Periodisation of the Indus Valley Civilisation

Several periodisations are employed for the periodisation of the Indus Valley Civilisation.[1][2] While the
Indus Valley Civilisation was divided into Early, Mature, and Late Harappan by archaeologists like Mortimer
Wheeler,[3] newer periodisations include the Neolithic early farming settlements, and use a stage–phase
model,[1][4][3] often combining terminology from various systems.

Periodisations
The most commonly used nomenclature[5][6] classifies the Indus Valley civilisation into early, mature, and
late Harappan phases.[3] The Indus Valley Civilisation was preceded by local agricultural villages, from where
the river plains were populated when water management became available, creating an integrated civilisation.
This broader time range has also been called the Indus Age[7] and the Indus Tradition.[1]

Early, Mature, and Late Harappan

Early surveys by Sir Aurel Stein in Balochistan led to the discovery of numerous prehistoric sites of unknown
association.[8] Following excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, the prehistoric sites in Sindh and
Baluchistan were thought to represent a culture that migrated from Baluchistan to the Indus Valley to
establish the Indus Valley Civilisation.[9] This notion was refuted by M.R. Mughal based on his discovery of
earlier occupational phases in the Cholistan Desert. The term Early Harappan was coined by M. R. Mughal in
his dissertation at the University of Pennsylvania which provided a synthesis of his many surveys and studies
throughout Pakistan.[10] This classification is primarily based on Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, assuming an
evolutionary sequence.[3] According to Manuel, this division "places the Indus Valley within a tripartite
evolutionary framework, of the birth, fluorescence, and death of a society in a fashion familiar to the social
evolutionary concepts of Elman Service (1971)."[3]

According to Coningham and Young, it was "cemented [...] in common use" due to "the highly influential
British archaeologists Raymond and Bridget Allchin [who] used similar subdivisions in their work."[6]
According to Coningham and Young, this approach is "limited" and "restricted,"[6] putting too much emphasis
on the mature phase.[5]

Shaffer: Harappan Tradition

Scholarship in archaeology commonly uses a variation of the Three-age system developed by Christian
Jürgensen Thomsen to divide past societies into a Stone Age, a Bronze Age, and an Iron Age. Although this
system is very useful for its original purpose of organizing museum collections, it is unable to fully
characterize the dynamic and fluid nature of human inter-settlement relationships. To address this issue,
archaeologists Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips developed a system based on Culture-Historical Integration,
or a heuristic concept for describing the distribution of "relatedness" across time and space.[11] These
concepts were later adapted by Jim G. Shaffer and Diane Liechtenstein as a potential solution to a similar
problem in the Greater Indus Valley.
During his archaeological research in Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Pakistan, and India, Shaffer observed the
fluid and adaptive nature of local customs in rural South Asia and the many ways that cultural practices
interfaced with material culture. Based on both his extensive work in the field and these ethnographic
observations, Shaffer developed a series of important critiques of archaeological theory. Shaffer and
Liechtenstein argued that the colonial legacy of Mortimer Wheeler and Stuart Piggot led to the projection of
colonial stereotypes onto the ancient past.[12] As a result of these critiques, Shaffer adapted the system
developed by Willey and Phillips into one suitable for the Indus Valley Civilisation. In his original
publication, this complex social formation was termed the Harappan Tradition, after the type site at Harappa,
Punjab. This term Tradition stems from his concept of Cultural Tradition or the "persistent configuration of
basic technologies, as well as structure, in the context of geographical and temporal continuity".[13]

Shaffer divided the broader Indus Valley Tradition into four eras, the pre-Harappan "Early Food Producing
Era," and the Regionalisation, Integration, and Localisation eras, which correspond roughly with the Early
Harappan, Mature Harappan, and Late Harappan phases.[14][3] Each era can be divided into various phases. A
phase is an archaeological unit possessing traits sufficiently characteristic to distinguish it from all other units
similarly conceived.[15] According to Shaffer, there was considerable regional variation, as well as differences
in cultural sequences, and these eras and phases are not evolutionary sequences, and cannot uniformly be
applied to every site.[3]

According to Coningham and Young,

A critical feature of Shaffer's developmental framework was replacing the traditional

