1.

​ Definition & Explanation of Sociological Imagination

Sociological imagination, a concept introduced by C. Wright Mills, is the ability to connect

personal experiences with larger social structures. It helps individuals see that their problems are
not just personal but often shaped by historical and societal factors.

For example, if someone struggles to find a job, they might think it's due to personal failure.
However, using sociological imagination, they can understand that economic downturns,
automation, or social inequalities may be influencing unemployment rates.

This concept also helps in analyzing issues like poverty, racism, gender roles, and education by
linking them to broader social contexts. It challenges people to question societal norms and
policies instead of accepting them blindly.

By applying sociological imagination, individuals can see beyond their personal lives and
understand how society operates as a whole. It encourages critical thinking and provides a deeper
understanding of the relationship between individual lives and social change.

2.​ Definition & Explanation of Social Structure

Social structure refers to the organized pattern of relationships, roles, institutions, and norms
that shape society. It provides a framework for how individuals and groups interact, influencing
behavior, opportunities, and societal functions.

Social structure consists of key elements such as statuses and roles, which define a person’s
position in society (e.g., student, teacher, employee). Institutions like family, education,
government, and economy regulate social life. Norms and values guide acceptable behavior,
while social hierarchies determine power and access to resources.

For example, in a workplace, there is a structured hierarchy: employers, managers, and

employees, each with defined roles and responsibilities. Similarly, a school has teachers,
students, and administrators working within a structured system.

Social structure helps maintain order and stability in society by organizing relationships and
interactions. Understanding social structure allows us to see how social forces influence personal
experiences and broader societal trends.​
 3.​ Achieved Status & Ascribed Status

Achieved status and ascribed status are two types of social status that define a person’s
position in society.

Achieved status refers to a social position that a person attains through personal effort, choices,
or accomplishments. It is based on merit and can change over time. Examples include
becoming a doctor, lawyer, athlete, or entrepreneur. Education, skills, and hard work play a
crucial role in achieving this status.

Ascribed status, on the other hand, is assigned at birth or through involuntary factors, such as
race, gender, family background, or social class. It is not based on individual effort but rather
inherited or assigned by society. Examples include being born into a royal family, caste
system, or a specific ethnicity.

While achieved status is flexible and can be earned, ascribed status is fixed and often
influences opportunities. Together, these statuses shape social identity and interactions within a
society.

4.​ Definition & Explanation of Agency

Agency refers to an individual’s ability to make choices and take actions independently, shaping
their own life and influencing society. It represents free will and personal control over decisions,
rather than being entirely shaped by social structures.

For example, a student choosing to study hard and pursue higher education demonstrates agency.
Similarly, a person advocating for social change, such as protesting against inequality, exercises
their agency by actively shaping their environment.

However, agency is not unlimited; it is often influenced by social structures, cultural norms, and
economic conditions. For instance, a person from a poor background may have limited agency in
choosing career paths due to financial constraints.

Sociologists view agency as existing in tension with social structure—while people can make
choices, their opportunities are shaped by larger societal forces. Understanding agency helps
explain how individuals navigate social constraints and create change in their lives and
communities.​
 5.​ Definition & Explanation of Role conflict

Role conflict occurs when an individual faces incompatible demands from multiple roles they
occupy, leading to tension and difficulty in fulfilling these roles effectively. This concept is
pivotal in sociology and organizational behavior, as it highlights the challenges individuals
encounter when balancing various responsibilities.

Types of Role Conflict:

1.​ Inter-role Conflict: This arises when expectations from different roles clash. For
example, a person who is both a parent and a professional may struggle to attend a child's
school event due to work commitments, leading to stress from competing demands.​

2.​ Intra-role Conflict: This occurs when contradictory expectations exist within a single
role. For instance, a manager might be expected to enforce company policies strictly
while also being approachable and supportive to subordinates, creating internal conflict.​

Causes of Role Conflict:

●​ Role Ambiguity: Unclear or vague expectations about a role can lead to

misunderstandings and conflicting demands.​

●​ Overlapping Responsibilities: When roles have overlapping duties without clear

boundaries, individuals may face conflicting expectations.​

●​ Resource Constraints: Limited time, energy, or resources can make it challenging to

meet the demands of multiple roles simultaneously.​

Consequences of Role Conflict:

