‫ﻣﻠزﻣﺔ اﺳس اﻟﺷﺑﻛﺎت ﻧظري‬

‫ﻣن ﻣﺣﺎﺿرة رﻗم ‪ 1‬اﻟﻰ ﻣﺣﺎﺿرة رﻗم ‪6‬‬

‫ﻟﻠطﻼع ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺳﺟﯾل اﻟﻣﺣﺎﺿرات ﺗﺎﺑﻊ ﻗﻧﺎة اﺳس اﻟﺷﺑﻛﺎت ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺗﻠﻐرام ﺑﺎﺳﺗﺧدام اﻟﻣﻌرف ‪@DUC3e9‬‬
‫ﻣﻌرف اﻟﻘﻧﺎة اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﻣرﺣﻠﺔ اﻟﺛﺎﻟﺛﺔ ‪@DUC3e‬‬

‫‪Dr. Yasir Dawood‬‬

‫‪COMPUTER NETWORKING FUNDAMENTALS‬‬

 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKING
Objective:
To be acquainted with:
• The definitions of networking
• Network topology
• Hardware, Software and Networks devices
• Components of Communication System
• Networking models
• IP address
• MAC address
DEFINITIONS
Network Definition
A network can be defined as two or more computers connected together
in such a way that they can share resources.

The purpose of a network is to share resources.

DEFINITIONS (CONT..)
A resource may be:
A file
A folder
A printer
A disk drive
Or just about anything else that exists on a computer.
DEFINITIONS (CONT..)
A network is simply a collection of computers or
other hardware devices that are connected together,
either physically or logically, using special hardware
and software, to allow them to exchange information
and cooperate. Networking is the term that describes
the processes involved in designing, implementing,
upgrading, managing and otherwise working with
networks and network technologies.
ADVANTAGES OF NETWORKING
Connectivity and Communication
Data Sharing
Hardware Sharing
Internet Access
Internet Access Sharing
Data Security and Management
Performance Enhancement and Balancing
Entertainment
THE DISADVANTAGES (COSTS) OF
NETWORKING
Network Hardware, Software and Setup Costs
Hardware and Software Management and Administration Costs
Undesirable Sharing
Illegal or Undesirable Behavior
Data Security Concerns
FUNDAMENTAL NETWORK
CLASSIFICATIONS
Local Area Networks (LANs):
A local area network (LAN) is a computer network covering a small geographic
area, like a home, office, or group of buildings

Wide Area Networks (WANs):

Wide Area Network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a broad area (i.e.,
any network whose communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national
boundaries). Or, less formally, a network that uses routers and public communications
links
The largest and most well-known example of a WAN is the Internet.
WANs are used to connect LANs and other types of networks together, so that users
and computers in one location can communicate with users and computers in other
locations
FUNDAMENTAL NETWORK
CLASSIFICATIONS (CONT)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
oA metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that interconnects users with
computer resources in a geographic area or region larger than that covered
by even a large local area network (LAN) but smaller than the area covered
by a wide area network (WAN). The term is applied to the interconnection of
networks in a city into a single larger network (which may then also offer
efficient connection to a wide area network). It is also used to mean the
interconnection of several local area networks by bridging them with
backbone lines. The latter usage is also sometimes referred to as a campus
network.
FUNDAMENTAL NETWORK
CLASSIFICATIONS (CONT)
The Local Network (LAN)

Client Client

Client Client

Client Client
 FUNDAMENTAL
NETWORK
CLASSIFICATIONS
(CONT)
Wide Area Network
 Fundamental Network
Classifications (cont)

METROPOLITAN AREA
NETWORK (MAN)
INTRANET AND INTERNET SPECIFICATIONS
Intranet: An intranet is a private network that is contained within an enterprise.
It may consist of many interlinked local area networks and also use leased
lines in the wide area network.
An intranet uses TCP/IP, HTTP, and other Internet protocols and in general looks
like a private version of the Internet. With tunneling, companies can send
private messages through the public network, using the public network with
special encryption/decryption and other security safeguards to connect one
part of their intranet to another.
Internet: is a worldwide system of computer networks - a network of networks
in which users at any one computer can, if they have permission, get
information from any other computer (and sometimes talk directly to users at
other computers).
CLIENT AND SERVER COMPUTER ROLE IN
NETWORKING
Server computer is a core component of the network, providing a link to the
resources necessary to perform any task.
A server computer provides a link to the resources necessary to perform any
task.
The link it provides could be to a resource existing on the server itself or a
resource on a client computer.
Client computers normally request and receive information over the network
client. Client computers also depends primarily on the central server for
processing activities
PEER-TO PEER NETWORK
A peer-to-peer network is a network where the computers act as both
workstations and servers.
great for small, simple, and inexpensive networks.
In a strict peer-to-peer networking setup, every computer is an equal, a
peer in the network.
Each machine can have resources that are shared with any other
machine.
There is no assigned role for any particular device, and each of the
devices usually runs similar software. Any device can and will send
requests to any other.
PEER-TO PEER NETWORK
(CONT..)
CLIENT/SERVER NETWORKING
In this design, a small number of computers are
designated as centralized servers and given the task
of providing services to a larger number of user
machines called clients
CLIENT/SERVER
NETWORKING (CONT..)
NETWORK TOPOLOGY
A topology is a way of “laying out” the network.
Topologies can be either physical or logical.
Physical topologies describe how the cables are run.
Logical topologies describe how the network
messages travel
NETWORK TOPOLOGY (CONT.)

