CHAPTER 2

ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS
You are about to become acquainted with the most precise chemical reactions. This theory of
fascinating world of PHYSICS. You will learn the conservation of energy will be discussed later
about the various natural and physical laws and in this chapter. Matter is defined as anything that
phenomena. Physics is concerned with those occupies space and has weight; that is, the weight
aspects of nature which can be understood and dimensions of matter that can be measured.
in a fundamental way in terms of elementary Examples of matter are air, water, clothing, and
principles and laws. The forces of physics and the even our own bodies. So, we can say matter is
laws of nature are at work in every piece of found in any one of three states: GASEOUS,
machinery and equipment. It is by these forces LIQUID, and SOLID.
and laws that the machinery and equipment In the following paragraphs we will describe
produce work. how substances are classified as elements and
In the following paragraphs you will learn compounds and how they are made up of
about matter, magnetism, electricity, motion, molecules and atoms. We will then learn about
properties of mass, temperature, pressure, various protons, electrons, and the physics of electricity.
laws and principles of physics dealing with
motion, gases, hydraulics and pneumatics, and ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS
basic information on metals. After studying this
chapter, you will have the fundamental, basic An element is a substance that cannot be
knowledge to understand what electrical and reduced to a simpler substance by chemical means.
mechanical devices are all about and how they Examples of elements with which you are in every
work. day contact are iron, gold, silver, copper, and
oxygen. Over 100 known elements are in existence.
All the different substances we know about are
MATTER composed of one or more of these elements.
When two or more elements are chemically
If western science has roots, they probably lie combined, the resulting substance is called a
in the rubble that was once ancient Greece. COMPOUND. A compound is a chemical
Except for the Greeks, ancient people had little combination of elements that can be separated
interest in the structure of materials. They by chemical means. Examples of common
accepted a solid as being just that—a continuous, compounds are water, which consists of hydrogen
uninterrupted substance. One Greek school of and oxygen, and table salt, which consists of
thought believed that if a piece of matter, such sodium and chlorine. A MIXTURE, on the other
as copper, were subdivided, it could be subdivided hand, is a combination of elements and
indefinitely and still only that material would be compounds, not chemically combined, that can
found. Others reasoned that a limit exists to the be separated by physical means. Examples of
number of subdivisions that could be made and mixtures are air, which is made up of nitrogen,
have the material still retain its original oxygen, carbon dioxide, and small amounts of
characteristics. They held fast to the idea that rare gases, and sea water, which consists chiefly
all substances are built upon a basic particle. of salt and water.
Experiments have revealed that, indeed, several
basic particles, or building blocks, are within all MOLECULES
substances.
Matter cannot be created nor destroyed. This A MOLECULE is a chemical combination of
law holds within the experimental error of the two or more atoms, (atoms are described in the

2-1
next paragraph). In a compound the molecule is is a compound composed of atoms of carbon,
the smallest part that has all the characteristics hydrogen, and oxygen. These atoms are combined
of the compound. Consider water, for example. into sugar molecules. Since the sugar molecules
Depending on the temperature, it may exist as a can be broken down by chemical means into
liquid (water), a solid (ice), or a gas (steam). smaller and simpler units, we cannot have sugar
Regardless of the temperature, it will still have atoms.
the same composition. If we start with a quantity
In figure 2-1 you will see that the atoms of
of water, divide this and pour out one half, and
each element are made up of electrons, protons,
continue this process enough times, we will end
and, in most cases, neutrons, which are
up with a quantity of water that cannot be
collectively called subatomic particles. Further-
further divided without ceasing to be water. This
more, the electrons, protons, and neutrons of one
quantity is called a molecule of water. If this
element are identical to those of any other
molecule of water is divided, instead of two parts
element. The reason there are different elements
of water, we will have one part of oxygen and two
is that the number and arrangement of electrons
parts of hydrogen (H2O).
and protons within the atom are different for the
different elements.
ATOMS The electron is considered to be a small
negative charge of electricity. The proton has a
Molecules are made up of smaller particles positive charge of electricity equal and opposite
called ATOMS. An atom is the smallest particle to the charge of the electron. Scientists have
of an element that retains the characteristics of measured the mass and size of the electron and
that element. The atom of one element, however, proton. They know how much charge each has.
differs from the atoms of all other elements, Since The electron and proton each have the same
over 100 elements are known, there must be over quantity of charge, although the mass of the
100 different atoms, or a different atom for each proton is about 1837 times that of the electron.
element. Just as thousands of words are made by In some atoms, a neutral particle exists called a
a combination of the proper letters of the neutron. The neutron is a mass about equal to
alphabet, so thousands of different materials that of a proton, but it has no electrical charge.
are made by the chemical combination of the According to a popular theory, the electrons,
proper atoms. Any particle that is a chemical protons, and neutrons of the atoms are thought
combination of two or more atoms is called a to be arranged in a manner similar to a miniature
molecule. The oxygen molecule has two atoms of solar system. The protons and neutrons form a
oxygen, and the hydrogen molecule has two heavy nucleus with a positive charge, around
molecules of hydrogen. Sugar, on the other hand, which the very light electrons revolve.

Figure 2-1.—Structure of simple atoms.

2-2
 Figure 2-1 shows one hydrogen and one
helium atom. Each has a relatively simple
structure. The hydrogen atom has only one
proton in the nucleus with one electron rotating
about it. The helium atom is a little more
complex. It has a nucleus made up of two
protons and two neutrons, with two electrons
rotating about the nucleus. Elements are classified
numerically according to the complexity of their
atoms. The atomic number of an atom is
determined by the number of protons in its
nucleus.

In a neutral state, an atom contains an equal

number of protons and electrons. Therefore, an
atom of hydrogen, which contains one proton and
one electron, has an atomic number of 1; and Figure 2-2.—The effect of current.
helium, with two protons and two electrons, has
an atomic number of 2. The complexity of atomic
structure increases with the number of protons are not able to become magnetized. You will find
and electrons. additional information on the basic principles of
magnetism in the Navy Electricity and Electronics
Training Series (NEETS), module 1, NAVED-
TRA 172-01-00-88, chapter 1.
MAGNETISM

To understand properly the principles of how ELECTRICITY

electrical equipment produces work, you must
understand magnetism, the effects of magnetism Electricity is a combination of a force called
on electrical equipment, and the relationship of VOLTAGE and the movement of invisible
the different properties of electricity. Magnetism particles known as CURRENT. The force of
and electricity are so closely related that the study voltage can be compared to the force generated
of either subject would be incomplete without at by a water pump, which moves water through a
least a basic knowledge of the other. distribution system, generally an arrangement of
pipes. Voltage is the force that causes current to
Much of today’s electrical and electronic flow through a system of wires. Current is the
equipment could not function without magnetism. movement of invisible particles that causes
Computers, tape recorders, and video reproduction electrical devices to operate. We cannot see
equipment use magnetic tape. High fidelity current, but we can determine its presence by the
speakers use magnets to convert amplifier outputs effects it produces. Figure 2-2, for example, shows
into audible sound. Electric motors use magnets the effect of current. It shows how the voltage
to convert mechanical motion into electrical force from a battery causes electrical current to
energy. Magnetism is generally defined as that flow through wires and an electrical motor. The
property of a material that enables it to attract current is invisible, but it produces the effect of
pieces of iron. Material with this property is making the motor run. Current flows through the
known as MAGNETIC. The word magnetic wires much the same way as water flows through
originated from the ancient Greeks, who found pipes.
stones possessing this characteristic. Materials that
are attracted by a magnet, such as iron, steel, Current consists of electrons, which are
nickel, and cobalt, have the ability to become invisible atomic particles. Voltage is the force that
magnetized. Thus they are magnetic materials. causes current, in the form of electrons, to move
Materials, such as paper, wood, glass, or through wires and electrical devices. However, one
tin, which are not attracted by magnets, are important difference between current in wires and
considered nonmagnetic. Nonmagnetic materials water in pipes is that water can flow out of a

