Visit ebooknice.

com to download the full version and

explore more ebooks or textbooks

(Ebook) Machinery's Handbook, 28th edition, with

additional material on CD by Erik Oberg, Franklin
D Jones, Holbrook L. Horton, Henry H Ryffel
(authors), Christopher J McCauley. Ricardo M
Heald, Muhammed Iqbal Hussain (editors) ISBN
_____ Click the link below to download _____
9780831128005, 9780831128012, 9780831128883,
https://ebooknice.com/product/machinery-s-handbook-28th-
9780831128289, 9780831128388, 0831128003,
edition-with-additional-material-on-cd-2408170
0831128011, 0831128887, 0831128283

Explore and download more ebooks or textbooks at ebooknice.com

Here are some recommended products that we believe you will be
interested in. You can click the link to download.

(Ebook) Machinery's Handbook, 28th edition, with additional material

on CD by Erik Oberg, Franklin D Jones, Holbrook L. Horton, Henry H
Ryffel (authors), Christopher J McCauley. Ricardo M Heald, Muhammed
Iqbal Hussain (editors) ISBN 9780831128005, 9780831128012,
9780831128883, 9780831128289, 9780831128388, 0831128003, 0831128011,
https://ebooknice.com/product/machinery-s-handbook-28th-edition-with-
0831128887, 0831128283
additional-material-on-cd-2408170

(Ebook) Matematik 5000+ Kurs 2c Lärobok by Lena Alfredsson, Hans

Heikne, Sanna Bodemyr ISBN 9789127456600, 9127456609

https://ebooknice.com/product/matematik-5000-kurs-2c-larobok-23848312

(Ebook) SAT II Success MATH 1C and 2C 2002 (Peterson's SAT II Success)

by Peterson's ISBN 9780768906677, 0768906679

https://ebooknice.com/product/sat-ii-success-
math-1c-and-2c-2002-peterson-s-sat-ii-success-1722018

(Ebook) Master SAT II Math 1c and 2c 4th ed (Arco Master the SAT
Subject Test: Math Levels 1 & 2) by Arco ISBN 9780768923049,
0768923042

https://ebooknice.com/product/master-sat-ii-math-1c-and-2c-4th-ed-
arco-master-the-sat-subject-test-math-levels-1-2-2326094
(Ebook) Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History Workbook 2C - Depth Study:
the United States, 1919-41 2nd Edition by Benjamin Harrison ISBN
9781398375147, 9781398375048, 1398375144, 1398375047

https://ebooknice.com/product/cambridge-igcse-and-o-level-history-
workbook-2c-depth-study-the-united-states-1919-41-2nd-edition-53538044

(Ebook) Machinery's Handbook by Oberg, Jones, Horton, and Ryffel,

Christopher McCauley, Riccardo Heald, and Mohammed Hussain ISBN
9780831128012, 0831128011

https://ebooknice.com/product/machinery-s-handbook-1379172

(Ebook) Machinery's Handbook by Franklin D Jones, Henry H Ryffel, Erik

Oberg, Christopher J McCauley, Ricardo M Heald ISBN 9780831127008,
0831127007

https://ebooknice.com/product/machinery-s-handbook-1023750

(Ebook) Machinery's Handbook, 31st Edition: Large Print by Industrial

Press, Erik Oberg, Franklin D. Jones, Holbrook L. Horton, Henry H.
Ryffel, Christopher J. McCauley ISBN 9780831136314, 9780831140311,
9780831141318, 0831136316, 0831140313, 083114131X
https://ebooknice.com/product/machinery-s-handbook-31st-edition-large-
print-32904112

(Ebook) Machinery's Handbook Guide 27th Edition (Machinery's Handbook

Guide to the Use of Tables and Formulas) by Franklin D Jones, Henry H
Ryffel, Christopher J McCauley, Robert E Green, Ricardo M Heald ISBN
9780831127992, 0831127996
https://ebooknice.com/product/machinery-s-handbook-guide-27th-edition-
machinery-s-handbook-guide-to-the-use-of-tables-and-formulas-1103176
 Machinery's Handbook 28th Edition

A REFERENCE BOOK
FOR THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER, DESIGNER,
MANUFACTURING ENGINEER, DRAFTSMAN,
TOOLMAKER, AND MACHINIST

Machinery’s
Handbook
28th Edition
BY ERIK OBERG, FRANKLIN D. JONES,
HOLBROOK L. HORTON, AND HENRY H. RYFFEL

CHRISTOPHER J. MCCAULEY, SENIOR EDITOR

RICCARDO M. HEALD, ASSOCIATE EDITOR
MUHAMMED IQBAL HUSSAIN, ASSOCIATE EDITOR

2008
INDUSTRIAL PRESS
NEW YORK

Copyright 2008, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

 Machinery's Handbook 28th Edition

COPYRIGHT
COPYRIGHT © 1914, 1924, 1928, 1930, 1931, 1934, 1936, 1937, 1939, 1940, 1941,
1942, 1943, 1944, 1945, 1946, 1948, 1950, 1951, 1952, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1957,
1959, 1962, 1964, 1966, 1968, 1971, 1974, 1975, 1977, 1979, 1984, 1988, 1992, 1996,
1997, 1998, 2000, 2004, © 2008 by Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Oberg, Erik, 1881—1951

Machinery's Handbook.
2704 p.
Includes index.
I. Mechanical engineering—Handbook, manuals, etc.
I. Jones, Franklin Day, 1879-1967
II. Horton, Holbrook Lynedon, 1907-2001
III. Ryffel, Henry H. I920- IV. Title.
TJ151.0245 2008 621.8'0212 72-622276
ISBN 978-0-8311-2800-5 (Toolbox Thumb Indexed 11.7 x 17.8 cm)
ISBN 978-0-8311-2801-2 (Large Print Thumb Indexed 17.8 x 25.4 cm)
ISBN 978-0-8311-2888-3 (CD-ROM)
ISBN 978-0-8311-2828-9 (Toolbox Thumb Indexed / CD-ROM Combo 11.7 x 17.8 cm)
ISBN 978-0-8311-2838-8 (Large Print Thumb Indexed / CD-ROM Combo 17.8 x 25.4 cm)
LC card number 72-622276

INDUSTRIAL PRESS, INC.

989 Avenue of the Americas
New York, New York 10018

MACHINERY'S HANDBOOK
28TH EDITION
䉭 䉭 䉭 䉭

All rights reserved. This book or parts thereof may not be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form without permission of the publishers.

Copyright 2008, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

 Machinery's Handbook 28th Edition
PREFACE
Machinery's Handbook has served as the principal reference work in metalworking,
design and manufacturing facilities, and in technical schools and colleges throughout the
world, for more than 90 years of continuous publication. Throughout this period, the inten-
tion of the Handbook editors has always been to create a comprehensive and practical tool,
combining the most basic and essential aspects of sophisticated manufacturing practice. A
tool to be used in much the same way that other tools are used, to make and repair products
of high quality, at the lowest cost, and in the shortest time possible.
The essential basics, material that is of proven and everlasting worth, must always be
included if the Handbook is to continue to provide for the needs of the manufacturing com-
munity. But, it remains a difficult task to select suitable material from the almost unlimited
supply of data pertaining to the manufacturing and mechanical engineering fields, and to
provide for the needs of design and production departments in all sizes of manufacturing
plants and workshops, as well as those of job shops, the hobbyist, and students of trade and
technical schools.
The editors rely to a great extent on conversations and written communications with
users of the Handbook for guidance on topics to be introduced, revised, lengthened, short-
ened, or omitted. In response to such suggestions, in recent years material on logarithms,
trigonometry, and sine-bar constants have been restored after numerous requests for these
topics. Also at the request of users, in 1997 the first ever large-print or “desktop” edition of
the Handbook was published, followed in 1998 by the publication of Machinery's Hand-
book CD-ROM including hundreds of additional pages of material restored from earlier
editions. The large-print and CD-ROM editions have since become permanent additions to
the growing family of Machinery's Handbook products.
Regular users of the Handbook will quickly discover some of the many changes embod-
ied in the present edition. One is the combined Mechanics and Strength of Materials sec-
tion, arising out of the two former sections of similar name. “Old style” numerals, in
continuous use in the first through twenty-fifth editions, are now used only in the index for
page references, and in cross reference throughout the text. The entire text of this edition,
including all the tables and equations, has been reset, and a great many of the numerous
figures have been redrawn.
The 28th edition of the Handbook contains major revisions of existing content, as well as
new material on a variety of topics. The detailed tables of contents located at the beginning
of each section have been expanded and fine tuned to simplify locating your topic; numer-
ous major sections have been extensively reworked and renovated throughout, including
Mathematics, Mechanics and Strength of Materials, Properties of Materials, Dimension-
ing, Gaging and Measuring, Machining Operations, Manufacturing Process, Fasteners,
Threads and Threading, and Machine Elements. New material includes shaft alignment,
taps and tapping, helical coil screw thread inserts, solid geometry, distinguishing between
bolts and screws, statistics, calculating thread dimensions, keys and keyways, miniature
screws, metric screw threads, and fluid mechanics.
Other subjects in the Handbook that are new or have been revised, expanded, or updated
are: plastics, punches, dies and presswork, lubrication, CNC programming and CNC
thread cutting, metric wrench clearances, ANSI and ISO drafting practices, and ISO sur-
face texture.
The large-print edition is identical to the traditional toolbox edition, but the size is
increased by a comfortable 140% for easier reading, making it ideal as a desktop reference.
Other than size, there are no differences between the toolbox and large-print editions.
The Machinery's Handbook 28 CD-ROM contains the complete contents of the printed
edition, presented in Adobe Acrobat PDF format. This popular and well known format
enables viewing and printing of pages, identical to those of the printed book, rapid search-
ing, and the ability to magnify the view of any page. Navigation aids in the form of thou-
v

Copyright 2008, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

 Machinery's Handbook 28th Edition
PREFACE
sands of clickable bookmarks, page cross references, and index entries take you instantly
to any page referenced.

The CD contains additional material that is not included in the toolbox or large print edi-
tions, including an extensive index of materials and standards referenced in the Handbook,
numerous useful mathematical tables, sine-bar constants for sine-bars of various lengths,
material on cement and concrete, adhesives and sealants, recipes for coloring and etching
metals, forge shop equipment, silent chain, worm gearing and other material on gears, and
other topics.

Also found on the CD are numerous interactive math problems. Solutions are accessed
from the CD by clicking an icon, located in the page margin adjacent to a covered problem,
(see figure shown here). An internet connection is required to use these problems. The list
of interactive math solutions currently available can be found in the Index of Interactive
Equations, starting on page 2706. Additional interactive solutions will be added from time
to time as the need becomes clear.

Those users involved in aspects of machining and grinding will be interested in the topics
Machining Econometrics and Grinding Feeds and Speeds, presented in the Machining sec-
tion. The core of all manufacturing methods start with the cutting edge and the metal
removal process. Improving the control of the machining process is a major component
necessary to achieve a Lean chain of manufacturing events. These sections describe the
means that are necessary to get metal cutting processes under control and how to properly
evaluate the decision making.

A major goal of the editors is to make the Handbook easier to use. The 28th edition of the
Handbook continues to incorporate the timesaving thumb tabs, much requested by users in
the past. The table of contents pages beginning each major section, first introduced for the
25th edition, have proven very useful to readers. Consequently, the number of contents
pages has been increased to several pages each for many of the larger sections, to more
thoroughly reflect the contents of these sections. In the present edition, the Plastics sec-
tion, formerly a separate thumb tab, has been incorporated into the Properties of Materials
section.

The editors are greatly indebted to readers who call attention to possible errors and
defects in the Handbook, who offer suggestions concerning the omission of some matter
that is considered to be of general value, or who have technical questions concerning the
solution of difficult or troublesome Handbook problems. Such dialog is often invaluable
and helps to identify topics that require additional clarification or are the source of reader
confusion. Queries involving Handbook material usually entail an in depth review of the
topic in question, and may result in the addition of new material to the Handbook intended
to resolve or clarify the issue. The material on the mass moment of inertia of hollow circu-
lar rings, page 245, and on the effect of temperature on the radius of thin circular rings,
page 379, are good examples.

