Lecture 2 Moisture in Foods, Role and types of water in foods

Moisture in foods plays a critical role in determining their texture, appearance, taste, shelf
life, and safety. The type and role of water in foods can be understood in terms of its
physical state and its behavior in different food systems.
Types of Water in Foods:
1. Free Water (Available Water):

oThis is the water that is physically free and not bound to the food’s structure. It
is the water available for chemical, enzymatic, and microbial activity. Free
water is often the water that can be easily removed by drying.
o Role in Food: Free water is the most active water in foods, contributing to
microbial growth (such as bacteria, molds, and yeasts), enzymatic reactions
(like browning or spoilage), and chemical reactions (such as oxidation). It’s
crucial for maintaining the desired texture and sensory properties of the food.
For example, fruits and vegetables are rich in free water, which makes them
juicy and crisp but also perishable.
2. Bound Water:

o Bound water is tightly bound to food molecules, such as proteins,

carbohydrates, or lipids, and is not easily removed. It doesn’t contribute to
microbial growth or chemical reactions because it’s not available for these
processes.
o Role in Food: Bound water is crucial for the structural integrity of many
foods. It affects the texture, consistency, and stability of foods like meats,
dairy, and baked goods. For example, water bound to starches or proteins in
bread contributes to its texture and prevents it from becoming too dry. Bound
water can also influence the shelf life of foods by preventing the product from
losing moisture and becoming stale.
3. Capillary Water:

o This water is found in the capillaries (small spaces between food particles) and
is loosely bound. It’s more accessible than bound water but not as free as the
water in the food matrix.
o Role in Food: Capillary water can affect the moisture balance in foods,
influencing texture and firmness. For instance, it’s important for the hydration
of dried foods (like dried fruits or powdered products), where it’s essential for
the rehydration process during preparation.
4. Interstitial Water:

o Water that exists in the spaces between food particles (such as between cells in
plant tissues or in meat muscle fibers). It has properties between those of
bound and free water.
o Role in Food: Interstitial water contributes to food’s juiciness and overall
moisture content. For example, in fresh meats and fruits, it helps maintain a
tender and succulent texture. It also plays a role in maintaining the appearance
of products, such as crispness in vegetables.

Role of Water in Foods:

 1. Texture and Mouthfeel:

o Water directly influences the texture and mouthfeel of many foods. It helps to
form gels, emulsions, and suspensions in products like soups, sauces, custards,
and baked goods. For example, the right balance of water in dough can affect
the tenderness of a loaf of bread or the crispiness of cookies.
2. Taste and Flavor:

oWater acts as a solvent for many flavor compounds, which means it helps to
release and distribute the flavors throughout food. In beverages, water is the
medium that dissolves and carries flavors like those of fruits, herbs, or spices.
3. Preservation:

oWater plays a vital role in food preservation. Water activity (aw) is a key
factor in determining the shelf life and safety of food. Lowering the water
activity by reducing free water (e.g., through drying or adding salt or sugar)
inhibits the growth of microorganisms and slows down enzymatic and
chemical reactions that lead to spoilage.
4. Microbial Growth:

The free water in food provides a habitat for microorganisms. Controlling

o
water content, through processes like drying or freezing, is a common method
for preventing microbial growth. For instance, dried foods have lower water
activity, which makes them less prone to bacterial and mold growth.
5. Chemical and Enzymatic Reactions:

oWater is essential for the occurrence of many chemical reactions (e.g.,

Maillard reaction, oxidation) and enzymatic activities (e.g., browning in fruits,
ripening of vegetables). In some cases, controlling moisture content can help
delay unwanted reactions, as is done in the case of certain preserved foods.
6. Cooking and Heat Transfer:

o Water is often involved in cooking processes such as boiling, steaming, and

braising. It helps in heat transfer, ensuring even cooking and preventing foods
from burning or drying out. Water also helps dissolve or disperse cooking
ingredients, such as sugar or salt.

Managing Water in Foods:

● Preservation: Techniques like dehydration, freezing, or using humectants (such as

glycerol or sorbitol) can control the amount of free water, thus extending shelf life
and preventing spoilage.
● Packaging: Packaging materials that control humidity, such as vacuum-sealing or
modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), can help maintain the optimal moisture
content in food products during storage.

Lecture 3 and 4 Water activity (aw) and sorption isotherms

Water activity (aw) and sorption isotherms are crucial concepts in food science, particularly
when it comes to the shelf life and preservation of foods. Let’s break down each concept and
explore their roles in food preservation:
1. Water Activity (aw):
Water activity refers to the amount of free or available water in a food product that can
support microbial growth, chemical reactions, and physical changes. It's expressed as a ratio
of the vapor pressure of water in the food to the vapor pressure of pure water at the same
temperature.

● Effect on Shelf Life: Water activity directly influences the shelf life of foods.
Lowering water activity reduces microbial growth, enzymatic activity, and chemical
reactions such as oxidation, which can spoil food. For example, foods like dried fruits,
jerky, or powdered products have a low water activity, which helps extend their shelf
life by limiting the growth of spoilage organisms.

2. Sorption Isotherm:
A sorption isotherm is a graph that shows the relationship between the water content of a
food product and its water activity at a constant temperature. It represents how much water a
product can hold at different water activities. The curve typically rises as the relative
humidity increases, showing how food absorbs moisture until it reaches equilibrium.

● Implications for Shelf Life: The sorption isotherm helps in understanding how food
will behave under varying storage conditions (humidity, temperature). A higher
sorption isotherm (more water absorbed) can indicate a higher potential for spoilage
or microbial growth, which is important when storing foods to prolong shelf life.

3. Hysteresis:
Hysteresis in food systems refers to the difference between the adsorption (moisture
absorption) and desorption (moisture loss) curves on the sorption isotherm. When food is
exposed to moisture, it doesn’t always lose water in the same way it absorbed it. This
phenomenon is known as hysteresis and can be influenced by the food's structure,
composition, and processing.

● Impact on Shelf Life: The presence of hysteresis can affect how a product responds
to changes in relative humidity during storage. If a food product absorbs water under
high humidity but doesn’t release it easily when conditions become drier, it may result
in unwanted texture changes, spoilage, or reduced product quality over time. Properly
managing this behavior can improve shelf life by minimizing the risks associated with
moisture fluctuations.

4. Humectants:
Humectants are substances that help retain moisture in food. These include ingredients like
glycerol, sorbitol, and various sugars (e.g., honey, glucose). They are often used in food
products to maintain moisture and prevent them from drying out.

● Role in Shelf Life: By lowering water activity, humectants inhibit microbial growth
and slow down enzymatic reactions, which can otherwise spoil food. They effectively
"trap" water molecules in the food matrix, making them unavailable for
microorganisms. This makes products like soft candies, baked goods, and some
processed meats more shelf-stable.
5. Role of Humectants in Enhancing Shelf Life:
Humectants have multiple functions in food preservation:

● Moisture Retention: By attracting and holding onto water molecules, they help
maintain the desired texture and prevent foods from becoming too dry or brittle.
● Microbial Control: As mentioned, they lower water activity, making it harder for
bacteria, yeasts, and molds to thrive.
● Preservation of Quality: By preventing water loss, humectants also help in
preserving the sensory qualities of food, such as taste, texture, and appearance, which
contribute to overall shelf life.

Humectants are substances that help retain moisture in food, cosmetics, and other products.
Here are some common examples of humectants used in the food industry:
1. Glycerol (Glycerin) – A widely used humectant that helps retain moisture in foods
like baked goods, candies, and syrups. It is also used in processed meats to keep them
moist.
2. Sorbitol – A sugar alcohol often used in sugar-free or reduced-calorie foods, such as
gum, candies, and baked goods. It retains moisture and improves the texture of these
products.
3. Sodium chloride (Salt) – While primarily a preservative, salt also acts as a humectant
by drawing moisture from the surrounding environment. It’s commonly used in cured
meats, cheeses, and snack foods.
4. Honey – Naturally high in sugars, honey acts as a humectant, keeping moisture in
baked goods and beverages. It also provides a distinctive flavor to various foods.
5. Propylene Glycol – Used in various food products, including ice creams and
processed meats, to prevent ice crystals from forming and to keep the product moist.
6. Fructose – A sugar that retains moisture and is commonly found in fruit-based
products, like jams, jellies, and fruit snacks.
7. Maltitol – Another sugar alcohol used in sugar-free and low-calorie products,
particularly in candies, chocolates, and baked goods, for moisture retention and
texture improvement.
8. Sucrose – While it’s primarily known as table sugar, sucrose also has humectant
properties and is used in various confections and sweetened products.
9. Xylitol – A sugar alcohol used in sugar-free gums, mints, and candies. It helps retain
moisture and prevents these products from drying out.
These humectants are particularly useful in the production of products that need to remain
moist over time, such as chewy candies, certain baked goods, and processed meats. They also
contribute to improved texture, longer shelf life, and overall product quality.
Lecture 5 Molecular mobility and food stability
 Emulsifiers: Function and Classification
Emulsifiers are substances that help in stabilizing emulsions by reducing the surface tension
between two immiscible liquids, such as oil and water. Emulsions are mixtures of two liquids
that normally do not mix, like oil and water. Emulsifiers work by having both hydrophilic
(water-attracting) and hydrophobic (oil-attracting) parts, allowing them to create a stable
mixture.
Function of Emulsifiers

1. Stabilization of Emulsions: Emulsifiers help to prevent the separation of the oil and
water phases by stabilizing the emulsion.
2. Texture and Consistency: They improve the mouthfeel and texture of food products,
ensuring smoothness and creaminess in items like mayonnaise, ice cream, and salad
dressings.
3. Improve Shelf Life: By maintaining the emulsion and preventing separation,
emulsifiers can extend the shelf life of products.
4. Improved Appearance: They help in achieving a smooth, uniform, and shiny
appearance in food products like sauces and beverages.
5. Reduction of Viscosity: They reduce the viscosity of food products, making them
easier to handle and pour, like in margarine or salad dressings.

Classification of Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers can be classified in various ways based on their source, composition, or use.
Here’s a breakdown:
Based on Origin or Source
Type Examples Source Common Uses

Lecithin (from soy or Plant-based (e.g.,

Natural Used in food, cosmetics,
egg yolk), casein, gum soy), animal-
Emulsifiers and pharmaceuticals.
arabic based (egg yolk)

Polysorbates (e.g.,
Used in processed foods,
Synthetic Polysorbate 60, 80), Chemically
cosmetics, and
Emulsifiers sorbitan esters (e.g., synthesized
pharmaceutical products.
Span 20, 80)

Semi- Derived from Common in processed

Mono- and diglycerides,
Synthetic natural fats and foods like margarine, ice
esters of fatty acids
Emulsifiers oils cream, and baked goods.

Examples of Common Emulsifiers and Their Uses

1. Lecithin (Phospholipid)

o Source: Soybeans, egg yolks.

 o Uses: Emulsifying agents in chocolate, margarine, mayonnaise, and salad
dressings.
2. Polysorbates (e.g., Polysorbate 60, Polysorbate 80)

oSource: Synthetic (from sorbitol and fatty acids).

oUses: Stabilizing emulsions in beverages, ice cream, and baked goods.
3. Mono- and Diglycerides of Fatty Acids

o Source: Derived from natural fats.

o Uses: Improve texture and stability in processed foods like ice cream, baked
goods, and margarines.
4. Sorbitan Esters (Span)

oSource: Derived from sorbitol and fatty acids.

oUses: W/O emulsions in products like margarines, creams, and cosmetics.
5. Casein and Whey Proteins

oSource: Milk.
oUses: Stabilize emulsions in dairy products like creamers, cheese, and ice
cream.
6. Guar Gum and Xanthan Gum

o Source: Plant-based (guar bean, bacterial fermentation for xanthan).

o Uses: Viscosity control and stabilization in sauces, salad dressings, and dairy
Conclusion

Emulsifiers play a critical role in various food applications, improving the texture, stability,
and shelf life of food products. They help create uniform mixtures of otherwise immiscible
liquids (like oil and water), making emulsions more stable and enhancing the overall quality
of the product. Emulsifiers can be derived from natural sources (e.g., lecithin), synthetically
produced (e.g., polysorbates), or semi-synthetic (e.g., mono- and diglycerides), and can be
classified according to their HLB value, source, and application.
Lecture 10 Key Concepts in the Rheology of Diphase Systems
Rheology of diphase systems refers to the study of the flow and deformation behavior of
materials that consist of two distinct phases. In such systems, each phase typically has
different mechanical and physical properties, which affect how the overall material behaves
when subjected to stress or strain. The two phases in a diphase system can be in the form of a
solid-liquid, liquid-gas, liquid-liquid, or even solid-solid phases, with the properties of each
phase influencing the overall rheological characteristics of the system.

1. Definition of Diphase Systems:

o Diphase systems are systems that contain two separate phases, each with
distinct properties.
o The two phases may interact with each other or be largely independent in their
behavior.
o The common types of diphase systems are:
▪ Solid-liquid systems (e.g., suspensions, emulsions)
 ▪ Liquid-gas systems (e.g., foams, aerosols)
▪ Liquid-liquid systems (e.g., emulsions)
▪ Solid-solid systems (e.g., granular materials)
2. Rheological Properties: Rheology primarily deals with how these systems flow
under applied stress. The key rheological properties that are relevant for diphase
systems include:
o Viscosity: This refers to the internal friction within the system and determines
how easily it flows under stress. The viscosity of diphase systems is
influenced by the proportion, distribution, and interaction of the two phases.
o Yield stress: The minimum stress required to initiate flow in a material. In
diphase systems, the yield stress may depend on how the two phases are
structured (e.g., the size, shape, and interaction of particles in a suspension).
o Shear thinning/thickening: Some diphase systems show a change in
viscosity when subjected to shear stress. For example, some suspensions
exhibit shear thinning (viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate), while
others may show shear thickening (viscosity increases).
o Elasticity: This refers to the ability of a material to return to its original shape
after deformation. In diphase systems, elasticity may arise from the interaction
between phases, such as the elasticity in suspensions of solid particles in a
liquid.
o Plasticity: The ability of a material to undergo irreversible deformation. Some
diphase systems, like clays or pastes, may exhibit plastic behavior, meaning
they deform permanently under certain conditions.
3. Interactions Between Phases: The behavior of diphase systems is largely governed
by the interaction between the two phases. Some examples include:
o Interfacial tension: In liquid-liquid or liquid-gas systems, the interfacial
tension between the phases can play a significant role in determining the flow
behavior. In emulsions, for example, the interfacial tension between oil and
water affects the droplet size and stability.
o Particle-particle interactions: In solid-liquid systems, such as suspensions,
the interactions between the solid particles can lead to phenomena like
aggregation, flocculation, or network formation, which can significantly affect
the system's viscosity and flow behavior.
o Droplet or particle size distribution: The size and distribution of the
dispersed phase (e.g., droplets in an emulsion or solid particles in a
suspension) also influence the rheological properties. Smaller droplets or
particles typically lead to higher viscosity and can change the flow behavior
(e.g., from Newtonian to non-Newtonian).
4. Types of Diphase Systems:

a. Suspensions (solid-liquid systems):

o These are systems where solid particles are dispersed in a liquid.

o Common examples include cement slurries, paint, and slurry flows.
o The rheology of suspensions depends on factors such as particle size,
concentration, and the nature of the solid-liquid interaction.

b. Emulsions (liquid-liquid systems):

 o These are systems consisting of two immiscible liquids, where one is
dispersed as droplets in the other.
o Examples include oil-in-water emulsions and mayonnaise.
o The rheological behavior of emulsions depends on the size and distribution of
droplets, the viscosity of each phase, and the emulsifier used to stabilize the
system.

c. Foams (liquid-gas systems):

o Foams are systems in which gas bubbles are dispersed in a liquid phase.
o The rheological behavior is influenced by factors such as bubble size, volume
fraction of the gas, and the surface tension of the liquid.
o Foams can exhibit unique behaviors such as viscoelasticity due to the
interaction between gas bubbles and the surrounding liquid.
5. Non-Newtonian Behavior: Many diphase systems are non-Newtonian, meaning their
viscosity is not constant and depends on factors like shear rate, stress, and time. For
example:
o Thixotropic behavior: Some systems, like gels or pastes, exhibit a time-
dependent reduction in viscosity when sheared, and the viscosity recovers
once the shear stress is removed.
o Rheopexy: The opposite of thixotropy, where viscosity increases over time
with continuous shear.
6. Mathematical Modeling: Rheological models are essential to describe the flow
behavior of diphase systems. Common models include:
o Bingham model: Used for materials that exhibit a yield stress before flowing.
o Power-law model: Describes the shear-thinning or shear-thickening behavior
of many diphase systems.
o Carreau model: A generalized model that can describe both shear-thinning
and shear-thickening behaviors in non-Newtonian fluids.
o Herschel-Bulkley model: Combines the power-law and Bingham models to
describe systems with both yield stress and non-Newtonian flow behavior.
7. Applications:

o Food Industry: Emulsions (e.g., mayonnaise, sauces) and suspensions (e.g.,

fruit juices, soups) are common diphase systems, and their rheological
properties are important for processing and product quality.
o Pharmaceuticals: Suspensions and emulsions are used in the formulation of
oral drugs, lotions, and creams, and their rheological properties affect dosing,
stability, and delivery.
o Cosmetics: Emulsions are prevalent in cosmetic formulations (e.g., lotions,
shampoos), and their rheology influences texture, spreadability, and
application.
o Petroleum: Oil-water emulsions and slurries play a significant role in oil
recovery and pipeline transportation of crude oil.
o Construction: The rheology of cement slurries, muds, and other suspensions
is important for processes like drilling and construction of roads or buildings.
 Changes in Proteins during cooking or during food processing

1. Physical Changes in Proteins During Processing

● Denaturation: Denaturation refers to the unfolding or alteration of the protein's

native structure due to external factors like heat, pH, or mechanical stress. This
process can expose hydrophobic sites and alter protein solubility, leading to changes
in texture, viscosity, and water-holding capacity. For example, heating eggs causes
protein denaturation, which changes their texture from liquid to solid. Denatured
proteins often have altered functional properties (e.g., emulsifying, gelling).
● Aggregation and Coagulation: Upon denaturation, proteins may aggregate or form
coagulates, especially under conditions of heat or low pH (as seen in curd formation
during cheese-making). Aggregation can also be induced by salt addition or
mechanical stress (e.g., homogenization in dairy products). These changes can affect
the mouthfeel and digestibility of the protein.
● Gel Formation: Proteins like collagen or gelatin can form gels when subjected to
certain physical conditions (e.g., cooling after heating). Gelation changes the texture
of the protein and its functionality in food products, such as in meat or confectionery.

2. Chemical Changes in Proteins During Processing

● Maillard Reaction: One of the most notable chemical changes occurring during
thermal processing is the Maillard reaction, which occurs between amino acids and
reducing sugars. This non-enzymatic browning reaction is responsible for the color,
flavor, and aroma of roasted, grilled, or baked foods. However, excessive Maillard
reactions can lead to the formation of undesirable compounds and loss of essential
amino acids, particularly lysine, which can reduce nutritional quality.
● Oxidation: Protein oxidation is a significant chemical change, especially in foods rich
in unsaturated fats or proteins exposed to oxygen during processing. Oxidation can
result in the formation of reactive carbonyl groups, disulfide bonds, and other
modified residues that impact protein structure and function. This can lead to off-
flavors, reduced protein digestibility, and decreased nutritional value. For example,
oxidation can reduce the bioavailability of amino acids, particularly methionine and
cysteine.
● Disulfide Bond Formation: The formation or breaking of disulfide bonds in proteins
can alter their structure and functional properties. In certain processing conditions like
high heat, new disulfide bonds may form, potentially leading to protein aggregation or
crosslinking, which could reduce solubility or hinder protein digestibility.
● Hydrolysis: Proteins subjected to enzymes (e.g., proteases) or acidic conditions may
undergo hydrolysis, breaking peptide bonds and producing smaller peptides or free
amino acids. Hydrolysis can enhance the digestibility of proteins and may also
improve the functional properties of proteins, like their emulsifying capacity.
3. Nutritional Changes Due to Protein Processing

● Amino Acid Availability: Protein processing, especially high-temperature cooking,

can result in the destruction or modification of some amino acids, especially those that
are sensitive to heat or pH. For example, lysine is particularly susceptible to the
Maillard reaction, where it binds to sugars, making it unavailable for absorption
during digestion. Similarly, threonine and tryptophan can also be affected by thermal
processing.
● Digestibility: The digestibility of proteins can be influenced by the processing
method. While some forms of processing (e.g., fermentation, hydrolysis) can increase
protein digestibility by breaking down complex proteins into simpler peptides, other
methods (e.g., overcooking, excessive heat treatment) may reduce digestibility by
causing excessive denaturation or cross-linking.
● Nutrient Loss: Protein-rich foods, when processed at high temperatures or under
conditions that degrade vitamins, may lose essential micronutrients like B-vitamins
(especially thiamine and folate). For instance, heat can destroy vitamin B1 (thiamine)
in cereals and legumes, affecting the overall nutritional value of the protein source.

