SOFTWARE ENGINEERING QPS SOLUTIONS

QP1

Sure, here are brief answers to your questions:

a) **What is a System Analyst?**

A system analyst is a professional who examines and evaluates an organization's information systems
and procedures to determine their effectiveness and identify areas for improvement. They design
solutions and systems to enhance operational efficiency and meet business needs.

b) **Define Data Dictionary.**

A data dictionary is a repository that contains definitions and descriptions of data elements used in a
database or information system. It provides metadata, including details about data types, formats,
relationships, and constraints.

c) **What is SRS?**

SRS stands for Software Requirements Specification. It is a document that describes the functional
and non-functional requirements for a software system. The SRS serves as a guideline for developers
and stakeholders to understand what the system should do and how it should perform.

d) **Define an Entity.**

In the context of databases and data modeling, an entity is an object or concept that can be distinctly
identified and has a set of attributes. For example, in a student management system, a student and a
course could be entities.

e) **Define Unit Testing.**

Unit testing is a software testing process where individual units or components of a software are
tested in isolation from the rest of the application. The goal is to validate that each unit functions
correctly and meets its specified requirements.

f) **State the Principles of Software Testing.**

1. **Testing shows the presence of defects** – Testing can reveal defects but cannot prove their
absence.

2. **Exhaustive testing is impossible** – It’s often impractical to test all possible inputs and paths.

3. **Early testing** – Testing should begin as early as possible in the software development lifecycle.
4. **Defect clustering** – Most defects are typically found in a small number of modules.

5. **Pesticide paradox** – Repeating the same set of tests will not continue to find new defects.

6. **Testing is context-dependent** – Testing techniques and focus may vary based on the context.

g) **Define Open and Closed System.**

- **Open System:** An open system interacts with its environment and exchanges information,
energy, or material with it. For example, a business organization that communicates with customers,
suppliers, and other external entities is an open system.

- **Closed System:** A closed system is isolated from its environment and does not exchange
information, energy, or material with it. It operates in isolation. For instance, a sealed container with
no interaction with its surroundings is a closed system.

h) **What is a Prototype?**

A prototype is an early model or sample of a product that is used to test and validate design
concepts or functionalities before the final version is developed. It allows stakeholders to interact
with a preliminary version to gather feedback and make improvements.

i) **What is a System?**

A system is a set of interconnected components or elements that work together to achieve a specific
goal or function. Systems can be physical, like a computer network, or abstract, like a business
process.

j) **What is a Feasibility Study?**

A feasibility study is an analysis conducted to determine whether a proposed project or system is

practical and achievable within the given constraints, such as budget, time, and resources. It assesses
the potential benefits, risks, and costs to ensure that the project is viable.

Sure, here are the detailed answers:

---

a) **Draw First-Level DFD for Online Food Order System**

Here's a textual representation of a first-level DFD for an Online Food Order System:
```

+------------------+ +------------------+ +--------------------+

| Customer | | Order Processing| | Payment Gateway |

| (External) | | (Process 1) | | (Process 2) |

+--------+---------+ +--------+---------+ +---------+----------+

| | |

| Order Details | Payment Details |

v v |

+--------+---------+ +--------+---------+ |

| Restaurant | | Delivery Service| |

| (Process 3) | | (Process 4) | |

+--------+---------+ +------------------+ |

| | |

| Food | Delivered Food

v v

+-----------------+ +-------------------+

| Customer | | Customer |

| (External) | | (External) |

+-----------------+ +-------------------+

```

In this DFD:

- **Customer** places an order with **Order Processing**.

- **Order Processing** interacts with **Payment Gateway** for payment and **Restaurant** for
food preparation.

- **Restaurant** provides food to **Delivery Service**.

- **Delivery Service** delivers the food to the **Customer**.

---
b) **Define Software Process and Software Product. Distinguish Between Them**

- **Software Process**: The software process refers to the structured sequence of stages involved in
developing a software product. It includes activities such as planning, analysis, design,
implementation, testing, and maintenance. The software process focuses on how software is
developed and managed, providing a framework for systematic development.

- **Software Product**: A software product is the end result of the software development process. It
is the actual software application or system that is delivered to the user, fulfilling specific
requirements and providing the intended functionality.

**Distinguishing Factors:**

- **Focus**: The software process is concerned with the methodology and activities for creating
software, while the software product is the final outcome of these activities.

- **Lifecycle**: The software process encompasses the entire development lifecycle, whereas the
software product is produced at the end of this lifecycle.

- **Output**: The software process generates various artifacts like code, documentation, and design
models. The software product is the functioning software that is used by end-users.

---

c) **What is SDLC? Describe its Phases**

**SDLC (Software Development Life Cycle)** is a systematic process for planning, creating, testing,
and deploying software applications. It aims to produce high-quality software that meets or exceeds
customer expectations and is delivered on time and within budget.

**Phases of SDLC:**

1. **Requirement Analysis**: Identifying and documenting the software requirements through

consultations with stakeholders. This phase ensures that the needs and expectations are clearly
understood.

2. **System Design**: Creating the architecture and design of the software based on the
requirements. This phase involves specifying system architecture, data structures, and user
interfaces.
3. **Implementation**: Coding and developing the software according to the design specifications.
This phase involves writing the actual code and integrating various components.

4. **Testing**: Evaluating the software to ensure it functions correctly and meets the requirements.
This phase includes unit testing, integration testing, system testing, and acceptance testing to
identify and fix defects.

5. **Deployment**: Releasing the software to the users and installing it in the operational
environment. This phase includes data migration, installation, and initial support.

6. **Maintenance**: Ongoing support and updates to the software to correct defects, enhance
performance, and adapt to new requirements. This phase ensures the software remains useful and
relevant.

---

d) **Discuss Different Fact-Finding Techniques**

Fact-finding techniques are used to gather information about system requirements and business
processes. Key techniques include:

1. **Interviews**: Conducting one-on-one or group interviews with stakeholders to gather detailed

and specific information about their needs and expectations.

2. **Questionnaires/Surveys**: Using written forms to collect structured information from a large

number of respondents. This method is useful for gathering quantifiable data.

3. **Observation**: Watching how users interact with existing systems or processes to understand
their needs, behaviors, and challenges. This technique provides insights into real-world usage.

4. **Document Analysis**: Reviewing existing documentation, such as reports, manuals, and system
documentation, to gather information about current processes and systems.
5. **Workshops**: Organizing group meetings with stakeholders to discuss requirements,
brainstorm solutions, and reach a consensus. Workshops facilitate collaborative analysis and
decision-making.

---

e) **Define Software Maintenance. Explain Types of Software Maintenance**

**Software Maintenance** involves making modifications to a software application after its initial
release to correct issues, enhance performance, or adapt to changes. It ensures that the software
continues to operate effectively and meets evolving user needs.

**Types of Software Maintenance:**

1. **Corrective Maintenance**: Involves fixing bugs and defects identified after the software has
been deployed. It addresses issues that prevent the software from functioning as intended.

2. **Adaptive Maintenance**: Involves making changes to the software to ensure it remains

compatible with new or modified environments, such as updates to operating systems, hardware, or
external interfaces.

3. **Perfective Maintenance**: Focuses on improving the software by adding new features or

enhancing existing functionality based on user feedback or changing requirements.

4. **Preventive Maintenance**: Involves making changes to the software to improve its reliability
and performance, and to prevent potential issues from occurring in the future. It aims to proactively
address areas of concern before they become problems.

Here are the detailed answers to your questions:

---

a) **Draw Decision Table for the Given Case**

A decision table helps in systematically considering all possible conditions and actions for decision-
making. Here's a decision table for the discount policy:

| Order Amount | Payment Within 8 Days | Discount |

|--------------|------------------------|--------------|

| > 50,000 | Yes | 5% |

| > 50,000 | No | No Discount |

| 25,000 - 50,000 | Yes | 3% |

| 25,000 - 50,000 | No | No Discount |

| < 10,000 | Yes | No Discount |

| < 10,000 | No | No Discount |

**Explanation:**

- If the order amount is greater than 50,000 and payment is within 8 days, the discount is 5%.

- If the order amount is between 25,000 and 50,000 and payment is within 8 days, the discount is 3%.

- In all other cases, there is no discount.

---

b) **Define Module. Explain Types of Modules**

- **Module**: In software engineering, a module is a distinct and self-contained unit of a system

that performs a specific function or set of functions. It is a part of a larger software application and
interacts with other modules to achieve the overall system objectives.

**Types of Modules:**

1. **Functional Modules**: These modules provide specific functionality to the software. For
example, a payment processing module or a user authentication module.

2. **Data Modules**: These modules manage data storage, retrieval, and manipulation. Examples
include database access modules or data management modules.
3. **Interface Modules**: These modules handle communication between different parts of the
software or between the software and external systems. Examples include API modules or user
interface modules.

4. **Utility Modules**: These modules provide common services or utilities used by other modules.
Examples include logging modules or error handling modules.

---

c) **Draw ER-Diagram for "Hospital Management System"**

Here is a textual description of an Entity-Relationship (ER) Diagram for a Hospital Management

System:

**Entities:**

1. **Patient**: PatientID (PK), Name, DOB, Address, Phone

2. **Doctor**: DoctorID (PK), Name, Specialization, Phone

3. **Appointment**: AppointmentID (PK), Date, Time,

PatientID (FK), DoctorID (FK)

4. **Treatment**: TreatmentID (PK), Description, Cost, AppointmentID (FK)

5. **Department**: DepartmentID (PK), Name, Location

6. **Staff**: StaffID (PK), Name, Role, DepartmentID (FK)

**Relationships:**

- **Patient** *has* **Appointment** (1:N): A patient can have multiple appointments.

- **Doctor** *has* **Appointment** (1:N): A doctor can have multiple appointments.

- **Appointment** *includes* **Treatment** (1:N): An appointment can involve multiple

treatments.

- **Department** *has* **Staff** (1:N): A department can have multiple staff members.