Mesolithic/Neolithic, 'Chalcolithic'/Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, and Late Harappan
terminology with Eras which were intended to reflect the longer-term changes or processes which
provided the platform for eventual complexity and urbanisation [...] Notably, Shaffer's
categorisation also allowed scholars to frame sites such as Mehrgarh, accepted by all as partly
ancestral to the Indus cities, within a distinctly pervasive Indus tradition rather than lying outside a
Pre-Urban or incipient urban phase.[2]

Coningham & Young raise theoretical concerns with Shaffer's periodisation, noting that

...it remains questionable whether there is sufficient difference and distinction between Shaffer’s
definitions of Regionalisation and Localisation. Shaffer’s own definition (quoted earlier) observes
the similarities of the two eras, with some differentiation in the form of contact between groups.[16]

Eras
The Early Food Producing Era corresponds to ca. 7000-5500 BCE. It is also called the Neolithic period. The
economy of this era was based on food production, and agriculture developed in the Indus Valley. Mehrgarh
Period I belongs to this era. The Regionalisation Era corresponds to ca. 4000-2500/2300 BCE (Shaffer)[17] or
ca. 5000-2600 BCE (Coningham & Young).[18] The Early Harappan phase belongs to this Era. According to
Manuel, "the most significant development of this period was the shift in population from the uplands of
Baluchistan to the floodplains of the Indus Valley."[17] This era was very productive in arts, and new crafts
were invented. The Regionalisation Era includes the Balakot, Amri, Hakra, and Kot Diji Phases.

The Integration Era refers to the period of the "Indus Valley civilisation". It is a period of integration of
various smaller cultures. The Localisation Era (1900-1300 BCE) is the fourth and final period of the Indus
Valley Tradition. It refers to the fragmentation of the culture of the Integration Era. The Localisation Era
comprises several phases:[13]

Punjab Phase (Cemetery H, Late Harappan). The Punjab Phase includes the Cemetery H and
other cultures. Punjab Phase sites are found in Harappa and in other places.
Jhukar Phase (Jhukar and Pirak) The Jhukar Phase refers to Mohenjo-daro and sites in Sindh.
Rangpur Phase (Late Harappan and Lustrous Red Ware). The Rangpur Phase sites are in
Kachchh, Saurashtra, and mainland Gujarat.
The Pirak Phase is a phase of the Localisation Era of both the Indus Valley Tradition and the
Baluchistan Tradition.

Possehl: Indus Age

Gregory Possehl includes the Neolithic stage in his periodisation, using the term Indus Age for this broader
timespan,[4] Possehl arranged archaeological phases into a seven-stage sequence:[2]

1. Beginnings of Village Farming Communities and Pastoral camps

2. Developed Village Farming Communities and Pastoral camps
3. Early Harappan
4. Transition from Early Harappan to Mature Harappan
5. Mature Harappan
6. Posturban Harappan
7. Early Iron Age of Northern India and Pakistan
According to Coningham & Young,

Possehl's mixture of older periodisation (Mature Harappan), artefact-based descriptive

classifications (Early Iron Age), and socio-economic processes (Developed Village Farming
Communities) is not unique and others, such as Singh (2008), have presented similar categories
which treat the Indus Valley and the Early Historic Traditions in very different ways and thus
reinforce established divisions which prevent easy comparative discussion.[2]

Rita Wright
A "similar framework" as Shaffer's has been used by Rita Wright, looking at the Indus "through a prism
influenced by the archaeology of Mesopotamia," using the terms Early Food Producing Phase, Pre-Urban
Phase, Urban Phase, and Post-Urban Phase.[19][2]

Datings and alternative proposals

Early Food Producing Era

Rao, who excavated Bhirrana, claims to have found pre-Harappan Hakra Ware in its oldest layers, dated at the
8th-7th millennium BCE.[20][21][22][note 1] He proposes older datings for Bhirrana compared to the
conventional Harappan datings,[note 2] yet sticks to the Harappan terminology.[27] This proposal is supported
by Sarkar et al. (2016), co-authored by Rao, who also refer to a proposal by Possehl, and various radiocarbon
dates from other sites, though giving 800 BCE as the enddate for the Mature Harappan phase:[22][note 3] Rao
2005, and as summarized by Dikshit 2013, compares as follows with the conventional datings, and Shaffer
(Eras).[27][22][28][3]
 Period Phase
Culture Conventional Harappan Conventional
Date (Dikshit (Sarkar Era
(Rao 2005) date (HP) Phase date (Era)
2013) 2016)