Our goal is to increase the usefulness of the Handbook to the greatest extent possible. All
criticisms and suggestions about revisions, omissions, or inclusion of new material, and
requests for assistance with manufacturing problems encountered in the shop are always
welcome.

Christopher J. McCauley
Senior Editor
vi

Copyright 2008, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

 Machinery's Handbook 28th Edition
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LICENSE AND LIMITED WARRANTY AGREEMENT ii
COPYRIGHT iv
PREFACE v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ix

MATHEMATICS 1
• NUMBERS, FRACTIONS, AND DECIMALS • ALGEBRA AND
EQUATIONS • GEOMETRY • SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES
• LOGARITHMS • MATRICES • ENGINEERING ECONOMICS
• MANUFACTURING DATA ANALYSIS
MECHANICS AND STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 154
• MECHANICS • VELOCITY, ACCELERATION, WORK, AND ENERGY
• STRENGTH OF MATERIALS • PROPERTIES OF BODIES • BEAMS
• COLUMNS • PLATES, SHELLS, AND CYLINDERS • SHAFTS
• SPRINGS • DISC SPRINGS • FLUID MECHANICS
PROPERTIES, TREATMENT, AND TESTING OF MATERIALS 370
• THE ELEMENTS, HEAT, MASS, AND WEIGHT • PROPERTIES OF
WOOD, CERAMICS, PLASTICS, METALS • STANDARD STEELS
• TOOL STEELS • HARDENING, TEMPERING, AND ANNEALING
• NONFERROUS ALLOYS • PLASTICS
DIMENSIONING, GAGING, AND MEASURING 607
• DRAFTING PRACTICES • ALLOWANCES AND TOLERANCES FOR
FITS • MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND INSPECTION METHODS
• SURFACE TEXTURE
TOOLING AND TOOLMAKING 730
• CUTTING TOOLS • CEMENTED CARBIDES • FORMING TOOLS
• MILLING CUTTERS • REAMERS • TWIST DRILLS AND
COUNTERBORES • TAPS • STANDARD TAPERS • ARBORS,
CHUCKS, AND SPINDLES • BROACHES AND BROACHING • FILES
AND BURS • TOOL WEAR AND SHARPENING
MACHINING OPERATIONS 975
• CUTTING SPEEDS AND FEEDS • SPEED AND FEED TABLES
• ESTIMATING SPEEDS AND MACHINING POWER • MACHINING
ECONOMETRICS • SCREW MACHINE FEEDS AND SPEEDS
• CUTTING FLUIDS • MACHINING NONFERROUS METALS AND NON-
METALLIC MATERIALS • GRINDING FEEDS AND SPEEDS
• GRINDING AND OTHER ABRASIVE PROCESSES • KNURLS AND
KNURLING • MACHINE TOOL ACCURACY • CNC NUMERICAL
CONTROL PROGRAMMING
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES 1264
• PUNCHES, DIES, AND PRESS WORK • ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE
MACHINING • IRON AND STEEL CASTINGS • SOLDERING AND
BRAZING • WELDING • LASERS • FINISHING OPERATIONS
FASTENERS 1422
• DISTINGUISHING BOLTS FROM SCREWS • TORQUE AND TENSION IN
FASTENERS • INCH THREADED FASTENERS • METRIC
THREADED FASTENERS • HELICAL COIL SCREW THREAD INSERTS
• BRITISH FASTENERS • MACHINE SCREWS AND NUTS • CAP AND
SET SCREWS • SELF-THREADING SCREWS • T-SLOTS, BOLTS, AND
NUTS • RIVETS AND RIVETED JOINTS • PINS AND STUDS
• RETAINING RINGS • WING NUTS, WING SCREWS, AND THUMB
SCREWS • NAILS, SPIKES, AND WOOD SCREWS
Each section has a detailed Table of Contents or Index located on the page indicated
vii

Copyright 2008, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

 Machinery's Handbook 28th Edition
TABLE OF CONTENTS
THREADS AND THREADING 1708
• SCREW THREAD SYSTEMS • UNIFIED SCREW THREADS
• CALCULATING THREAD DIMENSIONS • METRIC SCREW
THREADS • ACME SCREW THREADS • BUTTRESS THREADS
• WHITWORTH THREADS • PIPE AND HOSE THREADS • OTHER
THREADS • MEASURING SCREW THREADS • TAPPING AND
THREAD CUTTING • THREAD ROLLING • THREAD GRINDING
• THREAD MILLING • SIMPLE, COMPOUND, DIFFERENTIAL, AND
BLOCK INDEXING
GEARS, SPLINES, AND CAMS 2027
• GEARS AND GEARING • HYPOID AND BEVEL GEARING • WORM
GEARING • HELICAL GEARING • OTHER GEAR TYPES • CHECKING
GEAR SIZES • GEAR MATERIALS • SPLINES AND SERRATIONS
• CAMS AND CAM DESIGN
MACHINE ELEMENTS 2215
• PLAIN BEARINGS • BALL, ROLLER, AND NEEDLE BEARINGS
• LUBRICATION • COUPLINGS, CLUTCHES, BRAKES • KEYS AND
KEYSEATS • FLEXIBLE BELTS AND SHEAVES • TRANSMISSION
CHAINS • BALL AND ACME LEADSCREWS • ELECTRIC MOTORS
• ADHESIVES AND SEALANTS • O-RINGS • ROLLED STEEL, WIRE,
AND SHEET-METAL • SHAFT ALIGNMENT
MEASURING UNITS 2555
• SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS • MEASURING UNITS • U.S.
SYSTEM AND METRIC SYSTEM CONVERSIONS
INDEX 2605

INDEX OF STANDARDS 2693

INDEX OF INTERACTIVE EQUATIONS 2705

INDEX OF MATERIALS 2711

INDEX OF ADDITIONAL CONTENT ON THE CD 2757

ADDITIONAL ONLY ON THE CD 2765

• MATHEMATICS • MECHANICS AND STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
• PROPERTIES, TREATMENT, AND TESTING OF MATERIALS
• DIMENSIONING, GAGING, AND MEASURING • TOOLING AND
TOOL MAKING • MACHINING OPERATIONS • MANUFACTURING
PROCESS • FASTENERS • THREADS AND THREADING • GEARS,
SPLINES, AND CAMS • MACHINE ELEMENTS

Each section has a detailed Table of Contents or Index located on the page indicated
viii

Copyright 2008, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

 Machinery's Handbook 28th Edition
TABLE OF CONTENTS
MATHEMATICS

NUMBERS, FRACTIONS, AND GEOMETRY

(Continued)
DECIMALS
47 Ellipse
3 Fractional Inch, Decimal, 50 Spherical Areas and Volumes
Millimeter Conversion 53 Parabola
4 Numbers 53 Hyperbola
4 Positive and Negative Numbers 65 Areas and Volumes
5 Sequence of Operations 65 The Prismoidal Formula
5 Ratio and Proportion 65 Pappus or Guldinus Rules
7 Percentage 66 Area of Revolution Surface
8 Fractions 66 Area of Irregular Plane Surface
8 Common Fractions 67 Areas of Cycloidal Curves
8 Reciprocals 67 Contents of Cylindrical Tanks
9 Addition, Subtraction, 69 Areas and Dimensions of Figures
Multiplication, Division 75 Formulas for Regular Polygons
10 Decimal Fractions 76 Circular Segments
11 Continued Fractions 79 Circles and Squares of Equal Area
12 Conjugate Fractions 80 Diagonals of Squares & Hexagons
13 Using Continued Fraction 81 Volumes of Solids
14 Powers and Roots 87 Circles in Circles and Rectangles
14 Powers of Ten Notation 92 Circles within Rectangles
15 Converting to Power of Ten 93 Rollers on a Shaft
15 Multiplication
SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES
16 Division
16 Constants Frequently Used in 94 Functions of Angles
Mathematical Expressions 95 Laws of Sines and Cosines
17 Imaginary and Complex Numbers 95 Trigonometric Identities
18 Factorial 97 Right-angled Triangles
18 Permutations 100 Obtuse-angled Triangles
18 Combinations 102 Degree-radian Conversion
19 Prime Numbers and Factors 104 Functions of Angles, Graphic
105 Trig Function Tables
ALGEBRA AND EQUATIONS
109 Versed Sine and Versed Cosine
29 Rearrangement of Formulas 109 Sevolute and Involute Functions
30 Principle Algebraic Expressions 110 Involute Functions Tables
31 Solving First Degree Equations 114 Spherical Trigonometry
31 Solving Quadratic Equations 114 Right Spherical Trigonometry
32 Factoring a Quadratic Expression 116 Oblique Spherical Trigonometry
33 Cubic Equations 118 Compound Angles
33 Solving Numerical Equations 120 Interpolation
34 Series
LOGARITHMS
34 Derivatives and Integrals
121 Common Logarithms
GEOMETRY
122 Inverse Logarithm
36 Arithmetical & Geometrical 123 Natural Logarithms
Progression 123 Powers of Number by Logarithms
39 Analytical Geometry 124 Roots of Number by Logarithms
39 Straight Line 125 Tables of Logarithms
42 Coordinate Systems
45 Circle

1
Copyright 2008, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com
 Machinery's Handbook 28th Edition

TABLE OF CONTENTS
MATHEMATICS

MATRICES ENGINEERING ECONOMICS

(Continued)
129 Matrix Operations 140 Double Declining Balance
129 Matrix Addition and Subtraction Method
129 Matrix Multiplication 140 Statutory Depreciation System
130 Transpose of a Matrix 141 Evaluating Alternatives
130 Determinant of a Square Matrix 141 Net Present Value
131 Minors and Cofactors 142 Capitalized Cost
131 Adjoint of a Matrix 143 Equivalent Uniform Annual Cost
132 Singularity and Rank of a Matrix 144 Rate of Return
132 Inverse of a Matrix 144 Benefit-cost Ratio
132 Simultaneous Equations 144 Payback Period
144 Break-even Analysis
ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 147 Overhead Expenses
135 Interest MANUFACTURING DATA
135 Simple and Compound Interest
ANALYSIS
136 Nominal vs. Effective Interest
Rates 148 Statistics Theory
137 Cash Flow and Equivalence 148 Statistical Distribution Curves
138 Cash Flow Diagrams 148 Normal Distribution Curve
140 Depreciation 148 Statistical Analysis
140 Straight Line Depreciation 150 Applying Statistics
140 Sum of the Years Digits 150 Minimum Number of Tests
150 Comparing Average Performance
152 Examples

2
Copyright 2008, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com
 Machinery's Handbook 28th Edition
MATHEMATICS 3