**ER-Diagram Overview:**
```

+----------+ +-------------+ +-----------+ +------------+

| Patient |-------| Appointment |------| Treatment | | Doctor |

|----------| |-------------| |-----------| |------------|

| PatientID| | AppointmentID| | TreatmentID| | DoctorID |

| Name | | Date | | Description| | Name |

| DOB | | Time | | Cost | | Specialization|

| Address | | PatientID | | AppointmentID| | Phone |

| Phone | | DoctorID | +-----------+ +------------+

+----------+ +-------------+

+-------------+ +----------+

| Department |--------| Staff |

|-------------| |----------|

| DepartmentID| | StaffID |

| Name | | Name |

| Location | | Role |

+-------------+ | DepartmentID |

+----------+

```

---

d) **What is a Decision Table? Need of Decision Table**

**Decision Table**: A decision table is a structured method used to represent and analyze complex
decision-making processes. It consists of rows that represent different conditions and columns that
represent actions or outcomes based on those conditions.

**Need for Decision Table:**

1. **Systematic Analysis**: It helps in systematically analyzing various conditions and their

corresponding actions, ensuring that all possible scenarios are considered.
2. **Clarity**: Provides a clear and concise way to document decision rules and logic, making it
easier for stakeholders to understand.

3. **Testing**: Useful for identifying test cases and validating that the system behaves as expected
under different conditions.

4. **Documentation**: Serves as a comprehensive documentation tool for business rules and

decision-making processes.

---

e) **Explain Elements of Data Flow Diagrams**

**Elements of Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs):**

1. **Processes**: Represent the operations or functions that transform input data into output data.
Processes are typically depicted as circles or rectangles with rounded corners. For example, "Process
Orders" might be a process in a DFD.

2. **Data Flows**: Indicate the movement of data between processes, data stores, and external
entities. Data flows are shown as arrows connecting various components of the DFD. For example,
"Order Details" might be a data flow from a customer to an order processing system.

3. **Data Stores**: Represent repositories where data is stored and accessed by processes. Data
stores are depicted as open-ended rectangles or parallel lines. For example, "Customer Database"
might be a data store in a DFD.

4. **External Entities**: Represent outside systems or actors that interact with the system being
modeled. External entities are shown as squares or rectangles. For example, "Customer" or
"Supplier" might be external entities.

5. **Interactions**: Show how data is exchanged between different components, such as between
processes and data stores or between external entities and processes.

These elements help in visualizing how data flows through a system and how various components
interact with each other.

Certainly! Here are the detailed answers:

---

a) **Draw Decision Tree for the Material Issue Case**

A decision tree helps visualize the decision-making process and possible outcomes based on
conditions. Here’s a decision tree for issuing material based on the MRN (Material Requisition Note):

**Decision Tree:**

```

Start

+-----------------+----------------+

| |

MRN Signed? MRN Not Signed

| |

Yes No

| |

+-----+-----+ +-----+

| | | |

Valid Items? Invalid Items Issue Material

| |

Yes No

| |

+-----+-----+ +-----+

| | | |

Issued within 8 Hours? Reject MRN (Invalid Items)

| |

Yes No

| |
 Issue Material Reject MRN (Late Submission)

```

**Explanation:**

- **MRN Signed?**: Checks if the MRN is signed.

- If not signed, the material is rejected.

- If signed, proceed to check for valid items.

- **Valid Items?**: Checks if the MRN contains valid items.

- If invalid, reject the MRN.

- If valid, proceed to check the time of issuance.

- **Issued within 8 Hours?**: Checks if the material is issued within 8 hours.

- If issued on time, the material is issued.

- If late, reject the MRN.

---

b) **Differentiate Between Forward and Reverse Engineering**

**Forward Engineering:**

- **Definition**: Forward engineering is the process of moving from high-level abstract designs to a
more detailed design, and eventually to code and implementation.

- **Focus**: Involves translating requirements and design into a working software system.

- **Approach**: Starts with a concept or requirements and progresses through design, coding, and
implementation.

- **Example**: Designing a software application from scratch based on user requirements.

**Reverse Engineering:**

- **Definition**: Reverse engineering is the process of analyzing software or systems to understand

their components, functionality, and design, often to recreate or improve upon them.

- **Focus**: Involves deconstructing an existing system to understand how it works and to derive
design information from the finished product.

- **Approach**: Starts with an existing software or system and works backwards to understand or
modify it.
- **Example**: Analyzing a legacy system to understand its architecture or to recreate its
documentation.

---

c) **What is Data Flow Diagram? Explain its Advantages & Disadvantages**

**Data Flow Diagram (DFD)**: A Data Flow Diagram is a graphical representation of the flow of data
through a system. It shows how data moves between processes, data stores, and external entities.

**Advantages:**

1. **Clarity**: Provides a clear visualization of data flow and system processes, making it easier to
understand and communicate.

2. **Simplicity**: Allows complex systems to be represented in a simple and structured way, aiding
in the identification of inefficiencies and redundancies.

3. **Analysis**: Helps in analyzing and documenting the functional requirements of a system and
understanding how data is processed.

4. **Communication**: Facilitates communication between stakeholders by providing a common

framework for discussing system functionality.

**Disadvantages:**

1. **Limited Detail**: May not capture all the details of a system’s behavior, such as specific control
flows or detailed process logic.

2. **Complexity**: Large or complex systems can result in very large and intricate DFDs that are
difficult to manage and understand.

3. **Static View**: Provides a static view of data flow and may not reflect dynamic aspects such as
timing and concurrency issues.

4. **Maintenance**: Keeping DFDs up-to-date can be challenging as system requirements and

processes evolve.

---

d) **Explain Spiral Model in Detail**

**Spiral Model**: The Spiral Model is a software development methodology that combines iterative
development with systematic aspects of the waterfall model. It emphasizes risk analysis and iterative
refinement through repeated cycles or "spirals."

**Phases of the Spiral Model:**

1. **Planning**: Define objectives, constraints, and deliverables. Establish the project plan, budget,
and timeline.

2. **Risk Analysis**: Identify and evaluate risks associated with the project. Develop strategies to
mitigate these risks.

3. **Engineering**: Design and develop the software. This phase includes detailed design, coding,
and integration.

4. **Testing and Evaluation**: Test the software to ensure it meets requirements and performs as
expected. Gather feedback and evaluate the project progress.

5. **Review and Refinement**: Review the results and refine the project plan. Adjust objectives,
schedules, and resources based on feedback and risk analysis.

**Characteristics:**

- **Iterative**: Each cycle (spiral) involves revisiting and refining requirements, design, and
implementation.

- **Risk-Driven**: Focuses on identifying and addressing risks early in the development process.

- **Incremental**: Produces incremental prototypes or versions of the software, allowing for early
feedback and adjustments.

**Advantages:**

- **Risk Management**: Proactively addresses risks and uncertainties through iterative assessment.

- **Flexibility**: Allows for changes and refinements throughout the development process.

- **Customer Feedback**: Incorporates customer feedback and evolving requirements effectively.

**Disadvantages:**

- **Complexity**: Can be complex to manage due to multiple iterations and risk assessments.

- **Cost**: May result in higher costs due to repeated cycles and ongoing refinements.

- **Time**: Extended development time due to iterative processes and ongoing reviews.

---
e) **Design a Screen I/P Layout for Employee’s Profile**

Here’s a textual representation of a screen input layout for an employee’s profile:

**Employee Profile Screen Layout:**

```

--------------------------------------------------

| Employee Profile |

--------------------------------------------------

| Employee ID: [__________] |

| Name: [__________] |

| Address: [__________] |

| [__________] |

| Phone: [__________] |

| Email: [__________] |

| Date of Birth: [__________] |

| Department: [__________] |

| Job Title: [__________] |

| Date of Joining: [__________] |

| Status: [Active/Inactive] |

--------------------------------------------------

| [Save] [Cancel] |

--------------------------------------------------

```

**Explanation:**

- **Employee ID**: Unique identifier for the employee.

- **Name**: Employee's full name.

- **Address**: Employee’s residential address.

- **Phone**: Contact number.

- **Email**: Email address.

- **Date of Birth**: Employee’s birth date.

- **Department**: Department to which the employee belongs.

- **Job Title**: Position or role of the employee.

- **Date of Joining**: The date when the employee joined the organization.

- **Status**: Indicates whether the employee is currently active or inactive.

- **Buttons**: [Save] to save changes and [Cancel] to discard changes and exit.

This layout captures essential details and provides a user-friendly interface for managing employee
profiles.

Here are the 3-mark answers for your questions:

---

a) **System Testing**

**System Testing** is a level of software testing where the complete and integrated software system
is tested as a whole. The goal is to validate that the system meets the specified requirements and to
ensure that all components function together correctly.

**Key Aspects:**

- **Integration**: Tests the entire system to verify that integrated components work together as
expected.

- **Functionality**: Checks whether the software behaves according to the requirements and
specifications.

- **Performance**: Assesses the system's performance, including response time and scalability.

- **Usability**: Evaluates the user interface and overall user experience.

**Purpose**: To detect any issues that might arise from the interaction of different system
components and ensure the software is ready for deployment.
---

b) **McCall’s Quality Factors**

**McCall’s Quality Factors** are a set of criteria used to evaluate the quality of software. They are
part of McCall’s software quality model, which defines various attributes essential for software
quality.

**Key Factors Include:**

1. **Correctness**: The degree to which the software meets the specified requirements and
performs its intended functions accurately.

2. **Reliability**: The ability of the software to perform its functions under specified conditions
without failure.

3. **Efficiency**: The software's performance in terms of resource usage and execution time.

4. **Usability**: How user-friendly and intuitive the software is for end-users.

5. **Maintainability**: The ease with which the software can be modified to correct defects, adapt
to new requirements, or improve performance.

6. **Portability**: The ability of the software to operate in different environments or platforms.

**Purpose**: These factors help in assessing and ensuring the overall quality of software products.

---

c) **Requirement Gathering**

**Requirement Gathering** is the process of collecting and documenting the needs and
expectations of stakeholders to define what the software system should do. It is a critical phase in
the software development lifecycle.

**Key Aspects:**

1. **Stakeholder Interviews**: Conducting discussions with stakeholders to understand their needs

and expectations.
2. **Surveys/Questionnaires**: Using structured forms to collect information from a larger audience.

3. **Observation**: Analyzing existing systems and processes to identify requirements based on

actual usage.

4. **Document Analysis**: Reviewing existing documentation, such as business processes and

requirements from previous projects.

**Purpose**: To ensure that the development team has a clear and comprehensive understanding of
what is needed to build a system that meets user requirements and expectations.