4. Formation of Toxic Compounds During Protein Processing

During protein processing, several potentially toxic compounds can form, depending on the
conditions used:
● Acrylamide Formation: Acrylamide is a potential carcinogen that forms when foods
containing asparagine (an amino acid) and reducing sugars are cooked at high
temperatures, typically above 120°C. It is commonly found in fried, baked, or roasted
foods like potato chips, French fries, and bread. While proteins themselves are not
directly responsible for acrylamide formation, the amino acids in protein-rich foods
may contribute.
● Advanced Glycation End-products (AGEs): AGEs form through the Maillard
reaction between reducing sugars and amino acids (including those in proteins). The
accumulation of AGEs in the body has been linked to various chronic diseases,
including diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and aging. High levels of AGEs can
negatively impact health, and they tend to form more in foods processed at high
temperatures.
● Heterocyclic Amines (HCAs): HCAs are carcinogenic compounds that form when
meats (especially red meat and poultry) are cooked at high temperatures, such as
during grilling, frying, or barbecuing. They are produced by the reaction of amino
acids with creatine and sugars in the meat. HCAs have been linked to an increased
risk of cancer, particularly colorectal cancer.
● Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs): PAHs are another class of
carcinogenic compounds that can form when meat, fish, or other protein-rich foods
are cooked over open flames or charred. These compounds result from incomplete
combustion and are considered potential carcinogens when consumed in high amounts
over time.
● Tannins and Other Anti-nutrients: In certain plant-based protein sources, such as
legumes and grains, processing methods like soaking, boiling, or fermenting can
 reduce the levels of anti-nutrients like tannins, lectins, and phytic acid, which can
otherwise inhibit the absorption of essential minerals and proteins.
5. Balancing Processing and Nutritional Quality
Proper food processing techniques aim to minimize nutrient loss while optimizing flavor,
texture, and safety. To mitigate negative effects on nutritional quality:

● Gentle Cooking: Methods such as steaming, poaching, and microwaving tend to

preserve more nutrients than frying or grilling at high temperatures.
● Fermentation and Enzyme Treatment: These processes can improve protein
digestibility by breaking down anti-nutritional factors and enhancing amino acid
bioavailability.
● Minimizing Overcooking: Avoiding overcooking protein-rich foods can prevent
excessive denaturation, Maillard reactions, and loss of heat-sensitive vitamins.

Conclusion
Protein processing can significantly impact the physical, chemical, and nutritional properties
of food. While some processes (such as hydrolysis or fermentation) can improve digestibility
and bioavailability, others (such as excessive heat treatment or the Maillard reaction) can lead
to nutritional degradation and the formation of toxic compounds. To maximize the health
benefits of processed proteins, it’s important to control processing conditions and choose
methods that preserve protein quality while minimizing the formation of harmful substances.
Changes in functional properties of proteins during food processing

The functional properties of proteins refer to the physical, chemical, and structural attributes
that determine how proteins behave during food processing and contribute to the texture,
flavor, stability, and nutritional value of food products. During food processing, proteins
undergo changes that can significantly affect their functional properties. Below is a detailed
explanation of how food processing can alter these properties:
1. Solubility

● Effect of Processing: The solubility of proteins in water or other solvents is

influenced by their conformation and interactions with the surrounding environment.
When proteins are subjected to heat, pH changes, or mechanical stress, their solubility
can decrease due to denaturation and aggregation. For example, heating egg whites
causes proteins like ovalbumin to unfold and aggregate, decreasing their solubility.
● Impact on Food: Reduced solubility may be desirable in certain products (e.g.,
cheese, where curd formation is essential) but undesirable in others (e.g., in beverages
or protein-based drinks where solubility is needed to maintain a uniform consistency).

2. Gelation

● Effect of Processing: Gelation is the ability of proteins to form a gel-like structure

when heated or cooled. Proteins like collagen (from meat) and gelatin (from
hydrolyzed collagen) undergo denaturation and cross-linking to form gels when
subjected to heat and then cooled. For example, in processed meat products, such as
sausages or meat patties, proteins form gels that contribute to texture.
 ● Impact on Food: Gelation is important in the production of foods like puddings,
gummy candies, and meat products. It affects the texture, firmness, and mouthfeel.
The ability of proteins to form gels can be modified by factors such as temperature,
pH, ionic strength, and the presence of other ingredients.

3. Emulsification

● Effect of Processing: Emulsification refers to the ability of proteins to stabilize

mixtures of oil and water by reducing interfacial tension between the two phases.
Proteins such as casein in milk or egg white proteins (like lecithin) act as emulsifiers.
Processing methods like homogenization (used in dairy products) or heating (used in
mayonnaise or salad dressings) can alter the emulsifying properties of proteins.
● Impact on Food: Emulsification is critical in the production of products like
mayonnaise, salad dressings, margarine, and ice cream. If the emulsifying ability is
impaired, the product may separate, reducing its quality and texture. Processing
conditions such as temperature, pH, and salt concentration can affect the emulsifying
ability of proteins.

4. Foaming

● Effect of Processing: Foaming is the ability of proteins to trap air or gas, creating a
foam structure. This property is especially important in foods like meringues,
whipped cream, and cakes. Proteins such as egg whites, whey proteins, and soy
proteins are commonly used to form foams. Processing conditions like whipping,
beating, and heating can increase or decrease foaming properties.
● Impact on Food: Foaming properties are crucial for texture and volume in baked
goods, mousses, and desserts. Overheating or excessive mechanical stress during
processing can cause the foam to collapse, while under-processing may result in
insufficient foam formation. The protein's ability to form a stable foam is influenced
by factors such as protein concentration, pH, and the presence of stabilizers.

5. Viscosity

● Effect of Processing: Viscosity refers to the thickness or resistance to flow of a

protein solution or dispersion. Protein viscosity is strongly affected by the protein's
molecular size, the concentration of proteins, and the level of denaturation or
aggregation. For example, during the heating of milk, casein proteins form a gel that
increases the viscosity of the liquid. High shear forces or enzymatic treatments can
alter the viscosity of protein solutions.
● Impact on Food: In processed food products like soups, sauces, and dairy products
(such as yogurt), viscosity is an important factor for texture and mouthfeel. Changes
in viscosity during processing can be either beneficial or detrimental, depending on
the desired consistency of the final product. For instance, excessive aggregation or gel
formation in soups could result in an undesirable thickened consistency.

6. Color and Flavor

● Effect of Processing: The Maillard reaction, which involves the interaction of

proteins (specifically amino acids) with reducing sugars, is a key process that impacts
the color and flavor of protein-rich foods. This non-enzymatic browning leads to the
 formation of brown pigments and complex flavors during heat treatment (e.g.,
roasting, frying, or grilling).
● Impact on Food: The Maillard reaction contributes to the desirable roasted, nutty, or
caramel flavors in foods like baked goods, roasted meats, and coffee. However,
excessive Maillard reactions can lead to undesirable bitter or astringent flavors and
may reduce the bioavailability of essential amino acids, especially lysine. Thus,
controlling the extent of this reaction during processing is essential to balancing flavor
and nutritional quality.

7. Protein-Protein Interactions and Aggregation

● Effect of Processing: During food processing, proteins may undergo aggregation or

form networks due to changes in temperature, pH, or the addition of salts. This is
particularly common in high-heat treatments or acidifying processes. For example, the
formation of curds in cheese production involves aggregation of casein proteins under
acidic conditions.
● Impact on Food: Aggregation can be desirable (e.g., in cheese or tofu production) for
texture and structure, but it can also lead to undesirable texture changes if not
controlled (e.g., in dairy products or beverages). Excessive aggregation can reduce the
protein's ability to remain in solution and alter mouthfeel, making the product less
appealing.

8. Digestibility

● Effect of Processing: Protein digestibility is influenced by the extent of protein

denaturation and the breakdown of the protein structure during processing. Some
processing methods, such as cooking, fermentation, or enzymatic hydrolysis, can
improve protein digestibility by breaking down complex protein structures into
smaller, more digestible peptides. However, overprocessing or excessive heating can
reduce digestibility by causing excessive crosslinking or aggregation.
● Impact on Food: Digestibility is essential for the bioavailability of amino acids. For
example, cooking certain legumes can improve the digestibility of their proteins by
reducing anti-nutritional factors (like lectins or trypsin inhibitors). Conversely,
excessive heating can lead to the formation of compounds that hinder digestion, such
as protein aggregates or Maillard reaction products.

9. Functional Properties in Relation to Specific Processing Methods

● Heat Processing: Heat treatment can cause denaturation, aggregation, and changes in
solubility and viscosity. For example, cooking eggs or meat changes the texture,
emulsifying properties, and solubility of proteins. In some cases, like with milk,
pasteurization alters the texture and mouthfeel by causing protein denaturation.
● Fermentation: Fermentation processes, often used in dairy (e.g., yogurt, kefir) or
plant-based foods (e.g., tempeh, soy sauce), break down proteins through microbial
enzymes, improving digestibility and sometimes enhancing flavor. Fermentation may
also alter protein functional properties like emulsification and foaming.
● Enzymatic Hydrolysis: Enzymatic processing (e.g., proteolysis) breaks down
proteins into smaller peptides and amino acids, improving digestibility and potentially
enhancing the functional properties, like emulsification or foaming, in food products
like protein hydrolysates.
 Chemical modifications of proteins

During food processing, proteins can undergo various chemical modifications that
significantly influence their properties, functionality, and nutritional value. These
modifications, such as alkylation, acylation, phosphorylation, sulfitolysis, and
esterification, can be induced by processing conditions like heat, pH changes, or the addition
of specific chemical agents. Below is a detailed explanation of each of these chemical
modifications in the context of food processing:

1. Alkylation

● Alkylation refers to the addition of alkyl groups (such as methyl, ethyl, or other
hydrocarbon groups) to a protein molecule. This occurs through the reaction of
proteins with alkylating agents such as methylating agents (e.g., methyl iodide) or
ethylating agents.
● Process in Food: Alkylation can happen during food processing when proteins are
exposed to chemicals such as alkylating agents used in food preservation or flavoring.
For instance, some alkylating compounds are used in the chemical modification of
proteins for purposes like improving solubility or modifying the texture of certain
food products (e.g., processed meats).
● Impact: Alkylation can alter the protein’s functional properties, such as its solubility,
emulsifying capacity, or stability. It can also impact the digestibility and nutritional
value of proteins by modifying amino acids, such as lysine or cysteine, which play
critical roles in protein function. In some cases, alkylation can create toxic
byproducts, especially if the alkylating agents are not fully removed during
processing.

2. Acylation

● Acylation is the addition of an acyl group (such as an acetyl group, RCO–, derived
from acetic acid) to a protein. This modification typically occurs via the action of
acylating agents such as acetic acid, fatty acids, or other acyl donors.
● Process in Food: Acylation occurs naturally in food processing when proteins are
exposed to lipids or acids. One example is the acylation of proteins in dairy products,
where fatty acids from milk fat interact with proteins during fermentation, or during
cooking, where oils and fats may react with proteins in the food matrix.
● Impact: Acylation can enhance the hydrophobic properties of proteins, making them
more compatible with lipid-rich phases in food systems (such as in emulsions or
foams). It can alter protein solubility, stabilize emulsions, and improve texture, which
is particularly useful in the production of processed meats, dairy products, and some
plant-based foods. Acylation may also affect the bioavailability of proteins, as some
acylated proteins may be more difficult to digest.

3. Phosphorylation

● Phosphorylation is the addition of phosphate groups (PO₄³⁻) to proteins, typically

occurring at serine, threonine, or tyrosine residues. This modification is catalyzed by
 enzymes like kinases in living systems, but in food processing, it can occur through
the use of acidic or enzymatic treatments.
● Process in Food: Phosphorylation occurs in some fermented foods or during
enzymatic treatments. For example, the phosphorylation of proteins in soybeans
occurs during the fermentation process in the production of soy sauce or miso, which
modifies the protein’s functional properties and flavor profile.
● Impact: Phosphorylation plays a significant role in regulating protein function, as the
addition of phosphate groups can affect protein solubility, structure, and interactions
with other food components. In food processing, phosphorylation may alter the
texture, emulsifying ability, and gelling properties of proteins. Phosphorylated
proteins can have improved digestibility, but excessive phosphorylation could make
proteins more resistant to enzymatic breakdown and digestion.

4. Sulfitolysis

● Sulfitolysis involves the cleavage of disulfide bonds (–S–S–) in proteins by sulfite

ions (SO₃²⁻), which are commonly used as preservatives in food. Sulfite treatment
reduces the protein’s disulfide linkages, causing the protein to denature or unfold.
● Process in Food: Sulfitolysis is commonly used in the processing of dried fruits,
vegetables, and wines, where sulfite or bisulfite salts are applied to prevent browning
or microbial spoilage. In meat processing, sulfites may be used to retain color or
extend shelf life.
● Impact: Sulfitolysis can cause changes in protein texture, solubility, and emulsifying
properties. By breaking disulfide bonds, sulfites can disrupt protein structures, leading
to denaturation. While this may be desirable in some products (e.g., tenderizing meat),
it may also reduce the nutritional quality and functionality of the proteins by causing
aggregation or decreasing their digestibility. Additionally, sulfite treatment may lead
to the formation of potentially harmful byproducts, and sulfites can cause allergic
reactions in sensitive individuals.

5. Esterification

● Esterification is the process by which an alcohol group (-OH) reacts with an acid
group (–COOH) to form an ester linkage. This modification typically involves the
reaction of proteins with fatty acids or other ester-forming compounds.
● Process in Food: Esterification is commonly seen in the modification of proteins
through the interaction with fatty acids or alcohols in food systems. For example, in
some dairy or meat products, esterified compounds can be formed during processing
when lipids react with proteins. Esterification may also occur during the production of
emulsifiers in processed foods.
● Impact: Esterification can modify the hydrophobicity of proteins and improve their
ability to interact with lipids, which is useful in creating emulsions or enhancing the
stability of fat-based products. It may also affect protein solubility, texture, and
mouthfeel. In some cases, esterification can reduce the protein's digestibility, as ester-
linked compounds may be more resistant to enzymatic hydrolysis. Additionally,
esterified proteins may have altered gelling or foaming properties, which can be either
beneficial or detrimental depending on the product.

Enzymatic modifications of proteins

Enzymatic modifications of proteins are key processes in food processing, as they can
improve protein digestibility, alter functional properties, and enhance the sensory qualities of
food. The use of enzymes in protein modification is typically more controlled and specific
compared to chemical methods, making it a preferred method in many food applications.
Below is a detailed explanation of some common enzymatic modifications of proteins,
including enzymatic hydrolysis, the Plastein reaction, and protein cross-linking:

1. Enzymatic Hydrolysis

● Enzymatic hydrolysis is the process by which proteins are broken down into smaller
peptides or amino acids through the action of specific enzymes called proteases.
These enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis of peptide bonds, resulting in the
fragmentation of protein molecules.
● Types of Enzymes Used: Different proteases can be used depending on the desired
hydrolysis level and specificity:
o Exopeptidases: These enzymes cleave the peptide bonds at the ends of protein
chains (e.g., aminopeptidases, carboxypeptidases).
o Endopeptidases: These enzymes break internal peptide bonds within the
protein, such as trypsin, chymotrypsin, and papain.
o Alkaline proteases: These are used in specific conditions such as in
fermentation or certain food processing, like in the production of hydrolyzed
vegetable proteins.
● Process in Food: Enzymatic hydrolysis is used in the production of protein
hydrolysates, which can be incorporated into products like baby food, sports drinks,
soups, sauces, and meat tenderizers. Hydrolysis is also used to break down proteins in
plant-based or animal-based food matrices to improve their digestibility and
absorption. For example, in the production of hydrolyzed vegetable proteins (HVP),
the proteins are hydrolyzed to increase flavor and solubility.
● Impact: Enzymatic hydrolysis enhances protein digestibility by breaking proteins into
smaller peptides and free amino acids, which are more readily absorbed by the body.
It also improves solubility, which is crucial for protein fortification in drinks and other
liquid-based foods. However, excessive hydrolysis can lead to the loss of functional
properties like gelling, emulsification, or foaming. Moreover, hydrolyzed proteins
may have a bitter taste, which could be a challenge in product development.

2. Plastein Reaction

● The Plastein reaction is an enzymatic process where peptides or proteins are

combined to form larger peptides or even new protein structures through the action of
proteases. During this process, small peptides or amino acids are "reassembled" into
new peptides under specific conditions, often in the presence of excess amino acids or
other small peptides.
● Enzymes Involved: Proteases like papain or bromelain are typically used in the
Plastein reaction. These enzymes can break down proteins into smaller fragments that
can then recombine to form new peptides.
● Process in Food: The Plastein reaction is particularly useful in creating new peptides
with different functional properties, such as improved solubility, emulsification, or
enhanced taste. This method is commonly used in the creation of protein isolates,
modified protein ingredients for food formulations, and in developing protein-based
 flavor enhancers. It is also used to create high-molecular-weight peptides that are
more stable or bioactive than the original protein.
● Impact: The Plastein reaction can improve the functional properties of proteins, such
as enhancing gel formation, emulsification, and texture. It can also lead to the
production of bioactive peptides, which have potential health benefits (e.g.,
antioxidant, antimicrobial, or antihypertensive effects). However, the process is
complex and requires precise control to avoid the formation of undesired peptides or
the degradation of important amino acids.

3. Protein Cross-linking

● Protein cross-linking is the process by which covalent bonds form between different
protein molecules or between different parts of the same protein molecule. These
cross-links can form via various enzymatic pathways and contribute to the structural
modification and functional enhancement of proteins.
● Enzymes Involved: Several enzymes are involved in protein cross-linking, including:
o Transglutaminase: This enzyme catalyzes the formation of covalent cross-
links between glutamine residues and lysine residues in proteins, often leading
to the formation of more stable, gel-like structures.
o Peroxidases: These enzymes catalyze the formation of cross-links through
oxidative reactions that link tyrosine or phenolic compounds in proteins.
o Laccases: These enzymes catalyze the oxidation of phenolic compounds,
leading to the formation of protein-protein cross-links.
● Process in Food: Protein cross-linking is widely used in food processing to enhance
the texture, stability, and structure of food products. For instance, in the production of
restructured meats or meat analogs, transglutaminase is used to cross-link proteins,
which improves the texture and mouthfeel of the final product. Similarly, in dairy
products like cheese, cross-linking can enhance the consistency and firmness of curds.
● Impact: Cross-linking significantly alters the physical properties of proteins,
increasing their rigidity and creating more stable networks. In food applications, this
is beneficial for improving the texture, viscosity, and gel formation of food products.
For example, the use of transglutaminase in fish or meat processing results in products
that have an improved texture, making them more cohesive. On the downside,
excessive cross-linking can result in the formation of tough, inedible products or
reduce protein digestibility. Furthermore, cross-linked proteins may exhibit altered
emulsifying or foaming properties, which can be undesirable in some food
formulations.

These enzymatic modifications provide food manufacturers with a variety of tools to tailor
protein properties for specific applications, enhancing texture, digestibility, and functional
attributes. However, careful control is necessary to optimize these reactions for desired
product qualities and to avoid undesirable effects on protein functionality or nutritional value.

changes during food processing by drying, dehydration, irradiation, freezing,

fermentation and canning

Food processing involves a variety of methods that aim to preserve, enhance, or modify the
sensory, nutritional, and functional properties of food. Each of these methods has a specific
impact on the food's texture, flavor, nutritional value, and safety. Let's break down the
changes that occur in food during some common processing methods: drying, dehydration,
irradiation, freezing, fermentation, and canning.
1. Drying
● Drying is the process of removing water from food, typically by the application of
heat, air, or vacuum. This reduces the moisture content to a level where microbial
growth is inhibited, and enzymatic activity is slowed down.
● Changes in Food:
o Moisture Reduction: The most significant change in drying is the removal of
water, which prevents microbial spoilage and extends shelf life.
o Texture: Drying changes the texture of foods. For example, fruits may
become shriveled and leathery, while meats can become tough. Some products
(like dried fruits or vegetables) may rehydrate when water is added back.
o Nutritional Losses: Heat-sensitive nutrients like vitamin C and B vitamins
may degrade during drying. However, the nutritional profile generally remains
intact because the concentration of nutrients increases due to the removal of
water.
o Flavor Changes: Drying often intensifies flavors, as the water removal
concentrates the soluble compounds responsible for taste. However, the
process can also lead to the formation of off-flavors, especially if the drying
conditions (e.g., temperature) are too harsh.