Bus (can be both logical and physical)

Star (physical only)
Ring (can be both logical and physical)
Mesh (can be both logical and physical)
NETWORK TOPOLOGY (CONT.)
Bus
A bus is the simplest physical topology. It consists of a single cable that
runs to every workstation
This topology uses the least amount of cabling, but also covers the
shortest amount of distance.
Each computer shares the same data and address path. With a logical
bus topology, messages pass through the trunk, and each workstation
checks to see if the message is addressed to itself. If the address of the
message matches the workstation’s address, the network adapter copies
the message to the card’s on-board memory.
NETWORK TOPOLOGY (CONT.)
it is difficult to add a workstation
have to completely reroute the cable and possibly
run two additional lengths of it.
if any one of the cables breaks, the entire network
is disrupted. Therefore, it is very expensive to
maintain.
NETWORK TOPOLOGY (CONT.)
Bus topology
NETWORK TOPOLOGY (CONT.)
Star Topology
A physical star topology branches each network device off a central
device called a hub, making it very easy to add a new workstation.
Also, if any workstation goes down it does not affect the entire network.
(But, as you might expect, if the central device goes down, the entire
network goes down.)
Some types of Ethernet and ARCNet use a physical star topology. Figure
8.7 gives an example of the organization of the star network.
NETWORK TOPOLOGY (CONT.)
Star topologies are easy to install. A cable is run
from each workstation to the hub. The hub is placed
in a central location in the office.
Star topologies are more expensive to install than
bus networks, because there are several more
cables that need to be installed, plus the cost of the
hubs that are needed.
NETWORK TOPOLOGY (CONT.)
Star Topology
NETWORK TOPOLOGY (CONT.)
Ring
Each computer connects to two other computers,
joining them in a circle creating a unidirectional path
where messages move workstation to workstation.
Each entity participating in the ring reads a
message, then regenerates it and hands it to its
neighbor on a different network cable.
NETWORK TOPOLOGY (CONT.)
The ring makes it difficult to add new computers.
Unlike a star topology network, the ring topology
network will go down if one entity is removed from
the ring.
Physical ring topology systems don’t exist much
anymore, mainly because the hardware involved
was fairly expensive and the fault tolerance was
very low.
NETWORK TOPOLOGY (CONT.)
Ring Topology
NETWORK TOPOLOGY (CONT.)
Mesh
The mesh topology is the simplest logical topology in terms of data flow, but it is the
most complex in terms of physical design.
In this physical topology, each device is connected to every other device
This topology is rarely found in LANs, mainly because of the complexity of the
cabling.
If there are x computers, there will be (x × (x–1)) ÷ 2 cables in the network. For
example, if you have five computers in a mesh network, it will use 5 × (5 – 1) ÷ 2,
which equals 10 cables. This complexity is compounded when you add another
workstation.
For example, your five-computer, 10-cable network will jump to 15 cables just by
adding one more computer. Imagine how the person doing the cabling would feel if
you told them you had to cable 50 computers in a mesh network—they’d have to
come up with 50 × (50 – 1) ÷ 2 = 1225 cables!
NETWORK TOPOLOGY (CONT.)
Because of its design, the physical mesh topology is very expensive to install
and maintain.
Cables must be run from each device to every other device. The advantage
you gain from it is its high fault tolerance.
With a logical mesh topology, however, there will always be a way of getting
the data from source to destination.
It may not be able to take the direct route, but it can take an alternate,
indirect route. It is for this reason that the mesh topology is still found in WANs
to connect multiple sites across WAN links. It uses devices called routers to
search multiple routes through the mesh and determine the best path.
However, the mesh topology does become inefficient with five or more entities.
NETWORK TOPOLOGY (CONT.)
Mesh Topology
NETWORK TOPOLOGY (CONT.)

Advantages and
Disadvantages of Network
Topologies
HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND NETWORKS DEVICES

Network Interface Card (NIC)

Repeater
Hub
Bridge
Routers
Switch
HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND NETWORKS PERIPHERALS (CONT.)

Network Interface Card (NIC)

NIC provides the physical interface between computer and cabling.
It prepares data, sends data, and controls the flow of data. It can also receive and
translate data into bytes for the CPU to understand.
The following factors should be taken into consideration when choosing a NIC:
1. - Preparing data
2. - Sending and controlling data
3. - Configuration
4. - Drivers
5. - Compatibility
6. - Performance
HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND NETWORKS PERIPHERALS (CONT.)
PREPARING DATA

In the computer, data moves along buses in parallel, as on a four-lane

interstate highway. But on a network cable, data travels in a single stream, as
on a one lane highway. This difference can cause problems transmitting and
receiving data, because the paths traveled are not the same.
It is the NIC’s job to translate the data from the computer into signals that can
flow easily along the cable.
It does this by translating digital signals into electrical signals (and in the case
of fiber-optic NICs, to optical signals).
HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND NETWORKS PERIPHERALS (CONT.)
SENDING AND CONTROLLING DATA

For two computers to send and receive data, the cards must agree on several things.
These include the following:
- The maximum size of the data frames
- The amount of data sent before giving confirmation
- The time needed between transmissions
- The amount of time needed to wait before sending confirmation
- The amount of data a card can hold
- The speed at which data transmits
In order to successfully send data on the network, you need to make sure the network
cards are of the same type and they are connected to the same piece of cable.
HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND NETWORKS PERIPHERALS (CONT.)
CONFIGURATION

The NIC’s configuration includes things like a manufacturer’s

hardware address, IRQ address, Base I/O port address, and base
memory address. Some may also use DMA channels to offer better
performance.
Each card must have a unique hardware address. If two cards
have the same hardware addresses, neither one of them will be
able to communicate.
HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND NETWORKS PERIPHERALS (CONT.)
DRIVERS