QP2

Here are the 2-mark answers for your questions:

---

a) **Define Economical Feasibility**

**Economical Feasibility** refers to the assessment of whether the financial costs of a project are
justified by its benefits. It involves evaluating the cost-effectiveness and return on investment (ROI)
of a proposed system or solution to determine if it is financially viable.

---

b) **What is a System Analyst?**

**System Analyst** is a professional who investigates, analyzes, designs, and implements

information systems to meet a business's needs. They act as a bridge between business stakeholders
and IT teams, ensuring that the system requirements are clearly defined and that the solutions
effectively address business problems.

---

c) **Define Data Dictionary**

**Data Dictionary** is a repository of information about data, including the structure, definitions,
and relationships of data elements within a system. It provides a detailed description of data fields,
their formats, and constraints, helping in consistent data management and communication.

---

d) **State Advantages of Waterfall Model**

**Advantages of the Waterfall Model**:

1. **Simplicity**: The model is easy to understand and manage due to its linear and sequential
approach.

2. **Structured Phases**: Each phase has specific deliverables and review points, ensuring thorough
documentation and clarity.

3. **Early System Design**: Complete system requirements are defined upfront, allowing for a clear
and detailed design before development begins.

---

e) **Define an Entity**

**Entity**: In the context of databases and ER diagrams, an entity represents a distinct object or
concept that has a set of attributes and can be identified within the system. For example, in a
hospital management system, "Patient" and "Doctor" can be entities.

---

f) **Define Unit Testing**

**Unit Testing** is a software testing technique where individual components or units of a software
application are tested in isolation to ensure they function correctly. The goal is to validate that each
unit performs its intended task as expected.

---
g) **State the Principles of Software Testing**

**Principles of Software Testing**:

1. **Testing Shows Presence of Defects**: Testing can reveal defects but cannot prove the absence
of defects.

2. **Exhaustive Testing is Impossible**: It is not feasible to test all possible scenarios; therefore,
testing should be based on risk and priority.

3. **Early Testing**: Testing should be started as early as possible in the development lifecycle to
detect issues early.

4. **Defect Clustering**: Most defects are typically found in a small percentage of the code.

5. **Pesticide Paradox**: Repeating the same tests will not uncover new defects; tests need to be
continuously updated.

6. **Testing is Context-Dependent**: The approach to testing depends on the context of the

application, including its complexity and the environment.

---

h) **Define Open and Closed System**

**Open System**: A system that interacts with its environment by exchanging inputs and outputs. It
adapts to external changes and influences. For example, an organization that communicates with
customers and suppliers is an open system.

**Closed System**: A system that operates in isolation from its environment with minimal
interaction. It does not adapt to external changes and focuses on internal processes. For example, a
sealed container with no exchange of matter or energy with its surroundings is a closed system.

---

i) **What is a Prototype?**

**Prototype**: A prototype is an early, simplified version of a software application or system used to

demonstrate concepts, gather feedback, and validate requirements. It helps stakeholders visualize
the system and provides a basis for iterative development and refinement.
---

j) **What is a Module?**

**Module**: A module is a self-contained component of a software system that performs a specific

function or set of functions. Modules can be developed, tested, and maintained independently but
work together to form the complete system. For example, a user authentication module in a
software application handles login and user verification.

Here are the detailed 4-mark answers to your questions:

---

a) **Draw First Level DFD for Hospital Management System**

A first-level Data Flow Diagram (DFD) provides a more detailed view of the processes and interactions
within a system, focusing on the primary functions and data flows. Here’s a textual representation of
the first-level DFD for a Hospital Management System:

**Entities:**

1. **Patient**

2. **Doctor**

3. **Receptionist**

4. **Billing Department**

**Processes:**

1. **Schedule Appointments**

2. **Manage Patient Records**

3. **Process Billing**

4. **Manage Treatments**

**Data Stores:**
1. **Patient Records**

2. **Appointment Records**

3. **Billing Records**

4. **Treatment Records**

**First-Level DFD:**

```

+------------+ +-------------------+ +---------------+

| Patient |----------->| Schedule |----------->| Appointment |

| | | Appointments | | Records |

+------------+ +-------------------+ +---------------+

^ |

| |

| v

+------------+ +---------------------+ +----------------+

| Doctor |<----------| Manage Patient |<------| Patient Records |

| | | Records | +----------------+

+------------+ +---------------------+

^ |

| |

| v

+------------+ +---------------------+ +----------------+

| Billing |<----------| Process Billing |<------| Billing Records |

| Department | +---------------------+ +----------------+

+------------+

+------------+
 | Manage |

| Treatments |

+------------+

+----------------+

| Treatment |

| Records |

+----------------+

```

**Explanation:**

- **Patient** interacts with the **Schedule Appointments** process to book or manage

appointments.

- **Doctor** interacts with the **Manage Patient Records** process to view and update patient
information.

- **Billing Department** interacts with the **Process Billing** process to handle billing and
invoicing.

- **Manage Treatments** process handles and updates treatment records.

---

b) **Explain Spiral Model in Detail**

**Spiral Model**: The Spiral Model is a risk-driven software development process that combines
iterative development with systematic aspects of the waterfall model. It emphasizes risk assessment
and iterative refinement.

**Phases of the Spiral Model:**

1. **Planning**: Define project objectives, scope, and constraints. Create a project plan and
schedule.
2. **Risk Analysis**: Identify potential risks and assess their impact. Develop strategies to mitigate
these risks.

3. **Engineering**: Design and develop the system based on the gathered requirements. Includes
detailed design, coding, and integration.

4. **Testing and Evaluation**: Test the developed system for functionality and performance. Gather
feedback and evaluate progress.

5. **Review and Refinement**: Review results and refine the project plan based on feedback and
risk analysis. Adjust objectives and resources as needed.

**Characteristics:**

- **Iterative**: Repeats phases in cycles (spirals) to refine and improve the system.

- **Risk-Driven**: Focuses on identifying and mitigating risks early in the development process.

- **Incremental**: Provides iterative prototypes or versions of the system, allowing for early
feedback and adjustments.

**Advantages:**

- **Risk Management**: Proactively addresses risks through continuous assessment and iteration.

- **Flexibility**: Accommodates changes in requirements and project scope effectively.

- **Customer Feedback**: Incorporates user feedback in each iteration, leading to a more user-
centered final product.

**Disadvantages:**

- **Complexity**: Can be complex to manage due to multiple iterations and risk assessments.

- **Cost**: May incur higher costs due to repeated cycles and ongoing refinements.

- **Time**: Development can take longer due to iterative processes and frequent reviews.

---

c) **Define Software Process and Software Product. Distinguish Between Them**

**Software Process**:

- **Definition**: The software process refers to the structured set of activities, methods, and
practices used to develop and maintain software. It includes phases such as requirements analysis,
design, coding, testing, and maintenance.
- **Focus**: How software is developed, managed, and delivered.

**Software Product**:

- **Definition**: The software product is the end result or deliverable of the software process. It is
the software application or system developed to meet user needs and requirements.

- **Focus**: The final software application or system that is used by end-users.

**Distinction**:

- **Nature**: The software process is concerned with the methods and procedures for creating
software, while the software product is the actual application or system produced.

- **Lifecycle**: The software process encompasses the entire lifecycle of software development,
from planning to deployment and maintenance. The software product is the outcome of this process.

- **Objective**: The goal of the software process is to ensure effective and efficient development,
while the goal of the software product is to provide value to users by meeting their needs.

---

d) **Discuss Different Fact-Finding Techniques**

**Fact-Finding Techniques** are methods used to gather and analyze information for understanding
requirements and solving problems. Common techniques include:

1. **Interviews**: Conducting one-on-one or group discussions with stakeholders to understand

their needs and expectations. Provides direct insights but may be time-consuming.

2. **Surveys/Questionnaires**: Distributing structured forms to collect data from a larger audience.

Useful for gathering information from many people but may lack depth.

3. **Observation**: Watching users interact with the existing system or perform their tasks. Helps
understand real-world use but may not capture all nuances.

4. **Document Analysis**: Reviewing existing documentation, such as system specifications, process

manuals, and previous project reports. Useful for understanding historical context but may be
outdated.
5. **Prototyping**: Creating a preliminary version of the system to gather feedback and refine
requirements. Provides a tangible model but may not cover all requirements initially.

---

e) **Define Software Maintenance. Explain Types of Software Maintenance**

**Software Maintenance**: Software maintenance refers to the process of updating and improving
software after its initial release to correct defects, enhance functionality, or adapt to changes in the
environment.

**Types of Software Maintenance:**

1. **Corrective Maintenance**: Involves fixing bugs or defects found in the software after it has
been deployed. This type of maintenance addresses issues that affect the software's functionality.

2. **Adaptive Maintenance**: Involves modifying the software to accommodate changes in the

environment or technology, such as updating the software to run on a new operating system or
integrating with new hardware.

3. **Perfective Maintenance**: Involves making improvements or enhancements to the software to

increase its performance, usability, or functionality based on user feedback or new requirements.

4. **Preventive Maintenance**: Involves making changes to the software to prevent future

problems or issues. This type of maintenance aims to improve software reliability and reduce the risk
of defects.

**Purpose**: To ensure that the software continues to operate effectively, meet user needs, and
adapt to changes in technology and requirements.

Here are the 4-mark answers for your questions:

---
a) **Draw Decision Table for Discount Policy**

A decision table is a tool used to represent and analyze complex decision-making scenarios by
outlining different conditions and actions. Here’s a decision table for the discount policy of ABC
Foods Pvt. Ltd.:

**Decision Table:**

| **Condition 1**: Purchase Amount | **Condition 2**: Payment within 5 Days | **Action**:
Discount | **Action**: Total Amount to Pay |

|----------------------------------|----------------------------------------|----------------------|--------------------------------
-|

| > 5,000 | Yes | 5% | Amount - 5% |

| > 5,000 | No | No discount | Amount |

| 3,000 - 5,000 | Yes | 3% | Amount - 3% |

| 3,000 - 5,000 | No | No discount | Amount |

| < 3,000 | Yes | No discount | Amount |

| < 3,000 | No | No discount | Amount |

**Explanation:**

- **Condition 1** (Purchase Amount): Specifies the range of the total amount of purchase.

- **Condition 2** (Payment within 5 Days): Indicates whether the payment is made within 5 days.

- **Action** (Discount): Specifies the discount applicable based on the conditions.