●​ Stress and Burnout: Persistent role conflict can lead to psychological stress, fatigue, and
burnout.​

●​ Reduced Job Satisfaction: In the workplace, role conflict often results in decreased job
satisfaction and motivation.​

●​ Impaired Performance: Struggling to meet conflicting demands can lead to decreased

effectiveness in one or more roles.​
Example:

Consider a university professor who is also a researcher. The teaching role demands time for
student interaction and lesson preparation, while the research role requires extensive time for
conducting studies and publishing findings. Balancing these roles can lead to role conflict,
especially when both require attention simultaneously.

Managing Role Conflict:

●​ Clear Communication: Open discussions with supervisors, colleagues, and family

members can help clarify expectations and negotiate manageable responsibilities.​

●​ Time Management: Effective prioritization and scheduling can assist in balancing

conflicting demands.​

●​ Seeking Support: Utilizing support systems, such as counseling or peer groups, can
provide strategies to cope with role conflict.​

Understanding role conflict is essential for developing strategies to mitigate its negative effects,
thereby promoting well-being and productivity in various aspects of life.

6.​ Definition & Explanation of Looking-Glass Self

The looking-glass self is a concept introduced by Charles Horton Cooley, which suggests that a
person’s self-identity develops based on how they believe others perceive them. It explains how
social interactions shape self-awareness and self-concept.

This process occurs in three steps:

​ 1. We imagine how we appear to others (e.g., “Do people see me as confident or shy?”).

​ 2. We interpret others’ reactions (e.g., “Are they impressed or unimpressed with me?”).

​ 3. We develop a self-concept based on these perceptions (e.g., “If they admire me, I feel
confident; if they judge me, I feel insecure.”).

For example, if a student receives praise from teachers and peers, they may see themselves as
intelligent and capable. However, frequent criticism may lead to low self-esteem.

The looking-glass self highlights how society influences identity formation and emphasizes that
self-perception is often based on social feedback, whether accurate or not.
 7.​ Micro-Sociology & Macro-Sociology

Micro sociology and macro sociology are two main approaches in sociology that study society at
different levels.

Micro-sociology focuses on small-scale, face-to-face interactions between individuals and small

groups. It examines how social norms, roles, and communication shape human behavior.
Examples include studying interactions in classrooms, family dynamics, or how body language
affects conversations. Symbolic interactionism is a key perspective in micro-sociology.

Macro-sociology, on the other hand, looks at large-scale social structures and institutions that
shape entire societies. It examines issues such as social class, economic systems, government
policies, and globalization. Examples include studying how economic inequality affects crime
rates or how cultural values shape national policies. Functionalism and conflict theory are
common macro-sociological perspectives.

While micro-sociology studies individuals in society, macro-sociology studies society as a

whole. Both perspectives are essential for understanding how personal experiences connect to
broader social forces.​
​
Definition and explanation of Culture:

Culture encompasses the social behavior, institutions, norms, knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws,
customs, capabilities, attitudes, and habits that characterize a human society. It represents the
collective way of life of a group of people, influencing how they interact, communicate, and
perceive the world around them.

Key Components of Culture:

●​ Symbols: Objects, gestures, or images that carry particular meanings recognized by a

culture.​

●​ Language: A system of communication using sounds, gestures, or written symbols.​

●​ Values: Shared beliefs about what is good, desirable, and proper.​

●​ Norms: Established rules of behavior or standards of conduct.​

●​ Artifacts: Physical objects created by a society that reflect cultural values.​

Examples of Culture:
 ●​ Japanese Tea Ceremony: A ritualistic practice reflecting Japan's values of harmony,
respect, purity, and tranquility.​

●​ Mexican Día de los Muertos: A celebration honoring deceased loved ones, showcasing
beliefs about life, death, and family.​

●​ American Jazz Music: An art form originating from African American communities,
illustrating cultural expression and innovation.​

Transmission of Culture:

Culture is passed down through generations via enculturation and socialization. Enculturation
involves learning one's native culture, while socialization is the process by which individuals
learn and adopt the behaviors and norms of their society.