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 Figure 2-3.—Different characteristics of current and water.

broken pipe, but current cannot flow out of a resistance. This relationship is called Ohm’s law
broken wire. When a wire is broken, the force and is stated as follows:
of the voltage is removed from the motor,
as shown in figure 2-3. The circulating pump I = E/R,
in the working system creates a force that
moves hot water through the pipes and radiator. where: I = current in amperes,
The battery creates a force that moves current
through the wires and causes the motor E = voltage in volts, and
to run. The wire and pipe are broken open
in the broken system. In these instances, R = resistance in ohms.
the circulating pump forces water to flow
out of the pipe, but even though the battery As stated in Ohm’s law, current is inversely
still creates a voltage force, current does proportional to resistance. This means, as the
not flow out of the wire. You will find resistance in a circuit increases, the current
additional information on the basic principles of decreases proportionately. In the equation
electricity in the NEETS, module 1, NAVEDTRA I = E/R, if any two quantities are known, the
172-01-00-88, chapter 1. third one can be determined.

OHM’S LAW NEWTON’S LAWS

In the early part of the 19th century, George Sir Isaac Newton was an English philosopher
Simon Ohm proved by experiment that a precise and mathematician who lived from 1642 to 1727
relationship exists between current, voltage, and A.D. He was the formulator of the basic laws of

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modern philosophy concerning gravity and
motion. Before we discuss motion and other
related factors, you should be familiar with
Newton’s laws. These laws are the bases for the
theories of physics that we describe in the
following sections.

NEWTON’S FIRST LAW

Newton’s first law states that a body at rest

tends to remain at rest. A body in motion tends
to remain in motion. This law can be demon-
strated easily in everyday use. For example, a
parked automobile will remain motionless until
some force causes it to move—a body at rest tends
to remain at rest. The second portion of the law—
a body in motion tends to remain in motion—can
be demonstrated only in a theoretical sense. The
same car placed in motion would remain in
motion (1) if all air resistance were removed,
(2) if no friction were in the bearings, and (3) if
the surface were perfectly level.

NEWTON'S SECOND LAW

Newton’s second law states that an imbalance

of force on a body tends to produce an accelera-
tion in the direction of the force. The acceleration,
if any, is directly proportional to the force. It is
inversely proportional to the mass of the body.
This law can be explained by throwing a common Figure 2-4.—Newton’s third law of motion.
softball, The force required to accelerate the ball
to a rate of 50 ft/sec2 would have to be doubled
to obtain an acceleration rate of 100 ft/sec2. the thrust velocity can be absorbed by the turbine
However, if the mass of the ball were doubled, rotor and converted to mechanical energy. This
the original acceleration rate would be cut in half. is done by the addition of more and progressively
You would have 50 ft/sec2 reduced to 25 ft/sec2. larger power turbine wheels.

NEWTON'S THIRD LAW SPEED, VELOCITY,

AND ACCELERATION
Newton’s third law states that for every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction. You have SPEED is defined as the distance covered per
demonstrated this law if you have ever jumped unit of time, such as a car traveling at 60 mph.
from a boat up to a dock or a beach. The boat VELOCITY is speed in a certain direction, such
moved opposite to the direction you jumped. The as a car traveling due north at 60 mph.
recoil from firing a shotgun is another example ACCELERATION is the rate at which velocity
of action-reaction. Figure 2-4 depicts these increases. If, for example, the propeller shaft rate
examples. of rotation increases from stop to 100 rpm in
In an airplane, the greater the mass of air 20 minutes, the acceleration is 5 rpm per minute.
handled by the engine, the more it is accelerated In other words, the velocity has increased 5
by the engine. The force built up to thrust the revolutions per minute, during each minute, for
plane forward is also greater. In a gas turbine, a total period of 20 minutes. A body moving at

2-5
a constant speed has no acceleration. When the ENERGY
velocity of an object increases by the same amount
each second or minute, you have uniform Can you define energy? Although everyone
acceleration. Uniform deceleration is when the has a general idea of the meaning of energy, a
decrease in velocity is the same each second or good definition is hard to find. Most commonly,
minute. perhaps, energy is defined as the capacity for
doing work. This is not a very complete
definition. Energy can produce other effects which
MASS, WEIGHT, FORCE, cannot possibly be considered work. For example,
AND INERTIA heat can flow from one object to another without
doing work; yet heat is a form of energy, and the
Very few terms are used in physics with greater process of heat transfer is a process that produces
frequency and assurance than mass, and few are an effect. A better definition of energy, therefore,
more difficult to define. Mass is often confused states that energy is the capacity for producing
with weight. This is a mistake not helped since an effect.
the unit of measurement for both mass and weight Energy exists in many forms. For convenience,
is the gram. The MASS of an object is the we usually classify energy according to the size
quantity of matter that the object contains. and nature of the bodies or particles with which
The WEIGHT of the object is equal to the it is associated. Thus we say that MECHANICAL
gravitational force with which the object is ENERGY is the energy associated with large
attracted to the earth. FORCE is what makes an bodies or objects—usually, things that are big
object start to move, speed up, slow down, or enough to see. THERMAL ENERGY is energy
keep moving against resistance. Force may be associated with molecules. CHEMICAL ENERGY
either a push or a pull. You exert a force when is energy that arises from the forces that bind the
you push against a truck, whether you move the atoms together in a molecule. Chemical energy
truck or only try to move it. You also exert a force is demonstrated whenever combustion or any
when you pull on a heavy piano, whether you other chemical reaction takes place. Electrical
move the piano or only try to move it. Forces can energy (light, X rays, and radio waves) is
produce or prevent motion. associated with particles that are even smaller than
A tendency to prevent motion is the frictional atoms.
resistance offered by an object. This frictional Mechanical energy, thermal energy, and
resistance is called frictional force. While it can chemical energy must also be classified as being
never cause an object to move, it can check or either stored energy or energy in transition.
stop motion. Frictional force wastes power, STORED ENERGY can be thought of as
creates heat, and causes wear. Although frictional energy that is actually contained in or stored in
force cannot be entirely eliminated, it can be a substance or system. There are two kinds of
reduced with lubricants. stored energy: (1) potential energy and (2) kinetic
INERTIA is the property that causes objects energy. When energy is stored in a substance or
at rest to remain at rest and objects in motion to system because of the relative POSITIONS of two
remain in motion until acted upon by an outside or more objects or particles, we call it potential
force. An example of inertia is one body that has energy. When energy is stored in a substance or
twice as much mass as another body of the same system because of the relative VELOCITIES of
material offering twice as much force in two or more objects or particles, we call it kinetic
opposition to the same acceleration rate. energy.
Inertia in a body depends on its motion. The Mechanical energy in transition is called work.
physical principles of mass and inertia are Thermal energy in transition is called heat. In the
involved in the design and operation of the heavy next section we will discuss mechanical and
machinery that is to be placed into motion, such thermal energy and energy transformations.
as an engine’s flywheel and various gears that are If you do not completely understand this
at work in the ship’s engineering plant. The great classification, come back to it from time to
mass of the flywheel tends to keep it rotating once time as you read the following sections on
it has been set in motion. The high inertia of the mechanical energy and thermal energy. The
flywheel keeps it from responding to small examples and discussion given in the following
fluctuations in speed and thus helps keep the sections will probably help you understand this
engine running smoothly. classification.