2. Dehydration
● Dehydration is similar to drying but typically refers to more specific methods like
freeze-drying or air-drying, aiming to remove moisture completely or to very low
levels.
● Changes in Food:
o Texture and Volume: Dehydration leads to a drastic reduction in volume, as
water content is eliminated. Rehydration can be achieved in some cases, but
the texture may not return to its original form.
o Nutritional Changes: While many nutrients (like carbohydrates and proteins)
remain stable, dehydration can cause the loss of heat-sensitive vitamins (like
Vitamin C and folate) due to prolonged exposure to heat. However, freeze-
drying preserves more nutrients compared to other dehydration methods.
o Microbial and Enzymatic Activity: By reducing moisture, dehydration
significantly slows down microbial growth and enzymatic reactions, thus
preserving the food for long-term storage.

3. Irradiation
● Irradiation involves exposing food to ionizing radiation (e.g., gamma rays, X-rays, or
electron beams) to destroy pathogens, bacteria, and parasites and to extend shelf life.
It is used for sterilization, disinfection, and pest control.
● Changes in Food:
 o Microbial Inactivation: Irradiation effectively kills or inactivates
microorganisms such as bacteria, yeasts, and molds, as well as parasites. It
also helps to prevent sprouting in certain foods like potatoes and onions.
o Nutrient Losses: Similar to heat treatment, irradiation can cause some
nutrient losses, especially in heat-sensitive vitamins like vitamin A, C, and
some B vitamins.
o Chemical Changes: While irradiation can preserve food, it may lead to the
formation of radiolytic products (e.g., free radicals and peroxides), which may
affect the flavor, texture, and nutritional quality of foods. For example,
irradiation of fats and oils can result in the development of rancid off-flavors.
o Flavor and Texture Changes: There may be subtle changes in the flavor and
texture of irradiated foods due to chemical reactions occurring during
exposure to radiation. These changes are usually more noticeable in fresh
foods and less in processed ones.

4. Freezing
● Freezing is the process of lowering the temperature of food to below its freezing
point, which typically halts microbial activity and enzymatic reactions, effectively
preserving food for long periods.
● Changes in Food:
o Texture Changes: Freezing causes the formation of ice crystals in the food,
which can disrupt cellular structures and lead to a loss of texture upon
thawing. For example, fruits and vegetables may become mushy after freezing
and thawing due to ruptured cell walls.
o Nutritional Retention: Freezing generally retains most of the food's nutrients,
although some water-soluble vitamins (like vitamin C) may degrade slightly.
However, freezing does preserve most other nutrients, such as proteins and
carbohydrates.
o Microbial and Enzymatic Activity: While freezing halts microbial growth, it
does not kill microorganisms. If thawed improperly, the microbes can become
active again. Enzyme activity is also slowed, but it may still continue at lower
temperatures unless the food is blanched before freezing.
o Flavor: Freezing typically retains the flavor of food, although freezing may
concentrate flavors in some cases or dull them in others due to the changes in
the food’s structure.

5. Fermentation
● Fermentation is a metabolic process where microorganisms (e.g., bacteria, yeast, or
molds) convert sugars and other carbohydrates into products like alcohol, acids, gases,
and other byproducts. This process is used for food preservation, flavor development,
and improving digestibility.
● Changes in Food:
o Flavor Development: Fermentation produces distinct flavors due to the
byproducts of microbial metabolism. For example, the production of lactic
acid during fermentation leads to the sour taste of products like yogurt and
 sauerkraut, while yeast fermentation produces alcohol and carbonation in
beverages like beer and kombucha.
o Nutrient Changes: Fermentation can enhance the bioavailability of nutrients,
such as breaking down phytates in grains to release minerals (e.g., iron, zinc).
It can also increase levels of beneficial nutrients like B vitamins and folates.
However, fermentation may also degrade some nutrients, such as vitamins A
and C.
o Microbial Growth: The process encourages the growth of beneficial
microorganisms (e.g., probiotics) that improve gut health. These microbes can
also inhibit the growth of harmful bacteria, leading to food preservation.
o Textural Changes: Fermentation can modify the texture of food, often
making it softer or more cohesive, as seen in fermented doughs (e.g., bread) or
cheese curds.

6. Canning
● Canning is a preservation method that involves sealing food in airtight containers
(usually cans or jars) and heating it to destroy microorganisms and enzymes. This
process helps to preserve food for long periods without refrigeration.
● Changes in Food:
o Microbial and Enzymatic Inactivation: The high temperatures used in
canning destroy bacteria, yeasts, molds, and spoilage enzymes, effectively
sterilizing the food and preventing spoilage.
o Texture Changes: The heating process can cause significant changes in the
texture of food, especially fruits and vegetables, which may become softer,
mushier, or more prone to breaking down due to heat and the vacuum-sealing
process.
o Nutrient Losses: Canning can lead to the loss of some heat-sensitive
nutrients, particularly water-soluble vitamins (like vitamin C and B vitamins).
However, the sealed nature of cans can help preserve many nutrients for long
periods.
o Flavor Changes: The heat treatment during canning can alter the flavor of
foods, often resulting in a cooked taste. Some flavors may become more
concentrated, while others may be diminished. The use of salt, sugar, or acids
in the canning liquid can also affect flavor.

Lecture 11

Changes in carbohydrates upon cooking

Cooking can cause various changes in carbohydrates, depending on the food and how it’s
prepared. Here are a few key changes that occur:

1. Starch Gelatinization

When starchy foods (like potatoes, rice, or pasta) are cooked, the heat and moisture cause the
starch granules to absorb water and swell. This process, known as gelatinization, makes the
starch more digestible and changes its texture. It can make the food softer, but it also affects
how the carbohydrates are absorbed by the body.

2. Increase in Glycemic Index

The glycemic index (GI) refers to how quickly a carbohydrate-containing food raises blood
sugar levels. Cooking can increase the GI of certain foods. For example, when potatoes are
cooked, the starches break down and become more easily digestible, leading to a faster spike
in blood sugar compared to raw potatoes. Similarly, cooking pasta makes the starch more
readily available, which may raise its GI. However, if you cook pasta al dente (firm), the
increase in GI is less significant than if you overcook it.

3. Caramelization & Maillard Reaction

Caramelization occurs when sugars in food (like those in onions or vegetables) are heated and
undergo a browning reaction, creating complex flavors. This typically happens at higher
temperatures and gives a sweet, rich flavor. The Maillard reaction, which is a chemical
reaction between amino acids (from proteins) and reducing sugars, can also create browning
and new flavors in cooked foods. These processes mainly affect sugars, not starches, but they
contribute to flavor changes in carbohydrate-rich foods.

4. Formation of Resistant Starch

Some cooking methods can lead to the formation of resistant starch, a type of starch that
isn’t easily digested in the small intestine and thus behaves like fiber. This happens when
starchy foods like potatoes, rice, and pasta are cooked and then cooled. Cooling causes some
of the starch to crystallize, making it more resistant to digestion. This is why eating cooled or
reheated starchy foods can result in a slower blood sugar response compared to eating them
hot.

5. Breakdown of Complex Carbs

Cooking can also break down complex carbohydrates, especially in vegetables and grains,
into simpler sugars. For instance, cooking carrots or sweet potatoes may cause some of the
complex sugars to break down into simpler ones, which may be easier for your body to
absorb.

6. Loss of Nutrients

Cooking can cause some loss of water-soluble vitamins like vitamin C and certain B
vitamins, which are often found in carbohydrate-rich foods like fruits and vegetables.
However, cooking methods that involve less water (like steaming or roasting) can help
preserve nutrients better than boiling.

Changes in proteins upon cooking

Cooking proteins causes several key changes that affect their structure, digestibility, and
nutritional properties. Here's an overview of how proteins behave when they’re cooked:

1. Denaturation
One of the main changes proteins undergo when exposed to heat is denaturation. Proteins
are made up of long chains of amino acids that fold into specific shapes. Heat disrupts the
weak bonds that hold the protein's structure together, causing the protein to unfold or
"denature." This alters the protein’s texture and can make it easier for your body to digest.

● Example: When you cook an egg, the proteins in the egg white (albumin) unfold and
form a solid, opaque texture, rather than remaining clear and liquid.
● Effect: Denaturation doesn't change the nutritional value of the protein itself, but it
can make the protein more accessible for digestion.

2. Coagulation

As proteins denature, they may also undergo coagulation, where the denatured proteins bond
together and form a solid mass. This is what happens when meat or eggs cook and firm up.
The heat causes proteins like collagen in meat to break down into gelatin, which gives cooked
meat a different texture compared to raw meat.

● Example: When cooking meat, collagen (a connective tissue protein) breaks down
into gelatin, making the meat more tender.
● Effect: Coagulation contributes to the changes in texture, making the protein more
solid or firm, depending on the cooking method.

3. Maillard Reaction

The Maillard reaction is a complex chemical reaction that occurs between amino acids
(from proteins) and reducing sugars when heat is applied. This reaction is responsible for the
browning and development of complex flavors in cooked proteins, particularly when you
grill, roast, or fry meat or other protein-rich foods.

● Example: The brown crust that forms on a steak or roasted chicken is a result of the
Maillard reaction.
● Effect: While this reaction adds delicious flavors and color, it can also produce some
compounds that are potentially less healthy if food is cooked at very high
temperatures (e.g., acrylamide or advanced glycation end products).

4. Loss of Water and Moisture

When proteins cook, they often lose moisture, which can cause a change in texture and make
the food drier. The extent of moisture loss depends on the cooking method, temperature, and
the type of protein.

● Example: Overcooking chicken can cause it to become dry and tough due to the loss
of moisture from the protein fibers.
● Effect: Excessive moisture loss can result in a less tender or juicier texture, and may
reduce the overall quality of the protein.

5. Increased Digestibility
Cooking generally makes proteins easier to digest. When proteins are heated, their complex
structures unfold and become more accessible to digestive enzymes, which can break them
down more easily.

● Example: The proteins in meat and legumes are more digestible after cooking
compared to raw.
● Effect: Cooking enhances protein bioavailability, allowing your body to absorb more
of the amino acids in the protein.

6. Destruction of Some Amino Acids

While most amino acids are stable and not significantly affected by cooking, some heat-
sensitive amino acids, like lysine, can break down at high temperatures. This may slightly
reduce the nutritional quality of the protein, but the effect is usually minimal unless the food
is overcooked.

● Example: Excessive cooking of protein-rich vegetables can lead to some loss of

lysine, though it's unlikely to have a big impact unless food is severely overcooked.
● Effect: This loss typically doesn’t drastically reduce the overall protein quality but
could affect certain amino acid levels.

7. Formation of Advanced Glycation End Products (AGEs)

Cooking proteins at high temperatures, especially when grilling, frying, or roasting, can lead
to the formation of AGEs. These compounds are formed when sugars react with amino acids
during the Maillard reaction and can be associated with inflammation and oxidative stress if
consumed in large quantities.

● Example: Well-done meats, particularly red meats, tend to have higher levels of
AGEs.
● Effect: While AGEs are naturally present in many foods, consuming them in
excessive amounts may contribute to health issues, so it’s a good idea to avoid
Carbohydrates used in food industry

Carbohydrate Source Typical Use in Food Processing

Thickening agent, texture enhancer, emulsifier,
Corn, wheat,
Starch used in sauces, soups, processed meats, and baked
potatoes, rice
goods.
Sucrose (Table Sugar cane, sugar Sweetener, preservative, and texture modifier in
sugar) beets beverages, candies, baked goods, and jams.
Sweetener, energy source in beverages, candies,
Glucose Corn, wheat and processed foods; can also be used in
fermentation.
Sweetener, often used in fruit juices, soft drinks,
Fructose Fruits, honey
and energy bars.
Used in dairy-based products, baked goods, and
Milk (dairy
Lactose infant formula; also acts as a carrier for
products)
flavorings.
Maltodextrin Corn, rice, wheat Used as a thickener, stabilizer, or sweetener in
processed foods, including snacks, soups, and
 sauces.
Chicory, Jerusalem Prebiotic fiber, used in low-fat or low-calorie
Inulin
artichoke foods, dairy products, and dietary supplements.
Used as a thickening agent, stabilizer, or dietary
Cellulose Wood pulp, cotton
fiber in processed foods and drinks.
Used as a gelling agent in jams, jellies, and fruit
Pectin Citrus fruits, apples
preserves.
Fermentation of Used as a thickener, emulsifier, and stabilizer in
Xanthan gum
sugars (corn or soy) sauces, salad dressings, and gluten-free products.
Used as a thickener, stabilizer, and gelling agent
Guar gum Guar beans
in dairy products, sauces, and gluten-free foods.
A form of starch used as a thickening agent and
Amylopectin Corn, potatoes, rice stabilizer, especially in processed foods like
sauces and gravies.

Lecture 11

Starch Granules and Gelatinization of Starch

Starch is a polysaccharide composed of glucose units and is one of the most important
carbohydrate sources in our diet. It is found in grains, tubers, and legumes. Starch is typically
stored in plants in the form of granules, and when heated in water, these granules undergo a
process called gelatinization.
1. Structure of Starch Granules
Starch consists of two main components:

● Amylose: A linear chain of glucose molecules, typically 20-30% of the starch content.
● Amylopectin: A highly branched molecule made up of glucose units, making up 70-
80% of the starch content.

The starch granules are made of both amylose and amylopectin, but the ratio of these two
components varies by source.
● Granular Structure: Starch granules are typically round, oval, or polygonal and have
a unique crystalline structure, which makes them insoluble in cold water. This
crystalline structure is what gives starch its granule form.
● Size of Granules: The size of starch granules can vary greatly depending on the
source. For example:
o Corn starch granules are about 5–20 µm in diameter.
o Potato starch granules are larger, typically 20–100 µm.

In their natural state, starch granules contain water molecules and other substances like
proteins and lipids.
2. Gelatinization of Starch
Gelatinization is the process that occurs when starch is heated in water, causing the starch
granules to swell and eventually rupture, resulting in the thickening of the liquid. It’s a
critical step in food preparation for products like sauces, soups, and baked goods.
Steps in Gelatinization:
1. Heating of Starch in Water:

o When starch granules are heated in water (usually above 60-70°C, depending
on the starch type), the heat causes the water molecules to penetrate the
granules. The starch begins to absorb the water.
2. Swelling of Granules:

oAs the starch absorbs water, it begins to swell. The granules start to lose their
crystalline structure, and the starch molecules (mainly amylopectin) start to
leach out into the surrounding water.
3. Disruption of Granules:

As the temperature increases and more water is absorbed, the starch granules
o
continue to swell and eventually burst, releasing their components into the
surrounding liquid. This rupture leads to the thickening effect observed in
many cooked starch-based products.
4. Formation of a Gel:

o If the starch is cooked and then cooled, it forms a gel-like structure. The
amylose (the linear starch molecule) plays a key role in gel formation, forming
a network that traps water and other molecules, leading to the gel-like texture.
o The gel formation is also influenced by the concentration of starch in the
solution. A higher starch concentration will result in a firmer gel.

Factors Affecting Gelatinization:

● Temperature: Different starches gelatinize at different temperatures, but typically

between 60°C and 80°C (140°F and 176°F).
● Water: Sufficient water must be present for the starch to hydrate and swell.
Inadequate water will prevent proper gelatinization.
● Stirring: Stirring during the heating process helps to evenly distribute the heat and
prevent clumping of the starch granules.
● Acidity: High acidity (e.g., in lemon juice or vinegar) can affect the gelatinization
process, often delaying it or weakening the gel structure.
● Starch Concentration: The concentration of starch in the solution will determine the
thickness of the final product. Higher concentrations of starch will lead to thicker
pastes or gels.

3. Types of Starch and Their Gelatinization Properties

Different starches have varying gelatinization properties, largely based on the amylose-to-
amylopectin ratio:

Starch Gelatinization
Characteristics
Type Temperature (°C)

Corn 62–72°C (144–162°F) High amylopectin content; forms a smooth gel

 Starch with moderate viscosity.

Potato Larger granules; gives a smooth, clear gel with

60–70°C (140–158°F)
Starch high viscosity.

Rice
65–75°C (149–167°F) Produces a soft, elastic gel.
Starch

Tapioca Has a smooth, glossy texture; commonly used in

60–70°C (140–158°F)
Starch pudding.

Wheat Forms a less viscous paste; often used in baking

55–65°C (131–149°F)
Starch applications.

Amylose Content:

● Higher amylose starches tend to form firmer gels and are more resistant to
retrogradation (the process of the gel becoming firmer as it cools).
● Higher amylopectin starches tend to form smoother and more elastic gels and are less
prone to retrogradation.

4. Applications of Gelatinization in Food

● Sauces and Gravies: Starch gelatinization thickens sauces and gravies, providing a
smooth texture and body.
● Puddings and Custards: Starch-based gels form the structure in these products,
providing creaminess.
● Baked Goods: Starch gelatinization plays a role in the structure and moisture
retention in cakes and breads.
● Ice Cream: Starch is used in some ice cream formulations to provide creaminess and
improve texture.
● Canning: Starch is often used to thicken canned foods, providing a stable texture.

5. Retrogradation of Starch
After starch gelatinization, if the starch mixture is cooled, a process called retrogradation
may occur. Retrogradation refers to the reorganization of starch molecules (mainly amylose)
into a crystalline structure upon cooling, which leads to the gel becoming firmer or
sometimes, gritty. This process can be beneficial in some products (like jelly) but undesirable
in others (such as staling of bread).

Lecture 12 Enzymatic Vs Non-Enzymatic Browning in foods

Browning reactions in food occur when certain chemical processes lead to a color change,
typically resulting in a brown appearance. These reactions can be categorized into two types:
enzymatic browning and non-enzymatic browning. Both types are important in food
processing, storage, and preparation, and they can affect flavor, texture, and appearance.
1. Enzymatic Browning:

● Cause: This occurs when enzymes in food, particularly polyphenol oxidase (PPO),
react with phenolic compounds (found in fruits, vegetables, and some other plant-
based foods) in the presence of oxygen.
● Process: When the food is cut, bruised, or damaged, the enzyme PPO is released and
interacts with phenolic compounds, converting them into quinones, which then
polymerize to form brown pigments called melanins.
● Common Examples:
o Apples turning brown after being sliced.
o Potatoes browning after being peeled.
o Avocados turning brown after exposure to air.
● Prevention: This can be controlled by reducing exposure to oxygen (e.g., using
lemon juice or citric acid to lower the pH), using antioxidants (like ascorbic acid), or
applying heat to denature the enzymes (blanching).

2. Non-Enzymatic Browning:
● Cause: This type of browning is a result of chemical reactions that do not involve
enzymes. It generally occurs when reducing sugars (like glucose or fructose) react
with amino acids or proteins, leading to the formation of brown pigments.
● Types of Non-Enzymatic Browning:
Maillard Reaction: This is the most common form of non-enzymatic
o
browning and occurs when reducing sugars and amino acids react at high
temperatures. It’s a key reaction in baking, roasting, and grilling, responsible
for the golden-brown color and complex flavors in foods like bread, roasted
meats, coffee, and chocolate.
o Caramelization: This occurs when sugars are heated to high temperatures,
causing them to break down and form new compounds that result in a
characteristic brown color and flavor. This happens in the absence of proteins
and is common in the making of caramel or when cooking sugar for desserts.
● Examples:

o The browning of bread crust during baking due to the Maillard reaction.
o The deep brown color and flavor of roasted coffee.
o The color changes in roasted meat.

Differences:

● Enzymatic Browning involves enzymes and phenolic compounds, and it happens

mostly at room temperature or lower, especially when food is exposed to air.
● Non-Enzymatic Browning involves chemical reactions like the Maillard reaction or
caramelization, typically occurring under heat and without the involvement of
enzymes.

Both types of browning play significant roles in food processing, flavor development, and the
aesthetic appeal of cooked foods, but they can also lead to undesirable changes if they occur
too much or in the wrong conditions.
Types of enzymatic browning

Enzymatic browning primarily involves the oxidation of phenolic compounds in food,

catalyzed by enzymes like polyphenol oxidase (PPO). While there is one main type of
enzymatic browning, it can occur in different forms depending on the food and environmental
conditions. Here's a breakdown:
1. Polyphenol Oxidase (PPO)-Mediated Browning:

● Process: The most common type of enzymatic browning, where the enzyme
polyphenol oxidase (PPO), present in various fruits, vegetables, and other plant-based
foods, reacts with phenolic compounds. This reaction produces quinones, which are
then polymerized to form brown pigments called melanins.
● Foods Affected: Apples, pears, bananas, avocados, potatoes, mushrooms, and
eggplants.
● Example: When you cut an apple and expose its flesh to air, it begins to brown due to
PPO interacting with phenolic compounds in the apple.

2. Tyrosinase-Mediated Browning:

● Process: Tyrosinase is a type of polyphenol oxidase that specifically acts on tyrosine,

an amino acid found in certain foods. This enzyme catalyzes the conversion of
tyrosine to dopaquinone, leading to browning. While tyrosinase is technically a
subtype of PPO, it's often highlighted separately because of its specific role in certain
foods.
● Foods Affected: Potatoes, mushrooms, olives, and some fruits like bananas.
● Example: The browning in mushrooms and some types of potatoes when they are cut
or bruised is often due to tyrosinase activity.