For the computer to use the network interface card,

it is very important to install the proper device
drivers.
These drivers communicate directly with the network
redirector and adapter. They operate in the Media
Access Control sublayer of the Data Link layer of
the OSI model.
HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND NETWORKS PERIPHERALS (CONT.)
COMPATIBILITY

When choosing a NIC, use one that fits the bus type of
your PC. If you have more than one type of bus in your PC
(for example, a combination ISA/PCI), use an NIC that fits
into the fastest type (the PCI, in this case).
This is especially important in servers, as the NIC can very
quickly become a bottleneck if this guideline isn’t followed.
HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND NETWORKS PERIPHERALS (CONT.)
PERFORMANCE

The most important goal of the network adapter

card is to optimize network performance and
minimize the amount of time needed to transfer
data packets across the network.
There are several ways of doing this, including
assigning a DMA channel, use of a shared memory
adapter, and deciding to allow bus mastering.
HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND NETWORKS PERIPHERALS (CONT.)
REPEATERS

Repeaters are very simple devices. They allow a cabling system to extend beyond its
maximum allowed length by amplifying the network voltages so they travel farther.
Repeaters are nothing more than amplifiers and, as such, are very inexpensive.
Repeaters can only be used to regenerate signals between similar network segments.
For example, we can extend an Ethernet 10Base2 network to 400 meters with a
repeater. But can’t connect an Ethernet and Token Ring network together with one.
The main disadvantage to repeaters is that they just amplify signals. These signals not
only include the network signals, but any noise on the wire as well.
Eventually, if you use enough repeaters, you could possibly drown out the signal with
the amplified noise. For this reason, repeaters are used only as a temporary fix.
HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND NETWORKS PERIPHERALS (CONT.)
REPEATERS
HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND NETWORKS PERIPHERALS (CONT.)
HUBS

Hubs are devices used to link several computers together.

They repeat any signal that comes in on one port and copy it to the other
ports (a process that is also called broadcasting).
There are two types of hubs: active and passive.
Passive hubs simply connect all ports together electrically and are usually not
powered.
Active hubs use electronics to amplify and clean up the signal before it is
broadcast to the other ports.
In the category of active hubs, there is also a class called “intelligent” hubs,
which are hubs that can be remotely managed on the network.
HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND NETWORKS PERIPHERALS (CONT.)
HUBS
HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND NETWORKS PERIPHERALS (CONT.)
BRIDGES

They join similar topologies and are used to divide network segments.
For example, with 200 people on one Ethernet segment, the performance will be
ordinary, because of the design of Ethernet and the number of workstations that are
fighting to transmit. If you divide the segment into two segments of 100 workstations
each, the traffic will be much lower on either side and performance will increase.
If it is aware of the destination address, it is able to forward packets; otherwise a
bridge will forward the packets to all segments. They are more intelligent than
repeaters but are unable to move data across multiple networks at once.
Unlike repeaters, bridges can filter out noise.
The main disadvantage to bridges is that they can’t connect different network types
or perform intelligent path selection. For that function, we would need a router.
HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND NETWORKS PERIPHERALS (CONT.)
BRIDGES
HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND NETWORKS PERIPHERALS (CONT.)
ROUTERS

Routers are highly intelligent devices that connect multiple network types and
determine the best path for sending data.
The advantage of using a router over a bridge is that routers can determine the best
path that data can take to get to its destination.
Like bridges, they can segment large networks and can filter out noise.
However, they are slower than bridges because they are more intelligent devices; as
such, they analyze every packet, causing packet-forwarding delays. Because of this
intelligence, they are also more expensive.
Routers are normally used to connect one LAN to another.
Typically, when a WAN is set up, there will be at least two routers used.
HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND NETWORKS PERIPHERALS (CONT.)
ROUTERS
HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND NETWORKS PERIPHERALS (CONT.)
SWITCH

A network switch is a computer networking device that connects network segments.

Low-end network switches appear nearly identical to network hubs, but a switch contains more "intelligence" (and a
slightly higher price tag) than a network hub.
Network switches are capable of checking data packets as they are received, determining the source and destination
device of that packet, and forwarding it correctly.
By delivering each message only to the connected device it was intended for, a network switch protects network
bandwidth and offers generally better performance than a hub.
A vital difference between a hub and a switch is that all the nodes connected to a hub share the bandwidth among
themselves, while a device connected to a switch port has the full bandwidth all to itself.
For example, if 10 nodes are communicating using a hub on a 10-Mbps network, then each node may only get a
portion of the 10 Mbps if other nodes on the hub want to communicate as well. .
But with a switch, each node could possibly communicate at the full 10 Mbps.
HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND NETWORKS PERIPHERALS (CONT.)
SWITCH
CLASSIFY THE COMPUTER NETWORK
Data communications are the exchange of data between two
devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
Characteristics Data communications system depends on:
1 Delivery
2 Accuracy
3 Timeliness
4 Jitter

52
CLASSIFY THE COMPUTER NETWORK

1- Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be
received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.

2.Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered
in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.

3.Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless. In the case of video and audio, the Delivery called real-time transmission.

4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay
in the delivery of audio or video packets.
3
COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular
forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video..

54
 COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a
message travels from sender to receiver.
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It
represents an agreement between the communicating devices.

55
DATA REPRESENTATION:

Information comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and
video.
1. Text: In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of
bits (0s or 1s). Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text
symbols. Each set is called a code, and the process of representing symbols is
called coding (ASCII).
2. Numbers: Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as
ASCII is not used to represent numbers.
3. Images: Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image
is composed of a matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small
dot.
6
INTRODUCTION AND CLASSIFY THE COMPUTER NETWORK

4. Audio: Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is

by nature different from text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete.

5. Video: Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video

can either be produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a
combination of images, each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of
motion.