NUMBERS, FRACTIONS, AND DECIMALS

Table 1. Fractional and Decimal Inch to Millimeter, Exacta Values

Fractional Inch Decimal Inch Millimeters Fractional Inch Decimal Inch Millimeters
1/64 0.015625 0.396875 0.511811024 13
1/32 0.03125 0.79375 33/64 0.515625 13.096875
0.039370079 1 17/32 0.53125 13.49375
3/64 0.046875 1.190625 35/64 0.546875 13.890625
1/16 0.0625 1.5875 0.551181102 14
5/64 0.078125 1.984375 9/16 0.5625 14.2875
0.078740157 2 37/64 0.578125 14.684375
1/12 0.0833b 2.1166 7/12 0.5833 14.8166
3/32 0.09375 2.38125 0.590551181 15
7/64 0.109375 2.778125 19/32 0.59375 15.08125
0.118110236 3 39/64 0.609375 15.478125
1/8 0.125 3.175 5/8 0.625 15.875
9/64 0.140625 3.571875 0.62992126 16
5/32 0.15625 3.96875 41/64 0.640625 16.271875
0.157480315 4 21/32 0.65625 16.66875
1/6 0.166 4.233 2/3 0.66 16.933
11/64 0.171875 4.365625 0.669291339 17
3/16 0.1875 4.7625 43/64 0.671875 17.065625
0.196850394 5 11/16 0.6875 17.4625
13/64 0.203125 5.159375 45/64 0.703125 17.859375
7/32 0.21875 5.55625 0.708661417 18
15/64 0.234375 5.953125 23/32 0.71875 18.25625
0.236220472 6 47/64 0.734375 18.653125
1/4 0.25 6.35 0.748031496 19
17/64 0.265625 6.746875 3/4 0.75 19.05
0.275590551 7 49/64 0.765625 19.446875
9/32 0.28125 7.14375 25/32 0.78125 19.84375
19/64 0.296875 7.540625 0.787401575 20
5/16 0.3125 7.9375 51/64 0.796875 20.240625
0.31496063 8 13/16 0.8125 20.6375
21/64 0.328125 8.334375 0.826771654 21
1/3 0.33 8.466 53/64 0.828125 21.034375
11/32 0.34375 8.73125 27/32 0.84375 21.43125
0.354330709 9 55/64 0.859375 21.828125
23/64 0.359375 9.128125 0.866141732 22
3/8 0.375 9.525 7/8 0.875 22.225
25/64 0.390625 9.921875 57/64 0.890625 22.621875
0.393700787 10 0.905511811 23
13/32 0.40625 10.31875 29/32 0.90625 23.01875
5/12 0.4166 10.5833 11/12 0.9166 23.2833
27/64 0.421875 10.715625 59/64 0.921875 23.415625
0.433070866 11 15/16 0.9375 23.8125
7/16 0.4375 11.1125 0.94488189 24
29/64 0.453125 11.509375 61/64 0.953125 24.209375
15/32 0.46875 11.90625 31/32 0.96875 24.60625
0.472440945 12 0.984251969 25
31/64 0.484375 12.303125 63/64 0.984375 25.003125
1/2 0.5 12.7
a Table data are based on 1 inch = 25.4 mm, exactly. Inch to millimeter conversion values are exact.
Whole number millimeter to inch conversions are rounded to 9 decimal places.
b Numbers with an overbar, repeat indefinitely after the last figure, for example 0.0833 = 0.08333...

Copyright 2008, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

 Machinery's Handbook 28th Edition
4 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE NUMBERS

Numbers
Numbers are the basic instrumentation of computation. Calculations are made by opera-
tions of numbers. The whole numbers greater than zero are called natural numbers. The
first ten numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 are called numerals. Numbers follow certain for-
mulas. The following properties hold true:
Associative law: x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z, x(yz) = (xy)z
Distributive law: x(y + z) = xy + xz
Commutative law: x + y = y + x
Identity law: 0 + x = x, 1x = x
Inverse law: x − x = 0, x/x = 1
Positive and Negative Numbers.—The degrees on a thermometer scale extending
upward from the zero point may be called positive and may be preceded by a plus sign; thus
+5 degrees means 5 degrees above zero. The degrees below zero may be called negative
and may be preceded by a minus sign; thus, − 5 degrees means 5 degrees below zero. In the
same way, the ordinary numbers 1, 2, 3, etc., which are larger than 0, are called positive
numbers; but numbers can be conceived of as extending in the other direction from 0, num-
bers that, in fact, are less than 0, and these are called negative. As these numbers must be
expressed by the same figures as the positive numbers they are designated by a minus sign
placed before them, thus: (−3). A negative number should always be enclosed within
parentheses whenever it is written in line with other numbers; for example: 17 + (−13) − 3
× (−0.76).
Negative numbers are most commonly met with in the use of logarithms and natural trig-
onometric functions. The following rules govern calculations with negative numbers.
A negative number can be added to a positive number by subtracting its numerical value
from the positive number.
Example:4 + (−3) = 4 − 3 = 1
A negative number can be subtracted from a positive number by adding its numerical
value to the positive number.
Example:4 − (−3) = 4 + 3 = 7
A negative number can be added to a negative number by adding the numerical values
and making the sum negative.
Example:(−4) + (−3) = −7
A negative number can be subtracted from a larger negative number by subtracting the
numerical values and making the difference negative.
Example:(−4) − (−3) = −1
A negative number can be subtracted from a smaller negative number by subtracting the
numerical values and making the difference positive.
Example:(−3) − (−4) = 1
If in a subtraction the number to be subtracted is larger than the number from which it is
to be subtracted, the calculation can be carried out by subtracting the smaller number from
the larger, and indicating that the remainder is negative.
Example:3 − 5 = − (5 − 3) = −2
When a positive number is to be multiplied or divided by a negative numbers, multiply or
divide the numerical values as usual; the product or quotient, respectively, is negative. The
same rule is true if a negative number is multiplied or divided by a positive number.
Examples: 4 × ( – 3 ) = – 12 ( – 4 ) × 3 = – 12
15 ÷ ( – 3 ) = – 5 ( – 15 ) ÷ 3 = – 5
When two negative numbers are to be multiplied by each other, the product is positive.
When a negative number is divided by a negative number, the quotient is positive.

Copyright 2008, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

 Machinery's Handbook 28th Edition
RATIO AND PROPORTION 5

Examples:(−4) × (−3) = 12; (−4) ÷ (−3) = 1.333

The two last rules are often expressed for memorizing as follows: “Equal signs make
plus, unequal signs make minus.”
Sequence of Performing Arithmetic Operations.—When several numbers or quanti-
ties in a formula are connected by signs indicating that additions, subtractions, multiplica-
tions, and divisions are to be made, the multiplications and divisions should be carried out
first, in the sequence in which they appear, before the additions or subtractions are per-
formed.
Example: 10 + 26 × 7 – 2 = 10 + 182 – 2 = 190
18 ÷ 6 + 15 × 3 = 3 + 45 = 48
12 + 14 ÷ 2 – 4 = 12 + 7 – 4 = 15
When it is required that certain additions and subtractions should precede multiplications
and divisions, use is made of parentheses ( ) and brackets [ ]. These signs indicate that the
calculation inside the parentheses or brackets should be carried out completely by itself
before the remaining calculations are commenced. If one bracket is placed inside another,
the one inside is first calculated.
Example: ( 6 – 2 ) × 5 + 8 = 4 × 5 + 8 = 20 + 8 = 28
6 × ( 4 + 7 ) ÷ 22 = 6 × 11 ÷ 22 = 66 ÷ 22 = 3
2 + [ 10 × 6 ( 8 + 2 ) – 4 ] × 2 = 2 + [ 10 × 6 × 10 – 4 ] × 2
= 2 + [ 600 – 4 ] × 2 = 2 + 596 × 2 = 2 + 1192 = 1194
The parentheses are considered as a sign of multiplication; for example:
6(8 + 2) = 6 × (8 + 2).
The line or bar between the numerator and denominator in a fractional expression is to be
considered as a division sign. For example,
12 + 16 + 22 = ( 12 + 16 + 22 ) ÷ 10 = 50 ÷ 10 = 5
------------------------------
10
In formulas, the multiplication sign (×) is often left out between symbols or letters, the
values of which are to be multiplied. Thus,
ABC
AB = A × B and ------------ = ( A × B × C ) ÷ D
D
Ratio and Proportion.—The ratio between two quantities is the quotient obtained by
dividing the first quantity by the second. For example, the ratio between 3 and 12 is 1⁄4, and
the ratio between 12 and 3 is 4. Ratio is generally indicated by the sign (:); thus, 12 : 3 indi-
cates the ratio of 12 to 3.
A reciprocal, or inverse ratio, is the opposite of the original ratio. Thus, the inverse ratio
of 5 : 7 is 7 : 5.
In a compound ratio, each term is the product of the corresponding terms in two or more
simple ratios. Thus, when
8:2 = 4 9:3 = 3 10:5 = 2
then the compound ratio is
8 × 9 × 10:2 × 3 × 5 = 4 × 3 × 2
720:30 = 24
Proportion is the equality of ratios. Thus,
6:3 = 10:5 or 6:3::10:5

Copyright 2008, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

 Machinery's Handbook 28th Edition
6 RATIO AND PROPORTION

The first and last terms in a proportion are called the extremes; the second and third, the
means. The product of the extremes is equal to the product of the means. Thus,
25:2 = 100:8 and 25 × 8 = 2 × 100
If three terms in a proportion are known, the remaining term may be found by the follow-
ing rules:
The first term is equal to the product of the second and third terms, divided by the fourth.
The second term is equal to the product of the first and fourth terms, divided by the third.
The third term is equal to the product of the first and fourth terms, divided by the second.
The fourth term is equal to the product of the second and third terms, divided by the first.
Example:Let x be the term to be found, then,
× 3.5 = 42
x : 12 = 3.5 : 21 x = 12
------------------- ------ = 2
21 21
1⁄ × 42 1 3-
1⁄ : x = 14 : 42 4 - = --- × 3 = --
x = ---------------
4
14 4 4
× 63- = 315
5 : 9 = x : 63 x = 5-------------- --------- = 35
9 9
7⁄ × 4 3 1⁄
1⁄ : 7⁄8 = 4 : x 8 2- = 14
4 x = ------------
1⁄
- = ------
1⁄
4 4

If the second and third terms are the same, that number is the mean proportional between
the other two. Thus, 8 : 4 = 4 : 2, and 4 is the mean proportional between 8 and 2. The mean
proportional between two numbers may be found by multiplying the numbers together and
extracting the square root of the product. Thus, the mean proportional between 3 and 12 is
found as follows:
3 × 12 = 36 and 36 = 6
which is the mean proportional.
Practical Examples Involving Simple Proportion: If it takes 18 days to assemble 4
lathes, how long would it take to assemble 14 lathes?
Let the number of days to be found be x. Then write out the proportion as follows:
4:18 = 14:x
( lathes : days = lathes : days )
Now find the fourth term by the rule given:
× 14- = 63 days
x = 18
-----------------
4
Thirty-four linear feet of bar stock are required for the blanks for 100 clamping bolts.
How many feet of stock would be required for 912 bolts?
Let x = total length of stock required for 912 bolts.
34:100 = x:912
( feet : bolts = feet : bolts )
Then, the third term x = (34 × 912)/100 = 310 feet, approximately.
Inverse Proportion: In an inverse proportion, as one of the items involved increases, the
corresponding item in the proportion decreases, or vice versa. For example, a factory
employing 270 men completes a given number of typewriters weekly, the number of work-
ing hours being 44 per week. How many men would be required for the same production if
the working hours were reduced to 40 per week?

Copyright 2008, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

 Machinery's Handbook 28th Edition
PERCENTAGE 7

The time per week is in an inverse proportion to the number of men employed; the shorter
the time, the more men. The inverse proportion is written:
270 : x = 40 : 44
(men, 44-hour basis: men, 40-hour basis = time, 40-hour basis: time, 44-hour basis)
Thus
270- = -----
40- × 44- = 297 men
-------- and x = 270
--------------------
x 44 40
Problems Involving Both Simple and Inverse Proportions: If two groups of data are
related both by direct (simple) and inverse proportions among the various quantities, then
a simple mathematical relation that may be used in solving problems is as follows:
Product of all directly proportional items in first group-
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Product of all inversely proportional items in first group
Product of all directly proportional items in second group
= ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Product of all inversely proportional items in second group
Example:If a man capable of turning 65 studs in a day of 10 hours is paid $6.50 per hour,
how much per hour ought a man be paid who turns 72 studs in a 9-hour day, if compensated
in the same proportion?
The first group of data in this problem consists of the number of hours worked by the first
man, his hourly wage, and the number of studs which he produces per day; the second
group contains similar data for the second man except for his unknown hourly wage, which
may be indicated by x.
The labor cost per stud, as may be seen, is directly proportional to the number of hours
worked and the hourly wage. These quantities, therefore, are used in the numerators of the
fractions in the formula. The labor cost per stud is inversely proportional to the number of
studs produced per day. (The greater the number of studs produced in a given time the less
the cost per stud.) The numbers of studs per day, therefore, are placed in the denominators
of the fractions in the formula. Thus,
10 × 6.50 = -----------
9×x
----------------------
65 72
× 6.50 × 72- = $8.00 per hour
x = 10
----------------------------------
65 × 9
Percentage.—If out of 100 pieces made, 12 do not pass inspection, it is said that 12 per
cent (12 of the hundred) are rejected. If a quantity of steel is bought for $100 and sold for
$140, the profit is 28.6 per cent of the selling price.
The per cent of gain or loss is found by dividing the amount of gain or loss by the original
number of which the percentage is wanted, and multiplying the quotient by 100.
Example:Out of a total output of 280 castings a day, 30 castings are, on an average,
rejected. What is the percentage of bad castings?
30-
-------- × 100 = 10.7 per cent
280
If by a new process 100 pieces can be made in the same time as 60 could formerly be
made, what is the gain in output of the new process over the old, expressed in per cent?
Original number, 60; gain 100 − 60 = 40. Hence,
40
------ × 100 = 66.7 per cent
60
Care should be taken always to use the original number, or the number of which the per-
centage is wanted, as the divisor in all percentage calculations. In the example just given, it

