in kept under a tension 490 N it is observed that it resonates at a frequency of 400 Hz and the next higher frequency 450 He. Find the length ofthe wire Solution: We know that {= 1. © 2Vn 1 [480 _70 BrVO10 2¢ a) Since, wire resonates at a frequency 400 Hz and next higher frequency 450 Hz. ent = 400 and (n+ 1) f= 450 cones @) Then, n =8 From (1) and (2), we get 35 _(400 ea) 7-4) or, k= 0.7m Problem 2; A wire of length 1.5 m under tension emits a fundamental note of frequency 120 Hz. (a) What would be its fundamental frequency (in Hz) if the length is increased by half under the same tension? (6) By how much the Iength (in metre) should be shortened so that it can increase its frequency three fold? ‘The variations in length take place under constant tension. (a) Applying the relation for the stretched string v f= ‘fil = fil> (Tension being constant) 120 xL= f & (or) fiz 22120 = 802 Again applying the relation Sil = fila ‘fxs = GfiLa pa ht5 2 l= B48 =05m the length of the wire should be shortened by (1.5 —0.5)m=1m‘Two strings A (length L,) and B (length L>) are made of steel and are kept under the same tension. If A has a radius twice that of B, what should be value of L/L; for them to have the same fundamental frequencies? What should be the value of L2/L1 if the first overtone of the former should equal the third harmonic of the latter? String A String B Tension ir TT (same tension) Linear mass density 3) p= density of steel Fundamental frequene F (Same) Lengths Ll Forthe string A, f=3— For the string B, 2 L L, THE MODES OF VIBRATION OF A SYSTEM CLOSED AT ONE END, WITH THE OTHER END BEING FREE: Air columns such as glass tubes partially filled with water provide examples of such systems. Resonance att column apparats all Glass tubes partial filled with water (Resonating ai column) In these, the length of the air column can be adjusted by changing the water level in the tube. In such systems, the end of the air column in touch with the water suffers no displacement as the reflected and incident waves are exactly out of phase. For this reason the pressure changes here are the largest, since when the compressional partis reflected the pressure increase is doubled, and when the rarefaction is reflected the decrease in pressure is doubled. (thied harmonic) Thied th OI L] ith harmonic) OO) On the other hand, at the open end, there is maximum displacement and minimum pressure change. The two ‘waves travelling in opposite directions are in phase here, so there are no pressure changes.If the length of the air column is L, then the open end, x = L, is an antinode L=a+%} forn=0,1,2,3,.. ete forn=0, 1, 2,3, ... ete 1, 2,3, ... ete The fundamental frequency is v/4L. and the higher frequencies are odd harmonics of the fundamental frequeney i.e. 3V/AL, SV/AL, etc. Fundamental ce thira fit seventh ninth eleventh first harmonic harmonic harmonic harmonic harmonic harmonic ‘Some ofthe normal modes of vibration of an air column open at one end END CORRECTION: In organ pipe an antinode is not formed exactly at the open end rather it is formed a: little distance away from the open end outside it. The distance of antinode from the open end of the pipe is known as end correction. + Fora closed pipe (with one opening) end correction Figure 1. End correction for pipe closed atone end * Foe an open pipe (with two openings) end correction = 1.2r THE MODES OF VIBRATION OF A SYSTEM WITH BOTH THE ENDS BEL A A A t t as 1 1 ua () 1 i bx| alk Tala Ta ia second hind turmecte monic armonle Some ofthe normal modes of vibration ofan ar column open at one end If one of the ends is chosen as position x = 0, then the other end is x = L, In order that this end is a antinode; the: length L must satisfy the condition Lend forn=1,2,3 aL String of length L have restricted wavelength given by 4 ==, forn=1,2,3,... eteThe frequencies corresponding to these wavelengths follow as, SP) for m=1,2,3,.4. ete a 1" harmonic Pi lcellete