57
TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGY OR DATA FLOW

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

Simplex : In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street.
Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
Half-Duplex : In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not
at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice
versa.
Full-Duplex : In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and
receive simultaneously.

58
TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGY OR DATA FLOW

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

59
 NETWORK CRITERIA

A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important
of these are:
1. Performance; 2. Reliability; 3. Security.
1. Performance: Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit
time and response time.
Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one
device to another.
Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.

11
NETWORK CRITERIA

The performance of a network depends on a number of factors

which are:
✓The number of users
✓The type of transmission medium
✓The connected hardware
✓The efficiency of the software
.
12
NETWORK CRITERIA

2.Reliability
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the
frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and
the network’s robustness in a catastrophe.
3.Security
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,
protecting data from damage and development.

13
PHYSICAL STRUCTURES
Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications
pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
➢Point-to-Point: A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two
devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two
devices.
➢Multipoint: A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than
two specific devices share a single link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity of
the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally.

14
PHYSICAL STRUCTURES

Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

15
NETWORKING MODELS
A networking model, sometimes also called either a networking
architecture or networking blueprint, refers to a comprehensive set of
documents. Individually, each document describes one small function
required for a network; collectively, these documents define everything
that should happen for a computer network to work.
Some documents define a protocol, which is a set of logical rules that
devices must follow to communicate. Other documents define some
physical requirements for networking. For example, a document could
define the voltage and current levels used on a particular cable when
transmitting data.
OSI MODEL
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model defines a networking
framework to implement protocols in layers, with control passed from
one layer to the next. It is primarily used today as a teaching tool. It
conceptually divides computer network architecture into 7 layers in a
logical progression.
The lower layers deal with electrical signals, chunks of binary data, and
routing of these data across networks. Higher levels cover network
requests and responses, representation of data, and network protocols
as seen from a user's point of view. The OSI model is divided into 7
layers which starts from the physical layer that represents the first and
ending with the seventh layer which is the application layer
THE SEVEN LAYERS IN OSI MODEL
- The seventh layer / Application layer supplies network services to
end-user applications.
- The sixth layer / presentation layer handles syntax processing of
message data such as format conversions and encryption / decryption
needed to support the Application layer above it.
- The fifth layer / Session Layer manages the sequence and flow of
events that initiate and tear down network connections.
- The fourth layer / Transport Layer delivers data across network
connections. The transport layer decides on the type of whether it was
reliable or unreliable type of communication. Transport layer provides
error checking, data recovery and provides port numbers for services.
THE SEVEN LAYERS IN OSI MODEL (CONT.)
- The third layer / Network layer maintains logical addresses such as IP
addresses for devices on the network. The Network layer also
manages the mapping between these logical addresses and physical
addresses.
- The second layer / Data Link layer checks for physical transmission
errors and packages bits into data "frames". The Data Link layer also
manages physical addressing schemes such as MAC addresses for
Ethernet networks, controlling access of any various network devices to
the physical medium.
- The first layer / Physical layer of the OSI model is responsible for
ultimate transmission of digital data bits from the source to the
destination. At the Physical layer, data are transmitted using the type
of signals are supported by the physical medium: electric voltages,
radio frequencies, or pulses of infrared or ordinary light.
 ‫ﻣﮭم ﺟدا‬
OSI MODEL
TCP/IP MODEL
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol was
developed by Department of Defence's Project Research Agency as a
part of a research project of network interconnection to connect remote
machines. The features that stood out during the research, which led to
making the TCP/IP reference model were:
• Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a
network was easy.
• The network was robust, and connections remained intact until the
source and destination machines were functioning.
The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer to talk
(send data packets) to another application running on different computer.
TCP/IP MODEL
DATA ENCAPSULATION
The term encapsulation refers to the process of putting headers
(and sometimes trailers) around some data.
The process by which a TCP/IP host sends data can be viewed as a
five-step process.
The first four steps relate to the encapsulation performed by the
four TCP/IP layers, and the last step is the actual physical
transmission of the data by the host. In fact, if you use the five-
layer TCP/IP model, one step corresponds to the role of each
layer.
DATA ENCAPSULATION
NETWORK ADDRESS
Network address serves as a unique identifier for a computer
(or other devices) on a network. When set up correctly, computers
can determine the addresses of other computers on the network
and use these addresses to send messages to each other.
NETWORK ADDRESS
Most network devices have several different addresses. Physical
addresses belong to individual network interfaces attached to a
device. For example, the Wi-Fi radio and the Bluetooth radio of a
mobile device will each possess their own physical network
addresses.
Separately, logical addresses can be assigned to devices
according to the kind of network they are attached to. The logical
addresses of a mobile device, for example, change as it migrates
from one network to another (while their physical addresses remain
fixed).
IP ADDRESSES
The most popular type of virtual network addressing is the Internet
Protocol (IP) address. A traditional IP address (IP version 4, IPv4)
consists of four bytes (32 bits) that uniquely identify connected
devices.
Much of the IPv4 address space (the numeric range of address
numbers from lowest to highest) is allocated to Internet service
providers and other large organizations to assign to their customers
and to Internet servers – these are called public IP addresses.
IP ADDRESSES (CONT.)
Certain private IP address ranges have also been established
to support internal networks (like home networks) with devices
that do not need to be directly connected to the Internet.