Dynamic Nature of Culture:

Culture is not static; it evolves over time due to factors like technological advancements,
globalization, and intercultural interactions. For instance, the integration of the internet into daily
life has transformed communication patterns and information sharing worldwide.

Conclusion:

Understanding culture is essential for comprehending human behavior and societal development.
It shapes identities, influences social structures, and provides a framework for interpreting the
world.

8.​ Difference Between Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism (Broad)

Ethnocentrism and cultural relativism are two contrasting perspectives on how people view
different cultures.

Ethnocentrism is the belief that one’s own culture is superior to others. Ethnocentric individuals
judge other cultures based on their own cultural norms, values, and traditions. This can lead to
bias, prejudice, and misunderstandings. For example, a person from a Western country may view
arranged marriages in some cultures as outdated, without understanding the cultural significance
behind them. While ethnocentrism can create group unity, it often results in discrimination and
cultural ignorance.
Cultural relativism, on the other hand, is the idea that a culture should be understood and judged
based on its own values and beliefs, rather than through the lens of another culture. It promotes
open-mindedness and tolerance, encouraging people to appreciate cultural diversity. For
example, instead of judging traditional healing practices in indigenous cultures as unscientific, a
cultural relativist would seek to understand their historical and social importance.

The main difference is that ethnocentrism leads to cultural bias and superiority, while cultural
relativism encourages understanding and acceptance. However, cultural relativism has its
limitations—it can sometimes justify harmful practices (e.g., human rights violations) in the
name of cultural understanding.

Both concepts play a role in shaping global interactions, and a balanced

approach—acknowledging cultural differences while upholding universal human rights—is
essential for a respectful and inclusive society.

9.​ Types of Innovation: Invention & Discovery

Innovation refers to the process of bringing new ideas, products, or methods into use to improve
society, technology, or business. Innovation can be categorized into two main types:

1.​ Invention
●​ This type of innovation involves creating something entirely new that has never existed
before.
●​ It is driven by scientific research, technological advancements, and creative
problem-solving.
●​ Example: The invention of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell or the airplane by
the Wright brothers.
●​ Invention-based innovations often lead to groundbreaking changes in industries, opening
up new possibilities for further advancements.

2.​ Discovery
●​ This type of innovation occurs when a new scientific or natural phenomenon is
discovered and later applied for practical use.
●​ Unlike invention, discovery does not create something new but rather uncovers existing
realities that were previously unknown.
●​ Example: The discovery of electricity led to the development of various electrical
devices, and the discovery of DNA transformed medical research.
●​ These discoveries become the foundation for future inventions and technological
improvements.
Key Difference

●​ Invention-based innovation creates new products or technologies.

●​ Discovery-based innovation finds something new in nature or science and applies it for
human benefit.

Both forms of innovation are essential for progress, contributing to advancements in medicine,
engineering, and daily life.

10.​Culture Lag (200 Words)

Definition:

Cultural lag refers to the phenomenon where non-material culture (such as beliefs, norms, and
values) takes time to adapt to changes in material culture (like new technologies or innovations).
This lag can lead to social conflicts and ethical dilemmas as society adjusts to new
advancements.

Causes of Culture Lag:

​ 1. Ethical and Moral Concerns – New technologies may raise ethical issues that society is
not immediately prepared to address. Example: The use of artificial intelligence in
decision-making raises concerns about privacy and bias.

​ 2. Legal and Political Delays – Laws often take time to regulate new innovations.
Example: The rise of social media led to challenges in privacy laws and cybercrime regulations.

​ 3. Social Resistance – Some people resist cultural changes due to tradition or fear of the
unknown. Example: The initial resistance to online education before it became widely accepted.

Example:

The invention of self-driving cars is an example of culture lag. While technology is advancing,
society still struggles with creating laws, ethical guidelines, and public trust in autonomous
vehicles.Culture lag highlights how technological progress often outpaces social adaptation,
creating temporary instability in society.
 11.​Material and Non Material Culture (200 Words)​

Culture encompasses the shared beliefs, practices, artifacts, and institutions of a group, and it can
be broadly categorized into material and non-material components.