2-6
MECHANICAL ENERGY mechanical energy that can be properly considered
as energy in transition.
Let’s consider the two stored forms of
mechanical energy. Mechanical POTENTIAL If you have trouble with the idea that
energy exists because of the relative positions of mechanical kinetic energy is stored, rather than
two or more objects. For example, a rock resting in transition, think of it like this: A bullet that
on the edge of a cliff in such a position that it has been fired from a gun has mechanical kinetic
will fall freely if pushed has mechanical energy because it is in motion. The faster the bullet
potential energy. Water at the top of a dam has is moving, the more kinetic energy it has. There
mechanical potential energy. A sled that is being is no doubt in anybody’s mind that the bullet has
held at the top of an icy hill has mechanical the capacity to produce an effect, so we may safely
potential energy. say that it has energy. Although the bullet is not
Mechanical KINETIC energy exists because in transition, the energy of the bullet is not
of the relative velocities of two or more objects. transferred to any other object or system until the
If you push that rock, open the gate of the dam, bullet strikes some object that resists its passage.
or let go of the sled, something will move. The When the bullet strikes against a resisting object,
rock will fall; the water will flow; the sled will then, and only then, can we say that energy in
slide down the hill. In each case the mechanical transition exists, in the form of heat and work.
potential energy will be changed to mechanical In this example, we are ignoring the fact that
kinetic energy. Another way of saying this is that some work is done against the resistance of the
the energy of position will be changed to the air and that some heat results from the passage
energy of motion. of the bullet through the air. But this does not
In these examples, you will notice that an change the basic idea that kinetic energy is stored
external source of energy is used to get things energy rather than energy in transition. The air
started. Energy from some outside source is must be regarded as a resisting object, which
required to push the rock, open the gate of the causes some of the stored kinetic energy of the
dam, or let go of the sled. All real machines and bullet to be converted into energy in transition
processes require this kind of boost from an (heat and work) while the bullet is passing through
energy source outside the system. For example, the air. However, the major part of the stored
a tremendous amount of chemical energy is stored kinetic energy does not become energy in
in fuel oil; but this energy will not turn the power transition until the bullet strikes an object firmer
turbine until you have expended some energy to than air that resists its passage.
start the oil burning. Similarly, the energy in any
one system affects other energy systems. Mechanical potential energy is measured in
However, it is easier to learn the basic principles foot-pounds (ft-lb). Consider, for example, the
of energy if we forget about all the energy systems rock at the top of the cliff. If the rock weighs
that might be involved in or affected by each 5 pounds and if the distance from the rock to the
energy process. In the examples given in this earth at the base of the cliff is 100 feet, 500 ft-lb
chapter, therefore, we will consider only one of mechanical potential energy exists because of
energy process or energy system at a time, the relative positions of the rock and the earth.
disregarding both the energy boosts that may be Another way of expressing this idea is by the
received from outside systems and the energy following formula:
transfers that may take place between the system
we are considering and other systems. PE=WxD,
Notice that both mechanical potential energy
and mechanical kinetic energy are stored forms where:
of energy. It is easy to see why we regard
mechanical potential energy as being stored, but PE = total potential energy of the object
it is not so easy to see the same thing about (in ft-lb),
mechanical kinetic energy. Part of the trouble
comes about because mechanical kinetic energy W = total weight of the object (in
is often referred to as the energy of motion, thus pounds), and
leading to the false conclusion that energy in
transition is somehow involved. This is not the D = distance between the earth and the
case, however. Work is the only form of object (in feet).

2-7
 Mechanical kinetic energy is also measured in between an object and the earth. How much work
ft-lb. The amount of kinetic energy present at any will you do if you lift that 5-pound rock from the
one time is directly related to the velocity of the bottom of the 100-foot cliff to the top? You will
moving object and to the weight of the moving do 500 ft-lb of work—the weight of the object
object. (5 pounds) times the distance ( 100 feet) that you
Mechanical potential energy can be changed move it against gravity.
into mechanical kinetic energy. If you push that We also do work against forces other than the
5-pound rock over the edge of the 100-foot cliff, force of gravity. When you push an object across
it begins to fall, and as it falls, it loses potential the deck, you are doing work against friction. In
energy and gains kinetic energy. At any given this case, the force you work against is not only
moment, the total mechanical energy (potential the weight of the object, but also the force
plus kinetic) stored in the system is the same—500 required to overcome friction and slide the
ft-lb. But the proportions of potential energy and object over the surface of the deck.
kinetic energy are changing all the time as the rock Notice that mechanical potential energy,
is falling. Just before the rock hits the earth, all mechanical kinetic energy, and work are all
the stored mechanical energy is kinetic energy. As measured in the same unit, ft-lb. One ft-lb of work
the rock hits the earth, the kinetic energy is is done when a force of 1 pound acts through a
changed into energy in transition—that is, work distance of 1 foot. One ft-lb of mechanical
and heat. potential energy or mechanical kinetic energy is
Mechanical kinetic energy can likewise be the amount of energy that is required to
changed into mechanical potential energy. For accomplish 1 ft-lb of work.
example, suppose you throw a baseball straight The amount of work done has nothing at all
up in the air. The ball has kinetic energy while to do with how long it takes to do it. When you
it is in motion, but the kinetic energy decreases lift a weight of 1 pound through a distance of
and the potential energy increases as the ball 1 foot, you have done 1 ft-lb of work, regardless
travels upward. When the ball has reached its of whether you do it in half a second or half an
uppermost position, just before it starts its fall hour. The rate at which work is done is called
back to earth, it has only potential energy. Then, POWER. The common unit of measurement for
as it falls back toward the earth, the potential power is the HORSEPOWER (hp). By definition,
energy is changed into kinetic energy again. 1 hp is equal to 33,000 ft-lb of work per minute
Mechanical energy in transition is called or 550 ft-lb of work per second. Thus a machine
WORK. When an object is moved through a that is capable of doing 550 ft-lb of work per
distance against a resisting force, we say that work second is said to be a 1-hp machine. (As you can
has been done. The formula for calculating work see, your horsepower rating would not be very
is impressive if you did 1 ft-lb of work in half an
hour. Figure it out. It works out to be just a little
W=F×D, more than one-millionth of a horsepower. )

where: THERMAL ENERGY

W = work, Earlier in this chapter we discussed molecules.