- **Action** (Total Amount to Pay): Shows the total amount the customer has to pay after applying
the discount (if any).

---

b) **Define Module. Explain Types of Modules**

**Module**: A module is a self-contained component of a software system that performs a specific
function or set of functions. Modules are designed to be independently developed, tested, and
maintained, but they work together to form a complete system.

**Types of Modules:**

1. **Functional Module**: Focuses on a specific function or feature of the system, such as a user
authentication module or a billing module. Each functional module handles a distinct aspect of the
application's functionality.

2. **Data Module**: Manages data access and manipulation within the system. For example, a data
access module handles database operations and queries.

3. **UI Module**: Manages the user interface components of the system, including screens, forms,
and dialogs. This module focuses on presenting information to the user and capturing user input.

4. **Service Module**: Provides reusable services or utilities that can be used by other modules,
such as logging, authentication, or notification services.

5. **Integration Module**: Handles interactions between different modules or external systems,

facilitating communication and data exchange.

**Purpose**: Modules help in organizing and managing complex software systems by breaking them
into manageable components, promoting modularity, and enabling easier maintenance and updates.

---

c) **Draw ER-Diagram for "Food Order System"**

Here’s a textual representation of an Entity-Relationship Diagram (ERD) for a Food Order System:

**Entities:**

1. **Customer**

2. **Order**
3. **Food Item**

4. **Payment**

**Relationships:**

1. **Places**: Customer places an Order.

2. **Contains**: Order contains Food Items.

3. **Processes**: Order is associated with Payment.

**ER-Diagram:**

```

+-------------+ +-------------+

| Customer |<------------| Order |

+-------------+ +-------------+

| |

| |

v v

+-------------+ +----------------+

| Payment | | Food Item |

+-------------+ +----------------+

| |

| |

v v

+-------------------------------+

| Contains |

| |

| (Order - Food Item) |

+-------------------------------+

```

**Explanation:**
- **Customer**: Represents individuals who place orders.

- **Order**: Represents an order placed by a customer.

- **Food Item**: Represents items available for purchase.

- **Payment**: Represents the payment associated with an order.

- **Relationships**:

- **Places**: A Customer places an Order.

- **Contains**: An Order contains multiple Food Items.

- **Processes**: An Order is processed through Payment.

---

d) **What is a Decision Table? Need of Decision Table**

**Decision Table**: A decision table is a structured method for documenting and analyzing complex
decision-making scenarios. It consists of rows and columns representing conditions, actions, and
possible outcomes. Each combination of conditions leads to specific actions or results.

**Need of Decision Table:**

1. **Clarifies Complex Rules**: Helps in visualizing and managing complex business rules and
decision logic.

2. **Ensures Comprehensive Coverage**: Provides a systematic way to cover all possible scenarios
and conditions.

3. **Facilitates Testing**: Assists in designing test cases to ensure all decision paths are tested.

4. **Improves Communication**: Offers a clear and concise representation of decision logic, aiding
communication among stakeholders.

---

e) **Explain Elements of Data Flow Diagrams**

**Elements of Data Flow Diagrams (DFD)**:

1. **Processes**: Represent activities or functions that transform input data into output. Denoted by
circles or ovals. For example, "Process Order" or "Generate Report."
2. **Data Flows**: Indicate the movement of data between processes, data stores, and external
entities. Represented by arrows. For example, "Order Details" or "Customer Information."

3. **Data Stores**: Represent repositories where data is stored for later use. Denoted by open-
ended rectangles or parallel lines. For example, "Customer Database" or "Order Records."

4. **External Entities**: Represent external sources or destinations of data that interact with the
system. Denoted by rectangles. For example, "Customer" or "Supplier."

**Purpose**: DFDs help in visualizing how data moves through a system, identifying processes and
data storage, and understanding interactions between different components of the system.

Here are the 4-mark answers for your questions:

---

a) **Draw Decision Tree for Material Issuance**

A decision tree visually represents decision rules and their outcomes based on different conditions.
Here’s a decision tree for the material issuance process:

```

Start

+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+

| | |

MRN Signed? MRN Not Signed |

| | |

| Yes No |

| | |

+-------+-------+ +----------------+ |

| Valid Items? | No |
| | | |

| Yes | | |

| | | |

+-------+--------+ | |

| | |

+-------+--------+ Material |

| Issued within 8 | Not Issued |

| Hours? |

| |

| Yes |

| |

+------------------+

| Material Issued |

+------------------+

```

**Explanation:**

- **MRN Signed?**: Check if the Material Requisition Note is signed.

- **Valid Items?**: Check if the MRN contains valid items.

- **Issued within 8 Hours?**: Check if the material is issued within 8 hours.

- **Outcomes**:

- If all conditions are met, the material is issued.

- If any condition is not met, the material is not issued.

---

b) **Differentiate Between Forward and Reverse Engineering**

**Forward Engineering**:

- **Definition**: The process of moving from high-level design to detailed design and then to code. It
involves creating a system from scratch based on requirements and design specifications.
- **Focus**: Transitioning from abstract requirements to a working system.

- **Steps**: Requirements Analysis → Design → Implementation → Testing.

**Reverse Engineering**:

- **Definition**: The process of analyzing and understanding an existing system to extract design
and implementation details. It involves reconstructing a system from its existing artifacts.

- **Focus**: Understanding and documenting an existing system’s structure and functionality.

- **Steps**: Code Analysis → Design Extraction → Documentation → Improvement.

**Key Differences**:

- **Direction**: Forward engineering moves from requirements to code, while reverse engineering
moves from code to design.

- **Purpose**: Forward engineering is used for creating new systems, while reverse engineering is
used for understanding and modifying existing systems.

---

c) **What is Data Flow Diagram? Explain its Advantages & Disadvantages**

**Data Flow Diagram (DFD)**:

- **Definition**: A visual representation of how data moves through a system. It shows processes,
data flows, data stores, and external entities.

**Advantages**:

1. **Visual Clarity**: Provides a clear and intuitive representation of data flow and system processes.

2. **Simplifies Communication**: Facilitates communication between stakeholders by providing a

visual model of the system.

3. **Helps in Analysis**: Assists in understanding and analyzing the system’s data flow and
interactions.

4. **Documentation**: Acts as a useful tool for documenting system requirements and design.

**Disadvantages**:
1. **Complexity**: Can become complex and hard to manage for large systems with many processes
and data flows.

2. **Limited Detail**: May not capture detailed behavior or logic of processes, focusing more on
data flow.

3. **Static**: Provides a snapshot of data flow and does not show dynamic aspects like state
changes over time.

---

d) **What is SDLC? Describe Its Phases**

**SDLC (Software Development Life Cycle)**:

- **Definition**: A structured approach to software development that outlines the phases involved
in creating and maintaining software applications.

**Phases of SDLC**:

1. **Requirement Gathering and Analysis**: Identify and document the requirements and
expectations of the stakeholders. Analyze the feasibility and scope of the project.

2. **System Design**: Develop detailed design specifications based on requirements. This phase
includes creating architectural designs, user interfaces, and data models.

3. **Implementation**: Write and compile the code based on the design specifications. This phase
involves actual coding, unit testing, and integration of components.

4. **Testing**: Evaluate the software to identify and fix defects. Perform various types of testing,
including functional, integration, and system testing.

5. **Deployment**: Release the software to the production environment. This phase includes
installation, configuration, and user training.

6. **Maintenance**: Address issues, perform updates, and make enhancements as needed. This
phase involves ongoing support and improvements to ensure the software continues to meet user
needs.
---

e) **Design a Screen I/P Layout for Employee’s Profile**

**Screen Input Layout for Employee’s Profile**:

1. **Header**: Employee Profile

- Title of the screen.

2. **Employee Details Section**:

- **Employee ID**: [Text Field]

- **Name**: [Text Field]

- **Date of Birth**: [Date Picker]

- **Gender**: [Dropdown: Male, Female, Other]

- **Address**: [Text Area]

- **Phone Number**: [Text Field]

- **Email**: [Text Field]

3. **Job Information Section**:

- **Department**: [Dropdown]

- **Position**: [Text Field]

- **Date of Joining**: [Date Picker]

- **Salary**: [Text Field]

4. **Action Buttons**:

- **Save**: [Button]

- **Cancel**: [Button]

- **Edit**: [Button] (if the profile is in view mode)

5. **Footer**:
 - **Help/Support**: [Link]

- **Logout**: [Button]

**Layout Example**:

```

--------------------------------------------------------

| Employee Profile |

--------------------------------------------------------

| Employee ID: [___________] |

| Name: [___________] |

| Date of Birth: [____/____/____] |

| Gender: [Male v] [Female v] [Other v] |

| Address: [______________________________] |

| Phone Number: [___________] |

| Email: [___________] |

--------------------------------------------------------

| Department: [___________] |

| Position: [___________] |

| Date of Joining: [____/____/____] |

| Salary: [___________] |

--------------------------------------------------------

| [Save] [Cancel] [Edit] |

--------------------------------------------------------

| Help/Support | Logout |

--------------------------------------------------------

```

**Explanation**:

- **Header**: Displays the title of the screen.

- **Employee Details Section**: Contains personal and contact information fields.

- **Job Information Section**: Includes fields related to the employee's job and salary.

- **Action Buttons**: Provides options to save changes, cancel, or edit the profile.

- **Footer**: Includes help/support and logout options.

Here are the 3-mark answers for your questions:

---

a) **Prototype Model**

**Prototype Model**: The Prototype Model is a software development methodology where a

preliminary version of the system, known as a prototype, is built and refined through iterative
feedback and revisions.

**Key Points**:

- **Purpose**: To demonstrate and refine the design and functionality of the system based on user
feedback.

- **Process**:

1. **Initial Prototype**: Develop a basic version of the system to represent core functionality.

2. **User Evaluation**: Gather feedback from users regarding the prototype.

3. **Refinement**: Make necessary modifications and improvements based on feedback.

4. **Repeat**: Iterate the process until the final system meets user requirements.

**Advantages**:

- **Early Feedback**: Users can interact with the prototype early in the development process.

- **Requirement Clarity**: Helps in clarifying requirements and expectations.

**Disadvantages**:

- **Scope Creep**: Frequent changes can lead to scope creep and project delays.

- **Cost**: May incur additional costs due to iterative changes.

