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CHAPTER 2
EVALUATING NUTRITION INFORMATION

OVERVIEW

Chapter 2 focuses on the generation and dissemination of nutrition knowledge. The scientific method is
presented as the basis for nutrition research, and basic research methods are discussed. Various
sources of nutrition information are evaluated, including peer-reviewed scientific journals, popular
media, the Internet, and registered dietitians. The chapter places a strong emphasis on the importance
of being a critical and educated consumer of nutrition information. The Nutrition Matters section
provides information on dietary supplements and complementary and alternative medicine.

TEACHING STRATEGIES

1. Evaluating nutrition information on the Internet.

Students search the Internet for a website that promotes dietary supplements or a nutrition-related
device. The site should include nutrition information. Students use Table 2.1 and the information on
pages 45-47 to judge the truthfulness of each claim or statement. In a paper or class presentation,
students should explain why the site is or is not a reliable source of nutrition information.

2. Using Dietary Supplements: What Happened?

When preparing to discuss dietary supplements, ask students to bring in their dietary supplement
bottles. Have students explain why they took the supplement(s) and whether they experienced any
benefits or were harmed by using the product(s). Ask if any of the students experienced the
“placebo effect”? If students do not have the dietary supplement containers, they can check Table
2.2 to determine whether they have used one or more of the products listed.

3. Applying the Scientific Method

Ask students to select a nutrition topic that is of interest to them, such as obesity, diabetes, or
vitamin C. Students learn to use the National Library of Medicine’s, PubMed website
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ to search for articles that relate to their topic. Students
should note the number of articles that are available concerning the topic, and choose one article
Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 from a peer-reviewed journal published within the past five years to read. Students should analyze
the article. Is it a review article or a report of a study? If the article is about a study, did the study
involve animals or humans? How many? Did the investigators follow the steps of the scientific

Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

 method? Were there controls? What were the credentials and professional affiliations of the
author(s)? Does the article reveal the source(s) of financial support for the research?

4. Designing a Study
Have students form groups of 5 to 7 people. Provide each group with a hypothesis that relates to
human nutrition, such as “Eating sugar makes people obese,” “Eating grapefruit facilitates weight
loss,” “Taking vitamin B-6 supplements reduces the signs and symptoms of PMS,” or “Taking
thiamin supplements protect against mosquito bites. “ Ask the students to use the scientific method
to design an experimental or observational study involving human subjects that investigates their
hypothesis. The study designs should include a review of literature, number of subjects, time frame,
controls (if experimental), etc.

Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

5. Have students search the Internet to find a website that offers nutrition information. Students
should read the information at the site and identify any “red flags” for misinformation (see pages
46-47). Have students evaluate the quality of the information presented on the website. In their
report to the class, students should identify the URL of the site and its sponsorship. Students
summarize the information, including claims; evaluate the site for bias; and search the site for any
disclaimers. Students are to determine whether the site is a reliable source of nutrition information,
and explain why it is or is not.

6. Have students contact a local health care facility to determine whether registered dietitians are on
the staff. After locating dietitians, individual students or groups of students arrange to interview an
RD concerning his or her job. Students should ask the RD why he or she decided to major in
dietetics and what they like and dislike about their profession. Instructors can also invite a
registered dietitian to visit the class and answer questions from students about his or her
background and the profession of dietetics.

7. Have students visit www.fda.com to learn more about the drug approval process. Students should
compare the way the FDA regulates prescription drugs with the regulation of dietary supplements.

8. Have students read the “Did You Know?” feature on page 36. Ask students to determine whether Dr.
Joseph Goldberger applied the scientific method in his research. What steps did he include? Why did
the scientific community largely ignore his findings?

CHAPTER OUTLINE

I. Nutrition: Science for Consumers

A. Introduction
1. Much of the information from popular literature is not evidence-based (not supported by
scientific evidence).
2. Consumers are challenged to understand how scientists collect evidence about nutrition and
health, and how to analyze the information to determine whether it is factual and based on
solid evidence (reliable) or misinformation that is not supported by the facts.
3. The goal is to become a more critical and careful consumer.
B. Understanding the scientific method
1. Recommendations based on conventional beliefs, traditions, or anecdotes are rejected
when they are no longer supported by scientific evidence.
2. The scientific method is used to conduct research:
a. Make observations.
b. Formulate hypotheses.
c. Review current literature.
d. Design studies, perform tests, collect data.
e. Analyze data, draw conclusions.
f. Report findings.
g. Conduct more research to confirm or refute previous findings.
C. Laboratory experiments
1. An experiment is a systematic way of testing a hypothesis.

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 a. In vivo experiments use whole living organisms.
b. In vitro experiments use cells or other components derived from living organisms.
2. The scientific method illustrated in Fig. 2.1 is followed in lab experiments.
3. Experiments usually involve two groups: treatment and control; this allows the researcher
to determine the effects of the treatment.
4. Many variables can influence the outcomes of an experiment.
5. Researchers must be careful when applying the results of animal or in vitro studies to people
due to physiological differences.
D. Human research: experimental (intervention) studies
1. These studies are conducted in order to gain information about the effects of specific
dietary practices on health conditions.
2. A two-group design is generally used: treatment and control.
3. Control group participants receive a placebo; members of the treatment group receive the
actual treatment.
a. The placebo effect occurs when someone reports a positive or negative effect of the
treatment when they have in fact received a “fake treatment.”
b. Placebos can produce beneficial physiological or psychological effects.
4. Did You Know? The idea that something missing in a diet could cause a nutrient deficiency
disease was not widely accepted in early 1900s.
a. Dr. Joseph Goldberger observed that people who developed pellagra were poor and
their diets did not regularly include meat, milk, and fresh vegetables.
b. Dr. Goldberger’s work led to the future discovery that pellagra was the result of niacin
deficiency.
E. Double-blind studies
a. Studies are usually double-blind; neither the researcher or the participant is aware of group
assignment.
b. This procedure is necessary in order to preserve the integrity of the study.
F. Human research: epidemiological studies
1. Epidemiology is the study of disease rates among different population groups, factors
associated with the occurrence of diseases, and how diseases spread in a population.
a. Data for epidemiological studies may be obtained by physical examinations or surveys.
b. These studies are conducted in order to gain information about the effect of specific
dietary practices on health conditions.
c. The National Nutrition and Health Examination Survey (NHANES) data helped scientists
determine the prevalence of major diseases, their risk factors, and national standards
for measurements associated with health status, including height, weight, and blood
pressure.
2. Observational epidemiological studies
a. Case-control
i. Individuals with a health condition are matched to similar persons who do not have
the condition.
ii. Detailed information is collected on both groups of participants and factors
associated with the health condition are identified.
b. Cohort
i. Information is collected on a large group of people over time.
ii. Cohort studies can be retrospective or prospective.

Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

 iii. Scientists use these types of studies to identify links between exposures and disease
occurrence.
iv. Data from the Framingham Heart Study identified risk factors for heart disease:
elevated blood cholesterol levels, cigarette smoking, and hypertension.
3. Limitations of epidemiological studies
a. Epidemiological studies can suggest hypotheses, but cannot establish causation.
b. A correlation is a relationship between variables; two variables change together over
the same period of time.
i. Direct (positive) correlation: two variables change in the same direction.
ii. Inverse (negative) correlation: two variables change in opposite directions.
c. Correlations may occur by mere chance and have nothing to do with the variables being
studied.
G. Analyzing data, drawing conclusions, and reporting findings
1. Statistical methods are used to test relationships between the variables under study.
a. Researchers summarize and seek to publish findings.
b. During peer review, investigators who were not part of the study critically analyze the
research design, conduct of the study, and determine whether the results are fairly
represented.
2. Research bias may occur when the scientists or their funding agencies have certain
expectations about the research outcomes; authors are often required to disclose their
affiliations and financial support to help readers interpret the reliability of the findings.
3. Spreading the news
a. Media (e.g., newspapers, television, popular magazines, Internet) may sensationalize or
oversimplify scientific findings.
b. Nutrition information reported by the media may be faulty or biased, as it is generally
not subject to peer review.
c. Popular (non-peer reviewed) magazines generally have colorful, attractive covers with
short, easy-to-read articles.
H. Confusion and conflict
1. Confusion, discouragement, and mistrust among the public may result from the conflicting
scientific evidence reported by the media.
2. Conflicting findings arise from differences in study design, subject characteristics,
assessment methods, and statistical analysis.
3. The science of nutrition is constantly evolving; change is to be expected.
II. Nutrition Information: Fact or Fiction
A. Introduction
1. A testimonial is a personal endorsement of a product; endorsers are usually paid for the
testimonial.
2. Anecdotal experience is not the same as scientific evidence.
B. Be skeptical of claims
1. It is prudent to be skeptical about nutrition information until you have investigated the
credibility of its sources.
2. The U.S. Constitution guarantees freedom of press and freedom of speech, but does not
protect the public against misinformation.
3. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulates health claims on supplement labels, but
does not regulate information contained in pamphlets, books, or websites.
4. Promoters of supplements/diets may employ pseudoscience.

Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

 a. Citing scientific studies to support their claims, whereas these studies may not be
credible or may not be representative of all data (i.e., may not include contradictory
findings).
b. Using complex, scientific-sounding terms.
5. Nutrition misinformation capitalizes upon the public’s mistrust of the scientific and medical
community; scare tactics fuel this mistrust.
6. The decision-making responsibility lies with the consumer; it is prudent to seek opinions of a
medical professional.
C. Ask questions
1. What motivates the authors, promoters, or sponsors to provide the information? Do you
think they are more interested in your health and well-being or selling their products?
2. Is the research source from a peer-reviewed journal?
3. If a study is cited, how was the research conducted? Did the study involve humans or
animals? If people participated in the study, how many subjects were involved in the
research? Who sponsored the study?
4. To provide scientific support for claims, does the source cite respected nutrition or medical
journals or mention reliable experts?
a. Providing nutrition information and advice without proper training and licensing is
illegal.
b. Quackery promotes useless medical treatments; see www.quackwatch.org.
D. Look for red flags:
1. Promises of quick and easy remedies for health-related problems
2. Claims that sound too good to be true.
3. Scare tactics
4. Personal attacks on conventional scientists and health care practitioners.
5. Statements about the superiority of natural dietary supplements and unconventional
medical practices
6. Testimonials and anecdotes
7. Information that promotes a product’s benefits while overlooking its risks.
8. Vague, meaningless, or scientific-sounding terms
9. Sensational statements without citing complete references of sources.
10. Recommendations based on a single study.
11. Information concerning nutrients or human physiology that is not supported by reliable
scientific evidence.
12. Results disclaimers in small difficult-to-read print
E. Using the Internet wisely
1. Investigate the credibility of the source or sponsor.
2. Be wary of the objectivity of information found on sites designed to sell a specific product.
3. Look for disclaimers.
4. Sites sponsored by nationally recognized health associations, non-profit organizations,
government agencies, or academic institutions generally present reliable information.
5. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) enforces consumer protection laws that relate to health
information presented on the Internet.
6. Table 2.1 presents more tips for searching nutrition information on the Internet.