You should remember that all substances are
F = force, and composed of very small particles called molecules.
The energy associated with molecules is called
D = distance. thermal energy. Thermal energy, like mechanical
energy, exists in two stored forms and in one
As you can see from this formula, you need transitional form. The two stored forms of
to know how much force is exerted and the thermal energy are (1) internal potential energy
distance through which the force acts before you and (2) internal kinetic energy. Thermal energy
can find how much work is done. The unit of in transition is called HEAT.
force is the pound. When work is done against Although molecules are too small to be seen,
gravity, the force required to move an object is they behave in some ways pretty much like the
equal to the weight of the object. Why? Because larger objects we considered in the discussion of
weight is a measure of the force of gravity or, in mechanical energy. Molecules have energy of
other words, a measure of the force of attraction position (internal potential energy) because of the

2-8
forces that attract molecules to each other. In this a few minutes, the steam in the uninsulated pipe
way, they are somewhat like the rock and the earth will contain much less internal energy than the
we considered before. Molecules have energy of steam in the insulated pipe, as we can tell by
motion (internal kinetic energy) because they are measuring the pressure and the temperature of the
constantly in motion. Thus, the two stored forms steam in each pipe. What has happened? Stored
of thermal energy—internal potential energy and thermal energy—internal energy—has moved
internal kinetic energy—are in some ways similar from one system to another, first from the steam
to mechanical potential energy and mechanical to the pipe, then from the uninsulated pipe to the
kinetic energy, except everything is on a smaller air. This MOVEMENT or FLOW of thermal
scale. energy from one system to another is called heat.
For most purposes, we will not need to A good deal of confusion exists concerning the
distinguish between the two stored forms of use of the word heat. For example, you will hear
thermal energy. Therefore, instead of referring people say that a hot object contains a lot of heat
to internal potential energy and internal kinetic when they really mean that it contains a lot
energy, from now on we will simply use the term of internal energy. Or you will hear that heat is
internal energy. By internal energy, then, we will added to or removed from a substance. Since heat
mean the total of all internal energy stored in the is the FLOW of thermal energy, it can no more
substance or system because of the motion of the be added to a substance than the flow of water
molecules and because of the forces of attraction could be added to a river. (You might add water,
between molecules. Although the term may be and this addition might increase the flow, but you
unfamiliar to you, you probably know more could hardly say that you added flow. ) The only
about internal energy than you realize. Because thermal energy that can in any sense be added to
molecules are constantly in motion, they exert a or removed from a substance is INTERNAL
pressure on the walls of the pipe, cylinder, or other ENERGY.
object in which they are contained. Also, the
temperature of any substance arises from, and is
directly proportional to, the activity of the ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS
molecules. Therefore, every time you read
thermometers and pressure gauges you are finding The machinery and equipment in the engineer-
out something about the amount of internal ing plant aboard ship are designed either to carry
energy contained in the substance. High pressures energy from one place to another or to change
and temperatures indicate that the molecules are a substance from one form to another. The
moving rapidly and that the substance therefore principles of energy transformations and some of
has a lot of internal energy. the important energy changes that occur in the
Heat is a more familiar term than internal shipboard propulsion cycle are discussed in the
energy, but may actually be more difficult to following paragraphs.
define correctly. The important thing to remember
is that heat is THERMAL ENERGY IN
TRANSITION—that is, it is thermal energy that Conservation of Energy
is moving from one substance or system to
another. The basic principle dealing with the transfor-
An example will help to show the difference mation of energy is the PRINCIPLE OF THE
between heat and internal energy. Suppose there CONSERVATION OF ENERGY. This principle
are two equal lengths of pipe made of identical can be stated in several ways. Most commonly,
materials and containing steam at the same perhaps, it is stated that energy can be neither
pressure and temperature. One pipe is well destroyed nor created, but only transformed.
insulated; the other is not insulated at all. From Another way to state this principle is that the total
everyday experience you know that more heat will quantity of energy in the universe is always the
flow from the uninsulated pipe than from the same. Still another way of expressing this
insulated pipe. When the two pipes are first principle is by the equation, Energy in = Energy
filled with steam, the steam in one pipe contains out,
exactly as much internal energy as the steam in The energy out may be quite different in form
the other pipe. We know this is true because the from the energy in, but the total amount of energy
two pipes contain equal volumes of steam at the input must always equal the total amount of
same pressure and at the same temperature. After energy output.

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 Another principle, the PRINCIPLE OF THE
CONSERVATION OF MATTER, states that
matter can be neither created nor destroyed, but
only transformed. As you probably know, the
development of the atom bomb demonstrated that
matter can be converted into energy; other
developments have demonstrated that energy can
be converted into matter. Therefore, the principle
of the conservation of energy and the principle
of the conservation of matter are no longer
considered as two parts of a single law or principle
but are combined into one principle. That
principle states that matter and energy are
interchangeable, and the total amount of energy
and matter in the universe is constant. Figure 2-5.—Compressibility of gas.
The interchangeability of matter and energy
is mentioned here only to point out that the
statement energy in must equal energy out is not piston, the gas will compress to one half its
strictly true for certain situations. However, any original volume (fig. 2-5).
noticeable conversion of matter into energy or Changes in the pressure of a gas also affect
energy into matter can occur only under very the density. As the pressure increases, its volume
special conditions, which we need not consider decreases; however, no change occurs in the
now. All the energy transformations that we will weight of the gas. Therefore, the weight per unit
deal with can be understood quite simply if we volume (density) increases. So, the density of a
consider only the principle of the conservation of gas varies directly as the pressure if the
energy—that is, E N E R G Y I N E Q U A L S temperature is constant.
ENERGY OUT. In 1787, Jacques Charles, a Frenchman,
proved that all gases expand the same amount
when heated 1 degree if the pressure is kept
Transformation of Heat to constant. The relationships that these two men
Work (Laws of Gases) discovered are summarized as follows:

The energy transformation from heat to work l Boyle’s law—when the temperature is held
is the major interest in the shipboard engineer- constant, an increase in the pressure on a gas
ing plant. To see how this transformation occurs, causes a proportional decrease in volume. A
we need to consider the pressure, temperature, decrease in the pressure causes a proportional
and volume relationships that hold true for gases. increase in volume, as shown in figure 2-6. At sea
Robert Boyle, an English scientist, was among level, the balloon has a given volume with respect
the first to study the compressibility of gases. In to temperature and atmospheric pressure. As the
the middle of the 17th century, he called it the balloon descends 1 mile below sea level, the
“springiness” of air. He discovered that when the volume of the balloon decreases due to increased
temperature of an enclosed sample of gas was kept atmospheric pressure. Conversely, as the balloon
constant and the pressure doubled, the volume ascends to 1 mile above sea level, the balloon
was reduced to half the former value. As the expands as the atmospheric pressure decreases.
applied pressure was decreased, the resulting
volume increased. From these observations he l Charles’s law—when the pressure is held
concluded that for a constant temperature, the constant, an increase in the temperature of a gas
product of the volume and pressure of an enclosed causes a proportional increase in volume. A
gas remains constant. This conclusion became decrease in the temperature causes a proportional
Boyle’s law. decrease in volume, as shown in figure 2-7.
You can demonstrate Boyle’s law by confining Balloons A and B have an outside pressure of 10
a quantity of gas in a cylinder that has a tightly pounds per square inch (psi). Both have the same
fitted piston. Apply force to the piston to volume of air. Balloon A is at 40°F and balloon
compress the gas in the cylinder to some specific B is at 100°F. This shows that increased
volume. If you double the force applied to the temperature causes the balloon size to increase.