3. Browning from Other Enzymes:

● Peroxidase-Mediated Browning: Peroxidases are enzymes that can also contribute

to browning, though they are less commonly involved in enzymatic browning
compared to polyphenol oxidase. Peroxidases often work in conjunction with other
enzymes or conditions to accelerate the oxidation process.
● Foods Affected: Certain vegetables, including carrots, broccoli, and other leafy
greens.
● Example: Peroxidase-induced browning is seen in some vegetables when they are cut
or damaged, although this is a less prominent form compared to PPO-mediated
browning.

Factors Influencing Enzymatic Browning:

● pH Levels: Enzymatic browning is often favored in slightly acidic to neutral pH

conditions. For example, lemon juice or citric acid (which lowers pH) can slow down
browning.
● Temperature: Enzymatic browning happens more rapidly at room temperature but
can be slowed or stopped by refrigeration or blanching (which deactivates the
enzymes).
 ● Oxygen: Oxygen is necessary for enzymatic browning to occur, which is why cutting
fruits or vegetables and exposing them to air leads to browning. Reducing oxygen
exposure (e.g., by covering the cut surface) can reduce this effect.

Enzymatic browning is a natural process that contributes to the flavor and appearance of
many foods, though it can be undesirable in certain situations (e.g., when fruits or vegetables
turn brown after being cut or bruised).
Types of non enzymatic browning

Non-enzymatic browning refers to browning reactions in food that do not involve enzymes.
These reactions can significantly impact the color, flavor, and texture of foods. The main
types of non-enzymatic browning are:
1. Maillard Reaction

● Process: This is the most important and widely studied type of non-enzymatic
browning. It occurs when reducing sugars (such as glucose or fructose) react with
amino acids (the building blocks of proteins) at higher temperatures. This reaction
produces a range of complex compounds, including brown pigments known as
melanoidins, which are responsible for the characteristic brown color.
● Foods Affected: Breads, roasted meats, coffee, chocolate, and toasted foods (like
cereal or crackers).
● Example: The golden-brown crust on bread or the color of roasted coffee beans
comes from the Maillard reaction.
● Factors: The Maillard reaction is influenced by temperature, moisture content, and
pH. Higher temperatures and slightly alkaline conditions enhance the reaction.

2. Caramelization

● Process: Caramelization occurs when sugars (usually sucrose, glucose, or fructose)

are heated to high temperatures, causing them to break down and form new
compounds. Unlike the Maillard reaction, caramelization does not require amino
acids. Instead, it involves the breakdown of sugar molecules and the formation of a
wide range of flavors and brown pigments.
● Foods Affected: Caramel, candies, roasted vegetables, and some sauces (e.g., caramel
sauce).
● Example: The color and flavor of caramelized sugar when making desserts like crème
brûlée or caramel candies.
● Factors: Caramelization requires high heat (typically above 160°C or 320°F) and
results in a distinct caramel flavor.

3. Aldehyde and Ketone Formation (Sugar Degradation)

● Process: In this type of non-enzymatic browning, reducing sugars can degrade into
aldehydes and ketones, which then react further to form brown pigments. This
degradation can occur through various mechanisms, including reactions with proteins
or other food components.
● Foods Affected: This can happen in a variety of foods, particularly during long
cooking processes or storage, where sugars degrade over time.
 ● Example: Overcooked sugar in candy-making that turns a dark brown due to sugar
breakdown into other compounds.

Differences Between Maillard Reaction and Caramelization:

● Maillard Reaction: Involves both sugars and amino acids and occurs at lower
temperatures (100-180°C or 212-356°F). It produces a variety of flavors and colors,
contributing to the complex flavor profiles in roasted meats and baked goods.
● Caramelization: Involves only sugars and requires higher temperatures (160°C or
320°F and above). It primarily creates sweet, toasty, and slightly bitter flavors
associated with caramel.

Key Factors Affecting Non-Enzymatic Browning:

● Temperature: High heat is necessary for both Maillard reaction and caramelization
to take place.
● pH: Slightly alkaline conditions enhance the Maillard reaction, while caramelization
is more dependent on the sugar type and temperature rather than pH.
● Moisture: Low moisture is often required for these browning reactions to occur
efficiently, especially in caramelization.

Both the Maillard reaction and caramelization are crucial for developing the color, aroma,
and taste of many cooked and processed foods, contributing to their appeal.

Lecture 13 Major reactions involved food processing

Maillard reaction

Maillard reaction is one of the most important and complex chemical reactions in food
processing, responsible for the development of color, flavor, and aroma in many cooked
foods. It involves a series of complex reactions between reducing sugars and amino acids (or
proteins), typically occurring at higher temperatures. It’s named after the French chemist
Louis-Camille Maillard, who first described it in 1912.

How the Maillard Reaction Works

The Maillard reaction is initiated when a reducing sugar (such as glucose or fructose) reacts
with an amino acid, usually from proteins. The process can be divided into several stages:

1. Initial Reaction:
o A reducing sugar, such as glucose or fructose, has a free aldehyde or ketone
group that can react with the amino group (–NH2) of an amino acid.
o This forms a Schiff base, which is a type of unstable intermediate compound.
2. Amadori Rearrangement:
o The Schiff base can rearrange, forming an Amadori compound, which is
more stable than the Schiff base. This intermediate structure is important as it
can further undergo various transformations.
3. Complex Breakdown:
 The Amadori compounds undergo complex rearrangements and breakdowns,
o
leading to the formation of hundreds of different chemical compounds,
including aldoses, ketoses, dicarbonyl compounds, and heterocyclic
compounds.
o These breakdown products are crucial because they contribute to the flavor,
color, and aroma of cooked food.
4. Formation of Advanced Glycation End Products (AGEs):
o In the later stages of the Maillard reaction, the products of the breakdown
continue to react with each other, forming advanced glycation end products
(AGEs), which are responsible for the deeper browning, bitterness, and more
complex flavors.
o AGEs can also play a role in the texture of the food, such as making the
surface of bread crust more firm and crunchy.

Factors Influencing the Maillard Reaction

Several factors affect how quickly and intensely the Maillard reaction takes place:

1. Temperature:
o The reaction occurs more rapidly at higher temperatures, which is why it’s
commonly seen in baking, roasting, and frying.
o It typically happens around 140–165°C (285–330°F), but can still proceed at
lower temperatures, albeit more slowly.
2. pH (Acidity/Alkalinity):
o The Maillard reaction is most efficient at slightly alkaline conditions (pH 7–9).
o More acidic environments (low pH) can slow down or inhibit the reaction,
while higher pH (basic conditions) can accelerate it.
3. Type of Sugar:
o Reducing sugars (those with a free aldehyde or ketone group) like glucose,
fructose, and lactose are more reactive than non-reducing sugars like sucrose.
4. Amino Acid Composition:
o The amino acid involved also affects the reaction. Some amino acids (like
lysine) are more reactive, while others (like proline) are less reactive.
o Foods with high levels of proteins (such as meat) typically show more intense
Maillard reaction products.
5. Moisture Content:
o Moisture can influence the Maillard reaction. In dry cooking methods like
roasting and baking, the Maillard reaction is more pronounced due to the
evaporation of water, leading to higher concentrations of reactants.
o In high-moisture environments (like boiling), the reaction is slower due to the
dilution effect of water.

Significance of the Maillard Reaction in Food Processing

1. Flavor Development:
o The Maillard reaction is responsible for the complex flavors in foods like
roasted coffee, bread crust, grilled meat, and toasted nuts. These flavors are
often described as nutty, caramelized, roasted, or savory.
o The formation of volatile compounds such as aldehydes, ketones, and
pyrazines contributes to the characteristic aromas.
 2. Color Formation (Browning):
o The Maillard reaction leads to the browning of foods, which is desirable in
many cooking processes (such as the golden crust on baked bread or the
browning of meat during roasting or grilling).
o The browning is caused by the formation of melanoidins, which are complex
brown pigments that develop as the reaction progresses.
3. Texture Modification:
o The Maillard reaction can also influence the texture of foods. For example, in
bread baking, the Maillard reaction contributes to a crispier, firmer crust.
o In the case of meat, the reaction helps form a flavorful, brown exterior, while
the interior may remain tender.
4. Nutritional Impact:
o The Maillard reaction can lead to the formation of certain beneficial
compounds, but it can also reduce the bioavailability of some nutrients,
particularly amino acids. For instance, lysine, an essential amino acid, may
undergo modifications during the Maillard reaction, making it less available
for absorption.
o Some advanced Maillard products (AGEs) have been linked to health
concerns, particularly in the context of long-term consumption of foods high
in these compounds.

Examples of the Maillard Reaction in Food

● Baking: When bread or cakes are baked, the Maillard reaction is responsible for the
formation of a brown, crunchy crust with a savory or slightly sweet flavor.
● Grilling and Roasting: In meats like steak, chicken, or pork, the Maillard reaction
creates a flavorful crust and brown color on the surface while leaving the interior
tender.
● Coffee Roasting: The Maillard reaction contributes to the development of the
complex flavors and dark color of roasted coffee beans.
● Toasting: Foods like nuts, seeds, and oats undergo the Maillard reaction when
toasted, creating rich, roasted flavors.
● Fried Foods: French fries, fried chicken, and similar items develop golden brown
crusts thanks to the Maillard reaction.

Control of the Maillard Reaction

In food processing, controlling the Maillard reaction is crucial. For example, to achieve the
desired level of browning and flavor in baked goods, manufacturers carefully control
temperature, humidity, and cooking time. On the other hand, to avoid over-browning or
unwanted flavor changes, food processors may adjust pH, cooking method, or even add
certain inhibitors like antioxidants to control the reaction.

Dextrinization reaction

Dextrinization is a chemical reaction involving the breakdown of starch into shorter chains
of sugars known as dextrins. This process occurs when starch is exposed to heat, causing the
starch molecules to break down into smaller, more soluble fragments, without the complete
breakdown into individual glucose molecules that occurs in hydrolysis. Dextrinization is a
type of non-enzymatic browning reaction and is important in food processing for modifying
texture, flavor, and color.

How Dextrinization Occurs

Dextrinization occurs when starch is heated in the presence of dry heat (without water),
leading to the following steps:

1. Heating Starch:
o Starch, which is a polysaccharide made up of long chains of glucose units, is
typically found in foods like grains, potatoes, and corn.
o When starch is exposed to dry heat (usually above 150°C / 302°F), the starch
granules start to undergo thermal degradation.
2. Breaking of Glycosidic Bonds:
o The heat weakens the glycosidic bonds (the bonds between glucose units) in
the starch molecules.
o These bonds begin to break, leading to the formation of dextrins, which are
shorter chains of glucose (typically 3 to 10 glucose units).
o The extent of dextrinization depends on the temperature, the type of starch,
and the duration of heating.
3. Formation of Dextrins:
o As the starch continues to be exposed to heat, these smaller molecules can
further break down into maltodextrins (smaller dextrins with fewer glucose
units), or in some cases, into even simpler sugars.
o Dextrins are more soluble than whole starch and can dissolve more readily in
water.
4. Color and Flavor Changes:
o Dextrinization leads to browning due to the formation of melanoidins (brown
pigments formed during the Maillard reaction between amino acids and
reducing sugars).
o The process also develops toasty, nutty, or slightly sweet flavors due to the
breakdown products of the starch.

Factors Affecting Dextrinization

Several factors influence the dextrinization process, including:

1. Temperature:
o The process is accelerated at higher temperatures. Dextrinization typically
begins at temperatures around 150°C (302°F) and continues to intensify as the
temperature rises, but it requires a dry heat environment.
o Too high a temperature or prolonged exposure can result in over-browning or
burning, which can lead to bitter flavors.
2. Type of Starch:
o Different starches undergo dextrinization at different rates. For instance,
cornstarch or potato starch will react differently from wheat starch due to
differences in their molecular structures.
o The amylose and amylopectin content in starch can also affect dextrinization.
Amylose (the linear form of starch) is more likely to undergo dextrinization
than amylopectin (the branched form).
 3. Moisture Content:
o Dextrinization is a dry heat process, so the presence of moisture can hinder it.
If moisture is present, the process may lean more towards gelatinization
(where starch absorbs water and swells) rather than dextrinization.
o If starch is exposed to dry heat in a low-moisture environment, dextrinization
is more likely to occur.
4. Time:
o The longer starch is exposed to heat, the more complete the dextrinization
process will be. However, prolonged heating can lead to undesirable flavor
changes and over-browning.

Significance of Dextrinization in Food Processing

Dextrinization is a crucial process in the food industry for several reasons:

1. Texture and Viscosity:

o The breakdown of starch into dextrins can modify the texture of food.
Dextrins have different solubility and thickening properties than whole starch.
For example, in baking, dextrinization helps improve the texture of bread
crusts, giving them a desirable golden-brown appearance and a crisp texture.
o In some cases, dextrins are used as thickeners or binders in processed foods.
2. Flavor Development:
o As starch breaks down, new compounds with more complex, caramelized, or
toasty flavors are formed. This is particularly important in the production of
roasted or toasted products, such as breakfast cereals, chips, and crackers,
where the dextrinization process contributes to their unique flavors.
3. Improved Solubility:
o Dextrins are more soluble in water than starch, making them useful in various
products. For instance, maltodextrins (which are derived from dextrinization)
are commonly used in beverages, powders, and sports drinks to provide quick
energy and improve the product's texture.
4. Color Formation:
o Dextrinization contributes to the golden or brown color in foods like roasted
potatoes, baked goods, and fried foods. The browning, due to the formation of
melanoidins, is highly desirable for aesthetic reasons and for the development
of a pleasing appearance.

Applications of Dextrinization in Food

Dextrinization is used in many different types of food processing, including:

● Baking: During the baking of bread, cookies, or cakes, the surface of the product
undergoes dextrinization, leading to a golden-brown, crisp crust.
● Snack Foods: Chips, crackers, and toasted cereals often go through dextrinization,
which imparts a desirable crunch and flavor.
● Roasted Products: Roasted nuts, seeds, and coffee beans experience dextrinization,
contributing to their characteristic brown color and roasted flavor.
● Caramelization: In some caramel processes, dextrinization plays a role in the
development of the deep brown color and nutty flavors that are key to the caramelized
flavor profile.
 ● Maltodextrin Production: Maltodextrins are commonly produced by controlled
dextrinization of starch. These maltodextrins are used as thickeners, stabilizers, or
sugar substitutes in a wide range of products, from sauces to desserts.

Caramelization reaction

Caramelization is a type of non-enzymatic browning reaction that involves the thermal

decomposition of sugars, leading to the formation of a range of chemical compounds
responsible for the color, flavor, and aroma associated with caramel. This process occurs
when sugars are heated to a certain temperature, causing them to undergo chemical changes
without the presence of enzymes or amino acids (unlike the Maillard reaction, which
requires both sugars and amino acids). Caramelization is a crucial reaction in food
processing, especially in the production of caramel and certain desserts and candies.

The Chemistry of Caramelization

Caramelization primarily involves reducing sugars like glucose, fructose, and sucrose (the
latter being hydrolyzed into glucose and fructose during heating). The general process of
caramelization can be broken down into several stages, with each stage producing a range of
compounds that contribute to the distinct characteristics of caramel:

1. Dehydration of Sugars:
o As sugar is heated, water molecules are gradually eliminated through
dehydration. This begins at temperatures around 160°C (320°F).
o For example, sucrose (table sugar) can break down into glucose and fructose
under heat, both of which undergo further transformations.
2. Breaking of Glycosidic Bonds:
o When sucrose (a disaccharide) is heated, the glycosidic bond between glucose
and fructose is broken. This produces monosaccharides (glucose and
fructose) which can undergo further reactions like isomerization and
decomposition.
o Fructose is particularly reactive and undergoes several transformations in
caramelization, including the formation of hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), a
key compound that contributes to the caramel flavor and aroma.
3. Formation of Intermediate Compounds:
o As the reaction continues, a series of intermediate compounds are formed,
such as dihydroxyacetone, levulinic acid, and various furans and aldehydes.
These contribute to the flavors and aromas associated with caramel, including
the characteristic buttery, nutty, and toasty notes.
4. Polymerization and Browning:
o With continued heating, the intermediate compounds undergo
polymerization, where smaller molecules link together to form larger, more
complex compounds called melanoidins. These are responsible for the brown
color seen in caramelized foods.
o The degree of polymerization can vary, leading to different shades of brown
and the development of more intense flavors.
5. Formation of Caramel Compounds:
o Finally, the complex chemical breakdown produces caramel compounds,
including caramelans, caramelins, and caramels—all of which are important
 in the production of caramelized flavor. These compounds are what make
caramel products rich in color and flavor.

Factors Affecting Caramelization

Several factors influence the rate and extent of caramelization:

1. Type of Sugar:
o Sucrose (table sugar) is the most commonly used sugar for caramelization, but
other sugars such as glucose, fructose, and lactose can also undergo
caramelization.
o Fructose caramelizes at a lower temperature than sucrose, making it more
reactive. This is why caramelizing fructose can lead to different flavors and
color changes.
2. Temperature:
o Caramelization is a heat-dependent process. Higher temperatures speed up the
reaction, leading to faster browning and more intense flavors, but excessive
heat can cause burning and bitterness.
3. Moisture Content:
o Caramelization occurs more effectively when moisture is minimized. Water
can slow down the caramelization process, as sugar needs to reach higher
temperatures to break down properly.
4. Time:
o The longer sugar is exposed to heat, the more it will break down and the
deeper the caramel flavor and color will become. However, excessive time at
high temperatures can cause the caramel to burn.
5. Presence of Acids or Alkalis:
o Slight acidity (such as lemon juice or cream) can help stabilize caramel and
prevent over-browning, while alkalinity can accelerate caramelization.
o For example, in caramel-making recipes, cream (which has some acidity) is
added to sugar to prevent it from burning and to achieve a smooth consistency.

Applications of Caramelization in Food Processing

Caramelization is widely used in the food industry and home cooking for the following
reasons:

1. Candy Production:
o The most obvious use of caramelization is in making caramel candies (like
soft caramels or caramel chews), where sugar is heated until it reaches the
right temperature, then combined with butter and cream to create a rich,
smooth texture.
2. Desserts:
o Caramelization plays a key role in the production of caramel sauces,
caramelized fruits, and crème brûlée, where sugar is caramelized and used
as a topping or flavoring agent.
3. Baked Goods:
o The Maillard reaction and caramelization contribute to the golden-brown color
and sweet flavors of baked goods like cakes, cookies, pastries, and bread.
4. Beverages:
 oCaramelized sugars are commonly used in the production of cola drinks,
coffee, and beer to impart a rich, dark color and unique flavor.
5. Confectionery:
o Toffee, fudge, and caramel popcorn rely on caramelization to produce their
characteristic texture and flavor.
6. Savory Applications:
o Caramelized onions, which develop a sweet, rich flavor, are made by slow
caramelization of sugar naturally present in onions.

Lecture 14 to 17 (Plant proteins, Animal proteins, Milk proteins and Egg proteins)

Plant proteins are proteins derived from plants rather than animals. They’re a great alternative
for vegetarians, vegans, or anyone looking to diversify their protein sources. Some common
plant-based protein sources include:

1. Legumes: Lentils, chickpeas, black beans, and peas are all high in protein.
2. Tofu & Tempeh: Both made from soybeans, they are rich in protein and versatile in
cooking.
3. Quinoa: A complete protein (contains all nine essential amino acids), making it
unique among plant foods.
4. Nuts & Seeds: Almonds, chia seeds, hemp seeds, and pumpkin seeds are excellent
sources of protein.
5. Edamame: Young soybeans, often served as a snack or appetizer, are packed with
protein.
6. Seitan: Also known as wheat meat, it’s made from gluten and has a meaty texture,
perfect for replacing meat in dishes.
7. Spirulina: This blue-green algae is a highly concentrated source of protein.

plant proteins used in food processing industry

Milk proteins used in food processing industry

table summarizing common milk proteins used in the food processing industry, their sources,
and their typical uses:

Milk Protein Source Typical Use in Food Processing

Used in cheese production (as the main protein

Cow's milk (also
in curd), as a thickener in sauces and dressings,
Casein found in goat and
and in protein supplements and bars. Casein is
sheep milk)
also used as a binder in processed meats.

Cow's milk Widely used in protein supplements, sports

(byproduct of drinks, protein bars, baked goods, dairy
Whey Protein
cheese products (e.g., yogurt, ice cream), and as an
production) emulsifier in sauces and dressings.

Milk Protein Cow's milk Used in dairy products like yogurt, cheese, and
Concentrate (MPC) ice cream to improve texture, creaminess, and
protein content. Also used in beverages and
 bakery products.

Used in high-protein food products such as

Milk Protein Isolate meal replacements, protein bars, sports drinks,
Cow's milk
(MPI) and functional foods. It’s also used in dairy-
free products for fortification.

Cow's milk (also Used for its antioxidant and antimicrobial

Lactoferrin found in other properties in functional foods, infant formula,
mammalian milk) dairy products, and supplements.