III. Reliable Nutrition Experts

A. Introduction

Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

 1. There is no standard legal definition for the term “nutritionist.”
2. A registered dietitian is a college-trained expert in nutrition.
B. Becoming a registered dietitian or registered dietitian nutritionist
1. There are three major divisions of dietetics:
a. Clinical dietetics
b. Community nutrition
c. Food service systems management
2. An RD or RDN has completed a BS degree in an accredited school.
3. Courses for dietetics students include food and nutrition, chemistry, biology, physiology,
food service systems management, business, and communications.
4. Student dietitians must also complete a supervised practice program at a health care facility.
5. After completing a supervised practice program, student dietitians are eligible to take a
national certification exam to become an RD or RDN.
6. RDs and RDNs must continually update their knowledge by obtaining continuing education
credits.
IV. Nutrition Matters –What are Dietary Supplements?
A. Introduction
1. Almost 50% of U.S. adults report taking one or more dietary supplements regularly.
2. The DSHEA defines a dietary supplement as a product that adds to a person’s intake and
contains one or more dietary ingredients; is taken by mouth; and is not promoted as a
conventional food.
3. Dietary supplements include nutrient pills, protein powders, herbal supplements, and
energy drinks and bars.
4. Table 2.2 provides information on popular supplements.
B. What is complementary and alternative medicine?
1. CAM includes a variety of health care practices and products not accepted by conventional
health care providers.
2. CAM includes chiropractics, homeopathy, naturopathy, and massage therapy.
3. There is little evidence to support the efficacy of most nonnutrient dietary supplements.
4. NCCAM, a part of NIH, funds research on alternative medicine.
C. How are dietary supplements regulated?
1. The FDA is responsible for the safety and efficacy of medications and other health-related
products.
2. The FDA regulates dietary supplements as foods, not drugs.
3. Most of the strict FDA regulations do not apply to supplement manufacturers.
4. If the FDA determines that a supplement poses a risk to consumers, then an alert and recall
of the product is initiated.
D. Using dietary supplements wisely
1. Some herbal supplements are made from plants that have toxic parts.
2. Some herbal supplements may induce an allergic reaction.
3. Herbal supplements may interact with prescription or OTC medications.
4. Precautions should be taken with all dietary supplements.
5. A physician or registered dietitian should be consulted before using any supplement.
6. Any signs or symptoms of serious illness should immediately be reported to the physician.
7. Dietary supplements are not substitutes for nutritious foods.
8. Any negative side effects experienced should be reported to FDA’s MedWatch program.

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Discovering Diverse Content Through
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soiled. Keep stroking them away, right and left, and place a little fluff
of cotton, tissue paper, or white pine sawdust, under them. After
skinning away, you will come to a hard substance; this is the thigh.
Skin carefully around this until you come to the under side, when
you can easily insert your scissors and sever it from the body. Push
the leg up out of the skin until you come to the tarsus; clear away all
muscles and tendons, and bring the legs back into its skin again.
Repeat this process on the other side without turning the bird
around. Now skin carefully around the tail; place your forefinger
across this, and pressing it back a little, insert the scissors and sever
the stump. Great care must be taken, however, not to cut the thin
and very tender skin over the tail.
Now turn the bird up, and with its belly pointing toward you, let
the tail fall over the forefinger of your right hand, and with your
thumb nail and fingers, continue to push and work the skin until you
come to the wings; sever these at the shoulder.
Now holding the skin in the left hand, and letting the body fall
over the other side of the fingers, skin down the neck—which will
slip out as easily as a finger from a glove—until you come to the
base of the skull. Skin carefully over this, taking great care to detach
the thin membrane of the ear, with the thumb-nail or scalpel handle,
and proceed until you come to the front part of the eye socket. Cut
the thin membrane that covers the eye, taking care not to lacerate
the ball; then scoop out the eyes. Stick one point of the scissors just
inside one branch of the lower jaw, and make a cut parallel with the
jaw, crushing through the skull just outside the angle of the jaw.
Make a duplicate cut on the other side. Then at the end of these
make a transverse cut through the roof of the mouth.
Connect the posterior ends of the side cuts by cutting across the
skull near its base. You have now cut out a square-shaped piece of
bone and muscle, and by pulling gently on the neck, this will come
out, bringing with it a mass of brain. Remove all brain and muscles
of the head. Skin down the wings as far as they will go, and run the
thumb-nail along the ulna, detaching the quills to the metacarpal
bones; remove all muscles and tendons. Now turn the skin and
shovel in arsenic, so that all parts may be covered; afterwards shake
the skin over your box to remove all loose arsenic.
Some difficulty may be experienced in getting the head back into
the skin. Begin in any way you please until you see the point of the
beak coming through the feathers; seize this with the fingers, and
making a cylinder of your left hand, gently coax the skin backwards,
with a motion very much like that of milking.
Now if you wish to make the skin neat, dress every feather with
the thumb and knitting-needle, and see that they all lie in place.
Insert the knitting-needle through the eye to the top of the skull
(under the skin), adjust the scalp and see that every feather is
smooth.
In birds with large heads—such as owls, some woodpeckers and
ducks—over which the neck skin will not easily slip, a slit must be
made along the top of the head and the skull worked through, and
treated as given. When completed, sew up the skin and carefully
arrange the feathers.
When birds are to be mounted with spread wings, as if flying, it
is sometimes desirable to make the incision along the back instead
of the belly, the ventral feathers thus presenting a smoother
appearance.

MAKING A SKIN.
After a skin has been poisoned and dressed, it may be "made" by
inserting into each eye-socket, through the neck, with the knitting-
needle, a little ball of cotton. Then make a little roll of cotton and
insert it into the neck; one end in the cavity of the skull, the other
just appearing at the end of the neck. Some collectors at this point
fasten the wings to the sides, by taking a stitch through them with
needle and thread. Before doing this, be sure that the wings are in
the right place. Take a piece of cotton about one-half the size of the
bird's body, and by turning in the edges make it into an oblong ball,
corresponding to the body just removed. Place this in the skin with
the forceps, and before letting go with the thumb and forefinger
press the wings together on the back, placing the fingers under the
wings. Now draw the edges of the skin together, and making a
cylinder of each hand, gently coax the skin through, until it is of the
required shape. Then place it in a drying-rack, made by bending a
piece of zinc or tin into a half cylinder. Leave it to dry for a few days.
Many collectors never mount birds, but prefer "made skins." These
may be relaxed at any time by wrapping in damp cotton for a few
days, and then set up as directed.

SEX
May be determined by cutting through the ribs under the right wing,
and pushing away the intestines. There, bound to the small of the
back, will be seen the testicles of the male—two spheroidal, whitish
bodies, which vary in size according to the season of the year. In the
female will be seen the ovaries, a flattened mass of whitish bodies.
These are often so minute as to defy the naked eye, and the inquirer
is obliged to employ the microscope to make the distinction. The
sign recognized by ornithologists all over the world is ♂ for males,
and ♀ for females; to which is added for young birds the Latin
juvenis or juv. or O, meaning young, and Nupt. for birds in nuptial or
breeding plumage.