Copyright 2008, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

 Machinery's Handbook 28th Edition
8 FRACTIONS

is the percentage of gain over the old output 60 that is wanted and not the percentage with
relation to the new output too. Mistakes are often made by overlooking this important
point.
Fractions
Common Fractions.— Common fractions consist of two basic parts, a denominator, or
bottom number, and a numerator, or top number. The denominator shows how many parts
the whole unit has been divided into. The numerator indicates the number of parts of the
whole that are being considered. A fraction having a value of 5⁄32, means the whole unit has
been divided into 32 equal parts and 5 of these parts are considered in the value of the frac-
tion.
The following are the basic facts, rules, and definitions concerning common fractions.
A common fraction having the same numerator and denominator is equal to 1. For exam-
ple, 2⁄2, 4⁄4, 8⁄8, 16⁄16, 32⁄32, and 64⁄64 all equal 1.
Proper Fraction: A proper fraction is a common fraction having a numerator smaller
than its denominator, such as 1⁄4, 1⁄2, and 47⁄64.
Improper Fraction: An improper fraction is a common fraction having a numerator
larger than its denominator. For example, 3⁄2, 5⁄4, and 10⁄8. To convert a whole number to an
improper fractions place the whole number over 1, as in 4 = 4⁄1 and 3 = 3⁄1
Reducible Fraction: A reducible fraction is a common fraction that can be reduced to
lower terms. For example, 2⁄4 can be reduced to 1⁄2, and 28⁄32 can be reduced to 7⁄8. To reduce a
common fraction to lower terms, divide both the numerator and the denominator by the
same number. For example, 24⁄32 ÷ 8⁄8 = 3⁄8 and 6⁄8 ÷ 2⁄2 = 3⁄4.
Least Common Denominator: A least common denominator is the smallest denomina-
tor value that is evenly divisible by the other denominator values in the problem. For exam-
ple, given the following numbers, 1⁄2 , 1⁄4 , and 3⁄8, the least common denominator is 8.
Mixed Number: A mixed number is a combination of a whole number and a common
fraction, such as 21⁄2, 17⁄8, 315⁄16 and 19⁄32.
To convert mixed numbers to improper fractions, multiply the whole number by the
denominator and add the numerator to obtain the new numerator. The denominator
remains the same. For example,
1 2×2+1 5
2 --- = --------------------- = ---
2 2 2
7 3 × 16 + 7 55
3 ------ = ------------------------ = ------
16 16 16
To convert an improper fraction to a mixed number, divide the numerator by the denom-
inator and reduce the remaining fraction to its lowest terms. For example,
17⁄ = 17 ÷ 8 = 21⁄ and 26⁄ = 26 ÷ 16 = 110⁄ = 15⁄
8 8 16 16 8
A fraction may be converted to higher terms by multiplying the numerator and denomi-
nator by the same number. For example, 1⁄4 in 16ths = 1⁄4 × 4⁄4 = 4⁄16 and 3⁄8 in 32nds = 3⁄8 × 4⁄4 =
12⁄ .
32
To change a whole number to a common fraction with a specific denominator value, con-
vert the whole number to a fraction and multiply the numerator and denominator by the
desired denominator value.
Example: 4 in 16ths = 4⁄1 × 16⁄16 = 64⁄16 and 3 in 32nds = 3⁄1 × 32⁄32 = 96⁄32
Reciprocals.—The reciprocal R of a number N is obtained by dividing 1 by the number; R
= 1/N. Reciprocals are useful in some calculations because they avoid the use of negative
characteristics as in calculations with logarithms and in trigonometry. In trigonometry, the

Copyright 2008, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

 Machinery's Handbook 28th Edition
FRACTIONS 9

values cosecant, secant, and cotangent are often used for convenience and are the recipro-
cals of the sine, cosine, and tangent, respectively (see page 94). The reciprocal of a frac-
tion, for instance 3⁄4, is the fraction inverted, since 1 ÷ 3⁄4 = 1 × 4⁄3 = 4⁄3.
Adding Fractions and Mixed Numbers
To Add Common Fractions: 1) Find and convert to the least common denominator; 2 )
Add the numerators; 3) Convert the answer to a mixed number, if necessary; a n d
4) Reduce the fraction to its lowest terms.
To Add Mixed Numbers: 1) Find and convert to the least common denominator; 2) Add
the numerators; 3) Add the whole numbers; and 4) Reduce the answer to its lowest terms.
Example, Addition of Common Fractions: Example, Addition of Mixed Numbers:
1--- + -----
3- + 7--- = 1 1 15
2 --- + 4 --- + 1 ------ =
4 16 8 2 4 32
1---  4--- 3 7---  2---
2 ---  ------ + 4 ---  --- + 1 ------ =
1 16 1 8 15
+ ------ + =
4  4 16 8  2 2  16 4  8 32
4- + -----
3- + 14
------ = 21 16 8 15 39 7
----- ------ 2 ------ + 4 ------ + 1 ------ = 7 ------ = 8 ------
16 16 16 16 32 32 32 32 32
Subtracting Fractions and Mixed Numbers
To Subtract Common Fractions: 1) Convert to the least common denominator; 2) Sub-
tract the numerators; and 3) Reduce the answer to its lowest terms.
To Subtract Mixed Numbers: 1) Convert to the least common denominator; 2) Subtract
the numerators; 3) Subtract the whole numbers; and 4) Reduce the answer to its lowest
terms.
Example, Subtraction of Common Fractions: Example, Subtraction of Mixed Numbers:
15 7- 3 1
------ – ----- = 2 --- – 1 ------ =
16 32 8 16
15-  --2- 7
2 ---  --- – 1 ------ =
3 2 1
----- – ------ =
16  2 32 8  2 16
30 7- 23 6 1 5
------ – ----- = ------ 2 ------ – 1 ------ = 1 ------
32 32 32 16 16 16
Multiplying Fractions and Mixed Numbers
To Multiply Common Fractions: 1) Multiply the numerators; 2) Multiply the denomi-
nators; and 3) Convert improper fractions to mixed numbers, if necessary.
To Multiply Mixed Numbers: 1) Convert the mixed numbers to improper fractions; 2 )
Multiply the numerators; 3) Multiply the denominators; and 4) Convert improper frac-
tions to mixed numbers, if necessary.
Example, Multiplication of Common Fractions: Example, Multiplication of Mixed Numbers:
3 7-
--- × ----- 3×7 21 1 1 9×7 63 7
= --------------- = ------ 2 --- × 3 --- = ------------ = ------ = 7 ---
4 16 4 × 16 64 4 2 4×2 8 8
Dividing Fractions and Mixed Numbers
To Divide Common Fractions: 1) Write the fractions to be divided; 2) Invert (switch)
the numerator and denominator in the dividing fraction; 3) Multiply the numerators and
denominators; and 4) Convert improper fractions to mixed numbers, if necessary.

Copyright 2008, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

 Machinery's Handbook 28th Edition
10 FRACTIONS

To Divide Mixed Numbers: 1) Convert the mixed numbers to improper fractions;

2) Write the improper fraction to be divided; 3) Invert (switch) the numerator and denom-
inator in the dividing fraction; 4) Multiplying numerators and denominators; a n d
5) Convert improper fractions to mixed numbers, if necessary.
Example, Division of Common Fractions: Example, Division of Mixed Numbers:
3- --1 × 2- = 6--- = 1 --
1- 1 7 5 × 8- = 40 1
-- ÷ - = 3----------- 2 --- ÷ 1 --- = -------------- ------ = 1 ---
4 2 4×1 4 2 2 8 2 × 15 30 3
Decimal Fractions.—Decimal fractions are fractional parts of a whole unit, which have
implied denominators that are multiples of 10. A decimal fraction of 0.1 has a value of
1/10th, 0.01 has a value of 1/100th, and 0.001 has a value of 1/1000th. As the number of
decimal place values increases, the value of the decimal number changes by a multiple of
10. A single number placed to the right of a decimal point has a value expressed in tenths;
two numbers to the right of a decimal point have a value expressed in hundredths; three
numbers to the right have a value expressed in thousandths; and four numbers are
expressed in ten-thousandths. Since the denominator is implied, the number of decimal
places in the numerator indicates the value of the decimal fraction. So a decimal fraction
expressed as a 0.125 means the whole unit has been divided into 1000 parts and 125 of
these parts are considered in the value of the decimal fraction.
In industry, most decimal fractions are expressed in terms of thousandths rather than
tenths or hundredths. So a decimal fraction of 0.2 is expressed as 200 thousandths, not 2
tenths, and a value of 0.75 is expressed as 750 thousandths, rather than 75 hundredths. In
the case of four place decimals, the values are expressed in terms of ten-thousandths. So a
value of 0.1875 is expressed as 1 thousand 8 hundred and 75 ten-thousandths. When whole
numbers and decimal fractions are used together, whole units are shown to the left of a dec-
imal point, while fractional parts of a whole unit are shown to the right.
Example:
10.125
Whole Fraction
Units Units
Adding Decimal Fractions: 1) Write the problem with all decimal points aligned verti-
cally; 2) Add the numbers as whole number values; and 3) Insert the decimal point in the
same vertical column in the answer.
Subtracting Decimal Fractions: 1) Write the problem with all decimal points aligned
vertically; 2) Subtract the numbers as whole number values; and 3) Insert the decimal
point in the same vertical column in the answer.
Multiplying Decimal Fractions: 1) Write the problem with the decimal points aligned;
2) Multiply the values as whole numbers; 3) Count the number of decimal places in both
multiplied values; and 4) Counting from right to left in the answer, insert the decimal
point so the number of decimal places in the answer equals the total number of decimal
places in the numbers multiplied.
Example, Adding Decimal Fractions: Example, Subtracting Decimal Fractions:
0.125 1.750 1.750 2.625
1.0625 0.875 – 0.250 or – 1.125
2.50 or 0.125 1.500 1.500
0.1875 2.0005
3.8750 4.7505

Copyright 2008, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

 Machinery's Handbook 28th Edition
CONTINUED FRACTIONS 11

Example, Multiplying Decimal Fractions:

0.75 1.625
0.25 0.033
375 (four decimal places) 4875 (six decimal places)
150 4875
0.1875 0.053625
Continued Fractions.—In dealing with a cumbersome fraction, or one which does not
have satisfactory factors, it may be possible to substitute some other, approximately equal,
fraction which is simpler or which can be factored satisfactorily. Continued fractions pro-
vide a means of computing a series of fractions each of which is a closer approximation to
the original fraction than the one preceding it in the series.
A continued fraction is a proper fraction (one whose numerator is smaller than its denom-
inator) expressed in the form shown at the left below; or, it may be convenient to write the
left expression as shown at the right below.