A component of whey, used in protein

fortification, food and beverage formulations,
Lactalbumin Cow's milk
and as a functional ingredient in infant
formula.

Used as a high-quality protein supplement in

Cow's milk (main
Beta-lactoglobulin protein powders, beverages, and in dairy-based
protein in whey)
products like yogurt and cheese.

Used in infant formula, as it is high in essential

Alpha-lactalbumin Cow's milk amino acids, and in protein supplements for its
digestibility and bioavailability.

Used as an emulsifier in processed foods, in the

Cow's milk
production of non-dairy creamers, and as a
Caseinate (derived from
protein fortifier in drinks and nutritional
casein)
supplements.

Used in cheese-making, specifically in

controlling the coagulation of milk, helping in
Kappa-casein Cow's milk
the formation of curds during cheese
production.

Used in nutritional products, especially in

Cow's milk (a
Glycomacropeptide weight management and sports nutrition due to
casein byproduct)
its ability to suppress appetite.

Milk proteins are highly valued in food processing due to their excellent amino acid profile,
functional properties (e.g., gelling, emulsifying, and foaming), and nutritional benefits. They
are commonly found in dairy products but are also increasingly used in non-dairy foods to
boost protein content.
Egg proteins used in food processing industry

table summarizing common egg proteins used in the food processing industry, their sources,
and their typical uses:
 Sourc
Egg Protein Typical Use in Food Processing
e

Used as a foaming agent in baked goods (e.g., meringues,

Albumin (Egg Egg
soufflés), in protein powders, as a stabilizer in beverages, and
White Protein) whites
in emulsified products like mayonnaise.

A major protein in egg whites, used for its gelling and

Egg
Ovalbumin emulsifying properties in processed foods like sauces,
whites
dressings, and protein supplements.

Used for its antimicrobial and antioxidant properties in food

Egg
Ovotransferrin preservation, particularly in processed meats and ready-to-eat
whites
products.

Functions as a protease inhibitor and is used in food

Egg
Ovomucoid processing for its ability to modify texture and prevent the
whites
breakdown of certain proteins.

Used as a natural preservative with antimicrobial properties,

Egg
Lysozyme especially in cheese production and in food packaging to
whites
extend shelf life.

Used in emulsification, giving products like mayonnaise,

Egg custards, and dressings their smooth texture and consistency.
Egg Yolk Protein
yolks It also contributes to the richness in baked goods and ice
cream.

Used for its high nutritional value in protein-rich food

Egg
Livetin products and as a source of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K)
yolks
in fortified foods.

Egg Used as an emulsifier and stabilizer in processed foods like

Phosvitin
yolks salad dressings, dairy products, and margarine.

Egg Protein Whole Used in sports nutrition, meal replacements, and high-protein
Concentrates eggs food products for its complete amino acid profile.

Used in protein fortification of beverages, bars, and snacks,

Egg Protein Whole
providing a high-quality protein with minimal fat and
Isolates eggs
carbohydrates.

Egg proteins are highly valued in food processing due to their excellent functional properties,
such as emulsification, foaming, and gelling, as well as their nutritional benefits. They are
especially important in products like baked goods, sauces, dressings, and protein
supplements.
animal proteins used in food processing industry

table summarizing common animal proteins used in the food processing industry, their
sources, and their typical uses:

Animal
Source Typical Use in Food Processing
Protein

Used in the production of gelatin (for gummies,

Cows, pigs, fish
marshmallows, and desserts), in processed meats for
Collagen (skin, bones,
texture, and in the production of hydrolyzed collagen
connective tissue)
used in protein supplements.

Used as a gelling agent in confectionery (e.g.,

Cows, pigs (from
Gelatin gummies, marshmallows), dairy products, and as a
collagen)
stabilizer in yogurt and ice cream.

Cows' milk (also Used in cheese production, as a thickener in sauces and

Casein from goat and dressings, and in protein supplements and bars. Also
sheep milk) used as a binder in processed meats.

Used in protein supplements, protein bars, beverages,

Cows' milk
Whey baked goods, and dairy products (e.g., yogurt, ice
(byproduct of
Protein cream). It also serves as an emulsifier in sauces and
cheese production)
dressings.

Used in processed meats like sausages and hot dogs for

Meat (muscle
Myosin its binding properties, improving texture and moisture
tissue)
retention.

Works with myosin to improve the texture and binding

Meat (muscle
Actin ability in processed meat products, such as sausages
tissue)
and other restructured meats.

Used in baked goods, protein powders, and as a

Eggs, blood
Albumin foaming agent in meringues and soufflés. Also used as
plasma
a binder in processed meats.

Used in the food processing industry for its gelling

Tropomyosi Shellfish (e.g.,
properties and texture enhancement, though it also
n shrimp, lobster)
triggers allergic reactions in some individuals.

Animal blood Used in food products like blood sausages and as a

Hemoglobin
(e.g., cows, pigs) flavor enhancer or colorant in certain processed meats.

Fibrin Animal blood Used in food processing for its binding properties,
(mainly from particularly in meat products like sausages, and in the
 plasma) creation of functional foods and edible films.

A protein inhibitor used in the food processing industry

to control spoilage and improve shelf life by reducing
Cystatin Animal tissues
the action of enzymes in meat and other perishable
foods.

Animal proteins are commonly used in food processing due to their excellent functional
properties such as gelling, emulsification, binding, and texture enhancement. They are key
ingredients in products like meats, dairy, protein supplements, and gelatin-based foods.
Lecture 18 Introdcution of Lipids
Lipids are a broad group of organic compounds that are primarily hydrophobic (water-
insoluble) and serve various important roles in biological systems. They are critical
components of cell membranes, energy storage molecules, and signaling molecules. Let's
dive into the three major categories of lipids you mentioned: fatty acids, acyl glycerols, and
phospholipids.
1. Fatty Acids
Fatty acids are the building blocks of many lipids. They are carboxylic acids (meaning they
have a -COOH group) with a long hydrocarbon chain, which can be either saturated or
unsaturated.

● Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between carbon atoms, meaning their
carbon chains are "saturated" with hydrogen atoms. These tend to be solid at room
temperature (e.g., stearic acid).
● Unsaturated fatty acids contain one or more double bonds in their hydrocarbon
chain, which creates kinks and prevents the molecules from packing tightly. This
makes them liquid at room temperature (e.g., oleic acid, found in olive oil).

Fatty acids can be classified further into essential fatty acids (which our body cannot
synthesize and must obtain from diet) and non-essential fatty acids (which the body can
make).
2. Acyl Glycerols (Triglycerides)
Acyl glycerols, commonly known as triglycerides, are the most common form of fat in the
body and in the diet. They consist of a glycerol backbone (a three-carbon alcohol) bound to
three fatty acids through ester bonds.

● Triglycerides are the primary way that energy is stored in animals and plants. They
can be broken down into fatty acids and glycerol to release energy when needed.
● Triglycerides are also important for insulation and protecting vital organs.

3. Phospholipids
Phospholipids are major components of cell membranes. They have a similar structure to
triglycerides, but one of the fatty acid molecules is replaced by a phosphate group, making
them amphipathic (having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions).
 ● Hydrophilic (water-loving) head: The phosphate group makes the head of the
phospholipid molecule attracted to water.
● Hydrophobic (water-fearing) tail: The fatty acid chains are repelled by water.

This dual nature allows phospholipids to form the bilayer structure of cell membranes, which
is essential for maintaining the integrity and function of cells.
Lecture 19 Classification of edible fats
Edible fats are an essential part of the human diet, providing energy, supporting cell
function, and aiding in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K). These fats are
classified based on their source, chemical structure, and physical properties. The main
categories include animal fats, vegetable oils, and marine oils, which can further be
classified by their saturation level (saturated, unsaturated) and fatty acid composition.
Here's a detailed classification of edible fats:
1. Based on Source
a. Animal Fats
These fats are derived from animal tissues, and they typically contain higher levels of
saturated fatty acids compared to plant-based fats. Common animal fats include:

● Butter: A dairy product made from churning cream, typically consisting of saturated
fats, but also containing some monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids.
● Lard: The rendered fat from pigs, predominantly made up of monounsaturated and
saturated fatty acids.
● Tallow: Rendered fat from cattle or sheep, usually high in saturated fats.
● Suet: The fat around the kidneys of cattle and sheep, also rich in saturated fats.
● Fish Oil: Fat from the tissues of fatty fish, rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty
acids (like EPA and DHA).

b. Vegetable Oils
These oils are derived from the seeds, fruits, and nuts of plants. They are typically high in
unsaturated fatty acids, especially monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty
acids (PUFA). Common vegetable oils include:

● Olive Oil: Made from the fruit of the olive tree, high in monounsaturated fatty
acids (MUFA), particularly oleic acid.
● Soybean Oil: Derived from soybeans, rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA),
especially linoleic acid (omega-6).
● Sunflower Oil: Extracted from sunflower seeds, typically high in polyunsaturated
fatty acids (especially linoleic acid).
● Canola Oil: Made from the seeds of the canola plant, rich in monounsaturated fatty
acids and contains omega-3 (alpha-linolenic acid) in small amounts.
● Palm Oil: Derived from the fruit of the oil palm tree, containing both saturated and
unsaturated fatty acids, with palmitic acid being the primary saturated fatty acid.
● Coconut Oil: Extracted from the meat of coconuts, it is high in saturated fatty
acids, particularly lauric acid.
c. Marine Oils
These oils come from fish and other marine organisms and are often high in omega-3
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Common marine oils include:

● Fish Oil: Extracted from fatty fish like salmon, mackerel, and sardines, rich in
omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA), known for their heart-health benefits.
● Cod Liver Oil: Derived from the liver of codfish, rich in omega-3 fatty acids and
also a good source of vitamins A and D.
● Krill Oil: Extracted from krill, a type of small marine crustacean, high in omega-3
fatty acids and phospholipids.

2. Based on Fatty Acid Composition

a. Saturated Fats
Saturated fats contain no double bonds between the carbon atoms in the fatty acid chains,
making them solid at room temperature. They are typically found in animal fats and some
tropical oils. Examples include:

● Butter (about 62% saturated fats)

● Lard (about 40-45% saturated fats)
● Coconut Oil (about 90% saturated fats)
● Palm Oil (about 50% saturated fats)

Saturated fats are often associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease when
consumed in excess, though recent studies suggest that not all saturated fats have the same
health effects.
b. Unsaturated Fats
Unsaturated fats contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms in their fatty acid
chains, making them liquid at room temperature. Unsaturated fats are considered healthier
than saturated fats and are divided into:

● Monounsaturated Fats (MUFA): These fats have one double bond in their structure
and are typically liquid at room temperature.
o Olive Oil (about 70-80% monounsaturated fats)
o Canola Oil (about 55-60% monounsaturated fats)
o Avocado Oil (about 70% monounsaturated fats)
● Polyunsaturated Fats (PUFA): These fats contain multiple double bonds in their
structure and are also liquid at room temperature. They are essential fats, meaning the
body cannot produce them and they must be obtained through the diet.
o Soybean Oil (about 58% polyunsaturated fats)
o Sunflower Oil (about 65% polyunsaturated fats)
o Walnut Oil (about 70% polyunsaturated fats, mostly omega-3 and omega-6)

Polyunsaturated fats include essential fatty acids such as omega-3 fatty acids (e.g., EPA and
DHA) and omega-6 fatty acids (e.g., linoleic acid), which have important roles in health.

3. Based on Hydrogenation (Degree of Saturation)

a. Partially Hydrogenated Oils
Hydrogenation is a process that adds hydrogen atoms to unsaturated fats, converting them
into a more saturated form. Partially hydrogenated oils can contain trans fats, which are
unhealthy and have been linked to an increased risk of heart disease.

● Partially hydrogenated vegetable oils are commonly found in margarine,

shortening, and some processed foods.
● These oils are more solid than liquid oils due to the higher content of saturated fats,
and they may still contain trans fats, though many food manufacturers have moved
away from using partially hydrogenated oils due to health concerns.

b. Fully Hydrogenated Oils

Fully hydrogenated oils are oils that have undergone complete hydrogenation, converting all
unsaturated fats into saturated fats. These oils do not contain trans fats but are solid at room
temperature. They are less commonly used in food products.
4. Based on Processing Method
a. Refined Oils
These oils have undergone processing, including deodorization, bleaching, and filtering, to
remove impurities and improve the oil's shelf life and appearance.

● Refined Canola Oil

● Refined Sunflower Oil
● Refined Soybean Oil

Refined oils have a neutral flavor and are used in cooking, frying, and baking. However, the
refining process may remove some of the nutrients, including antioxidants and vitamins.
b. Unrefined Oils (Cold-Pressed or Virgin Oils)
Unrefined oils are extracted using mechanical methods, such as cold pressing, without the
use of heat or chemicals. These oils retain more of their natural flavor, nutrients, and
antioxidants.

● Extra Virgin Olive Oil: The highest quality olive oil, cold-pressed and free from
chemical treatment.
● Cold-Pressed Canola Oil: Extracted without heat, preserving more nutrients than
refined oil.
● Unrefined Coconut Oil: Retains the natural coconut flavor and nutrients, such as
medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs).

Unrefined oils are typically preferred in raw food preparations (e.g., salads) or for low-
temperature cooking, as they have a higher content of beneficial compounds like vitamins
and polyphenols.
5. Based on Functionality in Food
a. Cooking Oils
These oils are commonly used for frying, baking, or sautéing due to their ability to
withstand heat. They include both refined oils and some unrefined oils for use in moderate-
heat cooking.
 ● Vegetable Oil
● Canola Oil
● Peanut Oil

b. Salad and Flavor Oils

These oils are used mainly in salad dressings or as finishing oils for flavoring foods. They
are often unrefined or cold-pressed to preserve their aromas and nutrients.

● Extra Virgin Olive Oil

● Avocado Oil
● Flaxseed Oil

c. Specialty Oils
These oils are used for specific purposes or in certain cuisines, often because of their unique
flavor profiles or health benefits.

● Truffle Oil
● Sesame Oil
● Walnut Oil

Lecture 20 and 21 Physical and chemical aspects of Lipids

Lipids are a diverse group of organic compounds that are crucial in biological systems. They
can be classified based on their structure and function, and they exhibit both physical and
chemical characteristics that are important for their biological roles. Here's an overview of the
physical and chemical aspects of lipids:
Physical Aspects of Lipids
1. Solubility:

o Lipids are generally hydrophobic (water-insoluble) or amphipathic (having

both hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties).
o They are soluble in non-polar solvents like chloroform, ether, and benzene but
insoluble in polar solvents like water.
2. State at Room Temperature:

oFats and oils: Lipids can be solid or liquid at room temperature. Saturated
fats (e.g., butter) tend to be solid, while unsaturated fats (e.g., olive oil) are
liquid.
o The transition from solid to liquid is due to the nature of the fatty acid chains.
Saturated fatty acids have straight chains, leading to tight packing and solid
form, whereas unsaturated fatty acids have kinks in the chain due to double
bonds, making the structure less compact and more fluid.
3. Melting Point:

o The melting point of lipids is influenced by their fatty acid composition.

Saturated fatty acids have higher melting points because they can pack closely
together, whereas unsaturated fatty acids have lower melting points due to the
"kinks" in their structure that prevent close packing.
4. Density:
 o Lipids are typically less dense than water, which is why they float on water.
This property is related to their long carbon chains and non-polar nature.

Lecture 22, 23 and 24 Technology and Chemistry of fats and Oils

The processing of fats and oils is an important area of both technology and chemistry,
especially in food, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and biodiesel production. The methods used
to process fats and oils depend on the intended application, as well as the specific properties
of the fats and oils involved. Here’s an overview of the technology and chemistry involved
in fat and oil processing:
1. Extraction of Oils (Physical and Chemical Methods)
The first step in fat and oil processing is extracting the oil from plant or animal sources. This
can be done using either physical or chemical methods:
● Cold Pressing (Physical Extraction):
oCold pressing is a mechanical method where seeds or fruits are crushed, and
oil is released under pressure, typically without the use of heat. This method is
commonly used for high-quality oils like olive oil.
o It preserves the flavor and nutritional content of the oil but is less efficient in
terms of oil yield.
● Solvent Extraction (Chemical Method):

Hexane or other solvents are used to dissolve oil from crushed seeds or plant
o
matter. The oil is then separated from the solvent through distillation.
o This method is more efficient than cold pressing and is used for large-scale oil
extraction from crops like soybeans, canola, and sunflower seeds.
● Supercritical Fluid Extraction:

o A more advanced method where supercritical CO₂ is used to extract oils. This
method can achieve high yields and is increasingly being explored for health-
conscious oils, as it avoids solvent residues.

2. Refining of Oils
Once the oil has been extracted, it often undergoes a refining process to remove impurities,
contaminants, and unwanted components. The major steps in oil refining are:
● Degumming:
Oils, particularly vegetable oils, contain phospholipids (gums), which can
o
cause cloudiness and reduce the quality of the oil. Degumming removes these
by adding water or acid, which allows the gums to be separated from the oil.
● Neutralization:

Oils can contain free fatty acids (FFAs) that contribute to an undesirable
o
flavor and reduce oil stability. Neutralization is a chemical process in which
these FFAs are removed by reacting with an alkaline substance, typically
sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
● Bleaching:
 The oil is treated with adsorbent clays or activated charcoal to remove
o
pigments (like chlorophyll) and other impurities. This step helps improve the
oil's color and clarity.
● Deodorization:

o Oil is exposed to steam distillation under a vacuum at high temperatures to

remove volatile compounds that contribute to undesirable odors and flavors.
This process is important for oils that will be used in food products.

3. Hydrogenation (Modification of Oils)

Hydrogenation is a key chemical process used to modify oils, usually to increase their shelf
life, stability, or to create desired textures in products like margarine or shortening.
● Hydrogenation involves adding hydrogen gas (H₂) to unsaturated fatty acids in the
oil in the presence of a catalyst (often nickel or platinum). This process converts cis-
double bonds (unsaturated) into trans- double bonds or single bonds (saturated),
increasing the melting point and stability of the fat.
● Partial Hydrogenation: Involves hydrogenating only some of the double bonds in
unsaturated fats. This can result in the formation of trans fats, which have been
associated with negative health effects (e.g., cardiovascular disease).
● Fully Hydrogenated Oils: All double bonds are converted into single bonds,
resulting in a fully saturated fat, which is more stable and solid at room temperature.
4. Winterization
Winterization is a physical process used to remove certain components, especially waxes and
high-melting triglycerides, from oils. It involves chilling the oil and filtering out the solidified
particles. This process is essential for oils like corn oil and sunflower oil to ensure that they
remain clear at low temperatures.
5. Interesterification (Modification of Fatty Acids)
Interesterification is a chemical process that alters the composition of fatty acids in
triglycerides without changing the fatty acid profile. It can be chemical or enzymatic.
● Chemical Interesterification: Involves random rearrangement of fatty acids between
triglycerides, usually in the presence of a catalyst. This can alter the melting behavior
of fats and is used to create fats with specific properties, like those found in margarine
or special-purpose oils.
● Enzymatic Interesterification: Uses specific lipase enzymes to rearrange the fatty
acids in triglycerides. This method is more selective and can result in oils with
desirable characteristics like improved nutritional profiles.
6. Biodiesel Production (Transesterification)
The chemical process of transesterification is used to convert vegetable oils or animal fats
into biodiesel, a renewable alternative to diesel fuel.
 ● Transesterification involves reacting triglycerides (fats or oils) with methanol or
ethanol in the presence of a catalyst (usually sodium or potassium hydroxide). This
produces methyl esters (biodiesel) and glycerol as a by-product.
● This process effectively reduces the viscosity of oils, making them suitable for use in
diesel engines.
7. Oil Blending
Oil blending involves mixing different oils (or modifying oils) to achieve the desired
properties, such as specific melting points, nutritional profiles, and flavor characteristics.

● Blending can be used to combine oils with high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids
(like soybean or sunflower oil) with oils that have higher levels of saturated fats (like
palm oil) to balance health and culinary characteristics.