STUFFING.
In the first place we must prepare the wires that we shall need.
There are three of these—the head wire and two leg wires. The first
of these must be about three or four inches longer than the bird as
it lies stretched out on the table (Fig. 2, A); the second and third
two or three inches longer than the leg (C).
 Fig. 2. [Click here for negative image]
These wires must be perfectly straight (in the case of small wires
this may be done by stretching), and have one end sharpened. To
do this make a little groove with the file in the table, lay the end of
the wire in this, and holding it in the left hand, place the forefinger
near the end, and seizing the file in the right hand slowly sharpen,
revolving the wire at the same time with the left. This will seem a
little awkward at first, but you will soon become accustomed to it.
Now take a piece of sand-paper and polish the wires.
Take the longest of the three wires, and bend the unsharpened
end into an oblong ring—in length according to the size of the bird
to be mounted. Or, instead of the ring, you may make a little oval
block of wood, secure the head wire to one end, and bore holes for
the leg wires, which must be firmly fastened. For this Blue Jay we
will make it about one inch in length. Now around this ring or block
as a nucleus, or foundation, place the tow and wind it on with
thread or string, continually putting on more tow until you have an
egg-shaped form (B). Wind around and then lengthways to
accomplish this. For birds larger than a canary, the body may be
made of hay or excelsior, and finished with a coating of tow. This is
easier to put wires through, and is more economical. The tow body
must be as near the size of the natural body as possible, if anything
a trifle smaller, on no account larger. In order to be more accurate, I
generally keep the body of the bird skinned, on my table, and while
winding compare the artificial body with this until it is perfected. In
this way a better shaped and firmer body is produced. Be careful
that you do not get the body too soft (you cannot get it too hard), or
when you come to set up your bird it will be too weak to stand on its
legs; the wires will have nothing to clinch and hold to. Now take a
bit of cotton, and with the forceps introduce into the eye-socket
through the neck. Repeat on the other side. Fill up the cavity
between the mandibles and the space in the cranium with finely cut
tow. Unless you are making a "skin," this had better be done directly
after poisoning the skin, before turning the head through the neck.
Now as to the neck. Some say, "Fill out gently with chopped tow." I
prefer to wind the wire, A, for a short distance, with a bit of tow. To
make this stick, first rub the wire with a piece of beeswax. This, I
think, makes a better neck, and is less liable to misshape and
contort the skin.
Now push the leg wire through the sole of the foot, and run it
along the leg-bone up through the leg. Great care must be taken not
to break the tarsus or run the wire through the loose skin which
envelops the leg so as to tear it. Repeat on the other leg. Now wind
a little splint of tow around the bone and wire of each leg. This will
require some practice, but once acquired it is very easy. Place the
body in the skin, and with a twisting motion run the wire out
through the top of the head. Gently draw the skin over the body
until it is about half way in. Then run the leg wires through the body,
a little front of the middle and a trifle higher up. When the wire
appears through the other side, seize it with the twisters, and
bending it into a hook, draw it firmly into the body. Repeat on the
other side. Now work the body entirely into the skin, by bending
lengthwise the legs, and gently sliding them on the wires. This done,
take a little chopped tow or cotton and place it under the body, on
each side, directly where the shoulders come. Pin or sew the edges
of the skin together. There will be a long piece of wire projecting
from the head. Cut this off, say quarter of an inch from the head;
and making a ring at the unsharpened end, push it through the
stump of the tail into the body. This is to support the tail (D).
Just now the bird is a decidedly shabby looking affair, and if you
are not careful you will find yourself getting discouraged, and
thinking that you have spoiled the skin. But do not despair, for if you
have carefully followed the directions, all will be right, and you will
soon have the pleasure of seeing a well-mounted specimen. But it
will only be after many failures that you will succeed. Remember
"Post nubila Phœbus,"—and it is just the same with bird stuffing.

Fig. 3. [Click here for

negative image]

The legs are now straddling wide apart. Bring them together
parallel to each other, and make a sharp bend at the knee, bringing
them over the body in a natural position. Now place the bird on a
temporary perch; bend back the head, and arrange the body in the
position you think most lifelike. Some difficulty may be found in
adjusting the wings, but if preceding processes have been rightly
carried out, they will readily fall, or may be easily worked into place.
Stick two pins through them at right and obtuse angles to hold them
in place (1 and 2, Fig. 3). Now your bird will look much better, and
with the exception of rumpled feathers, quite lifelike. To remedy this
latter, with the knitting-needle and thumb go all over the bird with a
kind of picking process; lifting the feathers and letting them gently
fall into place. You cannot work over the bird too long in this way;
and the more time you spend in dressing the feathers, the better will
be your specimen after drying. Now stick two pins along the back,
and three along the breast (G, H, I, J, K). Fasten one end of the
thread from the bobbin to the projecting head wire, and carefully
wind the entire bird. Do this loosely, so as not to disarrange any of
the feathers, tightening, however, wherever they tend to rise or look
uneven.
This winding process is considered by some to be the most
difficult part of bird mounting.
The specimen should now be set away for several days, or even
weeks, if the bird be a large one, and allowed to dry; after which it
may be unwound; the eyelids soaked, by inserting little flabs of wet
cotton until they become soft and pliable; the eyes inserted in putty,
and the lids carefully adjusted over them. The protruding head wire
and the pins in the wings are cut off, and your bird mounted on the
perch which you have already prepared for it.

WINGS AND TAIL.