---
b) **Structured Chart**

**Structured Chart**: A Structured Chart is a diagrammatic tool used in structured design to

represent the hierarchical structure of a system and the flow of data between its components.

**Key Points**:

- **Purpose**: To illustrate the organization and interactions of system modules or components.

- **Components**:

1. **Modules**: Represented as boxes or rectangles, showing distinct parts of the system.

2. **Data Flow**: Arrows indicating the flow of data between modules.

3. **Hierarchy**: Shows the relationship between parent and child modules.

**Advantages**:

- **Clarity**: Provides a clear view of the system’s structure and data flow.

- **Modular Design**: Supports the development of modular and maintainable systems.

**Disadvantages**:

- **Complexity**: Can become complex for large systems with many modules.

- **Static Representation**: May not capture dynamic behaviors or interactions.

---

c) **Requirement Gathering**

**Requirement Gathering**: Requirement Gathering is the process of collecting and documenting

the needs and expectations of stakeholders to ensure that the software system meets their
requirements.

**Key Points**:

- **Purpose**: To understand what the stakeholders need from the system and to define clear and
actionable requirements.
- **Techniques**:

1. **Interviews**: Conducting discussions with stakeholders to gather detailed requirements.

2. **Surveys/Questionnaires**: Using structured forms to collect requirements from a larger

audience.

3. **Observation**: Observing current processes and systems to identify requirements.

4. **Document Analysis**: Reviewing existing documentation and reports.

**Advantages**:

- **Clarity**: Ensures that all stakeholder needs are understood and documented.

- **Foundation**: Provides a solid foundation for subsequent phases of development.

**Disadvantages**:

- **Time-Consuming**: Can be time-consuming and requires thorough analysis.

- **Miscommunication**: Risk of miscommunication or incomplete requirements if not properly

managed.

QP3

Here are the 2-mark answers for your questions:

---

a) **What is System?**

**System**: A system is a collection of interrelated components working together towards a

common goal. It includes inputs, processes, outputs, and feedback mechanisms. Systems can be
technical, such as a computer system, or non-technical, such as an organizational system.

---

b) **Define Software**
**Software**: Software is a set of instructions, programs, or data used to operate computers and
execute specific tasks. It encompasses applications, operating systems, and utilities that perform
various functions on hardware systems.

---

c) **Define RAD**

**RAD (Rapid Application Development)**: RAD is a software development methodology that

emphasizes quick development and iteration of software applications through user feedback and
prototypes. It aims to produce a high-quality system quickly by involving end-users in the
development process.

---

d) **What is SRS**

**SRS (Software Requirements Specification)**: SRS is a document that describes the functional and
non-functional requirements of a software system. It provides a detailed description of what the
system should do, including specifications, constraints, and interactions with users and other
systems.

---

e) **State the Principles of Software Testing**

**Principles of Software Testing**:

1. **Early Testing**: Testing should start as early as possible in the development cycle to identify
defects early.

2. **Defect Clustering**: A small number of modules often contain the majority of defects.

3. **Pesticide Paradox**: Running the same tests will not always find new defects; tests must be
periodically reviewed and updated.

4. **Testing Shows Presence of Defects**: Testing can show that defects are present but cannot
prove that there are no defects.
5. **Absence of Errors Fallacy**: Even if no defects are found, the software may still not meet user
requirements.

---

f) **What is Software Reengineering?**

**Software Reengineering**: Software reengineering involves examining and altering a software

system to reconstitute it into a new form or improve its performance and maintainability. It includes
activities such as code restructuring, reverse engineering, and redesigning to enhance the system.

---

g) **State Advantages of Waterfall Model**

**Advantages of Waterfall Model**:

1. **Simple and Easy to Understand**: The linear and sequential approach makes it easy to manage
and understand.

2. **Structured Approach**: Each phase has specific deliverables and reviews, ensuring a systematic
development process.

3. **Documentation**: Emphasis on documentation at each phase provides a clear record of

requirements, design, and development.

---

h) **State Any Two Types of Coupling**

**Types of Coupling**:

1. **Data Coupling**: Modules share data through parameters, but they are independent of each
other’s internal workings.

2. **Control Coupling**: Modules pass control information, such as flags or control variables, to
influence the behavior of other modules.

---
i) **Define an Entity**

**Entity**: In database terminology, an entity is an object or concept that can be distinctly identified
and has attributes. For example, in a database for a university, entities might include "Student,"
"Course," or "Instructor."

---

j) **What is Pseudocode?**

**Pseudocode**: Pseudocode is a high-level, informal description of the steps in an algorithm or

program. It uses plain language and a structured format to outline the logic and flow of a solution
without adhering to specific programming syntax. It helps in designing algorithms and understanding
the flow of logic.

Here are the 4-mark answers for your questions:

---

a) **Explain Various Types of System**

**Types of Systems**:

1. **Physical Systems**:

- **Definition**: Tangible systems with physical components.

- **Examples**: Mechanical systems, manufacturing systems, and transportation systems.

- **Characteristics**: Involves physical parts that can be touched and interacted with.

2. **Abstract Systems**:

- **Definition**: Intangible systems that exist only as conceptual models or processes.

- **Examples**: Economic models, organizational structures, and software systems.

 - **Characteristics**: Focuses on concepts and interactions rather than physical components.

3. **Open Systems**:

- **Definition**: Systems that interact with their environment and exchange information or
resources.

- **Examples**: Biological ecosystems, computer networks, and social systems.

- **Characteristics**: Adaptable to changes in the environment and often have feedback loops.

4. **Closed Systems**:

- **Definition**: Systems that operate independently of their environment, with minimal

interaction.

- **Examples**: A sealed laboratory experiment or a closed-loop control system.

- **Characteristics**: Isolated from external influences, with internal processes determining

outcomes.

5. **Dynamic Systems**:

- **Definition**: Systems that change over time in response to internal or external factors.

- **Examples**: Weather systems, financial markets, and adaptive learning systems.

- **Characteristics**: Behavior and structure evolve over time.

6. **Static Systems**:

- **Definition**: Systems that remain relatively stable and unchanged.

- **Examples**: Traditional paper-based filing systems, simple mechanical devices.

- **Characteristics**: Limited interaction with the environment and consistent behavior.

---

b) **Explain Different McCall’s Quality Factors**

**McCall’s Quality Factors**: McCall’s quality model identifies key factors that determine software
quality. Here are some of the major factors:
1. **Correctness**:

- **Definition**: The extent to which the software meets the specified requirements and performs
its intended functions.

- **Significance**: Ensures that the software does what it is supposed to do.

2. **Reliability**:

- **Definition**: The ability of the software to perform its functions consistently under specified
conditions.

- **Significance**: Measures the software’s stability and dependability.

3. **Efficiency**:

- **Definition**: The extent to which the software uses resources (such as memory and processing
power) effectively.

- **Significance**: Affects the performance and responsiveness of the software.

4. **Usability**:

- **Definition**: The ease with which users can learn, operate, and interact with the software.

- **Significance**: Impacts user satisfaction and overall experience.

5. **Maintainability**:

- **Definition**: The ease with which the software can be modified to correct defects, improve
performance, or adapt to changes.

- **Significance**: Determines the cost and effort required for future modifications and updates.

6. **Portability**:

- **Definition**: The ability of the software to be transferred from one environment to another.

- **Significance**: Facilitates the adaptation of the software to different platforms or systems.

---

c) **Explain Spiral Model in Detail**

**Spiral Model**: The Spiral Model is a software development methodology that combines iterative
development with elements of design and prototyping. It emphasizes risk analysis and continuous
improvement.

**Phases of the Spiral Model**:

1. **Planning**:

- **Activities**: Define objectives, identify requirements, and plan resources.

- **Output**: Project plan and initial risk assessment.

2. **Risk Analysis**:

- **Activities**: Identify and evaluate risks, and develop strategies to mitigate them.

- **Output**: Risk management plan and updated project requirements.

3. **Engineering**:

- **Activities**: Design, develop, and test the software.

- **Output**: Prototypes or working software, user feedback, and updated design.

4. **Evaluation**:

- **Activities**: Review and evaluate the developed system against user requirements.

- **Output**: User feedback, revised requirements, and adjustments to the project plan.

5. **Iterate**:

- **Activities**: Refine and enhance the system through additional iterations.

- **Output**: Improved versions of the system and ongoing risk management.

**Advantages**:

- **Risk Management**: Continuous assessment and mitigation of risks.

- **Flexibility**: Allows for iterative development and frequent feedback.

**Disadvantages**:

- **Complexity**: Can be complex to manage due to multiple iterations.

- **Cost**: May be expensive due to iterative cycles and ongoing development.

---

d) **Discuss Different Fact-Finding Techniques**

**Fact-Finding Techniques**: Methods used to gather and analyze information to understand

requirements and system needs.

1. **Interviews**:

- **Definition**: Direct conversations with stakeholders to gather detailed information.

- **Advantages**: Provides in-depth insights and clarifications.

- **Disadvantages**: Time-consuming and may be affected by interviewer bias.

2. **Surveys/Questionnaires**:

- **Definition**: Structured forms used to collect information from a larger audience.

- **Advantages**: Efficient for gathering data from many respondents.

- **Disadvantages**: May lack depth and clarity in responses.

3. **Observation**:

- **Definition**: Watching users interact with existing systems or perform tasks.

- **Advantages**: Provides real-world insights into system usage and workflows.

- **Disadvantages**: Can be intrusive and may not capture all aspects of system usage.

4. **Document Analysis**:

- **Definition**: Reviewing existing documentation, such as reports and system specifications.

- **Advantages**: Provides historical data and context.

- **Disadvantages**: Documents may be outdated or incomplete.

5. **Workshops**:

- **Definition**: Group sessions with stakeholders to discuss and gather requirements.

 - **Advantages**: Facilitates collaborative problem-solving and idea generation.

- **Disadvantages**: May be challenging to manage group dynamics and reach consensus.

---

e) **Differentiate Between White-Box and Black-Box Testing**

**White-Box Testing**:

- **Definition**: A testing method that examines the internal structure, logic, and code of the
software.

- **Focus**: Testing internal paths, conditions, and code coverage.

- **Techniques**: Code reviews, path testing, and branch testing.

- **Advantages**: Identifies implementation issues and ensures all code paths are tested.

- **Disadvantages**: Requires knowledge of the code and may not uncover user interface issues.