There are more than one class of IP addresses, the common

three classes in IP addresses are:
- Class A
- Class B
- Class C
 IP ADDRESSES CLASSES
- Class A addresses are assigned to networks with a very large number of hosts. The
high-order bit in a class A address is always set to zero. The next seven bits
(completing the first octet) complete the network ID. The remaining 24 bits (the last
three octets) represent the host ID. This allows for 126 networks and 16,777,214 hosts
per network.
- Class B addresses are assigned to medium-sized to large-sized networks. The two
high-order bits in a class B address are always set to binary 1 0. The next 14 bits
(completing the first two octets) complete the network ID. The remaining 16 bits (last
two octets) represent the host ID. This allows for 16,384 networks and 65,534 hosts
per network.
- Class C addresses are used for small networks. The three high-order bits in a class C
address are always set to binary 1 1 0. The next 21 bits (completing the first three
octets) complete the network ID. The remaining 8 bits (last octet) represent the host ID.
This allows for 2,097,152 networks and 254 hosts per network.
 IP ADDRESSES CLASSES (CONT.)

Note: The class A address 127.x.y.z is reserved for loopback testing and inter-process
communication on the local computer.
MAC ADDRESS
A well-known form of physical addressing us based on Media Access
Control (MAC) technology. MAC addresses (also known as “physical
addresses”) are six bytes (48 bits) that manufacturers of network
adapters embed in their products to uniquely identify them. IP and other
protocols rely on physical addresses to identify devices on a network.
The Media Access Control (MAC) address is a used to uniquely identify
computer network adapters. These numbers (sometimes called
"hardware addresses" or "physical addresses") are embedded into the
network hardware during the manufacturing process, or stored in
firmware, and designed to not be modified.
MAC ADDRESS (CONT.)
Traditional MAC addresses are 12-digit (6 bytes or 48
bits) hexadecimal numbers. By convention, they are usually
written in one of the following three formats:
- MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS
- MM-MM-MM-SS-SS-SS
- MMM.MMM.SSS.SSS
MAC ADDRESS (CONT.)
The leftmost 6 digits (24 bits) called a "prefix" is associated with the
adapter manufacturer. Each vendor registers and obtains MAC prefixes
as assigned by the IEEE. Vendors often possess many prefix numbers
associated with their different products. For example, the prefixes
00:13:10, 00:25:9C and 68:7F:74 (plus many others) all belong to
Linksys (Cisco Systems).
The rightmost digits of a MAC address represent an identification
number for the specific device. Among all devices manufactured with the
same vendor prefix, each is given their own unique 24-bit number. Note
that hardware from different vendors may happen to share the same
device portion of the address.
MAC ADDRESS (CONT.)
TCP/IP networks based on IPv6 also implement a different approach to
communicating MAC addresses compared to mainstream IPv4. Instead of
64-bit hardware addresses, though, IPv6 automatically translates 48-bit
MAC address to a 64-bit address by inserting a fixed (hardcoded) 16-
bit value FFFE in between the vendor prefix and the device identifier.
IPv6 calls these numbers "identifiers" to distinguish them from true 64-bit
hardware addresses. For example, a 48-bit MAC address
00:25:96:12:34:56 appears on an IPv6 network as (commonly written in
either of these two forms):
- 00:25:96:FF:FE:12:34:56
- 0025:96FF:FE12:3456
MAC ADDRESS FORMAT
IP ADDRESSING & SUBNETTING

▪IP Addressing

▪Subnetting

▪IPv4 vs IPvs6
IP ADDRESSES
 An IP address is an address used to uniquely identify a device on
an IP network.
 The address is made up of 32 binary bits which can be divisible
into a network portion and host portion with the help of a subnet
mask.
 32 binary bits are broken into four octets (1 octet = 8 bits)
 Dotted decimal format (for example, 137.45.104.172)
DOTTED DECIMAL VS BINARY
137.45.104.172
10001001001011010110100010101100
CONVERSION BETWEEN DECIMAL & BINARY
128 X 1 = 128
64 X 0 = 0
32 X 0 = 0
16 X 0 = 0
8 X 1 = 8
4 X 0 = 0
2 X 0 = 0
1 X 1 = 1
137
CONVERSION BETWEEN DECIMAL & BINARY
128 1 128 0 0 0 0 1 128
64 0 0 0 0 1 64 0 0
32 0 0 1 32 1 32 1 32
16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8
4 0 0 1 4 0 0 1 4
2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
137 45 104 172
IP ADDRESS CLASSES
ADDRESS CLASSES (CONTINUED)
Determining which part of the IP address belongs to the network (N)and
which part belongs to the host(h).
▪Class A – NNNNNNNN.hhhhhhhh.hhhhhhhh.hhhhhhhh
▪Class B – NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.hhhhhhhh.hhhhhhhh
▪Class C – NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.hhhhhhhh
▪140.179.220.200 is a Class B so the first 2 octets identify the
network address 140.179.0.0
▪If the address was then set to 140.179.255.255 this would be a
broadcast address for that network and all nodes would receive
communication
PRIVATE SUBNETS
▪There are 3 network address ranges reserved for private networks.
▪These are internal IP networks that sit behind a proxy server or external
router interface.
▪Routers on the internet by default will not forward packets coming from
these addresses

 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
 SUBNET MASKING
Applying a subnet mask to an IP address enables identification of network
part and the host parts of the address

The network bits are represented by 1’s and the host bits represented by 0’s

Default Subnet Masks

 Class A – 255.0.0.0 – 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000 (/8)

 Class B – 255.255.0.0 – 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 (/16)

 Class C – 255.255.255.0 – 11111111.111111111.11111111.00000000 (/24)

SUBNET MASK FOR CLASS C

137.45.104.172
255.255.255.0
“ANDING” A BINARY SUBNET MASK
10001001001011010110100010101100
11111111111111111111111100000000

10001001001011010110100000000000

subnet ID = (137.45.104.0)
IP ADDRESS CLASSES
Class A: The first octet is the network portion. Octets 2, 3, and 4
are for subnets/hosts
Reserved for governments and large corporations throughout the
world