2-10
 Figure 2-8.—Interaction of gases in respect to temperature
and pressure.

Suppose we have a boiler in which steam has

been formed. With the steam stop valves still
closed, the volume of the steam remains constant
while the pressure and the temperature are both
increasing. When operating pressure is reached
and the steam stop valves are opened, the high
pressure of the steam causes the steam to flow to
the turbines. The pressure of the steam thus
Figure 2-6.—Pressure differential in respect to sea level. provides the potential for doing work. The actual
conversion of thermal energy to work is done in
the turbine section.

Steam

Steam is water to which enough heat has been

added to convert it from the liquid to the gaseous
state. When heat is added to water in an open
container, steam forms. However, it quickly mixes
with air and cools back to water that is dispersed
in the air, making the air more humid. If you add
the heat to water in a closed container, the steam
builds up pressure. If you add exactly enough heat
to convert all the water to steam at the
Figure 2-7.—Pressure differential in respect to temperature. temperature of boiling water, you get saturated
steam. SATURATED STEAM is steam saturated
with all the heat it can hold at the boiling
l Charles’s law is also stated—when the temperature of water.
volume is held constant, an increase in the The boiling temperature of water becomes
temperature of a gas causes a proportional higher as the pressure over the water becomes
increase in pressure. A decrease in the temperature higher. Steam hotter than the boiling temperature
causes a proportional decrease in pressure, as of water is called SUPERHEATED STEAM.
shown in figure 2-8. Tanks A and B are of the When steam has 250 °F of superheat, the actual
same size and have an equal volume of gas. Tank temperature is the boiling temperature plus 250 °F.
A has a pressure of 10 psi when heated to 40°F. At 600 psi the boiling temperature of water is
Tank B has a pressure of 12 psi when heated to 489 °F. So if steam at 600 psi has 250°F of
100°F. Unlike the balloons, the steel tanks do not superheat, its actual temperature is 739°F. WET
expand to accommodate the changes in tempera- STEAM is steam at the boiling temperature that
ture and pressure. This shows that changes in still contains some water particles. DESUPER-
temperature are inversely proportional to changes HEATED STEAM is steam that has been cooled
in gas pressure when the volume is held constant. by being passed through a pipe extending through

2-11
the steam drum. In the process, the steam loses Complete
. combustion can be achieved. This
all but 20°F to 30°F of its superheat. The is accomplished by more oxygen being supplied
advantage of desuperheated steam is that it is to the process than would be required if perfect
certain to be dry, yet not so hot as to require combustion were possible. The result is that some
special alloy steels for the construction of the of the excess oxygen appears in the combustion
piping that carries the desuperheated steam about gases.
the ship.
Steam use will be discussed later in chapters Units of Heat Measurement
3 and 4 of this textbook. We will describe the
steam cycle and typical boilers used on naval Both internal energy and heat is measured
ships. using the British thermal unit (Btu). For most
practical engineering purposes, 1 Btu is the
Combustion thermal energy required to raise the temperature
of 1 pound of pure water to 1°F. Burning a
Combustion refers to the rapid chemical union wooden kitchen match completely will produce
of oxygen with fuel. Perfect combustion of fuel about 1 Btu.
would result in carbon dioxide, nitrogen, water When large amounts of thermal energy are
vapor, and sulphur dioxide. The oxygen required involved, it is usually more convenient to use
to burn the fuel is obtained from the air. Air is multiples of the Btu. For example, 1 kBtu is equal
a mechanical mixture containing by weight to 1000 Btu, and 1 MBtu is equal to 1 million Btu.
21 percent oxygen, 78 percent nitrogen, and Another unit in which thermal energy maybe
1 percent other gases. Only oxygen is used in measured is the calorie. The calorie is the amount
combustion. Nitrogen is an inert gas that has no of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram
chemical effect upon combustion. of pure water 1°C. One Btu equals 252 calories.
The chemical combination obtained during
combustion results in the liberation of heat Sensible Heat and Latent Heat
energy. A portion of this energy is used to
propel the ship. Actually, what happens is a Sensible heat and latent heat are terms often
rearrangement of the atoms of the chemical used to indicate the effect that the flow of heat
elements into new combinations of molecules. In has on a substance. The flow of heat from one
other words, when the fuel oil temperature (in the substance to another is normally reflected in a
presence of oxygen) is increased to the ignition temperature change in each substance—the hotter
point, a chemical reaction occurs. The fuel begins substance becomes cooler, the cooler substance
to separate and unite with specific amounts of becomes hotter. However, the flow of heat is not
oxygen to form an entirely new substance. Heat reflected in a temperature change in a substance
energy is given off in the process. A good fuel that is in the process of changing from one
burns quickly and produces a large amount of physical state (solid, liquid, or gas) to another.
heat. When the flow of heat is reflected in a temperature
Perfect combustion is the objective. However, change, we say that sensible heat has been added
this has been impossible to achieve as yet in either to or removed from the substance (heat that can
a boiler or the cylinders of an internal-combustion be sensed or felt). When the flow of heat is not
engine. Theoretically, it is simple. It consists of reflected in a temperature change, but is reflected
bringing each particle of the fuel (heated to its in the changing physical state of a substance, we
ignition temperature) into contact with the say that latent heat has been added or removed.
correct amount of oxygen. The following factors Does anything bother you in this last
are involved: paragraph? It should. Here we are talking about
sensible heat and latent heat as though we had
l Sufficient oxygen must be supplied.
two different types of heat to consider. This is
l The oxygen and fuel particles must be common (if inaccurate) engineering language. So
thoroughly mixed. keep the following points clearly in mind: (1) heat
is the movement (flow) of thermal energy;
. Temperatures must be high enough to
(2) when we talk about adding and removing heat,
maintain combustion.
we really mean that we are providing temperature
. Enough time must be allowed to permit differentials so thermal energy can flow from one
completion of the process. substance to another; and (3) when we talk about

2-12
 Figure 2-9.—Relationship between sensible heat and latent heat.