**Black-Box Testing**:

- **Definition**: A testing method that focuses on testing the software’s functionality without
knowledge of its internal workings.

- **Focus**: Testing based on requirements and user expectations.

- **Techniques**: Functional testing, boundary value testing, and equivalence partitioning.

- **Advantages**: Tests the software from an end-user perspective and is not affected by the
internal code.

- **Disadvantages**: May miss internal issues and relies on the accuracy of test cases and
requirements.

Here are the 4-mark answers for your questions:

---

a) **Material is issued to the department by considering whether the Material Requisition Note
(MRN) is signed or not. It contains valid items or not and it is given within 8 hours or not. Draw
Decision Table for the above case.**
**Decision Table**:

| **Conditions** | **MRN Signed** | **Valid Items** | **Given Within 8 Hours** |

**Material Issued** |

|------------------------------------|----------------|-----------------|--------------------------|----------------------|

| **Condition 1** | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |

| **Condition 2** | Yes | Yes | No | No |

| **Condition 3** | Yes | No | Yes | No |

| **Condition 4** | Yes | No | No | No |

| **Condition 5** | No | Yes | Yes | No |

| **Condition 6** | No | Yes | No | No |

| **Condition 7** | No | No | Yes | No |

| **Condition 8** | No | No | No | No |

**Explanation**:

- Material is issued only if the MRN is signed, contains valid items, and is given within 8 hours.

- All other combinations result in the material not being issued.

---

b) **Design an Input Screen Layout for Creating User Account on the Internet**

**Screen Layout for Creating a User Account**:

```

------------------------------------------------------

| Create User Account |

------------------------------------------------------

| Personal Details |

|----------------------------------------------------|
| Full Name: [______________________________] |

| Date of Birth: [______/______/________] |

| Email Address: [______________________________] |

| Phone Number: [______________________________] |

------------------------------------------------------

| User ID |

|----------------------------------------------------|

| User ID: [______________________________] |

------------------------------------------------------

| Password |

|----------------------------------------------------|

| Password: [______________________________] |

| Confirm Password: [________________________] |

------------------------------------------------------

| [Save] [Cancel] |

------------------------------------------------------

```

**Explanation**:

- The screen layout includes fields for personal details, user ID, and password.

- Buttons for saving or canceling the account creation process.

---

c) **Draw Decision Tree for the Following Case: A Company Gives Discount on the Purchase of Goods
Depending on the Sale and Duration of Payment:**

**Decision Tree**:

```

[Order Amount]
 / | \

> 50,000 25,000 to 50,000 < 10,000

/ | \

[Payment Within 8 Days] [Payment Within 8 Days] [No Discount]

/ \ / \

Yes No Yes No

/ \ / \

5% Discount No Discount 3% Discount No Discount

```

**Explanation**:

- Discounts are based on the order amount and whether payment is made within 8 days.

- No discount if order amount is below 10,000 or payment is not made within 8 days.

---

d) **Design a Screen Layout for Employee's Salary Slip**

**Screen Layout for Employee's Salary Slip**:

```

------------------------------------------------------

| Employee Salary Slip |

------------------------------------------------------

| Employee ID: [______________________________] |

| Name: [______________________________] |

| Department: [______________________________] |

| Designation: [______________________________] |

| Date: [______/______/________] |

------------------------------------------------------

| Earnings |
|----------------------------------------------------|

| Basic Salary: [________________________] |

| Allowances: [________________________] |

| Bonus: [________________________] |

|----------------------------------------------------|

| Deductions |

|----------------------------------------------------|

| Tax: [________________________] |

| Insurance: [________________________] |

| Other Deductions: [________________________] |

------------------------------------------------------

| Net Salary: [________________________] |

------------------------------------------------------

| [Print] [Save] |

------------------------------------------------------

```

**Explanation**:

- The layout includes fields for employee details, earnings, deductions, and net salary.

- Buttons for printing or saving the salary slip.

---

e) **Draw ER-Diagram for “College Admission System”**

**ER-Diagram**:

```

[Student] ----------------< Enrolls >---------------- [Course]

| StudentID (PK) | CourseID (PK) |

| Name | CourseName |
 | DOB | Credits |

| Address | Duration |

| Email | |

| Phone | |

|---------------------- | |

| EnrollDate | |

| Semester | |

|---------------------- | |

| *-------------------- | |

| * | |

| | |

| | |

| | |

| | |

| | |

| | |

[Admission] [Instructor] [Department]

| AdmissionID (PK) | InstructorID (PK) | DepartmentID (PK)

| StudentID (FK) | Name | DepartmentName

| CourseID (FK) | Email |

| AdmissionDate | Phone |

| Status | |

```

**Explanation**:

- **Student**: Stores student details.

- **Course**: Stores course details.

- **Enrolls**: A many-to-many relationship between Students and Courses.

- **Admission**: Tracks admission details, linking students and courses.

- **Instructor**: Stores details of instructors.

- **Department**: Represents departments offering courses.

4

Here are the 4-mark answers for your questions:

---

a) **Draw First Level DFD for Hospital Management System**

**First Level DFD for Hospital Management System**:

```

[Patient]

--------------------> [Hospital Management System] <---------------------

| | | | |

| | | | |

[IPD] [OPD] [Patient Records] [Billing]

| | | |

v v | |

[Patient Record] [Patient Record] | |

v v

[Patient Records] [Patient Bills]

```

**Explanation**:

- **IPD (Inpatient Department)** and **OPD (Outpatient Department)** are sources of patient
records.

- **Patient Records** and **Billing** are outputs of the system.

- The system processes inputs from IPD and OPD to maintain patient records and generate bills.
---

b) **Identify All Entities of Online Shopping System**

**Entities of Online Shopping System**:

1. **Customer**:

- **Attributes**: CustomerID, Name, Email, Address, PhoneNumber

2. **Product**:

- **Attributes**: ProductID, Name, Description, Price, StockQuantity

3. **Order**:

- **Attributes**: OrderID, OrderDate, ShippingAddress, TotalAmount

4. **Payment**:

- **Attributes**: PaymentID, PaymentDate, PaymentMethod, Amount

5. **Supplier**:

- **Attributes**: SupplierID, Name, ContactInfo

6. **Review**:

- **Attributes**: ReviewID, CustomerID, ProductID, Rating, Comment

7. **Category**:

- **Attributes**: CategoryID, CategoryName

---

c) **Draw Context Level Diagram for Online Shopping System**

**Context Level Diagram for Online Shopping System**:

```

+-------------------------+

| Online Shopping System |

+-------------------------+

| | |

v v v

+-----------+ +-----------+ +-----------+

| Customer | | Supplier | | Payment |

+-----------+ +-----------+ +-----------+

| | |

v v v

[Place Order] [Supply Products] [Process Payment]

```

**Explanation**:

- The system interacts with external entities such as **Customer**, **Supplier**, and **Payment**.

- The system processes orders from customers, manages supplier products, and handles payments.

---

d) **Draw First Level DFD for Customer Order System**

**First Level DFD for Customer Order System**:

```

+-----------------------+

| Customer Order System |

+-----------------------+

| | |
 | | |

v v v

[Order Management] [Inventory] [Billing]

| | |

| | |

v v v

[Process Order] [Update Stock] [Generate Invoice]

```

**Explanation**:

- **Order Management** handles processing customer orders.

- **Inventory** manages stock levels and updates them based on orders.

- **Billing** generates invoices for processed orders.

---

e) **Explain Elements of Data Flow Diagrams**

**Elements of Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs)**:

1. **Processes**:

- **Definition**: Actions or functions that transform input data into output data.

- **Representation**: Rounded rectangles or circles.

- **Example**: "Process Order," "Generate Invoice."

2. **Data Stores**:

- **Definition**: Repositories where data is stored and retrieved.

- **Representation**: Open-ended rectangles.

- **Example**: "Customer Database," "Order History."

3. **Data Flows**:
 - **Definition**: Movement of data between processes, data stores, and external entities.

- **Representation**: Arrows.

- **Example**: "Order Details," "Payment Confirmation."

4. **External Entities**:

- **Definition**: Actors or systems outside the scope of the diagram that interact with the system.

- **Representation**: Squares or rectangles.

- **Example**: "Customer," "Supplier."

**Explanation**:

- DFDs use these elements to represent how data moves through a system, showing the relationship
between processes, data stores, and external entities.

Here are the 3-mark answers for your questions:

---

a) **Types of Cohesion**

**Types of Cohesion**:

1. **Functional Cohesion**:

- **Definition**: All components of a module are grouped because they all contribute to a single,
well-defined task or function.

- **Example**: A module that handles all aspects of file reading, including opening, reading, and
closing files.

2. **Sequential Cohesion**:

- **Definition**: Components are grouped based on the sequence of operations where the output
from one component is the input to the next.

- **Example**: A module that processes a series of data transformations where each step depends
on the previous step.
3. **Communicational Cohesion**:

- **Definition**: Components are grouped because they operate on the same data or resources.

- **Example**: A module that performs various operations on a specific set of related data records.

4. **Procedural Cohesion**:

- **Definition**: Components are grouped because they follow a specific sequence of execution,
but not necessarily because they operate on the same data.

- **Example**: A module that executes a series of procedures such as initialization, processing, and
cleanup.

5. **Temporal Cohesion**:

- **Definition**: Components are grouped because they are activated at the same time or during
the same phase of execution.

- **Example**: A module that performs initialization tasks like setting up logging and configuring
system parameters at startup.

6. **Logical Cohesion**:

- **Definition**: Components are grouped because they perform similar or related functions, but
these functions are not necessarily related by data or sequence.

- **Example**: A module that provides various utility functions like mathematical operations and
string manipulations.

7. **Coincidental Cohesion**:

- **Definition**: Components are grouped arbitrarily without a meaningful relationship, leading to

a module that does not have a clear purpose.

- **Example**: A module that contains unrelated functions like printing logs and managing user
input.

---

b) **Validation and Verification Testing**

**Validation and Verification Testing**:

1. **Validation**:

- **Definition**: The process of checking if the software meets the needs and requirements of the
end-users.

- **Purpose**: Ensures that the product fulfills the intended use and requirements.

- **Examples**: User acceptance testing, system testing, and functional testing.

2. **Verification**:

- **Definition**: The process of evaluating whether the software conforms to specifications and
design documents.

- **Purpose**: Ensures that the product is built correctly according to design and requirements.