Wings may be spread by running a wire through the primaries
(Fig. 1, A) into the body, and placing another near the end of the
wing as a support while drying. The tail may be spread by running a
wire through the quills, near the "pope's nose" (Fig. 2, E), or by
placing a bit of split wood across the tip and tying the open end
firmly (Fig. 3, L). Crests may be raised or spread by inserting a small
fluff, or ball of cotton under the feathers, using a pin to hold them in
place.
 When glass eyes are not at hand, black beads may be used. Or
white glass beads may have a pupil (black) surrounded by the iris
(yellow or brown) painted with oil colors on the back. If neither of
the above can be procured, a half globe of the right size may be cut
out of cork or wood and a pin run through its centre. The outside is
then to be covered with sealing-wax or varnish until quite smooth,
and then painted the required color.
The feet, tarsi, cere and loose skin about the necks of some birds
often fade or become dull. These should be carefully painted,
imitating the original colors as closely as possible.
You have now completed your first lesson, and I advise that you
become perfectly familiar with skinning and mounting birds, before
you take up that of animals. For you cannot become too familiar and
too much at home in this department; and it will come in play fifty
times, where the other does once.
 CHAPTER II.
PERCHES.
A very pretty perch can be made by arranging wires in the shape
of a twig or branch, having one end firmly fastened in a block of
wood. Wind the wires to the proper size with tow, and after giving
the whole a coating of thin glue, sprinkle over it smalts and dry
moss, rubbed fine in the hands; when this is dry, you can glue on
artificial leaves, flowers, and grasses as your taste prompts. Another
good perch for small birds is a stump made of pasteboard, with a
small opening on one side. Cover this with the same materials as
above. It should be about an inch and a half in height. Another
perch is made by reducing pasteboard to a pulp, and moulding it
around a twig or wire form. Boil the pasteboard to a pulp in a little
water. Then force through a coarse sieve, and mix with thin glue.
Mould this around the form, give it a coat of brown paint, and
decorate to taste. To give it a rougher appearance, a coarse comb
may be drawn over it before painting.
A very effective way of mounting hummingbirds is to form a tree
with small palm leaves, or others, attached to a moss-covered stalk,
having moss and grasses at its base. Let the hummers have the
wings and tails spread, and crests and breast-tufts raised in the most
effective manner. They are then attached to single wires starting
from the limbs of the tree, with back or breast showing according to
the part which is to be displayed.
Another good way, especially where the collection is large, is a
single wire bent oval, and both ends fastened to a block standard. To
the outside and inside are fixed short perches of wire upon which
the birds are mounted.
 Birds mounted for ornamental
purposes should be placed under
glass, to protect them from dust and
insects. A very neat homemade case
is constructed of window-glass, cut of
the proper dimensions; the sides, top
and bottom being fastened together
by strips of stout paper glued over
their edges. Or the glass may be set in
a light framework of wood, which may
be painted, stained, or ebonized. To
ebonize, you require extract of
logwood, a supply of rusty nails, or
scraps of iron, and some vinegar.
Place the iron in the vinegar a week or
more before using the latter. When
you are ready to begin, give the wood
Fig. 4. several coatings with a strong solution
of the logwood, and when this is
nearly dry, brush over with the vinegar. A fine dull black color will be
produced.
All ducks, wading and ground birds should be mounted on a
piece of board; and long-legged birds should have one foot a little in
advance of the other, as if in the act of stepping. The attitudes of
birds, seen in your rambles, may be put to use in your mounted
specimens, and your own taste will suggest a variety of perches and
ways for mounting.
 CHAPTER III.
SKINNING AND MOUNTING
MAMMALS.
When the beginner has once become proficient in skinning and
mounting birds, he will have but little difficulty in "setting up"
mammals. The same general principles are to be observed with
each.

SKINNING.
Cut with the scalpel or stout scissors from the breast-bone down
to the anus: sever the legs close to body, and treat both legs and
head as given for birds.
Some difficulty may be experienced in skinning the tail. This is
readily done if it be a hairy tail, by pushing the skin over the first
two or three vertebræ, then seizing the stump with the left hand,
pull, at the same time holding the skin back with the right hand. The
bone will generally slip out as easily as a sword from its sheath; but
if it will not come, tie a knot of strong cord over the end, and fasten
to some support firmly. Then holding on with the right hand, as
before, you can easily strip the tail to the tip.

MOUNTING.
Instead of three, you must now have five wires. Sharpen and
sand-paper, as the former, and make a nucleus for body. The shape
of an animal, with the neck severed from the skull, is like the italic f
laid on its side ( ). This is made by winding the tow on the
nucleus, the same as with birds, and drawing the string tight at
different points to give it the required form.
Run the leg wires up through the leg, and wind with tow to the
proper size. Push the wires through the body, and fasten them. If
any special position is required for the tail, a wire may be run
through the body into it; otherwise it may merely be pinned to the
stand until dry. Having completed the wiring and stuffing, sew up
the skin; bring the legs over the body, parallel to each other, and
make the required bend at the knees. Now mount your specimen in
such a manner as you may choose; put in the eyes and set away to
dry. There will be deficiencies, here and there, where the body does
not quite fill out the skin. These must be supplied with chopped tow,
before sewing up the skin.
You can get the size and curves of the body only by practice; but
these few words on the subject may be found of assistance to you;
remembering that all quadrupeds curve greatly from the top of the
hips to the tail.
If the animal is to be mounted with the mouth open, place pieces
of wood between the jaws, and stuff out the lips in a natural manner
until dry,—when the props may be removed. A tongue is made of
cork or light wood, with two wires secured to the back, by which it is
afterwards fastened to the skull. Cover your artificial tongue with
wax, and place in position. The inside of the mouth and the gums
must also be neatly covered with wax. The whole now requires to be
painted with the color most resembling nature, and when that is dry
brushed over with a mixture of Damar varnish and oil of turpentine.
The best stand on which to mount mammals is an oval block of
wood varying in thickness according to the size of the specimen. The
name should be painted in black letters on the side of the block, and
the whole varnished. Rocks, stump effects, etc., are made by
bending paste-board to the required shape, fastening to a standard,
and stiffening with glue. Sand, smalts, etc., may then be dusted on.
If there are several mammals mounted in the same case, a
watercolor background is very effective.
 CHAPTER IV.
SKINNING AND MOUNTING FISHES
AND REPTILES.
FISHES.—SKINNING.
These may be opened in two ways, according to the position in
which the specimen is to be mounted. If the fish is to rest on its
belly, an incision should be made the entire length of the ventral
surface, from the gills to the end of the tail. If the fish is to rest on
its side, the incision should be made on the side. Before proceeding
farther cover the entire fish with tissue paper which will adhere with
the use of thin gum.
Now, with the scalpel, handle carefully, detach the soft parts
from the skin, cutting rib-bones with the scissors, until the back is
reached. Cut through the fin-bones, and the body will be found quite
loose. Detach the tail end, and remove all muscle from the
remaining vertebræ. Cut through the body at the base of the skull;
clean brain cavity thoroughly, and remove eyes. This latter operation
may require some assistance from the scissors, on the outside. All
muscles about the eyes and skull should be carefully removed. When
your skin is ready, poison it well with the arsenic-alum powder.