N- 1
--- = ----------------------------------------------
D 1 1 ------
N- = ------ 1 ------
1 ------
1
D 1 + -------------------------------- --- …
1 -
D 2 + ------------------ D D1 + D2 + D3 + D4 +
D3 + …
The continued fraction is produced from a proper fraction N/D by dividing the numerator
N both into itself and into the denominator D. Dividing the numerator into itself gives a
result of 1; dividing the numerator into the denominator gives a whole number D1 plus a
remainder fraction R1. The process is then repeated on the remainder fraction R1 to obtain
D2 and R2; then D3, R3, etc., until a remainder of zero results. As an example, using N/D =
2153⁄9277,
2153 ÷ 2153- = --------------------
------------ = 2153 1 - = ------------------
1 -
-----------------------------
9277 9277 ÷ 2153 665- D1 + R1
4 + -----------
2153
665 1 1
R 1 = ------------ = ------------------ = ------------------- etc.
2153 158 D2 + R2
3 + ---------
665
from which it may be seen that D1 = 4, R1 = 665⁄2153; D2 = 3, R2 = 158⁄665; and, continu-
ing as was explained previously, it would be found that: D3 = 4, R3 = 33⁄158; …; D9 = 2, R9
= 0. The complete set of continued fraction elements representing 2153⁄9277 may then be
written as
2153 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
------------ = --- + --- + --- + --- + --- + --- + --- + --- + ---
9277 4 3 4 4 1 3 1 2 2
D 1 ...........D 5 .............D 9
By following a simple procedure, together with a table organized similar to the one below
for the fraction 2153⁄9277, the denominators D1, D2, …of the elements of a continued frac-
tion may be used to calculate a series of fractions, each of which is a successively closer
approximation, called a convergent, to the original fraction N/D.
1) The first row of the table contains column numbers numbered from 1 through 2 plus
the number of elements, 2 + 9 = 11 in this example.

Copyright 2008, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

 Machinery's Handbook 28th Edition
12 CONJUGATE FRACTIONS

2) The second row contains the denominators of the continued fraction elements in
sequence but beginning in column 3 instead of column 1 because columns 1 and 2 must be
blank in this procedure.
3) The third row contains the convergents to the original fraction as they are calculated
and entered. Note that the fractions 1⁄0 and 0⁄1 have been inserted into columns 1 and 2.
These are two arbitrary convergents, the first equal to infinity, the second to zero, which
are used to facilitate the calculations.
4) The convergent in column 3 is now calculated. To find the numerator, multiply the
denominator in column 3 by the numerator of the convergent in column 2 and add the
numerator of the convergent in column 1. Thus, 4 × 0 + 1 = 1.
5) The denominator of the convergent in column 3 is found by multiplying the denomina-
tor in column 3 by the denominator of the convergent in column 2 and adding the denomi-
nator of the convergent in column 1. Thus, 4 × 1 + 0 = 4, and the convergent in column 3 is
then 1⁄4 as shown in the table.
6) Finding the remaining successive convergents can be reduced to using the simple
equation
( D n ) ( NUM n – 1 ) + NUM n – 2
CONVERGENT n = ---------------------------------------------------------------------
( D n ) ( DEN n – 1 ) + DEN n – 2

in which n = column number in the table; Dn = denominator in column n; NUMn−1 and

NUMn−2 are numerators and DENn−1 and DENn−2 are denominators of the convergents in
the columns indicated by their subscripts; and CONVERGENTn is the convergent in col-
umn n.
Convergents of the Continued Fraction for 2153⁄9277
Column Number, n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Denominator, Dn — — 4 3 4 4 1 3 1 2 2

--1- --0- --1- 3- 13- 55- 68- 259- 327- 913- 2153-
Convergentn ----- ----- -------- -------- ----------- ----------- ----------- -----------
0 1 4 13 56 237 293 1116 1409 3934 9277
Notes: The decimal values of the successive convergents in the table are alternately larger and
smaller than the value of the original fraction 2153⁄9277. If the last convergent in the table has the
same value as the original fraction 2153⁄9277, then all of the other calculated convergents are cor-
rect.
Conjugate Fractions.—In addition to finding approximate ratios by the use of continued
fractions and logarithms of ratios, conjugate fractions may be used for the same purpose,
independently, or in combination with the other methods.
Two fractions a⁄b and c⁄d are said to be conjugate if ad − bc = ± 1. Examples of such pairs
are: 0⁄1 and 1⁄1; 1⁄2 and 1⁄1; and 9⁄10 and 8⁄9. Also, every successive pair of the conver-
gents of a continued fraction are conjugate. Conjugate fractions have certain properties
that are useful for solving ratio problems:
1) No fraction between two conjugate fractions a⁄b and c⁄d can have a denominator
smaller than either b or d.
2) A new fraction, e⁄f, conjugate to both fractions of a given pair of conjugate fractions,
a⁄b and c⁄d, and lying between them, may be created by adding respective numerators, a +
c, and denominators, b + d, so that e⁄f = (a + c)⁄(b + d).
3) The denominator f = b + d of the new fraction e⁄f is the smallest of any possible fraction
lying between a⁄b and c⁄d. Thus, 17⁄19 is conjugate to both 8⁄9 and 9⁄10 and no fraction
with denominator smaller than 19 lies between them. This property is important if it is
desired to minimize the size of the factors of the ratio to be found.
The following example shows the steps to approximate a ratio for a set of gears to any
desired degree of accuracy within the limits established for the allowable size of the factors
in the ratio.

Copyright 2008, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

 Machinery's Handbook 28th Edition
CONJUGATE FRACTIONS 13

Example:Find a set of four change gears, ab⁄cd, to approximate the ratio 2.105399 accu-
rate to within ± 0.0001; no gear is to have more than 120 teeth.
Step 1. Convert the given ratio R to a number r between 0 and 1 by taking its reciprocal:
1⁄R = 1⁄2.105399 = 0.4749693 = r.
Step 2. Select a pair of conjugate fractions a⁄b and c⁄d that bracket r. The pair a⁄b = 0⁄1
and c⁄d = 1⁄1, for example, will bracket 0.4749693.
Step 3. Add the respective numerators and denominators of the conjugates 0⁄1 and 1⁄1 to
create a new conjugate e⁄f between 0 and 1: e⁄f = (a + c)⁄(b + d) = (0 +1)⁄(1 + 1) = 1⁄2.
Step 4. Since 0.4749693 lies between 0⁄1 and 1⁄2, e⁄f must also be between 0⁄1 and 1⁄2:
e⁄f = (0 + 1)⁄(1 + 2) = 1⁄3.
Step 5. Since 0.4749693 now lies between 1⁄3 and 1⁄2, e⁄f must also be between 1⁄3 and
1⁄2: e⁄f = (1 + 1)⁄(3 + 2) = 2⁄5.
Step 6. Continuing as above to obtain successively closer approximations of e ⁄ f to
0.4749693, and using a handheld calculator and a scratch pad to facilitate the process, the
fractions below, each of which has factors less than 120, were determined:
Fraction Numerator Factors Denominator Factors Error
19⁄40 19 2×2×2×5 + .000031
28⁄59 2×2×7 59 − .00039
47⁄99 47 3 × 3 × 11 − .00022
104⁄219 2 × 2 × 2 × 13 3 × 73 −.000083
123⁄259 3 × 41 7 × 37 − .000066
142⁄299 2 × 71 13 × 23 − .000053
161⁄339 7 × 23 3 × 113 − .000043
218⁄459 2 × 109 3 × 3 × 3 × 17 − .000024
256⁄539 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 ×2 ×2 7 × 7 × 11 − .000016
370⁄779 2 × 5 × 37 19 × 41 − .0000014
759⁄1598 3 × 11 × 23 2 × 17 × 47 − .00000059
Factors for the numerators and denominators of the fractions shown above were found
with the aid of the Prime Numbers and Factors tables beginning on page 20. Since in Step
1 the desired ratio of 2.105399 was converted to its reciprocal 0.4749693, all of the above
fractions should be inverted. Note also that the last fraction, 759⁄1598, when inverted to
become 1598⁄759, is in error from the desired value by approximately one-half the amount
obtained by trial and error using earlier methods.
Using Continued Fraction Convergents as Conjugates.—Since successive conver-
gents of a continued fraction are also conjugate, they may be used to find a series of addi-
tional fractions in between themselves. As an example, the successive convergents 55⁄237
and 68⁄293 from the table of convergents for 2153⁄9277 on page 12 will be used to demon-
strate the process for finding the first few in-between ratios.
Desired Fraction N⁄D = 2153⁄9277 = 0.2320793
a/b e/f c/d
(1) 55⁄ 237 = .2320675 a123⁄ 530 = .2320755 error = −.0000039 68⁄ 293 = .2320819
(2) 123⁄ 530 = .2320755 191⁄ 823 = .2320778 error = −.0000016 68⁄ 293 = .2320819
(3) 191⁄ 823 = .2320778 a259⁄ 1116 = .2320789 error = −.0000005 68⁄ 293 = .2320819
(4) 259⁄ 1116 = .2320789 327⁄ 1409 = .2320795 error = + .0000002 68⁄ 293 = .2320819
(5) 259⁄ 1116 = .2320789 586⁄ 2525 = .2320792 error = − .0000001 327⁄1409 = .2320795
(6) 586⁄ 2525 = .2320792 913⁄ 3934 = .2320793 error = − .0000000 327⁄1409 = .2320795
a Only these ratios had suitable factors below 120.

Step 1. Check the convergents for conjugateness: 55 × 293 − 237 × 68 = 16115 − 16116 =
−1 proving the pair to be conjugate.

Copyright 2008, Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY - www.industrialpress.com

Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
 Malcolm failed, notwithstanding his diligent inquiries, to learn
more about Lotte than that she was no longer in the house, and that
she lived in London, in the western quarter; there the conversation
respecting her ceased. He had sense enough to understand that to
pursue it further would be to make his notice of her too marked.
Having renewed a pressing invitation to Wilton and his daughter, if
they would graciously waive the introductory visit of his mamma, on
account of his sister Helen’s sudden attack, and having, as he
believed—and with some show of reason—rendered himself quite as
agreeable to Miss Wilton as could, under the circumstances, be
expected, he took his leave, accompanied by Lester Vane.
The latter individual, wholly indifferent as to the effect he might
produce upon the minds of the gentlemen there assembled, was
very desirous of creating an impression upon Flora.
But he failed to attract even a glance from her, and her hand
motionless under his pressure, was hastily withdrawn, even as he
touched it. When he retired through the doorway, he saw that her
gaze was fastened upon the face of the young and handsome
person introduced to him as Mr. Vivian.
His quick eye and his experience noted all these symptoms of the
small way he had made in her favour.
“Yet,” said he to himself, “she will fall far more easily into my mesh
than Helen Grahame. She is so pure, so guileless, so innocent of the
world’s ways, that she is without suspicion—that best defence for
woman against man’s art. My heart now aches to gain her. She must
be mine, my wife be it—but she shall be mine!”
He had at his departure, informed Wilton that he should take
advantage of his friendly invitation, and he hoped that his occasional
visits would not be deemed intrusive. The warmth with which old
Wilton responded to this suggestion by repeating his desire that he
would frequently test his hospitality, removed any hesitation he
might have in again presenting himself there without a special
invitation, and he determined quickly to avail himself of an opening
so eminently favourable to his design to lay siege to Flora’s heart.
Somehow, the interruption caused by these visitors seemed to
render the remaining part of the day less cheerful and happy than it
had commenced.
Old Wilton sat in his easy chair, plunged in deep thought. Colonel
Mires, though full of rumination, took care to prevent a repetition of
Hal and Flora’s tête-à-tête, by joining them. Flora occasionally
appeared abstracted, and Hal wore an expression upon his face very
much as if his visions of the future were clouded and sad.
As the Colonel did not, and would not, shift his quarters, the
conversation grew common-place until at length it became
absolutely irksome to Hal, and he rose to depart.
Flora fancied that, as he bade her farewell, his tone was cold, and
she missed the pressure of his hand. She knew, too, his eye was
averted, and he lingered not as usual upon the threshold of the door,
but he went away and never looked back to meet the gaze she
directed to him—and which meant to say “adieu,” with an expression
she could not trust to her words nor to her soft fingers—but he
looked not back once—no, not once!
Yet, when without the house, he directed his steps to the nearest
entry to the park, and paused not until he gained a spot, where he
could look upon the lighted window of the room in which he knew
she sat, thinking, perhaps, of the gentleman who had that day been
first presented to her, and was shortly to be little else than a
constant companion.
“Oh, Flora, dearest!” he murmured, compressing his hands tightly,
“it was a dream—a happy, happy dream! I wake to misery. You can
never, never be mine; it would be only mad presumption to entertain
longer a hope so blissful—oh, so very blissful! You will wed some
one higher, nobler than myself, for you are of proud and high
descent, and I but humbly born. If in this your happiness be
secured, I love you far, far too well to seek or wish a change. I can
only hope and pray that he who wins you may love you as truly, as
fondly, as devotedly as I do.”
He paused, for his throat swelled, and there was a gush of water
in his eyes that made the lighted window upon which they rested
dim and indistinct.
“What now shall be my future course?” he continued with deep
emotion; “my ambition is strangled in its birth. Fame! what have I to
do with fame? sought only that my hour of triumph should be
rewarded by her sweet smile of joy. What to me the rank in which
high success would place me, if her eyes, glowing with gratified
pride at sight of the honours I had won, were lost to me? No; life
hath no more a motive to render it worth its endurance. A rifle and
the prairies of the Far West shall be my world; there at least in the
vast solitudes I can, uninterrupted, dwell upon her memory, revel in
glorious visions of her angel face”——
A hand placed lightly upon his shoulder interrupted his soliloquy.
He turned sharply to find at his side Colonel Mires.
“A word with you,” he said to Hal, abruptly. “Follow me.”
“No!” returned Hal, coldly. “What you can have to say to me can
as well be said here as elsewhere. We are unobserved.”
“In sight of that window it is, perhaps, as well,” returned the
Colonel.
There was a pause for a moment; Hal made no remark upon the
insinuation thus conveyed, and the Colonel proceeded——
“With you I ought to have no difficulty in coming to the point,” he
said. With one in a different position my task would not be so easy,
therefore I at once say I perceive that you with ignorant
audacity”——
 “Sir,” cried Hal, fiercely.
“Hear me out”——
“Not another word, if such expressions are to be addressed to me.
I will submit to insult from no man breathing; he who attempts it
had need beware of a strong arm, and a spirit which never yet bent
or quailed before a danger.”
“It is not my design to insult you. I gain no end by it; if I use plain
terms, attribute it to my desire to describe exactly the act of one of
mean birth aspiring to ally himself to a house with a pedigree
extending to the Norman Conquest”——
“Colonel Mires, as few words, if you please, between us as
possible; briefly state the object of your seeking this interview with
me. My answer shall be clear, decided, and prompt as short.”
“Be it so. An accident has enabled you to render a service to Miss
Wilton. The firemen of London nightly do the same thing to
hundreds, and are content with the fee they receive as their reward.
You, on the contrary, with, as I have said, ig”——
“I warn you to be choice in your terms!”
“You actually, on account of the common deed you performed,
have inflated yourself with a monstrous notion that you might aspire
to the hand of a young lady of birth and wealth. You have, perhaps,
been led to nurse this ridiculous conception, because Miss Wilton,
with the true and refined courtesy of a well-bred lady, has extended
towards you a kindness of manner she would have displayed to the
very fireman you forestalled, if he had been the person who rescued
her from the peril she was in.”
“Have you finished?” cried Hal, impatiently.
“When I have told you to abandon for ever the wild and
preposterous idea which seems to have taken possession of you,
and to abstain from further visits to the house of Mr. Wilton, under
the risk of my resentment, and perhaps an ignominious punishment,
I have ended.”
“My reply is, sir,” returned Hal, with a swelling breast, and a
sensation upon his forehead, like a burning band, “that I wholly
deny your right to interfere either in Mr. Wilton’s or my affairs. I have
further to inform you, that I am master of my actions, and that I
intend to remain so; I conclude, sir, by telling you, in full explanation
of the estimation in which I hold your resentment, that should you
dare, in my hearing, speak of Miss Wilton as but now you have
done, or should attempt to renew this conversation with me, I will
treat you as I would a snarling, troublesome, officious hound! Stand
out of my path!”
Hal placed his open hand on the breast of Colonel Mires, and
thrust him back. He strode with a firm but dignified step from the
spot.
“Scoundrel!” yelled Mires; “I will horsewhip you for this indignity.”
“We shall meet when you have a horsewhip,” answered Hal,
scornfully. “Spare your promises until then.”
With rage and fury swelling his frame, and forming a hundred
schemes of a deadly revenge, the foiled Colonel hastened in the
opposite direction to that Hal had taken.
“And this dark-skinned villain hopes to take to his arms the fairest,
brightest piece of Nature’s handicraft,” Hal muttered, as he pursued
his way homeward. “He will vex and trouble her by his detestable
addresses. Oh, Flora, dearest! if I may not aspire to your hand, or
hope for your love, I may, at least, pass my life in protecting you
from the machinations of such villains as this. At least I shall be near
you; I will watch over you, and preserve you from ill, if I may never,
never shelter you from harm within these arms as my own—my
own.”
 CHAPTER II.—THE DREADFUL
SECRET.
Oh, shame! oh, guilt! oh, horror! oh, remorse
Oh, punishment! Had Satan never fallen,
Hell had been made for me. Oh, Leonora!
Leonora! Leonora!
Young.