Pre-
Period IA:
Harappan
7500-6000 Hakra Pre-
Hakra
BCE Wares Harappan
Period 7000-3300 Pre- c.7000- Early Food
Culture
(Neolithic) BCE Harappan c.4500 BCE Producing Era
Period IB:
6000-4500 Transitional Early
Early
BCE Period Harappan
Harappan
Period
Early Early
4500-3000 IIA: Early 3300-2600 Early c.4500-2600 Regionalisation
Harappan Mature
BCE Mature BCE Harappan BCE Era
Period Harappan
Harappan

Period
Mature
3000-1800 IIB: 2600-1900 Mature 2600-1900
Harappan Integration Era
BCE Mature BCE Harappan BCE
Period
Harappan Mature
1800-1600 Harappan
Late Late
BCE 1900-1300 Late Localisation
Harappan Harappan 1900-1300
(1800-800 BCE Harappan Era
Period Period
BCE)[29][note 3]

Regionalisation Era
While the Early Harappan Phase was proposed to start at ca. 3300 BCE,[1] the Regionalisation Era has been
proposed to start earlier, at 4000 BCE[5] to ca. 5000 BCE.[16]

S. P. Gupta, taking into account new discoveries, periodised the Harappan Civilisation in a chronological
framework that includes the Early, Mature, and Late Harappan Phase, and starts with the same date as the
Regionalisation Era:[30]

Harappan
Date Main phase Subphase Era
Phase
ca. 4000 - 3500
Formative Phase e.g., Mehrgarh-IV-V Pre-Harappan
BCE

ca. 3500 - 2800 Regionalisation

Early Phase e.g., Kalibangan-I
BCE Era
Early Harappan
ca. 2800 - 2600 Period of
e.g., Dholavira-III
BCE Transition
ca. 2600 - 1900 e.g., Harappa-III, Kalibangan- Mature
Mature Phase Integration Era
BCE II Harappan

ca. 1900 - 1500

Late Phase e.g., Cemetery H, Jhukar
BCE
Late Harappan Localisation Era
ca. 1500 - 1400
Final Phase e.g., Dholavira
BCE

Integration Era
The consensus on the dating of the Integration Era, or Urban, or Mature Harappan Phase, is broadly accepted
to be 2600-1900 BC.[1][16]
Durée longue: Harappan Civilisation and Early Historic Period
Jonathan M. Kenoyer, and Coningham & Young, provide an overview of developmental phases of India in
which the Indus Valley Civilisation and the Early Historic Period are combined.[31][16] The post-Harappan
phase shows renewed regionalisation, culminating in the integration of the Second Urbanisation of the Early
Historic Period, starting ca. 600 BC,[32] c.q. the Maurya Empire, ca. 300 BC.[33]

Coningham & Young note that most works on urbanisation in early Indian history focus on either the Indus
Valley Civilisation or the Early Historic Period, "thus continuing the long-standing division between the Indus
and Early Historic." According to Coningham & Young, this division was introduced in colonial times, with
scholars who claimed that "a distinct cultural, linguistic, and social transformation lay between the Indus
Civilisation and the Early Historic," and perpetuated by "a number of post-Independence South Asian
scholars."[16] Coningham & Young adopt Shaffer's terminology "to better understand and explore the
processes which led to the two main urban-focused developments in South Asia,"[16] and

...replace the traditional terminologies of 'Chalcolithic', Iron Age, Proto-Historic, Early Historic,
and Mauryan with those of a 'Localisation Era' followed by an Era of 'Regionalisation' and an Era of
'Integration'. We argue that Kenoyer’s (1998) suggestion that the Era of Integration was only
reached with the Mauryan period (c. 317 BC) was overcautious and that such a cultural and
economic stage became evident in the archaeological record as early as 600 BC [...] This task is
likely to be controversial and we acknowledge that not all scholars will be receptive.[16]