MOUNTING.
The artificial body for your specimen may be made of the same
materials as used in stuffing birds and mammals, of clay, plaster of
Paris, or the skin may be simply dried. A tow body may be made and
covered with a layer of clay, to give it a smooth, even surface. You
may form a mould by pressing your specimen into damp clay,
allowing this to dry and then coating the mould with colored varnish.
When this is dry, pour plaster of Paris of the consistency of cream
into the mould and let dry. The other side of the fish must be treated
in the same way, and the two halves united by the solution of
plaster. When your body is ready, place it in the skin and sew up.
Place the specimen in the required position and fasten to a board by
stout pins driven on each side. Spread the fins, tail, etc., by means
of the wooden clamps already mentioned (Fig. 3, L), and set the
specimen away to dry. A very convenient way of treating many
specimens, especially hard-scaled fish, is to bring the sides of the
opening together by a few stitches, and glue a strip of cloth the
entire length of the incision. Before this is done, however, the end of
the tail beyond the anus must be stuffed out with cotton. Take a few
stitches through the gills to hold them down while drying. Now place
a tin tunnel in the fish's mouth, and fill out the skin with fine sand.
Place a wad of cotton in the throat, to keep the sand in; put the
specimen in the desired position; remove the tissue paper with
sponge and water; and set your specimen away for several weeks,
to dry. When you are ready to mount your specimen, make several
small holes in it, to let the sand out, and when quite empty fasten to
a board; mount in a case, or in any way which your taste may
suggest. It is sometimes desirable to retain only one side of a
specimen. That side should be covered with tissue paper, as
directed, and the other side, soft parts, bone, etc., cut away. Poison,
place the skin on a board, and pin or nail the edges fast, that it may
not contract while drying. Mount specimens with glass eyes, and
brush over with a coat of varnish. If spots, etc., fade, they must be
touched up with paint.

REPTILES.—SKINNING.
Snakes, frogs, etc. may be opened along the belly, or they may
be skinned through the mouth. If the latter, open the mouth as wide
as possible, and with the scissors cut through the body and first
vertebra. Seize the stump with a pair of forceps, and carefully push
the muscles from the skin, at the same time drawing the body out of
the mouth. This, of course, inverts the skin. Poison thoroughly.

MOUNTING.
The best way to treat frogs is to fill out the skin with sand, and
when dry let the sand out of it through pin holes. Put in eyes and
varnish. Snakes may be stuffed out with sand, or a body may be
made. For the latter, take a piece of annealed wire, rather shorter
than the specimen, wind with tow to the required size, and place in
the skin. The wire enables you to give the specimen any position
desired; while, if sand is used, the specimen must either lie coiled up
or straight. If the mouth is to be kept open, a tongue may be made
of fine wire and painted red.
 CHAPTER V.
EGGS AND NESTS.
A full set of eggs is always desirable, if they can be obtained,
but, as the old saying is, "A half-loaf is better than no bread." The
contents may be removed by making a hole in the side of the egg
with an egg drill, and sucking out the white and yolk with a glass
blow-pipe, or by means of a little syringe with a bit of rubber tubing
attached to the nozzle. If the young have already formed, a
squarish-shaped hole may be made on one side, and the contents
hooked out. The hole may be afterwards closed by pasting a bit of
film or tissue paper over it. While drilling through the shell, the egg
should be held over water, so that if dropped it may not be broken;
or an arrangement made of wire resembling a pair of scissors, the
ends terminating in a ring or oval, may be used. The ends are then
covered with netting; thus forming a soft, yet strong, resting-place
for the egg. (Fig. 5.)
The name of the
specimen, together
with size, date of
collection and
collector's name,
should be written on
the shell of each egg,
and the entire hatch
Fig. 5. returned to the nest. It
would be a good plan
to give the eggs the same number as the parent bird, if this is
obtained, together with a number of their own. You can then note
them in your ornithological ledger, or, if you choose, you can keep an
oölogical ledger separate.
 Nests should be preserved, if possible, attached to the branch on
which they were found. This stem should be from three to six inches
long, and be attached by its base to a block standard. Or, nests may
be placed in little glass trays, made of pieces of window-glass held
together by strips of paper glued over the edges. If the nest is not
cared for, or cannot be obtained, the eggs may be placed on cotton,
in little boxes, and arranged in the cabinet to suit the collector. A
very good and safe way of transporting eggs, is to place them
between two layers of cotton in the nest, which must be packed
closely, but without pressure.

GUM PASTE.

Gum Arabic, 4 ounces.