8. Chemical Reactions and By-products

During fat and oil processing, several chemical reactions and by-products can arise:
● Oxidation: Exposure to air, light, and heat can cause lipid oxidation, leading to
rancidity. This is a common problem, especially with polyunsaturated oils.
Antioxidants like tocopherols (vitamin E) are often added to prevent this process.
● Lipolysis: In certain conditions, triglycerides can break down into free fatty acids
and glycerol. This may be desired in some processes but is generally avoided in food
oils as it can affect quality.
● Trans fats formation: During hydrogenation, the formation of trans fats is a
significant concern due to their negative health effects.
Lipid peroxidation
Lipid peroxidation is a chemical reaction involving the oxidative degradation of lipids,
particularly polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), in the presence of oxygen. It is a process in
which reactive oxygen species (ROS) attack the lipid molecules, leading to the formation of
peroxides and other secondary products that can negatively affect the structure and function
of biological membranes and other lipid-rich tissues.
This process is important in a variety of contexts, including food processing, human health,
and aging. Lipid peroxidation can cause damage to cells, tissues, and organs, leading to
diseases like cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer. However, it also
plays a crucial role in certain physiological processes such as cell signaling.
Mechanisms of Lipid Peroxidation
Lipid peroxidation involves a free-radical chain reaction in which reactive species attack
lipids, leading to a series of steps that propagate the reaction. The process can be broken
down into three major stages: initiation, propagation, and termination.
1. Initiation
The initiation stage involves the formation of a free radical on a lipid molecule. The free
radical most commonly formed is the lipid radical (L•), which is a highly reactive species.
 ● Generation of Free Radicals: The initial free radical is typically generated by
reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as superoxide anion (O2•–), hydroxyl radical
(•OH), or other oxygen-based radicals. These radicals can interact with
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which are abundant in biological membranes,
especially in phospholipids.
● Attack on the Lipid: ROS or other reactive species attack the bis-allylic hydrogen
atoms (hydrogens on carbons adjacent to double bonds) in the fatty acid chains. This
hydrogen abstraction generates a lipid radical (L•), which is the starting point for lipid
peroxidation.

2. Propagation
During the propagation phase, the lipid radical (L•) reacts with molecular oxygen (O2) to
form a lipid peroxyl radical (LOO•).

● Formation of Lipid Peroxyl Radicals: The lipid radical (L•) reacts with O2 to form
a lipid peroxyl radical (LOO•), which is still highly reactive.
● Further Chain Reactions: The lipid peroxyl radical (LOO•) can react with another
lipid molecule, abstracting a hydrogen atom from a neighboring lipid, creating
another lipid radical (L•) and a lipid hydroperoxide (LOOH). This sets off a chain
reaction, where the process can continue as long as there are unsaturated fatty acids
available.

The key reaction in this stage is:

● L• + O₂ → LOO• (lipid peroxyl radical)

● LOO• + L → LOOH (lipid hydroperoxide) + L•

3. Termination
The termination stage occurs when the chain reaction is stopped, usually by the interaction of
two free radicals or the involvement of an antioxidant.

● Antioxidants: Natural antioxidants, such as vitamin E (α-tocopherol), ascorbic acid

(vitamin C), and glutathione, can donate electrons to lipid peroxyl radicals (LOO•)
and lipid radicals (L•), effectively neutralizing them and preventing further oxidation.
● Radical Coupling: Two free radicals (L• and LOO•) can also combine to form a non-
radical product, stopping the reaction:
o L• + LOO• → non-radical product

Products of Lipid Peroxidation

Lipid peroxidation generates a variety of products, some of which are harmful and others that
have physiological significance. The main classes of products include:
1. Lipid Hydroperoxides (LOOH)

● The initial product of lipid peroxidation is the lipid hydroperoxide. These

compounds can further decompose to produce smaller reactive molecules, such as
aldehydes and ketones, which are toxic to cells.
● Hydroperoxides themselves can be damaging due to their ability to react with other
molecules in the cell, potentially triggering further oxidative damage.
2. Aldehydes and Ketones

● Malondialdehyde (MDA) and 4-hydroxy-2-trans-nonenal (4-HNE) are two of the

most well-known secondary products of lipid peroxidation, both of which are highly
reactive and can form adducts with proteins, DNA, and other cellular
macromolecules.
● MDA is often used as a biomarker of lipid peroxidation because it is generated in
large quantities during oxidative stress. It can lead to DNA damage, cross-linking of
proteins, and other cellular dysfunctions.
● Acrolein is another product formed in lipid peroxidation, especially from omega-3
fatty acids, and is highly toxic to cells.

3. Epoxides and Isoprostanes

● In certain cases, lipid peroxidation leads to the formation of epoxides, which are
highly reactive and can affect cellular signaling.
● Isoprostanes are a group of prostaglandin-like compounds formed during lipid
peroxidation of arachidonic acid. They are often used as biomarkers for oxidative
stress and lipid peroxidation.

Factors Influencing Lipid Peroxidation

Several factors influence the extent and rate of lipid peroxidation:
1. Presence of Oxygen

● Oxygen is essential for lipid peroxidation, as it reacts with lipid radicals to form lipid
peroxyl radicals. Thus, the availability of oxygen determines the rate of peroxidation.

2. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs)

● Lipid peroxidation predominantly affects polyunsaturated fatty acids (such as

linoleic acid, arachidonic acid, and docosahexaenoic acid), due to the presence of
multiple double bonds. These double bonds are particularly prone to attack by free
radicals, leading to lipid degradation.

3. Temperature

● Higher temperatures accelerate lipid peroxidation, which is why food products that
contain fats and oils can become rancid over time when exposed to heat and light.

4. Metal Ions

● Transition metals like iron (Fe) and copper (Cu) can catalyze lipid peroxidation by
generating hydroxyl radicals (•OH) through the Fenton reaction. These metals can
significantly increase the rate of lipid peroxidation.
5. Antioxidants

● Antioxidants can inhibit or slow down lipid peroxidation by scavenging free radicals.
Vitamin E (α-tocopherol) is one of the primary antioxidants in biological systems that
prevents lipid peroxidation by donating an electron to lipid radicals.
● Polyphenols in foods like fruits, vegetables, and green tea also act as potent
antioxidants.

Consequences of Lipid Peroxidation

1. Cellular Damage

● Lipid peroxidation can damage cell membranes by altering the integrity of

phospholipids. This leads to increased membrane permeability, loss of membrane
function, and eventually cell death. The peroxidation of lipids in mitochondrial
membranes can disrupt cellular energy production, which is particularly problematic
for high-energy-demand cells like neurons and muscle cells.

2. Protein and DNA Damage

● Lipid peroxidation products, especially MDA and 4-HNE, can react with proteins and
DNA. These interactions lead to protein cross-linking, loss of protein function, and
DNA mutations, all of which contribute to aging and the development of various
diseases.

3. Inflammation

● Lipid peroxidation products, such as isoprostanes, can activate inflammatory

pathways, leading to chronic inflammation. This is particularly important in the
context of cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer,
where oxidative stress plays a central role.

4. Aging and Disease

● The accumulation of lipid peroxidation products over time contributes to the aging
process by promoting oxidative damage. The buildup of these products is implicated
in the pathogenesis of several age-related diseases, including Alzheimer's disease,
Parkinson's disease, and atherosclerosis.

Lipid Peroxidation in Food and Food Processing

Lipid peroxidation is of major concern in food processing because it can lead to the
development of off-flavors and rancidity in fat-containing foods, thereby reducing the shelf
life and nutritional quality of products. For example:
● Rancidity: The products of lipid peroxidation, such as aldehydes and ketones, are
volatile and have undesirable odors and tastes. This is why oxidative stability is a
key consideration in food products like oils, nuts, dairy products, and meat.
● Antioxidants in Food: To prevent lipid peroxidation in food, antioxidants are often
added. Common antioxidants include vitamin E (α-tocopherol), ascorbic acid
 (vitamin C), and synthetic compounds like BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole) and
BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene). These antioxidants work by scavenging free
radicals and preventing the initiation of the peroxidation process.
Prevention and Mitigation
To reduce lipid peroxidation, several strategies are employed:

1. Storage Conditions: Storing oils and fats in dark, cool, and airtight containers can
minimize exposure to oxygen and light, both of which accelerate lipid peroxidation.
2. Use of Antioxidants: Incorporating natural or synthetic antioxidants in food
formulations helps protect against lipid peroxidation.
3. Reducing Metal Catalysis: Controlling the levels of iron and copper in foods can
help prevent the catalytic effects of these metals in lipid peroxidation.
4. Modification of Fatty Acids: Using saturated fats or fats with fewer
polyunsaturated fatty acids can reduce the susceptibility of lipids to oxidation.

Lecture 21 Role of Lipids in Foods – Crystallization and Consistency

Lipids play a crucial role in food products, not only as a source of energy but also in shaping
the texture, flavor, and consistency of various food products. Their crystallization behavior
is particularly significant in determining the final texture and consistency of foods. Lipids are
involved in several aspects of food processing and product development, such as
emulsification, flavor release, and mouthfeel, and they also have a substantial effect on the
physical characteristics of foods.
1. Role of Lipids in Foods
Lipids, which include fats and oils, are essential components of many foods, both in their
natural form and as ingredients added during food processing. They are used for various
purposes:
● Flavor Carrier: Lipids help carry and release fat-soluble flavor compounds in foods.
This is why many flavorful oils and fats, such as butter, olive oil, and lard, are used in
cooking, as they enhance flavor perception.
● Texture and Mouthfeel: Lipids provide a smooth and creamy texture in products like
ice cream, spreads (e.g., butter, margarine), chocolate, and bakery products. The
consistency of these products is largely determined by the lipid composition and the
crystallization of fats during processing.
● Heat Transfer and Cooking Medium: Oils and fats are used for frying and cooking,
where they facilitate heat transfer and can affect the crispness and consistency of the
food being prepared. For example, deep-frying results in a crispy, crunchy texture due
to the properties of lipids in the oil.
● Emulsification: Lipids, especially phospholipids, are key in stabilizing emulsions,
which are mixtures of two immiscible liquids, such as oil and water. Mayonnaise,
salad dressings, and margarine are examples of emulsified products that rely on lipids
to maintain stability.
● Nutritional Content: Lipids are a dense source of energy, providing essential fatty
acids (like omega-3 and omega-6) and fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K).
2. Crystallization of Lipids in Foods
Crystallization refers to the process by which liquid fats or oils solidify and form a crystalline
structure as they cool. The crystallization behavior of lipids has a significant impact on the
texture, consistency, and stability of many food products. This process is highly influenced
by factors such as the type of lipid, temperature, and cooling rate.
Crystallization in Solid Fats:
● Type of Lipid: Different lipids (saturated vs. unsaturated fats, or different types of
triglycerides) crystallize in different ways. Saturated fats (like butter or cocoa
butter) generally form more stable and rigid crystals than unsaturated fats (like
vegetable oils). This affects the consistency and texture of the final product.
● Crystallization Polymorphism: Lipids can crystallize into different polymorphic
forms, which are different crystal structures with varying melting points and physical
properties. For example:
o Alpha (α) crystals: These are the smallest and most unstable form of
crystallization.
o Beta-prime (β') crystals: More stable and fine, forming a smooth texture.
o Beta (β) crystals: The largest and most stable, which can lead to a coarse,
gritty texture.

The form in which a lipid crystallizes is critical in determining the texture and
mouthfeel of food products like chocolate, margarine, and baked goods. For instance,
chocolate is tempered to control fat crystallization and achieve a smooth, glossy
finish and the ideal "snap" when broken.
● Cooling Rate and Tempering: Cooling rate significantly influences fat
crystallization. Fast cooling leads to the formation of smaller crystals, while slow
cooling may result in larger crystals. Tempering (a controlled cooling process) is
used to ensure that fats crystallize in the desirable form (usually β' crystals) to achieve
smooth and stable textures.
3. Consistency of Lipid-Based Foods
Consistency refers to the thickness, firmness, spreadability, and overall texture of lipid-
containing foods, which is largely determined by the crystallization process and the lipid
composition.
Factors Influencing Consistency:
● Fat Composition: The ratio of saturated to unsaturated fatty acids in a fat influences
its consistency. Fats with a higher proportion of saturated fatty acids (like coconut
oil or palm oil) tend to be solid at room temperature and contribute to a firmer, more
solid texture in products like margarine, shortening, or spreads.
● Triglyceride Structure: The molecular structure of the triglycerides (the main
component of most fats and oils) affects their ability to crystallize and form stable
structures. Fats with a high level of long-chain fatty acids tend to have higher
melting points, contributing to a firmer consistency.
 ● Temperature: Temperature plays a key role in determining the consistency of fat-
based products. As fats melt at different temperatures, their ability to maintain a
specific texture will depend on their melting points and the temperature at which the
food is stored. For instance, butter has a relatively low melting point and soft
consistency, while cocoa butter remains solid at room temperature but melts
smoothly at body temperature, which is essential for good-quality chocolate.
● Blending of Fats: The combination of different oils and fats can be used to control
consistency. For example, blending saturated fats (for firmness) with unsaturated
fats (for spreadability) can create products with the desired texture, like margarine or
salad dressings.
● Emulsifiers: In emulsified products (e.g., mayonnaise, margarine), the consistency is
influenced by both the lipid crystallization and the stabilizing action of emulsifiers
(like lecithin or mono- and diglycerides). These ingredients prevent the oil and water
from separating, contributing to smoothness and stability.

4. Lipid Use in Food Products and Their Consistency

Lipids are used to adjust the consistency of various food products. Here’s how crystallization
and lipid behavior affect the texture and mouthfeel of some common foods:
● Chocolate: The crystallization of cocoa butter is crucial for the texture of chocolate.
Proper crystallization results in a smooth texture with a glossy appearance and snap
when broken. This is achieved by tempering cocoa butter, which controls the
formation of the desired polymorphic form.
● Margarine and Butter: The consistency of margarine or butter is largely determined
by the types of fats used and their crystallization behavior. Solid fats, such as those
derived from palm oil or coconut oil, are used to create a firm consistency in these
products. The balance between fat types ensures that margarine is spreadable but
retains some firmness when chilled.
● Ice Cream: Lipids play a significant role in ice cream consistency. The crystallization
of milk fat contributes to the smooth texture, while emulsifiers help to stabilize fat
droplets, preventing them from coalescing into large crystals that would affect the
creaminess of the product.
● Baked Goods (Cakes, Pastries): Fats like butter or shortening contribute to the
flakiness and tenderness of baked goods. When fats are incorporated into doughs, the
way they crystallize during baking affects the final texture. Shortening (a type of
solid fat) provides a light, flaky texture by forming small crystals that create pockets
of air.
● Fried Foods: The consistency and texture of fried foods are influenced by the lipid
used in frying. The oil must be stable at high temperatures and must coat the food to
create a crispy exterior while maintaining a moist interior. The fat’s ability to
crystallize also influences the crispness and shelf life of fried foods.
Lecture 22 Chemical reactions of Lipids- lipolysis, autoxidation, and thermal
decomposition.
Lipids undergo several chemical reactions during food processing, which can significantly
affect their flavor, texture, nutritional quality, and safety. The three main chemical processes
that lipids undergo are lipolysis, autoxidation, and thermal decomposition. These processes
are important to understand as they influence the stability, quality, and shelf life of lipid-
containing food products.
1. Lipolysis (Hydrolysis of Lipids)
Lipolysis refers to the breakdown of lipids, particularly triglycerides (fats and oils), into their
constituent components: free fatty acids (FFAs), glycerol, and monoglycerides. This
process can occur enzymatically or chemically.
Enzymatic Lipolysis:

● Enzymes Involved: The primary enzymes responsible for lipolysis are lipases, which
are found in the digestive system, in certain microorganisms, and in food processing
environments.
● Process: Lipase enzymes break the ester bonds in triglycerides, releasing free fatty
acids (FFAs) and glycerol. This is important in processes like cheese ripening,
fermentation, and lipid-based food processing.
● Impact:
o Flavor Development: Lipolysis can lead to the formation of free fatty acids,
which can contribute to the characteristic flavors in some foods, like cheese
and fermented foods. For example, butter and cheddar cheese may develop
a tangy or rancid flavor due to the accumulation of free fatty acids.
o Nutritional Impact: Lipolysis can release FFAs, which may alter the
nutritional profile of the food by increasing the levels of certain fatty acids,
such as omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acids.
o Rancidity: If lipolysis occurs in the presence of heat or oxygen, it can lead to
rancid flavors, which is undesirable in many food products.

Chemical Lipolysis (Alkaline Hydrolysis):

● Process: Lipolysis can also occur through alkaline hydrolysis during food
processing, especially in the manufacture of soaps or the production of hydrolyzed
fats used in certain food products. In this case, alkali (e.g., sodium hydroxide) breaks
down the triglyceride molecules.
● Impact: In food processing, hydrolyzed oils can result in undesirable flavors or
changes in food texture, and the FFAs produced might affect the overall product's
quality.

2. Autoxidation (Oxidative Rancidity)

Autoxidation is the process by which lipids, particularly unsaturated fatty acids, react with
oxygen (O₂) in the air, leading to the formation of hydroperoxides and other degradation
products, causing oxidative rancidity.
Mechanism of Autoxidation:

1. Initiation: Autoxidation begins when an unsaturated fatty acid (which contains

double bonds) reacts with free radicals or ultraviolet light. The fatty acid loses a
hydrogen atom, forming a lipid radical.
2. Propagation: The lipid radical reacts with oxygen (O₂) to form a lipid peroxy
radical (ROO•). This radical then reacts with another unsaturated lipid molecule,
creating a lipid hydroperoxide (ROOH) and a new lipid radical.
3. Termination: The reaction may terminate when two radicals combine to form a
stable product, or when antioxidants (natural or added) interfere and stabilize the
radical.

Factors Affecting Autoxidation:

● Oxygen: The presence of oxygen accelerates autoxidation.

● Temperature: Higher temperatures increase the rate of oxidation.
● Light: Exposure to light, particularly ultraviolet (UV), can increase the rate of
autoxidation, which is why oils are often stored in dark containers.
● Metals: Transition metals (like iron and copper) can catalyze the oxidation process,
which is why some oils are packaged with added antioxidants or in oxygen-limited
environments to reduce the impact of metals.
● Antioxidants: Natural antioxidants (such as vitamin E or polyphenols in olive oil)
or synthetic antioxidants (like BHT or BHA) are commonly added to foods to slow
down oxidation and prevent rancidity.

3. Thermal Decomposition (Pyrolysis)

Thermal decomposition (also called pyrolysis) occurs when lipids are exposed to high
temperatures, resulting in their breakdown into smaller molecules. This process is important
in cooking, frying, and some industrial food processing techniques.
Mechanism of Thermal Decomposition:

● Heat Exposure: When lipids are heated to high temperatures, particularly above their
smoke point, they begin to break down. The decomposition involves the breaking of
ester bonds, the formation of free fatty acids, and the creation of volatile products like
acrolein, aldehydes, ketones, and short-chain fatty acids.
● Pyrolysis Products: The thermal degradation of lipids can produce harmful
compounds like acrylamide, acrolein, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs), which are toxic and potentially carcinogenic. This is of particular concern
when oils are heated repeatedly, as in deep-frying.

Impact:
Lecture 23, 24 Frying Technology and chemistry of Edible Fats and Oils
Frying is a widely used cooking technique where food is submerged in hot oil, typically at
temperatures ranging from 160°C to 190°C (320°F to 375°F). This process results in the
absorption of oil by the food, and simultaneous heat transfer from the oil to the food, which
causes the food's moisture to evaporate, leading to a crisp, golden-brown exterior and a moist
interior.
The technology behind frying involves the use of edible fats and oils, which undergo
complex chemical changes during the frying process. The key aspects of frying technology
include understanding the chemistry of frying, the behavior of frying oil, and how to
manage oil quality to optimize the frying process and ensure food safety.

Chemistry of Frying
1. Heat Transfer
The heat transfer in frying is based on two key mechanisms:

● Convection: Hot oil surrounds the food and transfers heat to the food's surface.
● Conduction: Heat moves from the surface of the food to its interior, cooking it
through.

Frying oils must have high thermal stability to withstand high temperatures without
breaking down too quickly.
2. Chemical Changes in Frying Oil
During frying, oils undergo several chemical changes, including oxidation, hydrolysis, and
polymerization, which contribute to the degradation of the oil over time. These changes can
lead to the formation of off-flavors, harmful compounds, and toxic substances, which
affect both the oil and the food.
a. Oxidation
Oxidation is one of the most significant chemical reactions that occur during frying. It is a
reaction of oxygen with unsaturated fatty acids in the oil, leading to the formation of
peroxides and other oxidation products like aldehydes, ketones, and volatile fatty acids.

● Autoxidation: The process by which unsaturated fatty acids in oils react with oxygen,
producing peroxides. These peroxides break down into smaller, often undesirable,
compounds such as acrolein and malondialdehyde (MDA), which contribute to
rancidity and off-flavors.
● Photooxidation: Oxidation caused by exposure to light, leading to similar breakdown
products.
● Thermal Oxidation: Oxidation that accelerates due to the high heat during frying,
causing oils to degrade faster and produce more harmful compounds.

b. Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis is the breakdown of triglycerides (the main form of fat in oils) into free fatty
acids (FFAs) and glycerol in the presence of heat and moisture.

● Increased FFAs: Hydrolysis increases the levels of free fatty acids in the oil, which
contributes to rancidity and negatively impacts the flavor of fried food. Excessive
FFAs can also cause the oil to foam during frying.
● Moisture: The presence of water in the oil (due to water in the food or from
condensation) accelerates the hydrolysis process.

c. Polymerization
Polymerization occurs when heat causes the formation of larger molecules (polymers) from
free radicals produced during oxidation. This reaction leads to the formation of sticky
compounds that build up on food and cooking equipment. It can also cause oil to become
viscous and darker.