Material Culture:

This refers to the tangible, physical objects that people create and assign meaning to within their
society. These artifacts reflect the values, beliefs, and traditions of a culture. Examples include
tools, clothing, buildings, artworks, and technological devices. For instance, traditional Japanese
tea sets not only serve a functional purpose but also embody the cultural significance of the tea
ceremony in Japan. Similarly, smartphones represent modern technological advancements and
influence communication patterns in contemporary societies. Material culture provides insight
into the technological capabilities and aesthetic preferences of a community.

Non-Material Culture:

Contrastingly, non-material culture consists of the intangible aspects of a society, such as beliefs,
norms, values, language, and customs. These elements shape the way individuals interact and
perceive the world around them. For example, the concept of individualism prevalent in Western
societies emphasizes personal freedom and self-reliance, influencing social behaviors and
institutions. Language, as a component of non-material culture, facilitates communication and
the transmission of traditions and knowledge across generations. Religious beliefs, moral codes,
and social etiquette further exemplify non-material culture, guiding acceptable behavior and
fostering social cohesion.

Understanding both material and non-material culture is essential for comprehending the
complexities of human societies, as they collectively shape identities, social structures, and
worldviews.​
​
Combined Summary: Key Themes of Gender Discrimination

The stories of Kelley Voelker, Whitney Wolfe, and Betty Dukes collectively reveal the
multifaceted nature of gender discrimination in the workplace. Voelker’s experience
demonstrates how motherhood can trigger discriminatory treatment, such as reduced
opportunities and retaliation, reflecting stereotypes that women are less committed
post-childbirth. Wolfe’s case exposes how women’s professional contributions can be dismissed
based on gender, coupled with sexual harassment and a hostile work environment that punishes
them for challenging mistreatment. Dukes’ struggle highlights systemic bias, where
organizational policies and practices consistently disadvantage women in pay and promotion,
rooted in assumptions about their roles and capabilities. Together, these incidents illustrate
common threads: unequal treatment in career advancement, reinforcement of gender stereotypes,
hostile or dismissive responses to complaints, and the use of power to maintain male dominance.
They underscore that gender discrimination can be both overt (e.g., harassment, derogatory
remarks) and subtle (e.g., biased promotion practices), often leaving women undervalued,
underpaid, or pushed out of their roles.

This summary integrates the core elements of each case to provide a cohesive explanation of
gender discrimination, focusing on workplace dynamics and their impact on women’s
professional lives. Let me know if you'd like further elaboration!

Doing gender

"Doing gender" refers to the idea that gender is not something inherent, but rather something we
actively perform and express through our daily actions and interactions. This concept suggests
that by behaving in ways society deems appropriate for our gender, we continually create and
reinforce traditional gender roles.​
​
The concept emphasizes that gender is situational and relational—it emerges in specific contexts
and is maintained through accountability to others. For example, a person might "do" femininity
by wearing makeup or speaking softly in a culture where those behaviors are expected of
women, or "do" masculinity by adopting a assertive tone or engaging in physical labor where
those traits are tied to men. Importantly, "doing gender" is not optional; individuals are held
accountable to these norms, and deviations can lead to social sanctions like ridicule or exclusion.
Below, I’ll explain this concept using examples from three distinct cultural contexts: the people
of New Guinea (specifically the Etoro), the !Kung (also known as the Ju/’hoansi), and the bacha
posh of Afghanistan.​
​
(write from kang, new guinea, bacha posh)

These examples highlight that "doing gender" varies widely by cultural context but consistently
involves active performance tied to social expectations. Among the Etoro, it’s a ritualized,
hierarchical process rooted in cosmology; for the !Kung, it’s a flexible, cooperative enactment
within an egalitarian framework; and with the bacha posh, it’s a pragmatic, temporary shift to
circumvent patriarchal constraints. In each case, individuals don’t just "have" a gender—they
construct it through actions like ritual participation, food provision, or adopting a male persona,
and they’re held accountable by their communities. This underscores the core idea of "doing
gender": it’s not a static identity but a continuous, socially negotiated process that reflects and
reinforces the norms of a given society.
​