sensible heat and latent heat, we are talking about The energy price is repaid, so to speak, when the
two different kinds of effects that can be produced substance changes back from gas to liquid or from
by heat, but not about two different types of heat. liquid to solid, since heat flows from the substance
during these changes of state.
As previously discussed, the three basic
physical states of all matter are solid, liquid, and Figure 2-9 shows the relationship between
gas (or vapor). The physical state of a substance sensible heat and latent heat for water at
is closely related to the distance between atmospheric pressure. The same kind of chart
molecules. As a general rule, the molecules are could be drawn for other substances; however,
closest together in solids, farther apart in liquids, different amounts of thermal energy would be
and farthest apart in gases. When heat flow to involved in the changes of state for each
a substance is not reflected in a temperature substance.
increase in that substance, the energy is being
used to increase the distance between the If we start with 1 pound of ice at 0°F, we must
molecules of the substance and to change it from add 16 Btu to raise the temperature of the ice to
a solid to a liquid or from a liquid to a gas. You 32°F. We call this adding sensible heat. To change
might say that latent heat is the energy price that the pound of ice at 32°F to a pound of water at
must be paid for a change of state from solid to 32°F, we must add 144 Btu (the LATENT HEAT
liquid or from liquid to gas. The energy is not lost. OF FUSION). No change in temperature will
It is stored in the substance as internal energy. occur while the ice is melting. After all the ice has

2-13
melted, however, the temperature of the water will scale can be extended in either direction—to
be raised as additional heat is supplied. If we add higher temperatures without any limits and to
180 Btu—that is, 1 Btu for each degree of lower temperatures (by minus degrees) down to
temperature between 32°F and 212°F—the the lowest temperature theoretically possible,
temperature of the water will be raised to the absolute zero. This temperature is – 460°F, or
boiling point. To change the pound of water at 492°F below the freezing point of water.
212°F to a pound of steam at 212°F, we must add
970 Btu (the LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZA- In the Celsius scale, the freezing point of pure
TION). After all the water has been converted to water is 0°C and the boiling point of pure water
steam, the addition of more heat will cause an is 100°C. Therefore, 0°C and 100°C are
increase in the temperature of the steam. If we equivalent to 32°F and 212°F, respectively. Each
add about 44 Btu to the pound of steam that is degree of Celsius is larger than a degree of
at 212°F, we can super heat it to 300°F. Fahrenheit. Only 100° Celsius are between the
freezing and boiling points of water, while this
The same relationships apply when heat is same temperature change requires 180° on the
being removed. The removal of 44 Btu from the Fahrenheit scale. Therefore, the degree of Celsius
pound of steam that is at 300°F will cause the is 180/100 or 1.8° Fahrenheit. In the Celsius scale,
temperature to drop to 212°F. As the pound of absolute zero is – 273°C. To convert from one
steam at 212°F changes to a pound of water at temperature scale to another, use the following
212°F, 970 Btu are given off. When a substance algebraic equations:
is changing from a gas or vapor to a liquid, the
heat that is given off is LATENT HEAT OF From Fahrenheit to Celsius
CONDENSATION. Notice, however, that the
0
latent heat of condensation is exactly the same as C = 5/9 X ( 0 F – 32)
the latent heat of vaporization. The removal of
another 180 Btu of sensible heat will lower the From Celsius to Fahrenheit
temperature of the pound of pure water from
212°F to 32°F. As the pound of water at 32°F °F = (9/5 x °C) + 32
changes to a pound of ice at 32°F, 144 Btu are
given off without any accompanying change in Figure 2-10 shows the two temperature scales
temperature. Further removal of heat causes the in comparison. It also introduces the simplest of
temperature of the ice to decrease. the temperature measuring instruments, the
liquid-in-glass thermometer. The two thermom-
eters shown are exactly alike in size and shape.
The only difference is the outside markings or
TEMPERATURE scales on them. Each thermometer is a hollow
glass tube that is sealed at the top and has a
The temperature of an object is a measure of mercury-filled bulb at the bottom. Mercury, like
the heat level of that object. This level can be any liquid, expands when heated and will rise in
measured with a thermometer. the hollow tube. View A of figure 2-10 shows the
Fahrenheit thermometer with its bulb standing in
The temperature scales employed to measure melting ice (32°F), and view B shows the Celsius
temperature are the Fahrenheit (F) scale and thermometer with its bulb standing in boiling
the Celsius (C) scale. In engineering and for water (100°C).
practically all purposes in the Navy, the
Fahrenheit scale is used. You may, however, have The main point to remember is that the level
to convert Celsius readings to the Fahrenheit scale, of the mercury in a thermometer depends only on
so both scales are explained here. the temperature to which the bulb is exposed. If
you were to exchange the thermometers, the
The Fahrenheit scale has two main reference mercury in the Celsius thermometer would drop
points—the boiling point of pure water at 212°F to the level that the mercury now stands in the
and the freezing point of pure water at 32°F. The Fahrenheit thermometer. Likewise, the mercury
measure of a degree of Fahrenheit is 1/180 of the in the Fahrenheit thermometer would rise to
total temperature change from 32°F to 212°F. The the level that the mercury now stands in the

2-14
 is, the same amount of heat transferred to the
water—has raised the temperature 100° Celsius
and 180° Fahrenheit, but the actual change in heat
energy is exactly the same.

PRESSURE DEFINITIONS

Pressure, like temperature, is one of the basic

engineering measurements and one that must be
frequently monitored aboard ship. As with
temperature readings, pressure readings provide
you with an indication of the operating condition
of equipment. PRESSURE is defined as the
force per unit area.

The simplest pressure units are the ones that

indicate how much force is applied to an area of
a certain size. These units include pounds per
square inch, pounds per square foot, ounces per
square inch, newtons per square millimeter, and
dynes per square centimeter, depending upon the
system you use.

You also use another kind of pressure unit that

involves length. These units include inches of
water (in. H2O), inches of mercury (in.Hg), and
inches of some other liquid of a known density.
Actually, these units do not involve length as a
fundamental dimension. Rather, length is taken
as a measure of force or weight. For example, a
reading of 1 in.H 2O means that the exerted
Figure 2-10.—Temperature scales. A. Fahrenheit. B. Celsius. pressure is able to support a column of water 1
inch high, or that a column of water in a U-tube
would be displaced 1 inch by the pressure being
Celsius thermometer. The temperatures would measured. Similarly, a reading of 12 in. Hg means
be 0°C for the ice water and 212°F for the that the measured pressure is sufficient to
boiling water. support a column of mercury 12 inches high.
What is really being expressed (even though it is
If you place both thermometers in water not mentioned in the pressure unit) is that a
containing ice, the Fahrenheit thermometer will certain quantity of material (water, mercury, and
read 32°F and the Celsius thermometer will so on) of known density exerts a certain definite
read 0°C. Heat the water slowly. The temperature force upon a specified area. Pressure is still force
will not change until the ice in the water has per unit area, even if the pressure unit refers to
completely melted (a great deal of heat is required inches of some liquid.
just to melt the ice). Then both mercury columns
will begin to rise. When the mercury level is at In interpreting pressure measurements, a great
the +10° mark on the Celsius thermometer, it will deal of confusion arises because the zero point
be at the +50° mark on the Fahrenheit on most pressure gauges represents atmospheric
thermometer. The two columns will rise together pressure rather than zero absolute pressure.
at the same speed and, when the water finally Thus, it is often necessary to specify the
boils, they will stand at 100°C and 212°F, kind of pressure being measured under any given
respectively. The same temperature change—that conditions. To clarify the numerous meanings of

2-15
Figure 2-11.—Relationships among gauge pressure, atmos- Figure 2-12.—Typical barometer.
pheric pressure, vacuum, and absolute pressure.

