Terms

a) Words and Terms

 Words are units of language that have meaning and can be spoken or written.
 Terms are specific words or phrases that have a precise meaning within a particular field
of study, such as law, philosophy, or science.
 Not all words are terms, but all terms are words that carry a specific conceptual meaning.

b) Definition of Term

 A term is a word or phrase used to express a concept with a specific meaning in a

particular context.
 In logic and philosophy, a term is an element of a proposition that refers to an object or
an idea.
 Example: In the proposition "All humans are mortal," the terms are "humans" and
"mortal."

c) Division of Terms in Philosophy

In philosophy and logic, terms are classified into various categories based on their nature and
function:

1. Categorematic and Syncategorematic Terms

o Categorematic Terms: These have independent meaning and can stand alone in
a statement. (e.g., "man," "tree")
o Syncategorematic Terms: These do not have meaning by themselves but
contribute to the meaning of a sentence. (e.g., "and," "if," "some")
2. Univocal, Equivocal, and Analogous Terms
o Univocal Terms: Have the same meaning in all contexts. (e.g., "triangle" in
mathematics)
o Equivocal Terms: Have different meanings in different contexts. (e.g., "bank" as
in riverbank vs. financial bank)
o Analogous Terms: Have similar but not identical meanings in different contexts.
(e.g., "healthy" applied to a person and "healthy" applied to food)
3. Singular, Particular, and Universal Terms
o Singular Terms: Refer to a single entity. (e.g., "Socrates," "The Taj Mahal")
o Particular Terms: Refer to some members of a group. (e.g., "Some students,"
"Some books")
o Universal Terms: Refer to all members of a group. (e.g., "All humans," "All
animals")
4. Concrete and Abstract Terms
o Concrete Terms: Refer to physical objects or entities. (e.g., "tree," "dog")
o Abstract Terms: Refer to ideas, qualities, or states. (e.g., "justice," "beauty")
These classifications help in philosophical discussions and logical reasoning by ensuring clarity
and precision in the use of terms.

Proposition

A proposition is a declarative statement that can be either true or false. It expresses a judgment
or an assertion about a subject.

a) Sentence and Proposition

 A sentence is a group of words that conveys a meaning but may or may not express a
truth value.
 A proposition is a meaningful declarative sentence that has a definite truth value (either
true or false).
 Example:
o Sentence: "What a beautiful day!" (Not a proposition, as it is an exclamation)
o Proposition: "The sun rises in the east." (A proposition because it can be verified
as true)

b) Kinds of Proposition

Propositions are categorized based on their structure and function in logic:

1. Categorical Propositions – Directly assert the relation between a subject and a

predicate. (e.g., "All dogs are mammals.")
2. Hypothetical (Conditional) Propositions – Express a conditional statement. (e.g., "If it
rains, the ground will be wet.")
3. Disjunctive Propositions – Express alternatives. (e.g., "Either he is a doctor or a
lawyer.")
4. Conjunctive Propositions – Express combined conditions. (e.g., "He is both intelligent
and hardworking.")

c) Categorical Proposition

A categorical proposition asserts a direct relationship between the subject and predicate. It
consists of:

 Subject (S) – The entity being described.

 Predicate (P) – The attribute assigned to the subject.
 Copula – The linking verb ("is," "are," "is not," etc.).

Quality of Proposition
  Affirmative: Asserts that something is the case (e.g., "All cats are animals.")
 Negative: Denies something (e.g., "No cats are reptiles.")

Quantity of Proposition

 Universal: Refers to all members of a category (e.g., "All men are mortal.")
 Particular: Refers to some members of a category (e.g., "Some men are intelligent.")

Forms of Proposition According to Quality and Quantity

Categorical propositions are classified into four standard forms (A, E, I, O):

Form Quantity Quality Example

A Universal Affirmative "All dogs are mammals."
E Universal Negative "No dogs are reptiles."
I Particular Affirmative "Some dogs are friendly."
O Particular Negative "Some dogs are not friendly."

Distribution of Terms in Categorical Propositions

The distribution of a term refers to whether it applies to all members of the category it
represents.

Form Subject Distributed? Predicate Distributed?

A Yes No
E Yes Yes
I No No
O No Yes

Example:

 "All cats are animals." (A-proposition) – "Cats" (subject) is distributed, but "animals"
(predicate) is not distributed.