Class B: The first two octets are the network portion. Octets 3 and
4 are for subnets/hosts
Addresses are assigned to large- and medium-sized companies
IP CLASSES (CONTINUED)
IP CLASSES (CONTINUED)
• Class C
The first three octets are the network portion. Octet 4 is for subnets/hosts
– Addresses are assigned to groups that do not meet the qualifications to
obtain Class A or B addresses
• Class D
– Addresses (also known as multicast addresses) are reserved for
multicasting
– Multicasting is the sending of a stream of data (usually audio and
video) to multiple computers at the same time
IP CLASSES (CONTINUED)
IP CLASSES (CONTINUED)
Class E
 Addresses are reserved for research, testing, and experimentation
 The Class E range starts where Class D leaves off
Private IP ranges
 Many companies use private IP addresses for their internal networks
 Will not be routable on the Internet
 Gateway devices have network interface connections to the internal
network and the Internet
 Route packets between them
IP CLASSES (CONTINUED)
SUBNETTING
 Creates multiple logical networks that exist within a single Class
A, B, or C network.

 If you do not subnet, you will only be able to use one network
from your Class A, B, or C network, which is unrealistic.

 Each data link on a network must have a unique network ID, with
every node on that link being a member of the same network
BENEFITS OF SUBNETTING

1) Reduced network traffic

2) Optimized network performance

3) Simplified management

4) Facilitated spanning of large geographical distances

SUBNET MASKING
When network administrators create subnets
 They borrow bits from the original host field to make a set of subnetworks
 The number of borrowed bits determines how many subnetworks and hosts
will be available
Class C addresses also can be subdivided
 Not as many options or available masks exist because only the last octet can
be manipulated with this class
HOW TO CREATE SUBNETS
 Determine the number of required network IDs:
➢ One for each subnet
➢ One for each wide area network connection
 Determine the number of required host IDs per subnet:
➢ One for each TCP/IP host
➢ One for each router interface
 Based on the above requirements, create the following:
➢ One subnet mask for your entire network
➢ A unique subnet ID for each physical segment
➢ A range of host IDs for each subnet
 SUBNETTING FORMULAS
Consider memorizing the following two formulas:

2y = # of usable subnets (where y is the number of bits borrowed)

2x – 2 = # of usable hosts per subnet (where x is the number of bits remaining in the
host field after borrowing)
SUBNETTING FORMULAS (CONTINUED)
SUBNETTING FORMULAS (CONTINUED)
LEARNING TO SUBNET (CONTINUED)
SUBNETTING A CLASS A/B/C ADDRESS

How many subnets does the chosen subnet mask produce?

How many valid hosts per subnet are available?

What are the valid subnets?

What’s the broadcast address of each subnet?

What are the valid hosts in each subnet?

PRACTICE EXAMPLE #1C: 255.255.255.128 (/25)
NETWORK 192.168.10.0
 How many subnets? Since 128 is 1 bit on (10000000), the answer would be 21= 2.
 How many hosts per subnet? We have 7 host bits off (10000000), so the equation would
be 27– 2 = 126 hosts.
 What are the valid subnets? 256 – 128 = 128. Remember, we’ll start at zero and count
in our block size, so our subnets are 0, 128.
 What’s the broadcast address for each subnet? The number right before the value of the
next subnet is all host bits turned on and equals the broadcast address. For the zero
subnet, the next subnet is 128, so the broadcast of the 0 subnet is 127.
 What are the valid hosts? These are the numbers between the subnet and broadcast
address
PRACTICE EXAMPLE #1C: 255.255.255.128 (/25)
NETWORK 192.168.10.0
Class c:
Subnet 0 128
129.168.10.20/25 Address
255.255.255.128
11111111. 11111111. 11111111. 10000000 First Host 1 129

Last Host 126 254

255 255 255 128
Broadcast 127 255
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Address
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
PRACTICE EXAMPLE #2C: 255.255.255.224 (/27)
NETWORK 192.168.10.0

 How many subnets? 224 is 11100000, so our equation would be 23 = 8.

 How many hosts? 25– 2 = 30.
 What are the valid subnets? 256 – 224 = 32. We just start at zero and count to the
subnet mask value in blocks (increments) of 32: 0, 32, 64, 96, 128, 160, 192, and 224.
 What’s the broadcast address for each subnet (always the number right before the
next subnet)?
 What are the valid hosts (the numbers between the subnet number and the broadcast
address)?
PRACTICE EXAMPLE #2C: 255.255.255.224 (/27)
NETWORK 192.168.10.0

Subnet 0 32 …………. 192 224

Address

First Host 1 33 193 225

Last Host 30 62 222 254

Broadcast 31 63 223 255

Address
PRACTICE EXAMPLE #1B: 255.255.128.0 (/17)
NETWORK 172.16.0.0

 Subnets? 21 = 2
 Hosts? 215– 2 = 32,766 (7 bits in the third octet, and 8 in the fourth)
 Valid subnets? 256 – 128 = 128. (0, 128). Remember that subnetting is performed
in the third octet, so the subnet numbers are really 0.0 and 128.0, as shown in the
next table
 Broadcast address for each subnet?
 Valid hosts?
PRACTICE EXAMPLE #1B: 255.255.128.0 (/17)
NETWORK 172.16.0.0

Subnet 0.0 128.0

First Host 0.1 128.1

Last Host 127.254 255.254

Broadcast 127.255 255.255

PRACTICE EXAMPLE #2B: 255.255.240.0 (/20)
NETWORK 172.16.0.0

Subnets? 24= 16.