describe the atmospheric pressure that exists at

the word pressure, the relationships among gauge, any given moment. Figure 2-12 shows the
atmospheric, vacuum, and absolute pressures are operating principle of a typical barometer.
shown in figure 2-11. BAROMETRIC PRESSURE is the term used
GAUGE PRESSURE is the pressure actually to describe the actual atmospheric pressure that
shown on the dial of a gauge that registers exists at any given moment. Barometric pressure
pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. An may be measured by a simple mercury column or
ordinary pressure gauge reading of zero does by a specially designed instrument called an
not mean there is no pressure in the absolute aneroid barometer.
sense; rather, it means there is no pressure in A space in which the pressure is less than
excess of atmospheric pressure. atmospheric pressure is said to be under partial
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE is the pressure vacuum. The vacuum is expressed in terms of the
exerted by the weight of the atmosphere. At sea difference between the absolute pressure in the
level, the average pressure of the atmosphere is space and the pressure of the atmosphere. Most
sufficient to hold a column of mercury at the commonly, vacuum is expressed in inches of
height of 76 centimeters or 29.92 inches. Since a mercury, with the vacuum gauge scale marked
column of mercury 1 inch high exerts a pressure from 0 to 30 in.Hg. When a vacuum gauge reads
of 0.49 pound per square inch (psi) at its base, zero, the pressure in the space is the same as
a column of mercury 29.92 inches high exerts a atmospheric pressure—or, in other words, there
pressure that is equal to 29.92 x 0.49 or about 14.7 is no vacuum. A vacuum gauge reading of 29.92
psi. Since we are dealing now in absolute pressure, in. Hg would indicate a perfect (or nearly perfect)
we say that the average atmospheric pressure at vacuum. In actual practice a perfect vacuum is
sea level is 14.7 pounds per square inch absolute impossible to obtain even under laboratory
(psia). It is zero on the ordinary pressure gauge. conditions. A reading between 0 and 29.92 in.Hg
Notice, however, that the figure of 14.7 psia is a partial vacuum.
represents the average atmospheric pressure at sea ABSOLUTE PRESSURE is atmospheric
level; it does not always represent the actual pressure plus gauge pressure, or absolute pressure
pressure being exerted by the atmosphere at the minus vacuum. For example, a gauge pressure of
moment a gauge is being read. Since fluctuations 300 pounds per square inch gauge (psig) equals
from this standard are shown on a barometer an absolute pressure of 314.7 psia (300 + 14.7).
(an instrument used to measure atmospheric Or, for example, consider a space in which the
pressure), the term barometric pressure is used to measured vacuum is 10 in. Hg; the absolute

2-16
pressure in this space is figured by subtracting the factors concerning noncompressible fluids when
measured vacuum (10 in.Hg) from the nearly taken by themselves.
perfect vacuum (29.92 in.Hg). The absolute
pressure then will be 19.92 or about 20 in.Hg . Bernoulli’s principle—This principle was
absolute. Note that the amount of pressure in a discovered by Jacques (or Jakob) Bernoulli, a
space under vacuum can only be expressed in Swiss philosopher and mathematician who lived
terms of absolute pressure. from 1654 to 1705 A.D. He worked extensively
You may have noticed that sometimes we use with hydraulics and the pressure-temperature
the letters psig to indicate gauge pressure and relationship. Bernoulli’s principle governs the
other times we merely use psi. By common RELATIONSHIP of the static and dynamic
convention, gauge pressure is always assumed factors concerning noncompressible fluids. Figure
when pressure is given in pounds per square inch, 2-13 shows the effect of Bernoulli’s principle.
pounds per square foot, or similar units. The g Chamber A is under pressure and is connected by
(for gauge) is added only when there is some a tube to chamber B, also under pressure.
possibility of confusion. Absolute pressure, on the Chamber A is under static pressure of 100
other hand, is always expressed as pounds per psi. The pressure at some point, X, along the
square inch absolute (psia), pounds per square connecting tube consists of a velocity pressure of
foot absolute (psfa), and so forth. It is always 10 psi. This is exerted in a direction parallel to
necessary to establish clearly just what kind of the line of flow, Added is the unused static
pressure we are talking about, unless this is very pressure of 90 psi, which obeys Pascal’s law and
clear from the nature of the discussion. operates equally in all directions. As the fluid
To this point, we have considered only the enters chamber B from the constricted space, it
most basic and most common units of measure- slows down. In so doing, its velocity head is
ment. Remember that hundreds of other units can changed back to pressure head. The force required
be derived from these units; remember also that to absorb the fluid’s inertia equals the force
specialized fields require specialized units of required to start the fluid moving originally.
measurement. Additional units of measurement Therefore, the static pressure in chamber B is
are introduced in appropriate places throughout again equal to that in chamber A. It was lower
the remainder of this training manual. When you at intermediate point X.
have more complicated units of measurement, you
may find it helpful to review the basic informa- Figure 2-13 disregards friction, and it is not
tion given here first. encountered in actual practice. Force or head is
also required to overcome friction. But, unlike
inertia effect, this force cannot be recovered again
PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS although the energy represented still exists
somewhere as heat. Therefore, in an actual system
The word hydraulics is derived from the Greek the pressure in chamber B would be less than in
word for water (hydor) plus the Greek word for chamber A. This is a result of the pressure used
a reed instrument like an oboe (aulos). The term in overcoming friction along the way.
hydraulics originally covered the study of the At all points in a system, the static pressure
physical behavior of water at rest and in motion. is always the original static pressure LESS any
However, the meaning of hydraulics has been velocity head at the point in question. It is also
broadened to cover the physical behavior of all
liquids, including the oils that are used in modern
hydraulic systems. The foundation of modern
hydraulics began with the discovery of the
following law and principle:

. Pascal’s law—This law was discovered by

Blaise Pascal, a French philosopher and
mathematician who lived from 1623 to 1662 A.D.
His law, simply stated, is interpreted as pressure
exerted at any point upon an enclosed liquid is
transmitted undiminished in all directions. Figure 2-13.—Relationship of static and dynamic factors—
Pascal’s law governs the BEHAVIOR of the static Bernoulli’s principle.

2-17
LESS the friction head consumed in reaching that
point. Both velocity head and friction represent
energy that came from the original static head.
Energy cannot be destroyed. So, the sum of the
static head, velocity head, and friction at any
point in the system must add up to the original
static head. This, then, is Bernoulli’s principle;
more simply stated, if a noncompressible fluid
flowing through a tube reaches a constriction, or
narrowing of the tube, the velocity of fluid
flowing through the constriction increases, and
the pressure decreases.

When we apply a force to the end of a

column of confined liquid, the force is trans- A. EQUAL INPUT AND OUTPUT AREA
mitted not only straight through to the other
end but also equally in every direction through-
out the column. This is why a flat fire hose
takes on a circular cross section when it is
filled with water under pressure. The outward
push of the water is equal in every direction.
Water will leak from the hose at the same
velocity regardless of where the leaks are in
the hose.