Reduction of Sentence into Logical Form of Proposition

To analyze a sentence logically, it should be rewritten in standard categorical form.

  Example:
o Sentence: "Every student in the class is intelligent."
o Logical Form: "All students in the class are intelligent persons."

Venn Diagram Technique

Venn diagrams are used to visually represent categorical propositions:

 Universal Affirmative (A: All S are P) → The entire S circle is within the P circle.
 Universal Negative (E: No S are P) → S and P circles do not overlap.
 Particular Affirmative (I: Some S are P) → Some part of S overlaps with P.
 Particular Negative (O: Some S are not P) → Some part of S does not overlap with P.

Using Venn diagrams helps in testing syllogisms, determining logical validity, and
understanding categorical relationships.

Definition and Scope of Logic

Logic is the systematic study of reasoning, argumentation, and principles of valid inference. It
provides methods to distinguish between correct and incorrect reasoning.

a) Nature and Definition of Logic

 Nature: Logic is both a science (because it studies reasoning systematically) and an art
(because it develops the skill of correct reasoning).
 Definition: Logic is the study of the principles and rules that govern valid reasoning and
argumentation.
 Objective: To evaluate arguments, identify fallacies, and ensure clear thinking.
 Branches of Logic:
o Formal Logic – Studies the structure of valid reasoning through symbols and
rules (e.g., syllogisms, propositional logic).
o Informal Logic – Deals with everyday reasoning and fallacies in natural
language arguments.

b) Knowledge

Sources of Knowledge

Knowledge is derived from various sources, including:

 1. Perception (Empirical Knowledge) – Gained through sensory experience.
2. Reason (Rational Knowledge) – Derived through logical thinking and reasoning.
3. Authority (Testimony) – Acquired from experts, books, or tradition.
4. Intuition – Immediate understanding without conscious reasoning.

Forms of Knowledge

1. A Priori Knowledge – Independent of experience (e.g., mathematical truths).

2. A Posteriori Knowledge – Based on experience (e.g., scientific facts).
3. Explicit Knowledge – Clearly articulated and recorded knowledge.
4. Tacit Knowledge – Implicit, personal knowledge gained through experience.

c) Argument

Structure of an Argument

An argument consists of statements (propositions) where:

 Premises provide evidence or support.

 Conclusion follows logically from the premises.

Example:

1. Premise 1: All humans are mortal.

2. Premise 2: Socrates is a human.
3. Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.

Premise and Conclusion

 Premise: A statement that provides support or reason.

 Conclusion: The statement that follows from the premises.

Deductive and Inductive Arguments

1. Deductive Argument
o The conclusion necessarily follows from the premises.
o Example:
 All men are mortal.
 Socrates is a man.
 ∴ Socrates is mortal.
o If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.
2. Inductive Argument
 o The conclusion is probable based on the premises.
o Example:
 Most birds can fly.
 A sparrow is a bird.
 ∴ A sparrow can probably fly.
o Inductive arguments do not guarantee truth but suggest likelihood.

Form and Matter in Logic

 Form: The structure of an argument (how premises and conclusion are arranged).
 Matter: The content of an argument (the truth or falsity of its statements).

Example:

 Form:
o All A are B.
o C is A.
o ∴ C is B.
 Matter: The specific statements that replace A, B, and C.

Truth and Validity

 Truth: Concerned with whether statements (premises and conclusion) correspond to

reality.
 Validity: Concerned with whether the argument’s structure ensures that, if the premises
are true, the conclusion must be true.

Argument Type Validity Truth

Valid & True Sound Yes
Valid but False Unsound No
Invalid but True Unsound No
Invalid & False Unsound No

Formal and Material Truth

 Formal Truth: Concerned with the logical structure of an argument (validity).

 Material Truth: Concerned with the actual truth of the premises and conclusion.

Example:
  Formally True but Materially False:
o All cats are reptiles.
o Tom is a cat.
o ∴ Tom is a reptile.
o The structure is correct, but the content is false.

Positive and Normative Science in Philosophy

 Positive Science (Descriptive Science): Deals with facts, observations, and what "is."
o Example: Physics, Mathematics, Economics (as a science).
 Normative Science (Prescriptive Science): Deals with what "ought to be" and provides
guidelines for correct behavior or reasoning.
o Example: Ethics, Logic, Political Philosophy.

Logic, as a normative science, provides rules for correct reasoning, just as ethics provides rules
for moral behavior.