- **Examples**: Code reviews, unit testing, and integration testing.

**Key Difference**:

- **Validation** is about ensuring the product is right for the user, while **Verification** is about
ensuring the product is built correctly according to specifications.

---

c) **Feasibility Study**

**Feasibility Study**:

- **Definition**: An assessment conducted to determine the viability of a project or solution in

terms of its technical, operational, and financial aspects.

- **Purpose**: To evaluate whether the project is achievable, practical, and worthwhile before
committing resources.

- **Types**:

1. **Technical Feasibility**: Evaluates if the technology and skills required for the project are
available.

2. **Operational Feasibility**: Assesses if the solution fits within the organization’s operational
structure and meets user requirements.

3. **Economic Feasibility**: Analyzes the cost-effectiveness of the project and its return on
investment (ROI).
**Explanation**:

- A feasibility study helps stakeholders make informed decisions by assessing risks, benefits, and the
overall potential for success of a project or solution.

QP4

Here are the 2-mark answers for your questions:

---

a) **What is a Feasibility Study?**

**Feasibility Study**:

- **Definition**: A feasibility study is an evaluation of a project's potential for success. It assesses

technical, operational, and financial aspects to determine if a project is viable and worth pursuing.

- **Purpose**: To ensure that the project is achievable, practical, and cost-effective before investing
resources.

---

b) **Define RAD.**

**RAD (Rapid Application Development)**:

- **Definition**: RAD is a software development methodology that emphasizes quick development

and iteration of prototypes over traditional planning and design phases.

- **Purpose**: To accelerate the development process and allow for faster feedback and
adjustments based on user requirements.

---

c) **What is SRS?**
**SRS (Software Requirements Specification)**:

- **Definition**: SRS is a document that describes the software system's functional and non-
functional requirements. It outlines what the software must do and the constraints under which it
must operate.

- **Purpose**: To provide a clear and detailed description of software requirements to guide

development and ensure stakeholder expectations are met.

---

d) **Define an Entity.**

**Entity**:

- **Definition**: In database and system design, an entity is a distinct object or concept that can be
identified and has attributes. It represents real-world objects such as people, places, or things.

- **Purpose**: To structure data and relationships within a database or system model.

---

e) **What is Pseudocode?**

**Pseudocode**:

- **Definition**: Pseudocode is a high-level description of an algorithm or program written in a

simplified, human-readable form. It uses plain language and logical structure without adhering to
specific syntax of programming languages.

- **Purpose**: To outline the logic of an algorithm or program before implementation, making it

easier to understand and translate into actual code.

---

f) **State the Principles of Software Testing.**

**Principles of Software Testing**:

1. **Testing Shows Presence of Defects**: Testing can show that defects are present but cannot
guarantee that there are no defects.
2. **Exhaustive Testing is Impossible**: Testing every possible input and condition is impractical;
instead, focus on risk-based and representative testing.

3. **Early Testing**: Testing early in the development process helps identify and fix defects sooner,
reducing overall costs.

4. **Defect Clustering**: A small number of modules often contain most defects, so focus testing
efforts accordingly.

5. **Pesticide Paradox**: Running the same tests repeatedly will not find new defects; new test
cases are needed to uncover different issues.

---

g) **What is Software Reengineering?**

**Software Reengineering**:

- **Definition**: Software reengineering involves analyzing and modifying existing software to

improve its performance, maintainability, or adaptability without completely rewriting it.

- **Purpose**: To modernize or optimize software systems while preserving their functionality.

---

h) **What is Requirement Elicitation?**

**Requirement Elicitation**:

- **Definition**: Requirement elicitation is the process of gathering and defining the needs and
expectations of stakeholders for a software system.

- **Purpose**: To ensure that the software developed meets the needs of its users and stakeholders.

---

i) **What is a Prototype?**

**Prototype**:
- **Definition**: A prototype is an early model or sample of a software application used to visualize
and test concepts and functionality before final development.

- **Purpose**: To gather user feedback, refine requirements, and identify design issues early in the
development process.

---

j) **What is a System?**

**System**:

- **Definition**: A system is a collection of interrelated components or entities that work together to

achieve a common goal. It includes inputs, processes, and outputs.

- **Purpose**: To provide a structured approach to solving problems or achieving objectives through

coordinated activities and interactions.

Here are the 4-mark answers for your questions:

---

a) **Explain Spiral Model in Detail**

**Spiral Model**:

The Spiral Model is a software development methodology that combines iterative development with
systematic aspects of the waterfall model. It emphasizes risk assessment and incremental
improvements through repeated cycles.

**Phases**:

1. **Planning**:

- Define objectives, constraints, and risks.

- Develop a project plan including timelines and resources.

2. **Risk Analysis**:

- Identify and analyze potential risks.

- Develop strategies to mitigate risks.

3. **Engineering**:

- Develop and refine prototypes.

- Collect user feedback and make necessary adjustments.

4. **Evaluation**:

- Review progress with stakeholders.

- Assess the current phase’s deliverables and plan the next iteration.

**Advantages**:

- Allows for iterative refinement based on feedback.

- Focuses on risk management.

**Disadvantages**:

- Can be complex and time-consuming.

- May require extensive documentation and planning.

---

b) **Differentiate Between White Box and Black-Box Testing**

**White Box Testing**:

- **Definition**: Testing based on knowledge of the internal structure and logic of the application.

- **Focus**: Examines the code, paths, branches, and conditions.

- **Examples**: Unit testing, integration testing.

- **Advantages**: Can identify hidden errors and ensure thorough coverage of internal paths.

- **Disadvantages**: Requires knowledge of the code and can be time-consuming.

**Black-Box Testing**:

- **Definition**: Testing without knowledge of the internal workings of the application.

- **Focus**: Validates the functionality of the software based on the requirements and
specifications.

- **Examples**: Functional testing, system testing.

- **Advantages**: Testers do not need knowledge of the code; focuses on end-user experience.

- **Disadvantages**: Cannot assess internal code quality; may miss hidden errors.

---

c) **What is SDLC? Describe Its Phases**

**SDLC (Software Development Life Cycle)**:

SDLC is a structured approach to software development that includes several phases to guide the
creation of software systems from conception to deployment and maintenance.

**Phases**:

1. **Requirement Analysis**:

- Gather and analyze requirements from stakeholders.

- Document requirements for design and development.

2. **System Design**:

- Create architecture and design specifications based on requirements.

- Plan system components, interfaces, and data flow.

3. **Implementation**:

- Develop and code the software based on design specifications.

- Perform initial testing to ensure functionality.

4. **Testing**:

- Conduct various testing types (unit, integration, system) to identify defects.

- Validate that the software meets requirements and functions correctly.

5. **Deployment**:

- Install the software in a live environment.

- Ensure it operates as expected and train users if necessary.

6. **Maintenance**:

- Address issues and bugs discovered post-deployment.

- Implement updates and improvements based on user feedback.

---

d) **Explain Fact-Finding Methods in Brief**

**Fact-Finding Methods**:

1. **Interviews**:

- **Definition**: Direct conversations with stakeholders to gather information and understand

requirements.

- **Advantages**: Provides detailed and specific insights.

- **Disadvantages**: Can be time-consuming and may require skilled interviewers.

2. **Questionnaires/Surveys**:

- **Definition**: Structured forms to collect information from a large number of stakeholders.

- **Advantages**: Efficient for gathering data from many people.

- **Disadvantages**: May lack depth and detail.

3. **Observation**:

- **Definition**: Watching users interact with systems or perform tasks to understand their
processes and requirements.
 - **Advantages**: Provides real-world insights into system usage.

- **Disadvantages**: Observer presence may affect user behavior.

4. **Document Analysis**:

- **Definition**: Reviewing existing documentation to gather information about current systems

and processes.

- **Advantages**: Utilizes available resources and existing knowledge.

- **Disadvantages**: May not reflect current practices or system changes.

---

e) **Define Software Maintenance. Explain Types of Software Maintenance**

**Software Maintenance**:

**Definition**: Software maintenance involves updating and modifying software after its initial
release to correct issues, enhance functionality, or adapt to changes.

**Types of Software Maintenance**:

1. **Corrective Maintenance**:

- **Definition**: Fixing defects or bugs discovered after the software has been deployed.

- **Purpose**: To ensure the software operates correctly and resolves any issues.

2. **Adaptive Maintenance**:

- **Definition**: Modifying software to operate in a changed environment or to integrate with new

systems.

- **Purpose**: To ensure compatibility with new hardware, software, or regulations.

3. **Perfective Maintenance**:

- **Definition**: Enhancing or optimizing software to improve performance or add new features.

 - **Purpose**: To improve usability, performance, or functionality based on user feedback or
technological advancements.

4. **Preventive Maintenance**:

- **Definition**: Making changes to prevent potential issues or future failures.

- **Purpose**: To reduce the risk of defects and ensure long-term stability.

Here are the 4-mark answers for your questions:

---

a) **Draw Decision Tree for Discount Calculation**

**Decision Tree**:

```

Start

Is payment done within 8 days?

+-------------------+-------------------+

| |

No Yes

| |

No Discount Is order amount > 50,000?

| |

| |

End +------+------+

| |

No Yes
 | |

Is order amount between 25,000 and 50,000?

| |

+-----+-----+ |

| | |

No Yes |

| | |

No Discount 3% Discount |

| | |

| | |

| | |

| End End

End

```

**Explanation**:

- If payment is not made within 8 days, no discount is given.

- If payment is within 8 days, check the order amount.

- Apply a 5% discount if the order amount is greater than 50,000.

- Apply a 3% discount if the order amount is between 25,000 and 50,000.

- No discount is given for orders less than 10,000.

---

b) **Explain in Detail About Coupling and Cohesion**

**Coupling**:

- **Definition**: Coupling refers to the degree of interdependence between software modules.

Lower coupling indicates that modules are less dependent on each other.
- **Types**:

1. **Loose Coupling**: Modules interact with each other through well-defined interfaces and have
minimal dependencies. Promotes easier maintenance and flexibility.

2. **Tight Coupling**: Modules are highly dependent on each other, making the system more
difficult to modify and understand.

- **Importance**: Low coupling is desirable as it enhances module reusability, maintainability, and

testability.

**Cohesion**:

- **Definition**: Cohesion refers to the degree to which elements within a module are related and
work together towards a single purpose.