Corrosive Sublimate, 2 grains.
White Sugar Candy, 2 ounces.
Mix.
Melt, and label "Gum Paste, for closing the holes drilled in eggs,"
etc.
 CHAPTER VI.
SKELETONS.
During the busy collecting season, rough skeletons may be made
by removing skin, viscera, and as much muscle as possible, covering
the body with the arsenic-alum powder, and allowing it to dry, when
the specimen may be wrapped in paper and laid away for future use.
To prepare skeletons for the cabinet, remove as much of the fleshy
parts as possible, and boil the bones until the remaining flesh is
softened and can be easily removed. Then boil in water in which a
piece of lime as large as a hen's egg has been dissolved. Remove,
dry, and if necessary wire.
Another way recommended is to remove all the soft parts, and
scald the hard parts in boiling water containing a few drops of
hydrochloric acid. Leave the bones in this solution for ten minutes,
wash, and boil in plain water until all the muscle, etc., is softened.
Clean this away with a brush or by a stream of water. Boil in a strong
solution of soda, wash with soap and water, and when perfectly
clean, dehydrate with boiling alcohol (Junker). Skeletons should be
mounted on wires fixed in a wooden standard painted black.
 CHAPTER VII.
HUNTING AND HYGIENE.
To be a good collector, it is necessary to be something more than
a good marksman. You must know at what time of day to go out to
be most successful, and the localities where you are most likely to
find the birds that you are looking for. In the field, you must be all
eyes and ears. No thicket should be too dense, no tree too tall for
your quick eye to penetrate its foliage; no chirp or rustle too small or
weak for your active ear to detect. In short, to be a good collector
you must understand wood-craft. Sometimes a bird is seen just
disappearing into the underbrush. A very good call, which seldom
fails in bringing the bird from its retreat, is made by placing the back
of the hand to the lips and sucking. By practice, this may be made to
resemble the cries of a wounded bird. Early morning and just before
sun-down have been found to be the best hours for collecting,
although something may be done at any time of day. During the
noon hours, birds generally remain hidden in the cool depths of the
thickets and woods. Birds are seldom found in the deep forest; but,
at the hours mentioned, trees and bushes skirting roads, fields and
meadows, will be found teeming with life.

THE GUN.
The choice of a gun for collecting purposes is, of course, optional
with the reader; but a good twelve or fourteen bore breech-loading
shot gun will give better satisfaction than any other, and will be
worth the price of the gun in time-saving, when in the field. The
pistol-guns, introduced within the last few years, often prove of
great service in collecting small specimens.
 LOADING.
Several sizes of shot should be taken into the field, ranging from
dust or mustard seed, as it is sometimes called, to No. 6 or 8. For all
small birds up to the size of a robin, dust shot should be used; and I
have even killed grouse and plover with it, although, it must be
confessed, at a very short range. The larger sizes are used for hawks
and all large birds. With several sizes of shot, you can vary your
loads according to the bird that you are pursuing. Here the breech-
loading gun is vastly superior to the old-fashioned muzzle-loader, for
it is but the work of an instant to change from large to small, or vice
versa. Be careful not to load too heavily. Most of your birds will be
killed within a few yards, and it is astonishing how little powder and
how few shot will produce the desired effect.

CARRYING.
The most convenient and safe way to carry birds in the field, is in
a common fish-creel; or in a basket which I devised and have used
for several years. It is simply a long, deep and narrow basket,
carried on the back by straps which cross in front of the chest. At
the back of the basket, outside, is a netting for carrying paper, etc.;
and on either side a pocket or pouch of cloth for cotton, etc. For all
birds under the size of a crow, this basket is very convenient.
Before going out provide yourself with a number of sheets of stiff
paper. As soon as a bird is shot, fill the mouth, anus, and shot-holes
with cotton, and drop the bird head foremost, with bill pointing
downwards, into a cornucopia of the paper, just the size of the bird's
body, and fold the edges over the tail, taking care not to rumple or
break the tail feathers. When birds are shot, they do not always die
at once; but they may be put out of misery by placing the thumb
under one wing, and the forefinger under the other, and squeezing.
After a second or so, the bird will give a gasp and die.
 This cannot be done in the case of large birds. To kill these,
insert a thin knife-blade between the skull and last vertebra, cutting
through the spinal cord; or break the back by pressing upon it with
the knee.

TRANSPORTING.
Skins may be either packed in boxes, between layers of cotton,
or they may be pushed head first into cylinders of stiff paper having
a diameter equal to the largest part of the skin.

COLLECTING SUIT.
A serviceable and comfortable hunting-suit may be made from
any good strong stuff, such as corduroy, etc. The pants should be
made rather loose, and have the seams firmly sewed. The coat
should be a mere succession of pockets, and of course very loose. A
soft, broad-brimmed felt hat, and a pair of broad-soled, low-heeled
shoes, for ordinary wear; or, for shooting where the country is wet
and boggy, a pair of high top boots may be substituted. This will be
found to be the easiest, most durable and least expensive outfit that
can be made.

EATING.
Do not start out in the morning without having first partaken of a
lunch, however slight, as a preventive, if nothing more; for tramping
on an empty stomach will almost always upset one for the whole
day.

AT HOME.
As soon as you return from your day's tramp, a good "wash-up"
and a change of clothes will rest you far more than sitting down.
Especially, if your feet are wet, lose no time in changing socks, and
all other garments that are in the least damp. By doing this, you will
save yourself many a severe cold, and perhaps a fit of sickness.

POISONING.
In case of poisoning with the arsenic, while preparing your skins,
the advice of Dr. Coues, in his "Field Ornithology," covers the whole
treatment. "Avoid," he says, "all mechanical irritation of the inflamed
parts, touch the parts that have ulcerated with a stick of lunar
caustic; take a dose of salts; use syrup of iodide of iron, or tincture
of chloride of iron, say thirty drops in a wine-glass of water, thrice a
day; rest at first; exercise gradually as soon as you can bear it; and
skin no birds till you have completely recovered." If these do not
cure, medical advice should be procured.
 HINTS ON

WRITING AND SPEECH-MAKING

BY

THOMAS WENTWORTH HIGGINSON,

AUTHOR OF
"Young Folks' History of the United States," "Young Folks' American Explorers," "Malbone,"
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The following from the author's Preface shows the purpose of
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By MARSHALL T. BIGELOW, Corrector at the University
Press, Cambridge. Small 4to. CLOTH, 50 CENTS.
Lenox Library, New York, Aug. 19, 1881.
 Dear Mr. Bigelow,—I sent for your "Punctuation and other
Typographical Matters" (having long groaned over bad pointing in
authors and printers), and was glad to find an excellent manual
which will contribute to the comfort of many. I cordially recommend
it to all authors, printers, and men of letters.
Faithfully yours,
Allibone's Dictionary of Authors. I. Austin Allibone.
"Mr. Bigelow's book is a practical treatment of the subject, and
enlarges the reading public's obligations to him."—Atlantic Monthly.
"It is intended for the use of authors and teachers, while
business men who have occasion to print circulars, advertisements,
etc., can hardly afford to be without a copy of it for reference."—
Schenectady Daily Union.