H
elen Grahame, borne helpless to her bed-chamber, remained
for many hours without exhibiting any sign of returning
consciousness.
An experienced physician had been summoned, and at length the
fit was so far mastered by the application of remedies and
restoratives, that the semblance of death no longer remained, and
she was roused into motion, though not to consciousness.
She was delirious, at first: and sitting upright in the bed, caught
the terrified, weeping Evangeline by the wrist, and pointed into
vacancy.
“See, see,” she shrieked; “he stands tottering on the vessel’s side.
Hold him back for mercy sake, hold him back, or he will be lost! Oh,
Hugh, but one moment—pause—for very charity pause! I come to
you—one moment, Hugh—I will hang on your breast, I will cling to
you, I will go through the world with you—stay—one instant! Save
him! Save him! Hugh!—Hugh!—see, he curses me—his eyes glare
angrily on me, he tosses his hands wildly in the air—he leaps—ha!”
 A piercing shriek burst from her lips, and rang through the house.
Evangeline threw her arms round her sister, and by force
prevented her from springing from the bed on to the floor.
“Helen, darling,” she exclaimed, sobbing, as she felt the quivering,
trembling frame of her sister shake in every limb, as though she was
struck with an ague—“Helen, look upon me—I am Eva, sister Eva;
you see only a horrible vision—a dreadful dream; you are at home in
your own room—oh, Helen, Helen darling, speak to me one word,
say that you know me, one word, Helen dearest.”
“One word, Helen dearest! the words mock me,” exclaimed Helen,
in a low subdued tone, her large dark eyes wandering slowly round
the room. “One word, Helen, dearest!—and I would not utter it. My
cold selfishness has killed him. The remorseless sea has closed over
him, the moaning wind chants his dirge, the slimy seaweed
entangles his locks, he lays upon the cold, cold sand in the green
depths, his white wan face turned, despairing, to the harsh world
which had no compassion for him. He is gone, he is for ever gone!—
I—I have slain him!”
A fearful passion of hysteric weeping followed these words. Her
whole frame was convulsed. It took the united aid of the physician,
Chayter, and Evangeline to hold her down, in order to prevent her
committing some wild act of delirious extravagance.
The paroxysm passed away but it left her utterly prostrate. The
physician declaring her out of immediate danger, retired, leaving
Evangeline and Chayter to watch by her as she lay, wan and
motionless—the faint heaving of her bosom only telling that she was
not dead.
Helen’s intercourse with Hugh was known only to herself and to
him—she had no confidante—and it was well that Mrs. Grahame was
not present during the ravings uttered by her daughter. A secret is
never so well kept as when it is never entrusted. Helen believed this,
and confided to no one the love passage in her young life,
Evangeline, in her innocence, believed that the mere relation of the
incident with which Hugh Riversdale was connected, coming upon
Helen at a moment when she was not quite in health, had so
shocked her as to produce this grave result; but such would not
have been the interpretation by Mrs. Grahame.
At present that lady decided in her own mind that Helen had been
attacked by this fit, wholly irrespective of the paragraph in the
paper; but she would at once have surmised the truth, if she had
seen how her daughter wept the loss of the person they “could not
notice now.”
The report of the physician was that she had suffered a severe
attack of hysteria—that she was much prostrated, with a tendency to
be delirious; but that though she might be compelled to keep her
chamber for some time, there was no real danger. “It was necessary
that she should be well nursed,” he said, and as he perceived that in
that mansion, where pride reigned supreme, she was not likely to
obtain the careful and constant attention which she so much
needed, he recommended a person to be sent for from the
institution for trained nurses.
Mrs. Grahame approved of the suggestion, and, within a couple of
hours, one, a tall matronly female, was duly installed empress of
Helen’s sick chamber.
She had a struggle, at first, to wrest the empire from Evangeline,
but she was so forcible in her reasoning, and so kind and gentle in
her manner, that Eva yielded up the sway, on the understanding that
she should spend the greater portion of her time at her sister’s
bedside.
And now the house assumed an aspect of quiet. The Duke of St.
Allborne had just begun to find favourable qualities in Margaret, not
visible to the eyes of others, but bright in his, for her homage to him
had been so direct that he could but notice and approve it. Direct
flattery rarely disgusts the weak-minded; it charmed the Duke, and
he purred as he received it. He would have become more marked in
his attentions to the artful girl, but Helen’s sudden illness brought his
and Lester Vane’s visit to an abrupt close.
They quitted, with expressions of complimentary condolence, and
promised, at a future time, to repeat their visit. Both intended to
keep their word.
Lester Vane had no thought of yielding up his designs on Helen.
He neither forgot nor forgave. He had correctly read her intention to
make a prize of his heart, and then to toss it away as a worthless
gain. He overlooked the provocation he gave her for entertaining
such a scheme, unjustifiable as it was, and he resolved to punish
her. There was a blow to wipe out, and he thought he knew how to
exact ample vengeance in atonement of it.
So he determined to return again to the house when Helen had
recovered.
The anticipated visit of old Wilton and his daughter Flora to the
house of Mr. Grahame was not paid, the reason assigned was, that
Wilton, with his daughter, had gone into the country—rather
unexpectedly—to take possession of the estate of which he had
been so long deprived.
The pressing claims upon Mr. Grahame were all satisfied, a large
sum had been placed to his credit at his bankers, and proceedings
were going on to carry into effect Nathan Gomer’s scheme.
Mr. Grahame was, upon the whole, though rather mystified and
vexed by a lurking uneasiness, glad that the deed, bearing the
signature of Eustace Wilton, which the latter had never written, had
so strangely disappeared; and he was also rather pleased, though
perplexed, to find Mr. Chewkle had never returned to him, after his
departure with the professed object of enlisting the services of two
arrant scoundrels in the atrocious business of false swearing. He,
therefore, set out on a business visit to an estate he possessed in
Scotland, with a much easier frame of mind, and a more decided
disposition to enact the part of a haughty feudal lord, than he had
done on the visits immediately preceding the present.
Mrs. Grahame and Margaret were incessantly engaged in fulfilling
with propriety what they deemed the duties of the station they held.
They were in their carriage one-half the day, and one-half the night
at the opera, at soirées, and routs.
Evangeline spent all the time allotted her by her mamma, and by
the nurse, Mrs. Truebody, in Helen’s room; but in the sick chamber,
or away from it, her soft footsteps and her sweet low voice were
rarely heard.
So the mansion was for the most part silent as an untenanted
house of prayer. Helen was slowly recovering. She was still very ill.
Since her raving in her delirium, she had never spoken a word.
To the fond and affectionate questions of Evangeline, she replied
by a faint, loving smile, or a gentle pressure of the hand, but not a
word.
To the physician or to the nurse, she either nodded slightly or
shook her head, but not a sound escaped her lips.
At length the physician terminated his visits, recommending that
Helen should rise for an hour or two, extending the time each day,
until she had strength enough to resume her ordinary routine of life.
Mrs. Truebody had been most attentive to her patient; her medical
knowledge was excellent, and frequently most usefully applied; her
kindness, her patient, unweary watching, most exemplary; it had
won, as it could not fail to do, the gratitude of Helen, occasionally
displayed by a beaming look, not at all difficult of interpretation.
One night, towards midnight, when Eva had, after embracing and
kissing her sister tenderly, retired to her own room to pray, as usual,
for the speedy restoration of Helen to health, Mrs. Truebody seated
herself by the bedside, and took Helen’s wasted hand in her own,
and held it there.
 “Miss Grahame,” she said, in a low tone, “you are progressing,
though slowly, to recovery; but there is one impediment to your
more rapid return to health, which, I confess, I am sadly afraid
cannot be easily removed.”
She paused.
Helen turned her dark eyes upon her, with an inquiring look, but
did not speak.
“You have a weight preying on your mind, which alone causes the
physical prostration under which you suffer,” continued Mrs.
Truebody. “It will continue to keep you here unless prompt
arrangements are made to alleviate it by some decided step on your
part.”
Helen remained silent. Still, Mrs. Truebody went on—
“Have you a friend, Miss Grahame?” she asked; adding—“I do not
mean a mere acquaintance, nor yet a relative, but a friend, in whom
you can place the fullest confidence, and who would spare no
exertion and faint not at trial and trouble to serve you. Speak, my
child, for in truth it is a momentous question I ask of you.”
Helen faintly shook her head, and, in a feeble voice, replied—
“No, I have not—not one—now.”
The tears clustered in her eyes.
Mrs. Truebody gazed upon her sadly.
“You have need of one—sore need of one,” she said, gravely; “for
you have some painful secret in your heart.”
There was a silence as of the grave.
Helen’s eyes looked into the dark shadow in her room, as though
there she saw a phantom. She spoke not.
 “Have you never confided, by word or hint, to anyone that grief
which now oppresses you?” asked Mrs. Truebody, in a curiously
solemn tone.
A flush spread itself over the hitherto pale features of Helen, and
then it passed away, leaving her whiter than ever.
“Never,” she murmured, in a low voice.
“And where is he who has brought you to this condition?” asked
Mrs. Truebody, in a tone betraying indignation.
“Oh, do not speak, do not think harshly of him!” exclaimed Helen,
with a quivering lip. “His anguish, his misery, and his despair, were
greater than my own!”
Then, in hoarse accents, she briefly spoke of the circumstances
which called Hugh away, of his letter to her, of her mental struggles,
her hesitation, and vacillation, until too late even to write to him,
and then of the incident published in the newspaper.
Mrs. Truebody listened in silence, with her eyes intently fixed upon
Helen’s features, perusing them earnestly as though to ascertain
whether there was not something more which Helen studiously
concealed, but she did not seem to find what she sought.
Presently, she said abruptly—
“Were you married?”
A change instantly passed over the features of Helen—an
expression impossible to describe: it told that a throng of
unutterable thoughts were passing through her brain.
“Why do you ask me such a question?” she said, in an almost
inarticulate voice.
Mrs. Truebody took a firmer hold of her hand.
 “Look in my eyes, my child,” she said solemnly; “answer me truly
—are you ignorant of your actual condition?”
“My—my condition!” feebly echoed Helen.
“Know you not, my poor girl,” exclaimed Mrs. Truebody, in a deep
and earnest tone, “that ere a few short months have passed over
your head, you will become a mother?”
Helen’s face became instantly of a ghastly whiteness. She turned
an affrighted glare upon Mrs. Truebody. Her lips moved as though
she would speak but could not. A film spread itself over her eyes, a
moment before unnaturally bright, and she swooned away.
Mrs. Truebody let fall her hand, and hastened to apply
restoratives.
Her tears fell fast upon the pallid countenance over which she
bent like a tender mother.
“Poor child” she murmured. “Poor deluded child! Riches have not
saved her from sin, nor spared her sorrow. Oh, woman! woman!
you, who claim this frail creature as your child, what have you not to
answer for!”
Once again Helen became conscious, and now she was face to
face with her true position—now she felt more terribly the
upbraidings of self-reproach, for not having complied with Hugh’s
passionate appeal to her. But the opportunity was passed. He was
gone—perhaps to heaven. She was here alone—alone with her sin.
Something to Mrs. Truebody’s surprise, she did not exhibit the
violent emotions she had expected her to give way to, on being
restored to a full sense of her position. She wept, it is true—her eyes
rained tears, and her sobs—low, wailing sobs—were very painful to
hear—but she was almost motionless; it was as though she cowered
beneath the bed-clothes to hide herself for very shame.
After a time she whispered—
 “This is a dreadful secret—a most dreadful secret. I have had,
since I have laid here, a terrifying sense of the truth, but I drove it
away—I would not think of it, I would not believe it—but oh! is it
true—is it true?”
“It is true,” repeated Mrs. Truebody, emphatically.
Helen clasped her hands, and said to her, imploringly—
“Leave me to deal with this fearful discovery alone, but oh! Mrs.
Truebody, if you have a spark of human charity, breathe not to
mortal the calamity with which Heaven has afflicted me in meting
out to me my deserts. Oh! think of my father’s and of my mother’s
pride in the honour of our house. To know of my fall would crush
them—that foul blot on their escutcheon would slay them. Oh! Mrs.
Truebody, let me not add murder to my dread fault, I implore you, I
pray of you—upon my knees with bitter, bitter tears I will pray of
you, as you alone discovered my secret, so retain it in your own
bosom.”
“Be comforted in this, my poor child,” she replied: “I will not add a
pang to the anguish which I am sure you must now so keenly suffer,
but what I must know, and what I will know, is, the course you are
going to adopt.”
“You shall know as soon as I have the power to decide. At present
my brain is racked with agony, my temples burn and throb: I cannot
collect my thoughts into anything like coherency. Let me but have
quiet—quiet, Mrs. Truebody, and I shall be able then to shape out
the path my guilt and shame may compel me to take, without
injuring or degrading those who are so jealous of their virtue and
their fame.”
“Ah!” thought Mrs. Truebody, “if they had mixed up with this stern
purity of character a little common humanity. If the haughty mother
of this frail sinful girl had been but as proud of being a good,
watchful, loving parent as she has been of her long line of ancestry,
this dreadful thing surely had not happened.” She turned to Helen,
and said—
“You shall have quiet and rest—so that you may gather strength to
reflect upon the consequences of your terrible error, and pray to God
for pardon.”
“I will try to do all you counsel,” responded Helen, excitedly,
though speaking in the same hissing undertone; “but I must be left
for a time to myself—be alone, quite alone! Above all, let not Eva
come to me!”
“Miss Grahame?”
“No!—no!—no! Not Eva!—not Eva! I cannot now dare to look in
her sinless face. I cannot bear the soft gaze of her innocent eyes,
nor hear those affectionate words emanating from her pure heart,
without acutely feeling each look, each tone of her dear voice, as a
terrible reproach. I have so looked down upon her simplicity, taunted
her guilelessness, scoffed at her singleness of heart, that the very
sight of her seems to humble me to the dust.”
“She will be so very grieved, to be forbidden the usual seat by
your bedside,” said Mrs. Truebody, deprecatingly.
“I know it—I feel it. I can see her turning sorrowfully away when
you deny her access to me, but she is now to me an angel of such
spotless purity, and I so foul, so black, so begrimed with wickedness,
that were she to lay her tender hand upon me, and with those
immaculate lips press my hot forehead, I should shrink from her,
fearing to pollute her by the contact.”
“Whatever you may inwardly feel—and I would not have you
repulse any such sense of your grievous fault—it will be necessary to
obtain a control over your feelings, and to appear much as usual,”
said Mrs. Truebody; “and I would suggest to you that by refusing to
see your sister Eva—dear, sweet creature that she is—you will give
rise to questions which it will be difficult to answer.”
 “I will be guided by you, but pray let me be alone for the next day
or two,” urged Helen. “You will tell her that, unless I am for a short
time left entirely to myself, my recovery will be greatly retarded. She
will not, after that, press her own kind desires in opposition to my
recovery. And, now, if my beating brain will let me, I will try to sleep,
and strive to gather strength; for, oh! I have a dreadful task to
encounter—a desperate part to play. Good night, Mrs. Truebody;
remember your promise!—not a word to mortal—not a word—not a
word! as you hope hereafter for mercy from the Almighty!”
Mrs. Truebody slept in a small antechamber. Her room door was in
Helen’s apartment, and this she always left open all night. Having
performed a few necessary duties, and bade Helen farewell for the
night, she retired to her bed.
At length Helen was quite alone. The slight hum of the gently-
moving trees in the garden was broken only by the monotonous
ticking of the time-piece over the fireplace. An hour passed, and not
a sound broke the intense stillness which reigned throughout the
house.
Suddenly Helen sat straight up in the bed. She stretched her arms
out, and murmured, in accents of the keenest misery—
“Oh! Hugh, Hugh—pardon and pity me! If you are dead, come to
me in the spirit; let your sad eyes once more turn on mine. I will not
tremble, nor faint, nor be appalled. Come to me—bear me with you;
for oh! it is dreadful to be here alone—alone, Hugh! Oh! you know
not how lone I am—so utterly lonely. No, no; oh, mercy Heaven! not
alone—not alone—no more alone!”
With a low wail, more like a cry of horror than, the sob of anguish,
she sank shivering down, and buried her head beneath the bed-
clothes. Once more she raised herself, and parted her long black hair
from her tearful eyes, dim with long weeping.
“Are you dead, Hugh?” she moaned; “it is happiness for you, if
you are. I may not die—I dare not die; I must live—live for, for—oh
—I shall go frantic! Live? Live where?—where?—where?”
She clasped her hands in despair.
“Here I cannot stay. Here? No; I must out into the world. Oh!
where, to hide my misery and my shame from all—the pitying and
the pitiless? Oh, Hugh! that I had fled to you. If I had but listened to
the pleadings of my heart, I had not fallen before the whisperings of
my pride!”
And thus the night through did she start up and murmur in
moaning accents, or hide herself beneath the bed-covering, sobbing
and wailing in the very wildest grief.
The pale gray dawn began to show through the transparent blind,
when sleep stole over the exhausted girl, and it was mid-day ere she
awoke, strengthened, though not refreshed, by her long slumber—
awoke, as Mrs. Truebody had told her, to be face to face with her
miserable situation.
She did not shrink from it. The nurse kept her promise, and
suffered no one to enter the chamber but herself, and Helen had all
the quiet she could hope for.
She lay motionless the remainder of the day. The nurse could,
however, see that her mind was working with ceaseless activity.
Occasionally she would perceive her dark eyes, shining with an
unnatural brilliancy, turned upon herself, and she knew that Helen
was taking into her calculations her aid or her silence.
She did not try to induce her to speak, especially as she saw that
she had a disinclination to do so. She believed it to be better for her
to think. A steady reflection upon the failings of our nature tends to
promote an endeavour to remedy them. Under such an impression,
she did not care to make Helen talk.
Helen slept all that night, but the following day was a counterpart
of the last. Neither Mrs. Grahame nor Margaret made any attempt to
see her, when they were requested not to visit her for a day or so,
but Evangeline could scarcely be moved from the chamber door.
She stole there upon tiptoe, and stood without for hours, listening
intently. If she could have only heard Helen speak, it would have
made her heart light and glad.
That night, at the hour when the household were retiring to
repose, Evangeline escaped the vigilance of Mrs. Truebody, and crept
to the bedside.
Helen lay there in deep thought, as for hours she had been—living
over her past life, and vainly trying to shape out of the obscure
future the lot she would have to endure.
Her restless eyes suddenly fell upon the upturned, loving face of
her sister—that face so full of tenderness, and yet charged with an
expression deprecating her anger for having broken through the
arrangement which compelled her absence.
At first Helen shrank, as if horrified, from her, but Evangeline
leaned over, and caught her in her arms.
“Do not be angry with me, Helen, dearest,” she said, entreatingly;
“but indeed, indeed, I could not sleep without speaking just one little
word to you, and kissing you. I sobbed all last night; it was foolish, I
know; but I could not bear to go to bed without having even seen
you during the day.”
“Do—do not touch me, Eva,” said Helen, gasping and struggling to
free herself from her sister’s affectionate embrace.
Eva burst into tears.
“Do not be cross with me, Helen, darling, for I love you fondly and
dearly!” she exclaimed. “If I too much intrude my love upon you,
forgive me, for I cannot help it. Say to me only, ‘Good night, Eva,’
and kiss me, and I will leave you—oh, so happy, Helen.”
 Helen could not bear this tenderness of her sister’s, and not
respond to it; she strained her passionately to her bosom, and
sobbed violently upon her neck. She then wiped her scalding tears
from her burning eyes, and kissed Eva fervidly upon the forehead.
“Eva,” she whispered in her ear, “I love you with my whole soul. I
have wronged you. I have treated you with unkindness——”
“No, darling—no, never.”
“With unfeeling scorn, Eva—cruel, selfish pride. I am punished,
Eva—you cannot dream how fearfully; but let that pass—mine the
crime, mine the atonement. Know this, however—that my eyes are
opened, and my error stands before me, a monument of glowing
brass. You do not understand this, sweet Eva; but you will
comprehend that, from the inmost depths of my heart, I love and
honour you.”
“Helen!”
“That in—in the—the time to come, I shall never forget your more
than sisterly affection, your dear love for me, and I shall pray for
blessings to be showered upon you, Eva—pray for you—as I hope
you will—will pray for me.”
The last words were almost inaudible. She kissed the astonished
Eva again and again with passionate fervour, and then she bade her
not to say a word, but to leave her and come again at the same
hour on the following night.
“But you will say, ‘Good night and good bye, dearest,’ to me, will
you not, Helen?” asked Eva, softly and fondly.
Helen felt as if she should be suffocated by a rising hysterical sob,
but she contrived to force out the words—
“Good night and good bye, dearest Eva,” and then she fell back,
almost lifeless, on the bed.
 Eva bent over her, imprinted one last kiss upon her burning lips,
and then ran out of the room with a heart throbbing with joy, and
kneeling down at her own bedside, she prayed with sincerity and
fervour for the recovery and for the happiness of her sister Helen.
In the early morning, while Helen seemed yet sleeping, Mrs.
Truebody went upon an errand, which her patient had begged her to
execute herself; it took her to no great distance from the house, and
when she returned she went into the kitchen and made breakfast for
Helen herself, according to her usual custom, and then she carried it
up to her bedside.
But Helen was not there!
Nor in the room, nor in the house, ransacked, in wild terror, by
Mrs. Truebody.
Upon the toilet table, was subsequently found a note, addressed
to Mrs. Grahame. Within, ran the following words—
“Search not for me. I have departed of my own free will. Rest
satisfied in this—that the life bestowed by my Creator will not
beshortened by a despairing hand. One word of solemn warning.
Inquire not. Be content that there is a mystery. Do not seek to draw
a veil from that which, hidden, cannot wound you, but if revealed
would destroy you. Forget me!”
“Helen.”
So she was gone.
Mrs. Grahame, after perusing this strange and, to her mind,
incomprehensible epistle, concluded to take no step in the matter
until she had consulted with Mr. Gra-hame upon the subject. Such
undignified behaviour on the part of her eldest daughter was
unpardonable.
Margaret thought that her mother had adopted quite the proper
course to pursue; Malcolm was out of town for a few days; and
Evangeline, upon her knees, implored Mrs. Truebody to accompany
her over London in search of her absent sister.
Mrs. Truebody, in deep tribulation, promised everything, and did
nothing.
Yes, she did one thing.
She kept Helen’s dreadful secret!
 CHAPTER III.—THE STRICKEN
DEER.
Bel. Whither shall I fly?
Where hide me and my miseries together?
Where’s now the Roman constancy I boasted?
Sunk into trembling fears and desperation.