Hosts? 212 – 2 = 4094.
Valid subnets? 256 – 240 = 16 (0, 16, 32, 48, etc., up to 240).
Broadcast address for each subnet?
Valid hosts?
PRACTICE EXAMPLE #2B: 255.255.240.0 (/20)
NETWORK 172.16.0.0

Subnet 0.0 16.0 ……….. 240.0

First Host 0.1 16.1 240.1

Last Host 15.254 31.254 255.254

Broadcast 15.255 31.255 255.255

IPV4 VERSUS IPV6
IP version 4 (IPv4)
 The version of IP currently deployed on most systems today

IP version 6 (IPv6)
 Originally designed to address the eventual depletion of IPv4 addresses

Classless inter-domain routing (CIDR) has slowed the exhaustion of IPv4 address

space and made the move to IPv6 less urgent

 However, CIDR is destined to become obsolete because it is based on IPv4
IPV4 VERSUS IPV6 (CONTINUED)
Network address translation (NAT)
 Another technique developed in part to slow the running down of IPv4
addresses
 Allows a single IP address to provide connectivity for many hosts
However:
• NAT is CPU intensive and expensive
• Some protocols do not work well with NAT, such as the IP Security Protocol (IPSec)

IPv4 does not provide security in itself

 Has led to security issues with DNS and ARP
 IPV4 VERSUS IPV6 (CONTINUED)
Security concerns were factored into the design of IPv6
IPv4 networks rely on broadcasting
Inefficient because many hosts unnecessarily see and partially process
traffic not ultimately destined for them
IPv6 does away completely with broadcasting and replaces it with
multicasting
IPv6 addresses are 128 bits compared with IPv4’s 32-bit structure
IPV4 VERSUS IPV6 (CONTINUED)
IPv6 addresses are expressed as hexadecimal numbers
 Example: 3FFE:0501:0008:0000:0260:97FF:FE40:EFAB
IPv6 can be subnetted
 CIDR notation is also used with IPv6
 Example: 2001:702:21:: /48

Organizations requesting an IPv6 address may be assigned a /64

start
 Minimum subnet with space for over a billion hosts
 TRANSITIONING TO IPV6
Dual stack
 Involves enabling IPv6 on all routers, switches, and end nodes but not disabling IPv4
 Both version 4 and version 6 stacks run at the same time
Tunneling
 Encapsulates IPv6 traffic inside IPv4 packets
 Done when portions of a network are running IPv6 and other network areas have not
been upgraded yet
 Greatest concern: security
COMPUTER NETWORKING
FUNDAMENTALS
Dr. Yasir Dawood
ANALOG AND DIGITAL
o Data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals to be transmitted.

o One of the major functions of the physical layer is to move data in the form of
electromagnetic signals across a transmission medium.

o It is responsible for movements of individual bits from one node to next node

o Both data and the signals can be either analog or digital

o Transmission media work by conducting energy along a physical path which

can be wired or wireless
ANALOG AND DIGITAL
Data can be analog or digital.
 Analog Data: refers to information that is continuous. (an analog clock)
Analog data, such as the sounds made by a human voice, take on continuous values.

 Digital Data: refers to information that has discrete states. (a digital clock)
Digital data take on discrete values. For example, data are stored in computer
memory in the form of 0s and 1s.
‫ﻣﮭم ﺟدا‬
ANALOG AND DIGITAL
Signals can be analog or digital.
 An analog signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time.
 A digital signal, can have only a limited number of defined values.
ANALOG AND DIGITAL
Digital Signal
 Information can also be represented by a digital signal
 For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage.
A digital signal can have more than two levels. In this case, we can send more than
1 bit for each level.

If a signal has L levels, each level needs ( log𝟐𝟐 L )bits.

For this reason, we can send log2 4 = 2 bits such as in figure part b.
ANALOG AND DIGITAL
 Bit Rate

• Most digital signals are non-periodic, and thus period and (frequency are not
appropriate characteristics).

• Another term - bit rate (instead of frequency)- is used to describe digital

signals.
 The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1s, expressed in bits per second
(bps).
o next Figure shows the bit rate for two signals.
ANALOG AND DIGITAL/ DIGITAL SIGNAL
• We send 1 bit
per level in
part a of the
figure

• And 2 bits per

level in part b
of the figure.
ANALOG AND DIGITAL/ DIGITAL SIGNAL
Example 1
A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per level?
We calculate the number of bits from the following formula.

Number of bits per level  log2 8 = 3

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.
 ANALOG AND DIGITAL/ DIGITAL SIGNAL
Example 2
A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are needed per
level? We calculate the number of bits by using the formula.

 Number of bits per level  log2 9 = 3.17

 Each signal level is represented by 3.17 bits. However, this answer is
not realistic.
The number of bits sent per level needs to be an integer as well as a power of 2.
In this example, 4 bits can represent one level.
ANALOG AND DIGITAL
Example 3
Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100 pages per second.
What is the required bit rate of the channel? Assume each page has 24 lines with
80 byte in each line.
Solution
If we assume that one character requires 8 bits (ascii), the bit rate is:

100 * 24 * 80 * 8 = 1,536,000 bps = 1.536 Mbps

ANALOG AND DIGITAL
Example 4
A digitized voice channel is made by digitizing a 4-kHz bandwidth analog
voice signal. We need to sample the signal at twice the highest frequency (two
samples per hertz). We assume that each sample requires 8 bits. What is the
required bit rate?

Solution
The bit rate can be calculated as
 ANALOG AND DIGITAL
Example 5
What is the bit rate for high-definition TV (HDTV)?

Solution
HDTV uses digital signals to broadcast high quality video signals. The HDTV screen
is normally a ratio of 16 : 9. There are 1920 by 1080 pixels per screen, and the screen
is renewed 30 times per second. Twenty-four bits represents one color pixel.