Mistakes in Writing English, and How to

Avoid Them.
For the Use of all who Teach, Write, or Speak the
Language. By MARSHALL T. BIGELOW, author of
"Punctuation and other Typographical Matters." CLOTH, 50
CENTS.
"This is an admirable little work; the more admirable for the use
of busy people, because it is little, since it is also clear and
comprehensive. The errors pointed out are those to which nearly all
writers are liable.... We commend it as the most convenient little
manual of which we have knowledge."—Christian Herald.
"This is a valuable little volume. It is not a grammar, with rules
and definitions; but it takes up words and parts of speech, and
shows, generally by example, their correct use. It is arranged
systematically, and is adapted to the use of the home and the
school."—The Current.
 "The matter is well arranged, and the points upon which
instruction is desired can be readily found."—Christian Union.
"This is a useful book. A careful study of the several chapters
would be of great advantage to all who have to do much or little
speaking or writing."—Gospel Banner.

THE RIGHT WORD IN THE RIGHT PLACE.

CAMPBELL'S

Handbook of English Synonyms

WITH AN APPENDIX,
SHOWING

The Correct Uses of Prepositions.

160 pages. Neat cloth binding, 50 cts.

This compact little volume contains about 40,000 synonymous

words, printed in clear, distinct type.
It is a work which will substantially aid speakers, writers,
teachers and students—in fact all who would gain a more copious
vocabulary and increase their power of expression.
It includes the really important matter of the more bulky volumes
which are commonly sold for two dollars or more.
 A great choice of words is here placed at the service of the writer
and the speaker.
The Appendix, containing "Prepositions Compared and
Discriminated," and "A List showing what Prepositions to use after
certain Words," is a trustworthy guide in a great number of cases of
doubtful usage. A writer's knowledge of English idiom and his style
are best shown by his use of these little hinges of the language.

Price, each, in cloth, 50 cents, except when other price is given.

Forgotten Meanings; or an Hour with a Dictionary. By Alfred Waites,
author of Historical Student's Manual.
Handbook of Elocution Simplified. By Walter K. Fobes, with an
Introduction by George M. Baker.
Handbook of English Synonyms. With an Appendix, showing the
Correct Use of Prepositions; also a Collection of Foreign Phrases.
By Loomis J. Campbell.
Handbook of Conversation. Its Faults and its Graces. Compiled by
Andrew P. Peabody, D.D., LL.D. Comprising (1) Dr. Peabody's
Address; (2) Mr. Trench's Lecture; (3) Mr. Parry Gwynne's "A Word
to the Wise; or, Hints on the Current Improprieties of Expression
in Reading and Writing;" (4) Mistakes and Improprieties of
Speaking and Writing Corrected.
Handbook of Punctuation and other Typographical Matters. For the
Use of Printers, Authors, Teachers, and Scholars. By Marshall T.
Bigelow, Corrector at the University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Handbook of Blunders. Designed to prevent 1,000 common blunders
in writing and speaking. By Harlan H. Ballard, A.M., Principal of
Lenox Academy, Lenox, Mass.
Broken English. A Frenchman's Struggle in the English Language.
Instructive as a handbook of French conversation. By Professor
E. C. Dubois.
Beginnings with the Microscope. A working handbook containing
simple instructions in the art and method of using the
microscope, and preparing articles for examination. By Walter P.
Manton.
Field Botany. A Handbook for the Collector. Containing instructions
for gathering and preserving Plants, and the formation of an
Herbarium. Also complete instructions in Leaf Photography, Plant
Printing, and the Skeletonizing of Leaves. By Walter P. Manton.
Taxidermy without a Teacher. Comprising a complete manual of
instructions for Preparing and Preserving Birds, Animals, and
Fishes, with a chapter on Hunting and Hygiene; together with
instructions for Preserving Eggs, and Making Skeletons, and a
number of valuable recipes. By Walter P. Manton.
Insects. How to Catch and how to Prepare them for the Cabinet. A
Manual of Instruction for the Field-Naturalist. By W. P. Manton.
What is to be Done? A Handbook for the Nursery, with Useful Hints
for Children and Adults. By Robert B. Dixon, M.D.
Whirlwinds, Cyclones, and Tornadoes. By William Morris Davis,
Instructor in Harvard College. Illustrated.
Mistakes in Writing English, and How to Avoid Them. For the use of
all who Teach, Write, or Speak the language. By Marshall T.
Bigelow.
Sold by all booksellers, and sent by mail, postpaid, on receipt of
price.
LEE AND SHEPARD Publishers Boston
 Price, each, in cloth, 50 cents, except when other price is given.
Exercises for the Improvement of the Senses. For Young Children. By
Horace Grant, author of "Arithmetic for Young Children." Edited by
Willard Small.
Hints on Language in connection with Sight-Reading and Writing in
Primary and Intermediate Schools. By S. Arthur Bent, A.M.,
Superintendent of Public Schools, Clinton, Mass.
The Hunter's Handbook. Containing lists of provisions and camp
paraphernalia, and hints on the fire, cooking utensils, etc.; with
approved receipts for camp-cookery. By "An Old Hunter."
Universal Phonography; or, Shorthand by the "Allen Method." A self-
instructor. By G. G. Allen.
Hints and Helps for those who Write, Print, or Read. By B. Drew,
proof-reader.
Pronouncing Handbook of Three Thousand Words often
Mispronounced. By R. Soule and L. J. Campbell.
Short Studies of American Authors. By Thomas Wentworth Higginson.
The Stars and the Earth; or, Thoughts upon Space, Time, and
Eternity. With an introduction by Thomas Hill, D.D., LL.D.
Handbook of the Earth. Natural Methods in Geography. By Louisa
Parsons Hopkins, teacher of Normal Methods in the Swain Free
School, New Bedford.
Natural-History Plays. Dialogues and Recitations for School
Exhibitions. By Louisa P. Hopkins.
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