● Acrylamide Formation: In certain oils, prolonged high heat can lead to the formation
of acrylamide, a potential carcinogen. While this is a concern in deep frying,
acrylamide formation is more commonly associated with starchy foods like potatoes.

Behavior of Frying Oil

1. Stability and Composition
The stability of frying oil is a critical factor in determining its performance during frying
and its healthiness after use. The key properties of frying oils that affect their stability
include:
● Saturation Level: Oils with a higher proportion of saturated fats (e.g., palm oil,
coconut oil) are more stable at high temperatures compared to oils rich in
unsaturated fats (e.g., soybean, sunflower, and corn oil). This is because saturated
fats are less prone to oxidation and hydrolysis than unsaturated fats.
● Smoke Point: The smoke point is the temperature at which an oil begins to break
down and produce visible smoke. Oils with a higher smoke point (e.g., peanut oil,
avocado oil) are better suited for frying because they remain stable at high
temperatures. Oils with a low smoke point (e.g., butter, extra virgin olive oil) are not
ideal for deep frying.
● Antioxidants: Certain oils, such as olive oil and palm oil, contain natural
antioxidants like tocopherols (vitamin E), which help slow down oxidation. Refined
oils, which are processed to remove impurities, may have lower antioxidant levels.
2. Viscosity
The viscosity of frying oil increases as it undergoes chemical changes during the frying
process. The polymerization of fatty acids results in thicker oils, which affect their ability to
transfer heat efficiently. Thicker oils also lead to increased oil absorption by the food,
which is undesirable.
3. Oil Absorption by Food
As food is fried, it absorbs a certain amount of oil. Factors that affect oil absorption include:

● Food's moisture content: Foods with higher moisture content will absorb less oil,
while drier foods absorb more.
● Temperature of the oil: Frying at a higher temperature generally reduces oil
absorption, as it causes the food's surface to crisp up faster, trapping moisture inside.
● Food composition: Foods with higher fat content may absorb less oil.

The aim is to minimize oil absorption while achieving a desirable texture in the food. The
type of fat/oil used and the frying temperature play key roles in controlling oil absorption.
Factors affecting Oil behavior during Frying
1. Type of Oil
Different oils behave differently in frying based on their fatty acid profile and degree of
refinement:

● Saturated oils (e.g., palm oil, coconut oil) tend to be more stable under heat and
resist oxidation, but they may impart a heavier flavor to the food.
● Monounsaturated oils (e.g., olive oil, canola oil) are somewhat stable but more
prone to oxidation than saturated oils.
● Polyunsaturated oils (e.g., soybean oil, sunflower oil) are less stable and more
likely to degrade due to their higher levels of omega-6 fatty acids, which are more
prone to oxidation.
● Refined oils are generally more stable than unrefined oils because refining removes
impurities that can accelerate oxidation.

2. Frying Temperature
The frying temperature affects the oil's oxidative stability and the texture of the food. Too
high a temperature can cause the oil to degrade faster, while too low a temperature leads to
excessive oil absorption.

● Optimal frying temperatures range between 160°C and 190°C. Maintaining a

stable frying temperature ensures that food is cooked evenly and absorbs minimal oil.
If the oil is too hot, it will degrade quickly and form harmful compounds; if it’s too
cold, the food will absorb too much oil, leading to greasy textures.

3. Use of Antioxidants and Additives

To extend the life of frying oils and improve their stability, certain antioxidants (e.g., BHA,
BHT, tocopherols) and stabilizers are sometimes added. These additives can slow oxidation
and improve the shelf life of frying oils, especially during extended use in commercial
frying operations.
4. Reuse of Frying Oil
Frying oils often undergo multiple cycles of use, especially in commercial kitchens. The oil
degrades with each reuse, as it accumulates more oxidation products and free fatty acids,
which can result in undesirable flavors, toxicity, and health risks.

● Oil filtration: To extend the life of frying oil, filtration systems are often used to
remove carbon and food particles from the oil.
● Oil monitoring: Commercial operations often monitor the quality of frying oil
through parameters like peroxide value and total polar compounds (TPC), which
increase with repeated use.

Managing Oil Quality in Frying

To ensure consistent frying quality and minimize health risks, it’s important to manage the
quality of the frying oil. Key practices include:

● Regular oil filtration to remove particles and prevent polymerization.

● Monitoring oil quality using chemical tests such as peroxide value, free fatty acid
content, and total polar compounds.
● Changing oil regularly to prevent excessive breakdown.
 ● Using oils with high oxidative stability and the appropriate fatty acid profile for
frying purposes.

Chemical Changes During Frying

a. Maillard Reaction

● The Maillard reaction is a non-enzymatic browning reaction that occurs between

reducing sugars and amino acids in the food.
o This reaction is responsible for the browning and development of complex
flavors in fried foods.
o It contributes significantly to the color (golden-brown) and taste (roasted,
nutty, caramelized) of many fried foods like potato fries and fried chicken.

b. Caramelization

● Caramelization is the process where sugars in the food break down and form new
compounds under heat. This occurs at temperatures around 160°C to 180°C.
o The result is a brown color and the development of sweet and complex
flavors.
o It is especially noticeable in foods that are rich in sugars, such as potatoes,
onions, or fruits used in frying.

c. Fat Oxidation

● Oxidation occurs when the unsaturated fatty acids in frying oils react with oxygen
in the air.
o This results in the formation of peroxides and secondary oxidation products
(like aldehydes, ketones, and acids), which can cause off-flavors and
rancidity.
o Excessive oxidation during frying leads to the degradation of the oil, which
can negatively affect the taste and safety of the food.

d. Hydrolysis

● Hydrolysis is the breakdown of triglycerides (the main form of fat in oils) into free
fatty acids (FFAs) and glycerol in the presence of heat and moisture. This is
accelerated when water from the food is present.
o Higher levels of FFAs can lead to rancidity and undesirable flavors.
o Free fatty acids contribute to increased acidity in the oil and also promote
foaming.

e. Protein Denaturation

● The proteins in food (e.g., meat, egg whites, dough) undergo denaturation when
exposed to heat during frying.
o Denaturation is a structural change in proteins that causes them to unfold and
aggregate.
 o This change leads to the formation of a firm texture and the sealing of
moisture inside the food, creating a desirable crispy exterior and tender
interior.

f. Starch Gelatinization

● In foods containing starch (e.g., potatoes, battered foods), gelatinization occurs

when starch granules absorb water and swell upon exposure to heat.
o This process helps form a crisp, crunchy texture on the exterior of the food,
while maintaining moisture in the interior.
o The starch in battered foods contributes to crust formation during frying,
while the interior starch helps to absorb the oil.

g. Formation of Acrylamide (Potential Health Risk)

● When foods with high starch content (e.g., potatoes) are fried at high temperatures,
acrylamide can form as a byproduct of the Maillard reaction.
o Acrylamide is a potential carcinogen and has raised health concerns with
regard to deep frying foods, particularly potatoes and snacks.
o Lowering frying temperatures and reducing cooking times can help minimize
acrylamide formation.

3. Summary of Chemical and Physical Changes

Physical Changes:

● Moisture loss and oil absorption: Water evaporates while oil is absorbed by the
food.
● Crisp exterior formation: Due to moisture evaporation, creating a desirable texture.
● Expansion of food: Some foods expand due to steam pressure.

Chemical Changes:

● Maillard reaction: Creates browned food and complex flavors.

● Caramelization: Sugar breakdown leads to browning and sweetness.
● Fat oxidation: Degradation of oil, affecting food taste and safety.
● Hydrolysis: Breakdown of triglycerides to free fatty acids, affecting oil quality.
● Protein denaturation: Causes firmness and texture changes in food.
● Starch gelatinization: Forms a crispy outer layer while retaining moisture.
● Acrylamide formation: A potential health risk when frying starchy foods.

Tests for Assessing the Quality of Frying Oils

Frying oils degrade over time due to high temperatures, exposure to oxygen, and repeated
use. As the oil breaks down, it can produce off-flavors, toxins, and unhealthy compounds.
To ensure the oil is still safe and suitable for frying, various tests can be performed to monitor
its quality. These tests primarily measure the chemical changes that occur during frying,
such as oxidation, hydrolysis, and polymerization.
Here are some of the most common tests used to assess the quality of frying oils:
1. Peroxide Value (PV)
Peroxide Value measures the amount of peroxides and hydroperoxides present in the oil,
which are primary oxidation products formed when the oil reacts with oxygen.
● Peroxides are unstable and can break down into secondary oxidation products (such
as aldehydes and ketones), which contribute to off-flavors, rancidity, and health
concerns.
● Method: The peroxide value is determined by titration, where the oil sample is
treated with a reagent (usually potassium iodide) and then titrated with a standard
solution of sodium thiosulfate.
● Interpretation: Higher peroxide values indicate that the oil is more oxidized and has
been exposed to greater degradation. Fresh oils typically have low peroxide values
(less than 5 meq/kg). Values above 10 meq/kg indicate significant oxidation.
2. Free Fatty Acid (FFA) Content
The Free Fatty Acid (FFA) content is a measure of the amount of free fatty acids present in
the oil, which is an indicator of hydrolysis (the breakdown of triglycerides into fatty acids
and glycerol).
● Free fatty acids contribute to rancidity, off-flavors, and can also lower the smoke
point of the oil, making it unsuitable for further use in frying.
● Method: FFAs are typically determined by a titration method, where a known
volume of oil is dissolved in a solvent, and then titrated with a base (such as sodium
hydroxide) to neutralize the free fatty acids.
● Interpretation: Fresh oils typically have an FFA content of 0-0.5%. An increase in
FFAs indicates that the oil has undergone significant hydrolytic breakdown. Oil
with FFAs above 1% is often considered unsuitable for frying due to the undesirable
taste and effect on the food.
●

3. Total Polar Compounds (TPC)

Total Polar Compounds (TPC) are a measure of the polar materials in the oil, which are
generated from the breakdown of triglycerides and fatty acids during frying. These
compounds include oxidized, polymerized, and hydrolyzed products.
● TPCs are an indicator of oil degradation. High levels of polar compounds can affect
the taste, smell, and safety of the food. The European Commission has set a
guideline that TPC should not exceed 24% in frying oils.
● Method: TPC can be measured using polarimetric methods or gas chromatography
(GC). In practice, a simple method involves using a polar compound meter, which
measures the electrical conductivity of the oil.
● Interpretation: TPC levels above 24% indicate that the oil has undergone significant
degradation and should be replaced. For commercial frying, oil with a TPC of 15-
20% is often considered the upper limit for safe use.
4. Smoke Point
The smoke point of oil is the temperature at which the oil starts to decompose and produce
visible smoke. This is a critical factor in frying because when the oil reaches its smoke point,
it begins to release harmful compounds, such as acrolein and other toxic aldehydes.
● The smoke point is related to the oil’s thermal stability. Oils with higher smoke
points are more stable and are suitable for frying at higher temperatures.
● Method: The smoke point is determined by heating the oil in a controlled
environment and recording the temperature at which it starts to smoke.
● Interpretation: Fresh oils typically have higher smoke points. Repeated use of oil
causes polymerization and oxidation, which can lower the smoke point. Once the
smoke point decreases significantly, the oil should be replaced.
5. Anisidine Value (AV)
The Anisidine Value measures the level of aldehydes and ketones (secondary oxidation
products) formed during frying. Specifically, it measures the amount of 2-alkenal aldehydes
such as hexanal that contribute to off-flavors and odors.
● The Anisidine Value helps in assessing the degree of oil degradation, particularly
the formation of volatile aldehydes that result from oxidation.
● Method: The anisidine value is determined by spectrophotometric methods, where
the aldehydes react with a reagent to produce a colored complex, which is measured
by absorbance.
● Interpretation: The higher the Anisidine Value, the more advanced the oxidation
and the more off-flavors the oil will likely have. Anisidine values above 20 indicate
high oxidation levels.
6. Iodine Value (IV)
The Iodine Value measures the amount of unsaturation in an oil by determining the amount
of iodine (a chemical reagent) that reacts with the unsaturated bonds in fatty acids.
● Oils with higher iodine values are more unsaturated, meaning they are more prone
to oxidation and degradation during frying. Lower iodine values indicate more
saturated oils that are more stable during frying.
● Method: The iodine value is measured by reacting the oil with iodine monochloride
and then determining the amount of iodine absorbed by the unsaturated fatty acids.
● Interpretation: A decrease in the iodine value during frying indicates oxidative
deterioration. For frying oils, lower iodine values are preferred because they
indicate greater stability.
7. Fatty Acid Profile
The fatty acid profile of the oil refers to the relative proportions of saturated,
monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids.
 ● The stability of frying oils is largely determined by the fatty acid composition. Oils
rich in saturated fatty acids (e.g., palm oil, coconut oil) are generally more stable at
high temperatures, while oils rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (e.g., sunflower
oil, soybean oil) are more prone to oxidation.
● Method: The fatty acid profile can be determined using gas chromatography (GC)
to separate and quantify the individual fatty acids present in the oil.
● Interpretation: Oils with a higher proportion of polyunsaturated fats degrade faster
and are less suitable for repeated frying. A higher content of saturated fats tends to
indicate better stability.
8. Color Measurement
The color of frying oil can be a good indicator of its quality and the extent of degradation.
● As oils degrade, they generally become darker. This darkening is often due to the
formation of polymers and oxidized products.
● Method: The color can be measured using a colorimeter or spectrophotometer to
quantify the absorbance of light at specific wavelengths.
● Interpretation: A significant darkening of the oil is a sign of excessive oxidation
and polymerization, indicating the need for oil replacement.
9. Total Polar Materials (TPM)
Total Polar Materials (TPM) are a more comprehensive measure of the degree of oil
degradation during frying, as they account for both oxidized and polymerized products.
● High levels of TPM in the oil can affect both the quality and safety of the food. It is a
good overall indicator of when oil needs to be changed.
● Method: TPM can be measured using polarimetric techniques or gas
chromatography (GC).
● Interpretation: Commercial standards often recommend replacing oil when the TPM
content exceeds 24%.
Lecture 27, Anti-oxidants, Classification, mechanism of action
Antioxidants are substances that prevent or slow the oxidation of other molecules, which can
produce harmful free radicals. These free radicals can damage cells, contributing to aging and
diseases like cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative conditions. Antioxidants
work by neutralizing these free radicals, protecting cells from oxidative damage.
Here’s a classification of antioxidants with examples:
1. Based on Their Source
a. Natural Antioxidants
These are derived from natural sources like plants, animals, and microorganisms.
● Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)
Source: Citrus fruits, strawberries, bell peppers, broccoli
 Function: Scavenges free radicals, especially in aqueous environments, and helps
regenerate other antioxidants like Vitamin E.
● Vitamin E (Tocopherol)
Source: Nuts, seeds, vegetable oils, spinach, broccoli
Function: Protects lipid membranes from oxidative damage by neutralizing free
radicals.
● Beta-carotene
Source: Carrots, sweet potatoes, spinach, kale
Function: A precursor to Vitamin A, it helps neutralize free radicals in fat-soluble
environments.
● Polyphenols
Source: Tea (green and black), red wine, fruits (grapes, berries), cocoa
Function: Scavenge free radicals and have anti-inflammatory properties. Includes
flavonoids like quercetin and catechins.
● Selenium
Source: Brazil nuts, seafood, meats, grains
Function: Works in conjunction with certain enzymes like glutathione peroxidase to
neutralize peroxides.
b. Synthetic Antioxidants
These are man-made chemicals often added to food products to prevent oxidation.
● Butylated HydroxyToluene (BHT)
Source: Synthetic
Function: Used as a preservative in processed foods, it helps prevent the oxidation of
fats and oils.
● Butylated HydroxyAnisole (BHA)
Source: Synthetic
Function: Common in processed foods, BHA helps to prevent spoilage by oxidation,
especially in fats.
● Propyl Gallate
Source: Synthetic
Function: Commonly used in processed foods, it prevents the oxidation of fats and
oils.

Lecture 28 Rancidity –types - detection techniques

Rancidity is the process by which fats and oils in food break down, resulting in unpleasant
flavors, smells, and a loss of nutritional value. This breakdown can happen due to exposure to
oxygen, light, heat, or moisture. As fats degrade, they release compounds like aldehydes,
ketones, and free fatty acids, which are responsible for the off-putting characteristics
associated with rancid food.
Rancidity doesn’t just affect the taste and smell; it can also make food unsafe to eat, though
in many cases, the primary concern is the loss of quality rather than immediate harm to
health. The process can happen over time, especially in foods with high fat content or those
not stored properly.
Rancidity in foods occurs when fats or oils break down, leading to unpleasant odors, flavors,
and a loss of nutritional value. There are several types of rancidity that can affect food, each
with different causes and characteristics:
1. Oxidative Rancidity:

oCause: This type occurs when fats and oils react with oxygen in the air,
breaking down into smaller compounds like aldehydes and ketones.
o Result: It leads to off-flavors, often described as bitter, sour, or soapy. It also
produces unpleasant odors.
o Foods affected: Common in unsaturated fats such as vegetable oils, nuts,
seeds, and fatty fish.
2. Hydrolytic Rancidity:

oCause: Hydrolytic rancidity occurs when fats break down due to the presence
of water, which leads to the release of free fatty acids.
o Result: The food can develop a sour taste, and it may smell rancid or soapy.
o Foods affected: More common in dairy products, such as butter, and in some
meats.
3. Microbial Rancidity:

o Cause: This form of rancidity happens when microorganisms, such as

bacteria, mold, or yeast, break down fats and oils.
o Result: It can lead to the production of off-flavors and smells, and the texture
or color of the food can be affected.
o Foods affected: Often seen in foods that are improperly stored or have high
moisture content, like meats, dairy, or processed foods.

Each type of rancidity impacts food quality differently, and the degree of spoilage can vary
depending on the type of fat and the environmental conditions (temperature, light, and
oxygen exposure).
Detection techniques of rancidity

Rancidity in food, particularly fat-containing foods, occurs due to lipid oxidation,

specifically lipid peroxidation. This process results in the formation of various volatile
compounds such as aldehydes, ketones, and fatty acids, which contribute to off-flavors,
odors, and changes in the food's nutritional value. Detecting rancidity is crucial to ensure
food quality and safety. Several methods are employed to detect rancidity in food products,
both qualitative and quantitative, ranging from sensory evaluation to sophisticated chemical
and instrumental techniques.
1. Sensory Evaluation
a. Odor and Flavor

● Smell Test: The most direct and traditional way to detect rancidity is by smelling the
food. Rancid fats often develop a pungent, fishy, or metallic odor due to the
production of volatile aldehydes (such as hexanal) and ketones.
 ● Taste Test: Rancid foods may taste bitter or off. Sensory analysis through human
panels can detect rancidity, though this method is subjective and depends on the
experience of the evaluators.

b. Appearance

● Color Change: Rancidity can sometimes lead to changes in color. For example,
yellowing or darkening of fats may indicate oxidation.
● Turbidity: In liquid fats and oils, the presence of oxidized products may cause the
formation of precipitates or a cloudy appearance.

2. Peroxide Value (PV) Test

The peroxide value test is one of the most commonly used methods for detecting the early
stages of lipid oxidation and rancidity. It measures the concentration of peroxides (mainly
lipid hydroperoxides) formed during lipid oxidation.

● Method: The PV test involves reacting a fat or oil sample with a solution containing
potassium iodide and an acid. The lipid peroxides in the sample will decompose and
release iodine, which can be titrated with a sodium thiosulfate solution to determine
the peroxide concentration.
● Significance: The peroxide value is expressed in meq of peroxide per kg of fat.
High peroxide values indicate extensive oxidation, but this test only detects the initial
stage of rancidity and does not provide information about secondary oxidation
products.

3. Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances (TBARS) Test

The TBARS test measures the concentration of malondialdehyde (MDA) and other
secondary products of lipid oxidation that are formed during peroxidation.

● Method: This test uses thiobarbituric acid to react with MDA (a product of lipid
peroxidation), forming a colored complex that can be quantified
spectrophotometrically.
● Significance: The TBARS value is typically expressed in mg of MDA per kg of
sample. The higher the TBARS value, the more extensive the lipid peroxidation. This
test is commonly used for detecting rancidity in meat products and fats.
● Limitations: While useful, TBARS can sometimes give false positives due to the
interference from non-lipid compounds.

4. Free Fatty Acid (FFA) Test

Free fatty acids (FFAs) increase as triglycerides in fats and oils break down due to
hydrolysis or oxidation. The measurement of FFAs is commonly used to assess the degree of
rancidity.

● Method: The FFA content is determined by titration with a sodium hydroxide

(NaOH) solution, and the results are typically expressed as a percentage of oleic acid
or other relevant fatty acids.
● Significance: Higher FFA levels indicate advanced hydrolytic or oxidative rancidity.
FFAs contribute to off-flavors in foods like oils and butter.
5. Gas Chromatography (GC)
Gas chromatography is a powerful technique for the identification and quantification of the
specific volatile compounds (e.g., aldehydes, ketones, alkenes) produced during lipid
oxidation, including hexanal, pentanal, and 2,4-decadienal.