- **Types**:

1. **Functional Cohesion**: The module performs a single, well-defined task.

2. **Sequential Cohesion**: The module performs a sequence of related tasks.

3. **Communicational Cohesion**: The module operates on the same set of data.

4. **Procedural Cohesion**: The module follows a specific sequence of actions but not necessarily
related by data.

5. **Temporal Cohesion**: The module performs tasks that are related by time.

6. **Logical Cohesion**: The module performs similar functions but not necessarily related by data
or sequence.

7. **Coincidental Cohesion**: The module performs unrelated tasks.

- **Importance**: High cohesion is desirable as it makes a module more focused and easier to
understand, maintain, and reuse.

---

c) **Draw ER-Diagram for “Hotel Management System”**

**ER-Diagram for Hotel Management System**:

```

+------------------+

| Customer |
 +------------------+

| CustomerID (PK) |

| Name |

| ContactInfo |

+------------------+

+------------+-------------+

| |

v v

+----------------------+ +------------------+

| Booking | | Room |

+----------------------+ +------------------+

| BookingID (PK) | | RoomID (PK) |

| CustomerID (FK) | | RoomNumber |

| RoomID (FK) | | RoomType |

| CheckInDate | | Rate |

| CheckOutDate | +------------------+

+----------------------+

+------------------+

| Payment |

+------------------+

| PaymentID (PK) |

| BookingID (FK) |

| Amount |

| PaymentDate |

+------------------+

```
**Explanation**:

- **Customer**: Represents hotel guests.

- **Room**: Represents rooms available in the hotel.

- **Booking**: Records the reservation details for customers.

- **Payment**: Handles payment details related to bookings.

---

d) **What is a Decision Table? Need of Decision Table**

**Decision Table**:

- **Definition**: A decision table is a tabular representation of rules or conditions that dictate the
outcomes or actions based on various inputs.

- **Components**:

1. **Conditions**: Various inputs or criteria that affect decision-making.

2. **Actions**: The outcomes or responses based on the conditions.

3. **Rules**: Specific combinations of conditions and corresponding actions.

**Need for Decision Table**:

- **Clarity**: Helps in clearly defining complex business rules and decision-making processes.

- **Consistency**: Ensures that all possible scenarios are considered and handled systematically.

- **Validation**: Assists in verifying that all conditions and actions are covered, improving testing
and documentation.

---

e) **Design a Screen Layout for Employee’s Salary Slip**

**Screen Layout for Employee’s Salary Slip**:

```

-------------------------------------------------

| Employee Salary Slip |

-------------------------------------------------

| Employee ID: [__________] |

| Employee Name: [__________] |

| Department: [__________] |

| Position: [__________] |

-------------------------------------------------

| Salary Details |

-------------------------------------------------

| Basic Salary: [__________] |

| HRA: [__________] |

| Allowances: [__________] |

| Deductions: [__________] |

| Gross Salary: [__________] |

| Net Salary: [__________] |

-------------------------------------------------

| Payment Information |

-------------------------------------------------

| Bank Account No.: [__________] |

| Bank Name: [__________] |

| Payment Date: [__________] |

-------------------------------------------------

| Authorized Signature |

-------------------------------------------------

| Signature: [_________________________] |

-------------------------------------------------

```

**Explanation**:
- **Employee Details**: Basic information about the employee.

- **Salary Details**: Breakdown of salary components including basic salary, allowances, and
deductions.

- **Payment Information**: Bank account details and payment date.

- **Signature**: Space for authorized signature.

Here are the 4-mark answers for your questions:

---

a) **Draw Decision Table for Material Issuance**

**Decision Table**:

| **Condition** | **MRN Signed** | **Valid Items** | **Given Within 8 Hours** |

**Action** |

|-----------------------------|----------------|------------------|---------------------------|---------------------------|

| **Case 1** | No |- |- | Do Not Issue Material |

| **Case 2** | Yes | No |- | Do Not Issue Material |

| **Case 3** | Yes | Yes | No | Do Not Issue Material |

| **Case 4** | Yes | Yes | Yes | Issue Material |

**Explanation**:

- **Case 1**: If MRN is not signed, material is not issued regardless of other conditions.

- **Case 2**: If MRN is signed but items are not valid, material is not issued.

- **Case 3**: If MRN is signed and items are valid but not given within 8 hours, material is not
issued.

- **Case 4**: If MRN is signed, items are valid, and material is given within 8 hours, material is
issued.

---
b) **Draw First Level DFD for Customer Order System**

**First Level DFD for Customer Order System**:

```

+----------------------+

| Customer |

+----------------------+

| (Place Order)

+-------------------+-----------------+

| Order Processing |

+-------------------+-----------------+

| |

| (Process Order) |

v v

+------------------+ +-----------------+

| Inventory System | | Billing System |

+------------------+ +-----------------+

| | | |

| (Update Stock) | | (Generate Bill) |

| | | |

+------------------+ +-----------------+

| |

| (Update Stock) | (Send Bill)

v v

+------------------+ +-----------------+

| Supplier System | | Customer |

+------------------+ +-----------------+
```

**Explanation**:

- **Customer** places an order.

- **Order Processing** handles the order and interacts with Inventory and Billing systems.

- **Inventory System** updates stock levels.

- **Billing System** generates a bill.

- Updates are sent back to the Customer.

---

c) **Differentiate Between Forward and Reverse Engineering**

**Forward Engineering**:

- **Definition**: The process of moving from high-level abstractions and models to a more detailed
design and ultimately to code.

- **Process**: Involves creating software by developing detailed design and implementation from
requirements.

- **Purpose**: To develop new software systems or add new features to existing systems.

**Reverse Engineering**:

- **Definition**: The process of analyzing existing software to identify its components and their
relationships, and to reconstruct the design and implementation.

- **Process**: Involves extracting knowledge from existing software to understand its design and
architecture.

- **Purpose**: To understand, document, or modify existing systems, often when documentation is

lacking.

**Key Differences**:

- **Direction**: Forward engineering goes from requirements to code, while reverse engineering
goes from code to design.

- **Application**: Forward engineering is used for creating new systems; reverse engineering is used
for analyzing and modifying existing systems.
---

d) **Explain Elements of Data Flow Diagrams (DFD)**

**Elements of Data Flow Diagrams**:

1. **Processes**:

- **Definition**: Actions or operations that transform input data into output data. Represented by
circles or ovals in DFDs.

- **Purpose**: To show what operations are performed on the data.

2. **Data Flows**:

- **Definition**: Arrows that indicate the direction of data movement between processes, data
stores, and external entities.

- **Purpose**: To illustrate how data moves through the system.

3. **Data Stores**:

- **Definition**: Repositories where data is stored for later use. Represented by open-ended
rectangles.

- **Purpose**: To show where data is kept within the system.

4. **External Entities**:

- **Definition**: External systems or users that interact with the system. Represented by
rectangles.

- **Purpose**: To indicate sources or destinations of data outside the system being modeled.

---

e) **What is Data Flow Diagram (DFD)? Explain Benefits, Advantages, and Disadvantages**

**Data Flow Diagram (DFD)**:

**Definition**: A Data Flow Diagram (DFD) is a graphical representation that illustrates how data
moves through a system, including processes, data stores, and external entities.

**Benefits**:

- **Clarity**: Provides a clear and easy-to-understand visual representation of data flow and system
processes.

- **Communication**: Facilitates communication between stakeholders by providing a common

understanding of system operations.

- **Documentation**: Helps in documenting the system architecture and processes.

**Advantages**:

- **Simplicity**: Easy to create and understand, even for non-technical stakeholders.

- **Focus on Data**: Emphasizes data movement and processing, which helps in identifying data-
related issues.

- **Modularity**: Allows for breaking down complex systems into manageable components.

**Disadvantages**:

- **Limited Detail**: May not capture detailed interactions or complexities of system operations.

- **Over-Simplification**: Can sometimes oversimplify complex processes, leading to potential

misunderstandings.

- **Static Nature**: May not reflect real-time changes or dynamic aspects of the system.

Here are the 3-mark answers for your questions:

---

a) **Feasibility Study**

**Definition**: A feasibility study is an evaluation of a proposed project or system to determine its

viability, practicality, and potential for success.
**Key Aspects**:

1. **Technical Feasibility**: Assesses whether the technology required for the project is available
and capable of meeting the project’s needs.

2. **Economic Feasibility**: Evaluates the cost-effectiveness of the project, including cost-benefit

analysis to determine if the financial investment is justified.

3. **Operational Feasibility**: Looks at how well the proposed system will be integrated into existing
operations and its impact on organizational processes.

4. **Schedule Feasibility**: Determines if the project can be completed within a reasonable

timeframe.

**Purpose**: To ensure that the project is viable and worth pursuing before committing significant
resources.

---

b) **Spiral Model**

**Definition**: The Spiral Model is a software development process that combines iterative
development with systematic aspects of the Waterfall Model. It emphasizes risk analysis and iterative
refinement.

**Phases**:

1. **Planning**: Define objectives, scope, and constraints. Identify potential risks.

2. **Risk Analysis**: Analyze and evaluate risks and develop strategies to mitigate them.

3. **Engineering**: Develop and test prototypes, and refine requirements based on feedback.

4. **Evaluation**: Review progress, assess project status, and make decisions on the next iteration
or phase.

**Advantages**:

- **Flexibility**: Allows for iterative refinement based on user feedback.

- **Risk Management**: Focuses on identifying and mitigating risks early in the project.

**Disadvantages**:

- **Complexity**: Can be more complex to manage due to multiple iterations and phases.
- **Cost**: May incur higher costs due to the iterative nature and additional planning.

---

c) **Software Maintenance**

**Definition**: Software maintenance involves the process of modifying and updating software after
its initial release to correct defects, improve performance, or adapt to changes in the environment.

**Types of Software Maintenance**:

1. **Corrective Maintenance**: Fixes bugs or defects discovered after the software has been
deployed.

2. **Adaptive Maintenance**: Updates software to adapt to changes in the environment, such as

new operating systems or hardware.

3. **Perfective Maintenance**: Enhances or improves the software's functionality or performance

based on user feedback or changing requirements.

4. **Preventive Maintenance**: Makes updates to prevent potential future issues or to keep the
software running smoothly.

**Purpose**: To ensure that software remains functional, relevant, and efficient throughout its
lifecycle.