Jaf. Mercy! Kind Heaven has surely endless stores

Hoarded for thee, of blessings yet untasted.
—Otway.

S
o Lotte Clinton began the world afresh. Her prospects were
newer and brighter. Since she had been flung abruptly and
rudely upon the hard world, she had not known such true
comfort and happiness as she now enjoyed. The death of her
parents, within a few days of each other, had left her and her
brother—her senior only some fifteen months—utterly destitute. The
disinterested charity of a neighbouring humble tradesman, who had
known something of the family in better times, not only provided the
expenses of the double funeral, but paused not until it had placed
the boy in a lawyer’s office, and the girl at a milliner’s, as an
apprentice for three years in the house.
In those three years, Lotte had been trained to exist with as few
hours nightly sleep as it was possible for her young nature to sustain
without actually sinking under it. But she had acquired the whole
mystery of cap-makings and some little knowledge of dressmaking.
When the term of her apprenticeship expired, she went through
the routine of day work until her skill, and the known power she had
of working long after midnight, and rising with the sun, enabled her
to ask for, and to obtain, her work at home.
The advantages afforded her by this arrangement were, that she
saved the time occupied in passing to and from her place of
business, and she was spared exposure to insult on her nightly
return to her humble lodging.
When our tale opened, she was occupied in making those pretty
blonde, flowered fronts, worn by ladies as the inner adornment of
their bonnets. For making up these, she was paid at the rate of
sixpence-halfpenny, sevenpence-halfpenny, and for some eight-
pence-halfpenny per dozen. At this miserable pay she had to rise
with the dawn, and work until past the hour of midnight, to earn
even a scanty pittance-Many a fair creature, consulting her mirror,
has, with gratified pride, observed the becoming properties of the
small and pretty addition to her head-dress; but how very few have
reflected that their own efforts to procure it as cheaply as possible
have helped to hurry many a poor exhausted careworn sister into
the crowded paths of sin, or into a pauper grave!
Lotte was rapid with her needle, and was full of self-sacrifice, that
she might be self-dependent. She possessed great powers of
endurance, and, to preserve her independence, she taxed those
powers to the utmost. No one but herself knew what privations she
had undergone. No one but herself could tell of the hardships she
had faced, struggled with, without a despairing sigh, and had
surmounted—until the cruel circumstances succeeding the fire had
ruthlessly dragged from her all hope.
Now her trials and her miseries seemed to have vanished. She had
not to work so hard, for she was far better paid, and if her old habit
of early rising still adhered to her, she laid her pretty, happy face
upon her soft pillow at least an hour before midnight.
Her furniture was all her own, too, now; to the kind liberality of
Flora Wilton she was indebted for that, and she had, at least, a
sovereign by her for an emergency. She had begun to deposit in a
Savings Bank already. She had a plan daintily conceived, which
involved a fair amount of poetical justice. She had indomitable
perseverance, and, if events unforeseen and uncontrollable did not
occur, she fully resolved to carry it out. Her room—her one room, for
she had only one—was a little picture, so clean, so tidy, so prettily
arranged it was. There was her table with its two flaps, so that if she
felt lonely and somewhat disposed to turn with liberal hand her
economy aside it would accommodate a visitor—ay, actually
company.
Then, in addition to her neat set of chairs, there was a sofa,
which, by a marvel of mechanical ingenuity was converted at night
into a pretty little bedstead. There was upon the floor a neat-
patterned carpet. Upon the flowered walls a picture or two, not of
much value, but they added to the liveliness of the room.
She had, too, a charming little canary, such a dear tiltle “dick,”
which chirruped and sang to her all the long day, looking at her
every now and then, and calling “sweet” to her with as knowing an
expression in his little bright eye, as if he were that young smart
though anky grocer himself round the corner, who never served her
with sugar but he gazed upon her as if, like the genuine “barley,” he
was a “sweetness long drawn out.”
There were flowers in the window. She was very fond of flowers.
She could not afford the more expensive kinds, but as it was, she
delighted in tending her geraniums, her mignionette, her fuchsias,
and her trained convolvuli.
Altogether, in her eyes, her room was an earthly Paradise. She
almost sighed with too much happiness as at times she lifted up her
eyes from her work to gaze around.
“Oh, if Charley could only see me here, how happy he would be!”
she would often say to herself; and then she would pray with
earnest fervour that he might soon be restored to her.
As yet she had not had a visitor. Flora was away in the country.
Hal Vivian she had expected to call, if only to say, “How do you do?”
but he had never been, and Mrs. Bantom—who had promised to
return the visit, which Lotte, full of gratitude and thankfulness to her
for her motherly kindness in her distress, had paid—had not yet put
in an appearance. Several times when a loud ring came to “her” bell,
she ran with a light step and a beating heart down the stairs to
answer the door, expecting to see some loved face reward her
hopeful anticipations, but it was only “the milk,” or a boy to bring her
a fresh supply of work, and take away that which she had done. She
would return up to her room with just a little bit of a sigh, and take
refuge once more in the sanguine belief that some one would come
to see her, and that before long.
She little dreamed all this while that there was “some one” on the
look-out to find her—one who was fully as anxious to become a
visitor to her as she could be to receive one.
She was all unconscious that her round, attractive face had won
the heart of “the heir of the haughty Grahame”—that is, so much of
the article as he possessed. Alas! too, like many others of his sex, as
far as woman was concerned, his heart greatly resembled a garden-
grown cabbage, luxuriant in leaf, but without the solid centre, which
was necessary to make it of value to the possessor.
She had no inkling that while she longed for some face, bearing a
kind expression, to come shining through her doorway, that a suitor
for her—love—was roaming through the more retired of the west-
end streets, examining apartments to let, making kind inquiries after
imaginary persons of impatient landladies, in the strong hope, that
he should at last “come shining through the doorway” to her, as
though by the most charming accident in the world.
But this swain was not successful. Something more than the
reverse, for he pursued his investigation in a manner so peculiar that
in several cases he was suspected of being after the time-piece, or
any stray purse or plate, instead of the lodgings; and was,
consequently, answered with abruptness, not permitted to be left by
himself for an instant, and was shown to the door with all possible
speed. In other instances, he was imagined to be an individual
shrinking from an interview with sharp and urgent creditors, whose
claims he could not liquidate. In nearly every case, he was
considered impertinently inquisitive, and received monosyllables in
reply, but not in satisfaction of the object of his questions, as that
formed precisely the point upon which the interrogated joined issue
with him, especially if the lady with diminished resources who let
apartments to help out her income, or who had “more room than
she wanted,” happened to have a daughter old enough to be
thought of by young men—and to think of them. Then Malcolm
Grahame observed, as he questioned, the elderly landlady’s face
redden, her brow contract, her lips purse up, her eyes brighten, and
her conversational powers stricken with a sudden frost; and he
found himself gradually backed, inch by inch, down the stairs, along
the passage too narrow mostly to be dignified with the name of a
hall, until he was fairly in the street, and then the door was slammed
in his face.
“Cursedly rude,” thought he: “devilish odd, too, they should treat a
person of my standing and appearance in such a beastly fashion.”
The more his imagination dwelt upon Lotte, the more infatuated
he grew; the difficulties thrown in his path, in his endeavour to
discover her, served but to add to the flame already kindled; and
thus much time that ought to have been passed at Oxford was spent
in wandering through whole streets of unlet apartments to find one
who had no idea of his existence, and who, as soon as his identity
was established, would think about him pretty much as she had
done before, that is to say—not at all.
A recent effort of Lotte’s handicraft had been purchased by a lady
of title in Belgravia; and, requiring other articles of attire for her
“budding sprigs,” she desired that the person, young or old, who had
made the articles she had purchased, and was much pleased with,
should, upon a certain evening, after dinner, wait upon her to take
her instructions. Delighted with the taste exhibited in the things she
had bought, the lady concluded that the same excellent fancy would
be displayed by the young person in whatever was made under her
own directions; in fact, that by such a mode of procedure the very
best results would be produced. She was, therefore, very particular
in requesting the presence of the actual workwoman.
Her wishes were conveyed to Lotte, and she, glad of a little
change, readily assented to attend upon the lady, resolving to make,
by allowing herself plenty of time, something more than a mere walk
of her journey.
So she tied on the prettiest of little bonnets—we must tell the
truth—so as to cover only half her head and to hide that graceful
turn in her neck, which, without shawl or bonnet, commanded the
admiration of any person with half an eye for beauty of form, and
she donned her dove-coloured mantle, which fell so gracefully from
her shoulders, giving a tantalising suggestion of the small, well-
shaped waist it concealed from view, but not from the imagination;
and she drew on gradually, with a woman’s patience and
perseverance in those matters, the small deep-green kid gloves, and
then she seized her little morocco handkerchief-box hung it on her
arm, and sallied forth.
“Well,” she thought, with a smile and a suppressed sigh, “if no one
has been to pay me a visit, it consoles me to think I have a visit to
pay.”
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebooknice.com