Let us now consider the effect of Pascal’s

law in the systems shown in figure 2-14,
views A and B. If the total force at the
input piston is 100 pounds and the area of
the piston is 10 square inches, then each
square inch of the piston surface is exerting
10 pounds of force. This liquid pressure of B. UNEQUAL INPUT AND OUTPUT AREA
10 psi is transmitted to the output piston, which
will be pushed upward with a force of 10 psi.
In this example, we are merely considering Figure 2-14.—Principle of mechanical hydraulics. A. Equal
a liquid column of equal cross section so the input and output area. B. Unequal input and output
areas of these pistons are equal. All we have area.
done is to carry a 100-pound force around a
bend. However, the principle shown is the basis
for almost all mechanical hydraulics. PRINCIPLES OF PNEUMATICS

The same principle may be applied where the PNEUMATICS is that branch of mechanics
area of the input piston is much smaller than the that deals with the mechanical properties of gases.
area of the output piston or vice versa. In view Perhaps the most common application of these
B of figure 2-14, the area of the input piston is properties in the Navy today is the use of
2 square inches and the area of the output piston compressed air. Compressed air is used to
is 20 square inches. If you apply a pressure of 20 transmit pressure in a variety of applications. For
pounds to the 2 square-inch piston, the pressure example, in tires and air-cushioned springs,
created in the liquid will again be 10 psi. The compressed air acts as a cushion to absorb shock.
upward force on the larger piston will be 200 Air brakes on locomotives and large trucks
pounds—10 pounds for each of its 20 square contribute greatly to the safety of railroad and
inches. Thus, you can see that if two pistons are truck transportation. In the Navy, compressed air
used in a hydraulic system, the force acting on is used in many ways, For example, tools such
each piston will be directly proportional to its as riveting hammers and pneumatic drills are air
area. operated. Automatic combustion control systems

2-18
use compressed air for the operation of the HARDNESS refers to the ability of a metal
instruments. Compressed air is also used in to resist penetration, wear, or cutting action.
diving bells and diving suits. Our following
discussion on the use of compressed air as an aid MALLEABILITY is a property of a metal
in the control of submarines will help you under- that allows it to be rolled, forged, hammered, or
stand the theory of pneumatics. shaped without cracking or breaking. Copper is
a very malleable metal.
Submarines are designed with a number of
tanks that may be used for the control of the ship. STRENGTH refers to the ability of a metal
These tanks are flooded with water to submerge, to maintain heavy loads (or force) without
or they are filled with compressed air to surface. breaking. Steel, for example, is strong, but lead
is weak.
The compressed air for the pneumatic system
is maintained in storage tanks (called banks) at TOUGHNESS is the property of a metal that
a pressure of 4500 psi. During surfacing, the will not permit it to tear or shear (cut) easily and
pneumatic system delivers compressed air to the will allow it to stretch without breaking.
desired control tanks (the tanks filled with water).
Since the pressure of the air is greater than the Metal preservation aboard ship is a continuous
pressure of the water, the water is forced out of operation, since the metals are constantly exposed
the tank. As a result, the weight of the ship to fumes, water, acids, and moist salt air. All of
decreases. It becomes more buoyant and rises to these elements will eventually cause corrosion. The
the surface. corrosion of iron and steel is called rusting. This
results in the formation of iron oxide (iron and
oxygen) on the surface of the metal. Iron oxide
(or rust) can be identified easily by its reddish
METALS color. (A blackish hue occurs in the first stage of
rusting but is seldom thought of as rust.)
As you look around, you see not only that Corrosion can be reduced or prevented by use of
your ship is constructed of metal, but also that better grades of alloyed metals. Chromium and
the boilers, piping system, machinery, and even nickel are commonly used. Coating the surface
your bunk and locker are constructed of some with paint or other metal preservatives also helps
type of metal. No one type of metal can serve all prevent rust.
the needs aboard ship. Many types of metals or
metal alloys must be used. A strong metal must Metals and alloys are divided into two
be used for some parts of a ship, while a general classes: ferrous and nonferrous. Ferrous
lightweight metal is needed for other parts. Some metals are those composed primarily of iron.
areas require special metal that can be shaped or Nonferrous metals are those composed primarily
worked very easily. of some element or elements other than iron.
One way to tell a common ferrous metal from a
The physical properties of some metals or
nonferrous metal is by using a magnet. Most
metal alloys make them more suitable for one use
ferrous metal is magnetic, and nonferrous metal
than for another. Various terms are used in
is nonmagnetic.
describing the physical properties of metals. By
studying the following explanations of these
Elements must be alloyed (or mixed) together
terms, you should have a better understanding of
to obtain the desired physical properties of a
why certain metals are used on one part of the
metal. For example, alloying (or mixing)
ship’s structure and not on another part.
chromium and nickel with iron produces a metal
BRITTLENESS is a property of a metal that known as special treatment steel (STS). An STS
will allow it to shatter easily. Metals, such as cast has great resistance to penetrating and shearing
iron or cast aluminum and some very hard steels, forces. A nonferrous alloy that has many uses
are brittle. aboard ship is copper-nickel. It is used extensively
in saltwater piping systems. Copper-nickel is a
DUCTILITY refers to the ability of a metal mixture of copper and nickel. Many other
to stretch or bend without breaking. Soft iron, different metals and alloys are used aboard ship
soft steel, and copper are ductile metals. that will not be discussed here.

2-19
 With all the different types of metals used SUMMARY
aboard ship, some way must be used to identify
these metals in the storeroom. The Navy uses two In this chapter we have discussed some
systems to identify metals: the continuous of the basic laws and principles of physics
identification marking system and the color mark- as they apply to the engineering ratings. We
ing system. These systems have been designed covered matter, magnetism, electricity, Ohm’s
so even after a portion of the metal has been law, Newton’s laws, and mass and its different
removed, the identifying marks are still visible. properties. Mechanical energy, thermal energy,
In the continuous identification marking and topics of energy transformations were
system, the identifying information is actually described. We also provided you information
painted on the metal with a heavy ink. This on temperature, pressure definitions, principles
marking appears at specified intervals over the of hydraulics, principles of pneumatics, and
length of the metal. The marking contains the metals.
producer’s trademark and the commercial
designation of the metal. The marking also This chapter was provided to give you only
indicates the physical condition of the metal, such the basis on which to expand your knowledge of
as cold drawn, cold rolled, and seamless. electrical and mechanical fundamentals. It is
In the color marking system, a series of color important that you have a sound understanding
symbols with a related color code is used to of these laws and principles. The complex
identify metals. The term color symbol refers to electrical and mechanical systems and the
a color marking actually painted on the metal. The internal pressure-temperature relationships in an
symbol is composed of one, two, or three colors engineering plant make it imperative that you
and is painted on the metal in a conspicuous place. understand the material presented. If you have
These color symbols correspond to the elements problems understanding this material, you should
of which the metal is composed. reread the pertinent portions until you have
For further information on the metals used absorbed the basic concepts. You will use this
aboard ship, their properties and identification information throughout your naval career.
systems, refer to the TRAMAN, Hull Mainte- Study this information so you will have a
nance Technician 3 & 2, NAVEDTRA 10571-1, good foundation of understanding within the
chapter 4. engineering department of your ship.

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