They also note that the term "Integration Era" may not be applicable to the whole of South Asia for the period
of the Mature Harappan Civilisation, because "large swathes of northern and southern South Asia were
unaffected by what was, on a subcontinental scale, a regional feature."[16]
Concordance of periodisations

Mehrgarh Harappan
Dates Main phase Other phases Era
phases phases
7000– Mehrgarh I
Early Food
5500 Pre-Harappan (aceramic
Producing Era
BCE Neolithic)

Mehrgarh II-
5500–
Pre-Harappan/Early VI
3300
BCE Harappan[33] (ceramic
Neolithic)
Regionalisation Era
3300– Harappan 1 c.4000-2500/2300 BCE
2800 Early Harappan [33] (Ravi Phase; (Shaffer)[17]
BCE c.3300-2800 BCE Hakra Ware) c.5000-3200 BCE
[34][33][35] (Coningham & Young)[18]
Harappan 2
2800– c.5000-2800 BCE Mehrgarh (Kot Diji
2600 (Kenoyer)[33] VII Phase,
BCE
Nausharo I)

2600–
Harappan 3A
2450
(Nausharo II)
BCE

2450– Mature Harappan

2200 (Indus Valley Harappan 3B Integration Era
BCE Civilisation)
2200–
1900 Harappan 3C
BCE

1900–
1700 Harappan 4
BCE Cemetery H[36]
Late Harappan Ochre Coloured Localisation Era
1700– Pottery[36]
1300 Harappan 5
BCE

Regionalisation
Painted Grey Ware c.1200-300 BCE
1300– (Kenoyer)[33]
(1200-600 BCE)
600
BCE
Vedic period (c.1500- c.1500[37]-600 BCE
500 BCE) (Coningham &
Post-Harappan Young)[32]
Iron Age India
Northern Black
Polished Ware (Iron
600-300
BCE
Age)(700-200 BCE) Integration[32]
Second urbanisation
(c.500-200 BCE)

See also
Bhirrana
Iron Age in India
History of India
Notes
1. According to Dikshit and Rami, the estimation for the antiquity of Bhirrana as pre-Harappan is
based on two calculations of charcoal samples, giving two dates of respectively 7570-7180
BCE, and 6689-6201 BCE.[20][21] Hakra Ware culture is a material culture which is
contemporaneous with the early Harappan Ravi phase culture (3300-2800 BCE) of the Indus
Valley.[23][24][25]
2. Sarkar et al. (2016): "Conventionally the Harappan cultural levels have been classified into 1) an
Early Ravi Phase (~5.7–4.8 ka BP), 2) Transitional Kot Diji phase (~4.8–4.6 ka BP), 3) Mature
phase (~4.6–3.9 ka BP) and 4) Late declining (painted Grey Ware) phase (3.9–3.3 ka
BP13,19,20)."[26]
3. According to Sarkar et al. (2016), the various cultural levels at Bhirrana, as deciphered from the
archaeological artifacts, are pre-Harappan (~9.5–8 ka BP), Early Harappan (~8–6.5 ka BP),
Early mature Harappan (~6.5–5 ka BP) and mature Harappan (~5–2.8 ka BP).[22] Compare
Madina and Pirak, late Harappan elements until 800 BCE, together with Painted Grey Ware.