harmonic a ond harmonic 5h an harmonic [4 7 a harmonic harmonic 9/4 waves Py ah = gt harmonic overtone harmonic Sample problems based on Harmonics in an organ pipe Problem 1:A flute which we treat as a pipe open at both ends is 60em long. a) What is the fundamental frequency when all the holes are covered? b) How far from the mouthpiece should a hole be uncovered for the fundamental frequency to be 330Hz? Take speed of sound in air as 340 mvs (a) Fundamental frequency when the pipe is open at both ends is v _ 340 == pep g = 283.332 (b) Suppose the hole is uncovered at a length from the mouthpiece, the fundamental frequency v = v 340 ais =0.515m =51.5em Bf, 2330 Note: Opening holes in the side effectively shortens the length of the resonance column, thus increasing the frequency. Problem 1: For a certain organ pipe, three successive resonance frequencies are observed of 425, 595 and 765 Hz respectively. Taking the speed of sound in air to be 340 mis. (a) Explain whether the pipe is closed at one end or open at both ends. (b) determine the fundamental frequency and length of the pipe. Solution. a) The given frequencies are in the ratio 5:7: 9. As the frequencies are odd multiple of 85 Hz the pipe must be closed at one end. b) Now the fundamental frequency is the lowest ie., 85 Hz. (“2 Hz) va v _ ,- 340. 85-13 l= Fos 1mProblem 2. An open organ pipe has a fundamental frequency of 300 Hz. The first overtone of a closed organ pipe has the same frequency as the first overtone of the open organ pipe. How long is each pipe? (Speed of sound in air = 330 m/s) Solution, Fundamental frequency of an organ pipe, f, aw 26, v 330, m 25300 ).55m = 55cm av first overtone of closed pips first overtone of open pipe = ‘2 Given, first overtone of closed pipe = first overtone of open pipe. («) Hence, 4) \'e/ aus t . on $10.55) (= 0.4125m = 41.25 em Problem 3.The fundamental frequency in an open organ pipe is equal to the third harmonic of a closed organ pipe. If the length of the closed organ pipe is 20 cm, Find the length of the open organ pipe. Solution. 1; =20em = 13.33em 8. BEATS The phenomenon of wavering of sound intensity when two waves of nearly same frequencies and amplitudes, travelling in the same direction, are superimposed on each other is called beats. 9 ow JNA \\ FU {| | \ I WWWUU' Vu formation beatsLet the time dependent variations of the displacements due to two sound waves at a particular location be s1 =A cos wit and 82 =a Cos ant Clet 1 > 2) the resultant displacement $= 81 +52= (COS t+ COS >t) a cos( Ht) eox(@"2t) (ort w2) (wy 2) If we write @, = rt and a [2a cos wy t] cos agt Amplitude =2 cos (ost) First maxima would occur when cosy t=] Sayt=0 = S* <9 Second maxima would occur when cos @p t= -1 Gea) 2a 11> = a = > —————— eee oe. 2 7 t (w1- 2) (2avy~2mvz) — (vi~ v2) Where fi and fzare the frequencies of the superposed waves. If [oy — a2] << 1, o2and @, >> op. The quantity [2 a cos @» t] can be regarded as the amplitude of this function [which is not a constant but, has a small variation of angular frequency w9]. It becomes maximum: whenever cos «yt has the value +1 or -I, which happens twice in each repetition of cosine function. Thus the. intensity of resultant sound varies with an angular frequency. peau = 1 — OD Thus we hear a waxing and waning of sound with a frequency equal to the difference between the frequencies of the superposing waves. Musicians use the beat phenomenon in tuning their instruments. If an instrument is sounded against a standard frequency and tuned until the beat disappears, then the instrument is in tune with that standard. Sample problems based on Beats Problem 1. On sounding tuning fork A with another tuning fork 8 of frequency 384 Hz, 6 beats are produced per second. After loading the prongs of A with wax and then sounding it again with &, 4 Beats are produced per second what is the frequency ofthe tuning fork A (a) 388 He (0) 80H (o) 378 He (4) 390 He ‘Solution :(c) Probable frequency of Ais 390 Hz and 378 Hz and Alter loading the beats are decreasing from 6 to 4 so the original frequency of A will be ma = 9, ~x=378 Hz. Pala 2. avo two resin aa (2) ana Bh Each note produces four beats per second with a third note of fixed frequency. Calculate the velocity of sound in ai. 90 Sol Given, %, = 7 20 im andi, = 22m 173 Let f, and f, be the corresponding frequencies and v be the velocity of sound in ai. v= fy and v= foKe andf, Sinoe, 2221. fe fe Let {be the frequency of the third notef-f=4and{~fp=4 or, f;~ fa = Bor, v= 360 mis. 9. DOPPLER EFFECT When we approach a stationary source of sound with high speed, the pitch of the sound heard appears to be higher than that of the source. As the observer recedes away from the source, the observed pitch (or frequency) becomes lower than that of the source. This motion-related frequency change is called Doppler effect. We shall analyze changes in frequency under three different situations: (1) Observer is stationary but the source is moving (2) Observer is moving but the source is stationary, and (3) Both the observer and the source are moving Source Moving ; Observer Stationary: Consider a source $ moving with velocity v, and an observer who is stationary in a frame in which the medium is also at rest. Let the speed of a wave of angular frequency and period T,, both measured by an observer at. rest with respect to the medium, be v. We assume that the observer has a detector that counts every time a wave (Lo tae LL, Observer 8 Observer (2) Firetruck at rest Lt! Observer B (b) Firetruck moving Doppler effect: Source Moving; Observer Stationary vu Doppler effect: Source Moving ; Observer Stationary At time t = 0 the source is at point $), located at a distance L from the observer and emits a crest. This reaches the observer at time t, = Liv. After the time t = Ty the source has moved a distance v.T, and is at point $2,located at a distance (L + v.T.) from the observer. At Ss, the source emits a second crest. This reaches the observer at Lv.To h=To+ Attime nT, the source emits its (n#1)th crest and this reaches the observer at time LtnvsTo tat = OT, + ee Ltnveto Hence, in a time interval {nTq + “72 — 2} the observer's detector counts n crests and the observer records the period of the wave as T given by {nt + Ltmste_ 7 T= + v,To If the frequency fy is observed when the source and observer were stationary and frequency f is observed when the source is moving then f= (1+ ay" n(n— 1): 2 nn (it+x)"=1tnxt If v, is small compared with the wave speed v then f = fy (Q-4) For a source approaching the observer, we replace v, by —v, to get f= fy (1+ The observer: thus measures’ a. lower. frequency when ‘the source recedes frum’ him, He. measures a. higher frequency when the source approaches him. ‘When the observer is moving towards the source and the source is at rest: Consider the reference frame of the moving observer. In this reference frame the source and medium are approaching at speed \, and the speed with which the wave approaches is v, + V. oO s ‘When the observer is moving towards the source and the source i at rest:Let L be the distance between O, and S at t = 0, when the source emits the first crest. velocity of the wave relative to the observer is v+vo. The first crest reaches the observer at time t; = Li(v+vo). At time t = To, the: observer has moved to the new positions O2. The second crest reaches the observer at time {L-voTo} (rFV0) Attime nT, the source emits its (n+1) "crest and this reaches the observer at time {L. =nvoTo)] @+v0) Hence, in a time interval ty.1—t, the observer counts n crests and the observer records the period of the wave as equal to T given by tot 1 [L_-nvetg)})_ atest eon + a) - aad b=To+ ton = nT. + Te 7 loo ~ BBY T=(1 ~ Ga}To feel of} Whether itis the observer or the source moving and the approximate relations are the same. Both Source and Observer Moving: ‘Suppose at