● Method: The sample is first extracted and then injected into the gas chromatograph,
where volatile compounds are separated and identified based on their retention times
and mass spectrometry or flame ionization detector (FID).
● Significance: GC provides detailed information on specific volatile compounds,
allowing for precise identification of oxidation products. It is often used for advanced
studies of rancidity and quality control in the food industry.

6. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

HPLC is another analytical method used to identify and quantify lipid oxidation products,
particularly hydroperoxides and polar compounds.

● Method: The sample is dissolved in a solvent and then passed through an HPLC
column, where different oxidation products are separated. Detection is usually done
using a UV detector or a refractive index detector.
● Significance: HPLC is useful for detecting polar compounds (such as
hydroperoxides and their breakdown products) that form during lipid oxidation,
providing detailed information about the extent of rancidity.

7. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)

Differential scanning calorimetry measures changes in the heat capacity of a sample as it is
heated, which can provide insight into the oxidative stability of lipids.

● Method: The sample is heated while the heat flow is monitored. The onset of
oxidation can be detected by a shift in the melting or oxidation peak in the
thermogram.
● Significance: DSC can assess the oxidative stability of fats and oils and is
particularly useful for evaluating how processing or storage conditions affect lipid
stability. It's also used to predict shelf-life and stability in food products.

8. Headspace Analysis
This technique measures the volatile compounds in the headspace of a food sample,
providing information about the types of oxidation products emitted during rancidity.

● Method: The headspace of a sealed container (e.g., a jar or bottle) is analyzed using
gas chromatography or mass spectrometry to identify and quantify volatile
oxidation products.
● Significance: This method is valuable for detecting oxidation-induced off-odors or
volatile compounds that are typical of rancid foods. It's used in packaging and quality
control to detect spoilage in foods such as oils, snacks, and baked goods.

9. Polarimeter
Polarimetry measures the optical rotation of polarized light as it passes through a solution.
In the context of lipid peroxidation, polar compounds formed during oxidation, such as
aldehydes and alcohols, can affect the optical rotation of light.

● Method: The sample is dissolved, and the angle of light rotation is measured with a
polarimeter.
● Significance: This technique can provide information about the oxidation state of the
sample, particularly the presence of polar compounds that indicate rancidity. It is
commonly used in the analysis of vegetable oils and other food fats.

10. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy

NMR spectroscopy can be used to analyze the structure of lipids and their oxidation
products. It is particularly useful for understanding the chemical changes occurring in fats
during oxidation.

● Method: NMR spectroscopy uses magnetic fields to observe the behavior of nuclei in
the sample, providing detailed structural information about the lipids and their
oxidation products.
● Significance: This method allows for the identification of specific oxidation products
and can provide insight into the oxidative mechanism and kinetics of rancidity in
lipids.

Summary
Several techniques are available to detect and quantify rancidity in fats and oils. These
methods range from traditional sensory evaluation to advanced instrumental techniques:

● Sensory methods (odor, flavor, appearance) provide an easy, quick way to detect
rancidity but are subjective.
● Peroxide value and free fatty acid tests are common for detecting early stages of
oxidation.
● Thiobarbituric acid (TBARS) measures secondary oxidation products.
● Gas chromatography and HPLC provide detailed information on specific volatile
compounds and oxidation products.
● Headspace analysis and polarimetry are useful for detecting volatiles and assessing
the overall oxidation status.
● Advanced techniques like DSC, NMR, and GC-MS provide in-depth, scientific
analysis of lipid oxidation and rancidity.

By combining these methods, food manufacturers and researchers can better understand the
extent of rancidity and take appropriate steps to control it in food products.
Enzymatic Reactions of Carbohydrates
Enzymatic reactions are facilitated by enzymes that break down, modify, or synthesize
carbohydrates. These reactions are essential in processes like starch conversion, sugar
fermentation, and the modification of functional properties of carbohydrates in food
processing.
a. Starch Hydrolysis

● Process: Starch is a polysaccharide made up of glucose units. Enzymes like amylases

and glucosidases break down starch into smaller sugar molecules, such as maltose,
glucose, or dextrins.
● Enzymes Involved:
o α-amylase: Breaks down starch into smaller oligosaccharides (dextrins).
o β-amylase: Produces maltose from starch.
o Glucosidase: Breaks down oligosaccharides into glucose.
● Impact: This reaction is central to the production of products like high-fructose corn
syrup (HFCS), maltodextrins, and syrups. It also occurs during bread-making and
beer brewing when starches in flour or grain are converted into fermentable sugars.
o Functional Changes: Improves sweetness, solubility, and digestibility of
starch-based products.
o Nutritional Impact: Breaks down complex carbohydrates into simpler sugars,
potentially increasing the glycemic index (GI) of the product.

b. Saccharification

● Process: This is the enzymatic breakdown of starch into fermentable sugars (like
glucose). Saccharification typically occurs after starch gelatinization, particularly
during processes such as syrup production or brewing.
● Enzymes Involved:
o Glucanase: Degrades β-glucans in barley or other grains.
o Pullulanase: Degrades α-1,6 bonds in starch, helping release glucose.
● Impact: Results in the conversion of starch into sugars like glucose, which can be
fermented by yeast to produce alcohol in beer brewing or distilled spirits production.

c. Lactose Hydrolysis

● Process: The enzyme lactase breaks down lactose (milk sugar) into glucose and
galactose.
● Enzymes Involved:
o Lactase: Hydrolyzes lactose into its component sugars (glucose and
galactose).
● Impact: Lactose hydrolysis is used to produce lactose-free dairy products and in the
fermentation of dairy products like yogurt. The hydrolyzed sugars may also increase
sweetness.
o Nutritional Impact: Makes dairy products easier to digest for individuals
with lactose intolerance, while also providing a higher sweetness intensity due
to the presence of glucose.

d. Fermentation of Sugars

● Process: Yeast or bacteria metabolize sugars to produce alcohol, lactic acid, or other
byproducts. This is important in the production of bread, alcoholic beverages, yogurt,
and other fermented foods.
● Enzymes Involved:
o Invertase: Breaks down sucrose (table sugar) into glucose and fructose.
 Alcohol dehydrogenase: Converts sugars into ethanol during fermentation
o
(e.g., in brewing).
o Lactate dehydrogenase: Converts sugars into lactic acid in fermentation (e.g.,
in yogurt production).
● Impact: Changes the flavor profile and texture of food (e.g., the rise in bread, the tang
in yogurt, or the carbonation in beer).
o Nutritional Impact: Fermented products may have improved digestibility, as
microorganisms break down some of the sugars, reducing the glycemic load
and enhancing the absorption of certain nutrients.
o
1. Enzymes in Starch and Carbohydrate Processing

Enzyme Source Function Food Application

Brewing, baking, high-

Bacillus species, Breaks down starch into
Amylase fructose corn syrup
fungal sources maltose and glucose
production

Glucose Converts glucose into gluconic Baking (enhances dough

Aspergillus niger
oxidase acid and hydrogen peroxide quality), preservation

Breaks down pectin, a

Juice extraction, jam and
Pectinase Aspergillus niger polysaccharide in fruit cell
jelly production
walls

Hydrolyzes starch into smaller Brewing, syrup

Alpha- Bacillus,
sugars like maltose and production, and bread
amylase Aspergillus
dextrins production

Brewing, candy
Beta- Barley, sweet Hydrolyzes starch into maltose
production, sweetener
amylase potato units
processing

Breaks down xylan, a

Trichoderma Baking, juice processing,
Xylanase component of hemicellulose
reesei cereal production
(plant cell walls)

2. Enzymes in Protein Processing

Enzyme Source Function Food Application

Bromelain Breaks down proteins Meat tenderization,

Protease (pineapple), into smaller peptides dairy processing,
papain (papaya) and amino acids protein hydrolysis

Hydrolyzes proteins
Stomach of pigs Cheese production,
Pepsin into peptides (acidic
and cows protein hydrolysis
conditions)
 Chymosin Calf stomach, Coagulates milk
Cheese making
(Rennet) microbial proteins to form curds

Cross-links proteins to
Transglutaminas Meat processing, fish
Microbial, plant improve texture and
e products, baked goods
elasticity

3. Enzymes in Fat and Oil Processing

Enzyme Source Function Food Application

Breaks down fats and oils Dairy products, fat

Aspergillus niger,
Lipase into free fatty acids and splitting, and cheese
Rhizopus species
glycerol production

Vegetable oil
Phospholipa Plant and Hydrolyzes phospholipids
refinement, soy lecithin
se microbial sources in cell membranes
production

4. Enzymes in Dairy and Cheese Production

Enzyme Source Function Food Application

Lactose-free dairy
Aspergillus Hydrolyzes lactose into
Lactase products, sweetening of
niger, yeast glucose and galactose
dairy

Rennet Calf stomach, Coagulates milk proteins,

Cheese production
(Chymosin) microbial forming curds and whey

Catalyzes oxidation of
Lactoperoxidas
Cow’s milk thiocyanate to inhibit Milk preservation
e
microbial growth

5. Enzymes in Fruit and Vegetable Processing

Enzyme Source Function Food Application

Breaks down pectin, a

Pectina Juice extraction, fruit purees,
Aspergillus niger complex carbohydrate in
se jams, and jellies
fruit cell walls

Degrades cellulose, the Fruit juice production,

Cellulas Trichoderma
structural component of vegetable processing, and
e reesei
plant cell walls wine production

Inverta Saccharomyces Hydrolyzes sucrose into Confectionery, honey

se cerevisiae glucose and fructose production, sugar syrups

6. Enzymes in Baking and Flour Processing

 Enzyme Source Function Food Application

Bacillus species, Bread-making,

Alpha- Breaks down starch into
Aspergillus increases dough
amylase fermentable sugars
species volume and texture

Wheat flour Hydrolyzes gluten, the protein Gluten-free bread

Glutenase
(endogenous) responsible for dough elasticity products

Breaks down hemicelluloses,

Trichoderma Bread, cakes, and
Xylanase improving dough viscosity and
reesei pastries
water retention

Breaks down lipids to improve Bread and bakery

Lipase Aspergillus niger
dough characteristics product improvement

7. Enzymes in Brewing and Alcohol Production

Enzyme Source Function Food Application

Breaks down starches into Brewing, production of

Bacillus species,
Amylase fermentable sugars for ethanol, and alcoholic
fungal sources
fermentation beverages

Glucose Removes oxygen and

Aspergillus niger Brewing, wine production
oxidase improves yeast fermentation

Hydrolyzes peptides to
Microbial Wine and beer
Peptidase amino acids, enhancing
sources fermentation
fermentation

8. Enzymes in Meat and Fish Processing

Enzyme Source Function Food Application

Breaks down protein

Protease (e.g., Papaya,
molecules into smaller Meat tenderization
papain) pineapple
peptides and amino acids

Cross-links proteins,
Microbial, Processed meat, fish,
Transglutaminase improving texture and
plant sources and poultry products
consistency

Breaks down collagen, Tenderizing meats,

Bacterial
Collagenase enhancing texture and especially tougher
sources
digestibility of meat products cuts

9. Enzymes in Other Food Processing Applications

Enzyme Source Function Food Application

 Catalyzes oxidation of phenolic Fresh-cut fruits and
Tyrosina Mushroom,
compounds, contributing to vegetables, potato
se plant sources
browning reactions processing

Glucanas Trichoderma Breaks down glucans, a

Brewing, cereal processing
e species component of fungal cell walls

Breaks down chitin, a Seafood processing,

Fungal
Chitinase polysaccharide found in production of chitosan (a
sources
shellfish shells functional food ingredient)

This list outlines a broad spectrum of enzymes used in various food applications to enhance
quality, texture, flavor, shelf-life, and processing efficiency.
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Chemical reactions of interest in food processing

In food processing, chemical reactions play a vital role in developing flavor, texture,
nutritional value, and safety of food products. Here are some key chemical reactions that are
of particular interest in food processing:

1. Maillard Reaction

● Process: The Maillard reaction is a non-enzymatic browning reaction between

reducing sugars (like glucose) and amino acids or proteins, which occurs at higher
temperatures.
● Significance: It’s responsible for the browning and flavor development in foods like
roasted meats, coffee, bread crusts, and baked goods. It creates complex flavor
compounds and a desirable golden-brown color.
● Example: The browning of bread crust during baking.

2. Caramelization

● Process: Caramelization is the thermal decomposition of sugars when heated, leading

to the formation of various compounds that contribute to color and flavor.
● Significance: It produces a characteristic golden-brown color and sweet, nutty flavor.
Caramelization is used in making caramel, toffee, and even in some sauces like
barbecue sauce.
● Example: Caramel sauce or candies.

3. Fermentation

● Process: Fermentation is the metabolic process by which microorganisms (yeasts,

bacteria) convert sugars into alcohol, acids, or gases in the absence of oxygen.
● Significance: It’s crucial in the production of bread, alcoholic beverages (beer, wine),
dairy products (yogurt, cheese), and fermented vegetables (kimchi, sauerkraut).
Fermentation also helps in enhancing the digestibility and nutritional profile of food.
● Example: The conversion of glucose into ethanol by yeast in beer production.
4. Hydrolysis

● Process: Hydrolysis is the breakdown of a compound (e.g., starch, proteins) through

the addition of water, often catalyzed by acids, bases, or enzymes.
● Significance: It is essential for breaking down complex carbohydrates into simpler
sugars (like glucose), proteins into amino acids, and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
● Example: The conversion of starch into glucose during the production of corn syrup.

5. Lipolysis

● Process: Lipolysis is the breakdown of fats (lipids) into glycerol and free fatty acids
by enzymes or chemical reactions.
● Significance: This reaction is important for the formation of flavor in various food
products such as cheeses, butter, and cured meats. It also occurs during digestion.
● Example: The breakdown of fat in cheese aging, which helps develop complex
flavors.

6. Oxidation

● Process: Oxidation involves the reaction of oxygen with various food components,
like fats, proteins, and pigments.
● Significance: Oxidation can lead to the rancidity of fats, color changes, and loss of
nutrients like vitamins. However, it is also involved in the browning of cut fruits (like
apples) and the development of certain flavors.
● Example: The browning of an apple when exposed to air due to enzymatic oxidation.

7. Enzymatic Browning

● Process: Enzymatic browning occurs when polyphenol oxidase (PPO) enzymes react
with phenolic compounds in fruits and vegetables in the presence of oxygen.
● Significance: It leads to the browning of cut or bruised fruits, which can affect the
appearance and quality of the food.
● Example: The browning of apples, bananas, or potatoes once they are peeled or cut.

8. Protein Denaturation

● Process: Denaturation involves the unfolding and alteration of a protein’s structure

due to factors like heat, acid, or mechanical action.
● Significance: Denaturation affects the texture and functionality of proteins. For
example, in meat cooking, proteins denature and coagulate, altering the texture from
raw to cooked.
● Example: The firming of egg whites when heated.

9. Saponification

● Process: Saponification is the reaction between fats or oils (triglycerides) and an

alkali (like sodium hydroxide) to produce glycerol and soap (sodium salts of fatty
acids).
 ● Significance: This reaction is mostly important in the production of soap but also
used in food processing, like in the preparation of edible oils or when making
margarine.
● Example: The production of margarine from vegetable oils.

10. Acid-Base Reactions

● Process: Acid-base reactions occur when acids (like citric or lactic acid) react with
bases (like sodium bicarbonate) to neutralize each other, often resulting in gas
formation.
● Significance: These reactions are crucial for leavening, preservation, and pH
regulation in food.
● Example: The reaction between baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) and vinegar to
release carbon dioxide gas, which helps in the rising of baked goods.

11. Esterification

● Process: Esterification is the reaction between an alcohol and an acid, producing an

ester and water. It is important in flavor and fragrance production.
● Significance: Esters contribute to the fruity and floral aroma of many foods and
beverages.
● Example: The formation of ethyl acetate (a fruity aroma) in fermentation processes,
or the esters that give flavors in wine and fruit juices.

These reactions not only affect the quality of food but also determine its shelf life, taste,
nutritional value, and appearance. Understanding and controlling these reactions is key to the
food industry for producing consistent and high-quality products.

Lecture 32

Key Differences Between Restoration, Enrichment, Fortification, and Supplementation

Method Definition Purpose Examples

Adding nutrients back to
To restore the food’s Restoring B
food to restore the
Restoration original nutritional vitamins and iron
original levels lost during
content. to refined flour.
processing.
Adding nutrients back to To enhance the Enriched flour
food in higher amounts nutritional value of with iron, folic
Enrichment
than originally present to food to help address acid, and B
improve nutrition. deficiencies. vitamins.
Adding nutrients to food To improve the
that may not naturally population's overall Iodized salt,
Fortification contain them or in nutrient intake and vitamin D-
higher amounts to address widespread fortified milk.
prevent deficiencies. deficiencies.
 Adding nutrients directly To meet an
to the diet or food in the individual’s Iron or calcium
Supplementatio
form of supplements, nutritional needs, supplements,
n
often when there is an often when there are multivitamins.
individual need. deficiencies.
Restoration, enrichment, fortification, and supplementation of foods are various
approaches used in food processing and nutrition to improve or maintain the nutritional
quality of food products and prevent or address nutrient deficiencies in populations. While
these terms are often used interchangeably, they have distinct purposes and methods of
application.
1. Restoration of Foods
Restoration involves adding back the nutrients lost during food processing to restore the
food to its original nutritional state. It is primarily focused on recovering the nutrients that
were removed from food during processes such as milling, refining, or cooking.
Examples:
● Flour: In the milling process, whole wheat flour loses significant amounts of B
vitamins, iron, and fiber. Restoration involves adding these nutrients back to the
flour to bring it back to the original nutrient levels of the whole grain.
● Milk: During milk processing, vitamins A and D may be reduced. Restoration can
involve adding these vitamins back to the milk to maintain the original nutrient
content.
Purpose:

● To replace the nutrients lost during food processing and bring the product back to its
original nutrient profile.
● Helps maintain the nutritional balance of foods after they have undergone
processing.

2. Enrichment of Foods
Enrichment refers to the process of adding back nutrients to food that were lost during
processing, but in higher amounts than were originally present. Enrichment aims to enhance
the nutritional content of the food, often addressing common nutritional deficiencies.
Examples:
● Enriched Flour: After milling, white flour is enriched with iron, thiamine (vitamin
B1), riboflavin (vitamin B2), niacin (vitamin B3), and folic acid, which are often
lost during the refining process.
● Cereal Enrichment: Many breakfast cereals are enriched with vitamins and minerals
such as iron, calcium, vitamin D, and folic acid to improve their nutritional profile.
Purpose:

● To improve the nutritional value of foods, often to combat specific nutritional

deficiencies in the population.
 ● Enrichment is particularly beneficial in improving the nutritional intake of
populations with limited dietary variety, such as children, pregnant women, and
elderly individuals.

3. Fortification of Foods
Fortification is the process of adding nutrients to foods that may or may not naturally
contain them, or adding them in higher amounts than the food originally contains, to prevent
or address widespread nutrient deficiencies in a population. Fortification typically focuses on
public health needs and is done at a population level.
Examples:
● Iodized Salt: One of the most well-known examples is the addition of iodine to table
salt to combat iodine deficiency, which can lead to thyroid problems like goiter.
● Fortified Milk: Vitamin D is commonly added to milk to help prevent rickets, a
condition that results from vitamin D deficiency.
● Fortified Cereals: Breakfast cereals are often fortified with a variety of vitamins and
minerals like iron, calcium, folic acid, vitamin D, and B vitamins to address
deficiencies in children or adults.
● Fortified Orange Juice: Some orange juice products are fortified with calcium to
improve bone health and prevent osteoporosis.
Purpose:

● To address nutrient deficiencies on a population level, particularly in regions where

certain nutrients may be lacking in the typical diet.
● To improve public health and prevent conditions such as rickets, anemia, scurvy,
and other deficiency-related diseases.

4. Supplementation of Foods
Supplementation involves adding nutrients to food products or directly to the diet in the
form of supplements. It is often done when a person or group is not getting enough of a
particular nutrient through their regular diet. Unlike fortification, supplementation is
generally focused on individuals or specific groups rather than the population as a whole.
Examples:
● Vitamin D Supplements: People who do not get enough sunlight may take vitamin
D supplements or consume vitamin D-fortified foods (like fortified milk) to
maintain adequate vitamin D levels.
● Iron Supplements: Iron supplementation is often recommended for individuals
with iron deficiency anemia, especially among pregnant women or individuals with a
poor diet.
● Multivitamin Supplements: These products are taken to provide a variety of
vitamins and minerals in a single dose and are used by individuals who may be unable
to meet their nutrient needs through food alone.
Purpose:

● To fill nutrient gaps in an individual’s diet, especially when they are unable to obtain
adequate amounts from food sources.
● Supplements are often used to address specific deficiencies, such as vitamin D, iron,
or calcium, that cannot be corrected through food alone.

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