References
1. Kenoyer 1991.
2. Coningham & Young 2015, p. 27.
3. Manuel 2010, p. 148.
4. Possehl 2002.
5. Manuel 2010.
6. Coningham & Young 2015, p. 25.
7. Possehl 2002, p. 3.
8. Stein, Aurel (1905). Report of Archaeological Survey Work in the North-West Frontier Province
and Baluchistan (https://archive.org/details/reportarchaeolo00steigoog). Peshawar: Government
Press, N.W. Frontier Province.
9. Fairservis, Walter Ashlin (1971). Roots of Ancient India (https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.20
15.282329). New York: The Macmillan Co.
10. Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (2011). "Regional Cultures of the Greater Indus Valley: The Ravi and
Kot Diji Phase Assemblages of Harappa, Pakistan". Cultural Relations Between the Indus and
the Iranian Plateau During the Third Millennium BCE, Edited by T. Osada and M. Witzel.
11. Willey, Gordon; Philip, Phillips (1958). Method and Theory in American Archaeology (https://arch
ive.org/details/methodtheoryinam0000will_h3d0). The University of Alabama Press.
12. Shafer, Jim G.; Liechtenstein, Diane. "Cultural tradition and Palaeoethnicity in South Asian
Archaeology". Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity,
Edited by G. Erdosy.
13. Shaffer 1992.
14. Shaffer 1992, I:441–464, II:425–446.
15. Willey & Phillips 1958.
16. Coningham & Young 2015.
17. Manuel 2010, p. 149.
18. Coningham & Young 2015, p. 145.
19. Wright 1999.
20. Dikshit 2013, p. 129-133.
21. Mani 2008, p. 237-238.
22. Sarkar 2016, p. 2-3.
23. Coningham & Young 2015, p. 158.
24. Ahmed 2014, p. 107.
25. Law 2008, p. 83.
26. Sarkar 2016.
27. Dikshit 2013, p. 132.
28. Shaffer 1992, I:441–464, II:425–446..
29. Sarkar 2015.
30. Gupta 1999.
31. Kenoyer 1007, p. 53.
32. Coningham & Young 2015, p. 28.
33. Kenoyer 1997, p. 53.
34. Kenoyer 1991, p. 335.
35. Parpola & 2-15, p. 17.
36. Kenoyer 1991, p. 333.
37. Kenoyer 1991, p. 336.

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c.6500 BCE–200 CE, Cambridge University Press
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Archaeological Evidence and Radiometric Dates" (https://web.archive.org/web/2017011803273
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3cca188.pdf) (PDF), Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology (9), archived from the original (http://
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Gupta, S.P. (1999), "The dawn of civilisation", in Pande, G.C.; Chattophadhyaya, D.P. (eds.),
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Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991), "The Indus Valley tradition of Pakistan and Western India",
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BF00978474), S2CID 41175522 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:41175522)
Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1997), "Early city-states in South Asia: comparing the Harappan
phase and Early Historic period", in Charlton, Thomas Henry; Nichols, Deborah L. (eds.), The
Archaeology of City-states: Cross-cultural Approaches, Smithsonian Inst. Press
Law (II), William Randal (2008). Inter-regional Interaction and Urbanism in the Ancient Indus
Valley: A Geologic Provenience Study of Harappa's Rock and Mineral Assemblage (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=SFgCEiG_y28C&pg=PA83). Ann Arbor, MI. p. 83.
ISBN 9780549628798.
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229–247 (2008), archived from the original (https://archaeology.up.nic.in/doc/kneh_brm.pdf)
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ia.edu/243477), in Gunawardhana, P.; Adikari, G.; Coningham Battaramulla, R.A.E. (eds.),
Sirinimal Lakdusinghe Felicitation Volume, Neptune
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Further reading
S.P. Gupta. The dawn of civilization, in G.C. Pande (ed.)(History of Science, Philosophy and
Culture in Indian Civilization, ed., D.P. Chattophadhyaya, vol I Part 1) (New Delhi:Centre for
Studies in Civilizations, 1999)
Kenoyer, J.M. 1998 Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Oxford University Press and
American Institute of Pakistan Studies, Karachi.
Kenoyer, J. M. 1991a The Indus Valley Tradition of Pakistan and Western India. In Journal of
World Prehistory 5(4): 331–385.
Kenoyer, J. M. 1995a Interaction Systems, Specialized Crafts and Culture Change: The Indus
Valley Tradition and the Indo-Gangetic Tradition in South Asia. In The Indo-Aryans of Ancient
South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity, edited by G. Erdosy, pp. 213–257. Berlin,
W. DeGruyter.
Shaffer, J. G. 1992 The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions: Neolithic Through
Bronze Age. In Chronologies in Old World Archaeology (3rd Edition), edited by R. Ehrich,
pp. 441–464. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.

External links
Article with Timeline (https://web.archive.org/web/20060306110604/http://www.harappa.com/ind
us3/print.html)
Ancient Civilisations Timeline (http://www.harappa.com/indus2/timeline.html)

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