time t = 0, the observer is at ©; and the source is at $;, O; being to the left of S). The source emits a. wave of velocity v, of frequency v and period Ty all measured by an another observer at rest with respect to the medium. °, Both Source and Observer Moving Let L be the distance between O; and S; at t = 0, when the source emits the first crest. velocity of the wave relative to the observer is v+Vo. The first crest reaches the observer at time t; = L/(v+vo). At time t = Tp, both the. observer and the source have moved to their new positions O> and $2 respectively. The new distance between the observer and the source, O2 $2, would be L + (V-Vo) Tp. At So, the source emits a second crest. This reaches the observer at time [+ (vs -vo) TO] i (v0) Attime nT, the source emits its (n+1)" crest and this reaches the observer at time {+ n(vs -vo)To)] (w+v0) Hence, in a time interval tgy1—t, the observer counts n crests and the observer records the period of the wave as equal to T given by tat =nTy +affon + Sg) - ved t=, (1+ S23) T=1. (GE) far, (e) VWs Sign convention: # If the observer is moving towards the source, vp has a positive © If the observer is moving away from the source, vo has a negative value. ‘+ If source is moving away from the observer, v, has a positive value * If source is moving towards the observer, v, has « negative value. SOME TYPICAL FEATURES OF DOPPLER’S EFFECT IN SOUND ‘When a source is moving in a direction making an angle @ w.r.. the listener: The apparent frequency heard by listener L at rest When source is at point A: Apparent frequency: f= f, (——*—5) When source is at point B: Apparent frequency: f= f, (—*—=) When a source of sound approaches a high wall or a hill with a constant velocity v, the reflected sound: propagates in a direction opposite to that of direct sound, We can assume that the source and observer are approaching each other with same velocity. Apparent frequency: f= f, (**) When source is revolving in a circle and Observer " W210, fon=fo (==) frn=fo (SE) ‘When observer 'O' is moving in a circle and the source is on one side W=ro, went () tae (E2) Sample problems based on Doppler effect. Problem. A source of sound of frequency 90 vibration/sec is approaching a stationary observer with 2 speed equal to 1/10 the speed of sound. What will be the frequency heard by the observer (2) 80vibration/sec ——(b) 0vibration/sec ——(c) 100 vbration/sec _(d). 120 vibration/sec Solution :(c) n> oa ae 10,1090 9 Problem2. _& motorcar blowing a horn of frequency 124 vibrotion/see moves with a velocity 72 km/hr towards a tall wal. The frequency of the reflected sound heard by the driver will be (velocity of sound in air is 330 m/s) {a} 109 vibration/sec (b) 132 vibration/sec —_(c). 140 vibration/sec (d) 248 vibration/see Solution :(c) Inthe given condition source and listener are at the same positon i. car] for given condition ve 330+20 Yr 330-20 Problem 3. A source and listener are both moving towards each other with speed v/10 where v isthe speed of sound. if the. frequency of the note emitted by the source is f, the frequency heard by the listener would be nearly faaay (b) 122f WF (a) 1.275 (00 vibration/sec 124 = 140 vibration/secSolution : (a) Solution :(b) ‘A man is watching two trains, one leaving and the other coming in with equal speed of 4 m/s. If they sound their whistles, each of frequency 240 Hz, the number of beats heard by the man (velocity of sound in air = 320 m/s) will be. equal to (a) 6 (b) 3 (jo (@) 12 ‘App. Frequency due to train which is coming in my pp Frequency due to rain which saving my = —* So number of beats n,~ m= (ste ~ spy )*20 > m-n=6 316 324 Asiren emitting a sound of frequency 800 Hz moves away from an observer towards a cliff at a speed of 15ms * Then, the frequency of sound that the observer hears in the echo reflected from the cif is: (Take velocity of sound in air = 330 ms) (1) 800 Hz (2) 838 Hz (3) 885 Hz (4) 765 He 800 =838Hz