The TV stations reduce this rate to 20 to 40 Mbps through compression.

 BANDWIDTH
In networking, we use the term bandwidth in two contexts.

The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to the range of frequencies in a composite signal
or the range of frequencies that a channel can pass.

The second, bandwidth in bits per second, refers to the speed of bit transmission in
a channel or link. Often referred to as Capacity.

In data transmission, network throughput is the amount of data moved successfully

from one place to another in a given time period, and typically measured in bits per
second (bps), as in megabits per second (Mbps) or gigabits per second (Gbps).
 BANDWIDTH
A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of 12,000
frames per minute with each frame carrying an average of 10,000 bits.
What is the throughput of this network?

Solution
We can calculate the throughput as

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in this case.

 PROPAGATION & TRANSMISSION SPEED
 Propagation speed - speed at which a bit travels though the medium
from source to destination.

 Transmission speed - the speed at which all the bits in a message

arrive at the destination. (difference in arrival time of first and last bit)
PROPAGATION & TRANSMISSION DELAY
 Propagation Delay = Distance/Propagation speed

 Transmission Delay = Message size/bandwidth bps

 Latency = Propagation delay + Transmission delay + Queueing time +

Processing time
EXAMPLE 1
What is the propagation time if the distance between the two points is
12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed to be 2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as

The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic Ocean in only 50
ms if there is a direct cable between the source and the destination.
 EXAMPLE 2
What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 2.5-kbyte
message (an e-mail) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume
that the distance between the sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that
light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission time as shown on the
next slide:
 EXAMPLE 2 (CONTINUED)

Note that in this case, because the message is short and the bandwidth is high,
the dominant factor is the propagation time, not the transmission time. The
transmission time can be ignored.
EXAMPLE 3
What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 5-Mbyte
message (an image) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Mbps? Assume
that the distance between the sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that
light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission times as shown on the
next slide.
 EXAMPLE 3 (CONTINUED)

Note that in this case, because the message is very long and the bandwidth is
not very high, the dominant factor is the transmission time, not the
propagation time. The propagation time can be ignored.
FILLING THE LINK WITH BITS FOR CASE 1
 EXAMPLE 4
We can think about the link between two points as a pipe. The cross
section of the pipe represents the bandwidth, and the length of the pipe
represents the delay. We can say the volume of the pipe defines the
bandwidth-delay product, as shown in Figure 3.7.

The bandwidth-delay product defines the

number of bits that can fill the link.
FILLING THE LINK WITH BITS IN CASE 2
EXAMPLE 5 ‫ﻣﮭم ﺟدا‬
Anetwork link is transferring a data file in two minutes period. The figure shown

below shows the throughput vs. time. Use this figure to calculate the following:

1) Average data transfer rate for this whole time. P Kbps

500
2) Amount of data transferred between second 70 and second 120 ?

Solution 30 70 120 t sec

Size of data=0.5*30*500+40*500+0.5*50*500= 40000 KB

1) Average data transfer =S/T=40000/120= 333.3333 Kbps

2) Amount of data transferred =0.5*50*500= 12500 bit

 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect.
The signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal at the end
of the medium.
Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise
ATTENUATION
 Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels
through a medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the
medium.

 That is why a wire carrying electric signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while
some of the electrical energy in the signal is converted to heat.

 To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal.
ATTENUATION
Figure shows the effect of attenuation and amplification.
DECIBEL
 To show that a signal has lost or gained strength, engineers use the unit of the
decibel.

 The decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths of two signals or one signal at
two different points.

Note that the decibel is negative if a signal is attenuated and positive if a signal is
amplified.
dB = 10 log10 P2/P1
 EXAMPLE 1
Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its power is reduced to
one-half.
This means that P2 = ½ P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be
calculated as

A loss of 3 dB (−3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power.

EXAMPLE 2
A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is increased 10 times.

This means that P2 = 10 P1. In this case, the amplification (gain of power) can be
calculated as
EXAMPLE 3
One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure the changes in the strength of
a signal is that decibel numbers can be added (or subtracted) when we are
measuring several points (cascading) instead of just two. In the figure a signal travels
from point 1 to point 4. In this case, the decibel value can be calculated as
DISTORTION
 Distortion means that the signal changes its shape.

 Distortion can occur in a composite signal made of different frequencies.

 Signal components at the receiver have phases different from what they had
at the sender.
DISTORTION
NOISE
Several types of noise, may corrupt the signal.
• Thermal noise: is the random motion of electrons in a wire, which creates an
extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter.
• Induced noise: comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices
act as a sending antenna, and the transmission medium acts as the receiving
antenna.
• Crosstalk: is the effect of one wire on the other. One wire acts as a sending
antenna and the other as the receiving antenna.
• Impulse noise: is a spike (a signal with high energy in a very short time) that
comes from power lines, lightning, and so on.
NOISE
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO (SNR):
To find the theoretical bit rate limit, we need to know the ratio of the signal power
to the noise power.
The signal-to-noise ratio is defined as:
SNR = (average signal power) / (average noise power)

A high SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise;

A low SNR means the signal is more corrupted by noise.
 ANALOG AND DIGITAL / SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO (SNR):

Because SNR is the ratio of

two powers, it is often described
in decibel units, SNRdB, defined
as:
SNRdB = 10 log10 SNR
EXAMPLE 3
The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise is 1 μW; what are the
values of SNR? and SNRdB?
Solution
SNR = (signal power) / (noise power)

The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as follows:

10 𝑚𝑚𝑊𝑊
SNR= 1  SNR = (10000 mw) / (1 mw) = 10000
𝑚𝑚
1000

SNRdB = 10 log10 10000 = 10 log10 104 = 40