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Advancements and Challenges in the Development of self-healing Concrete

for Sustainable Construction-A Critical Review

Article in AJEA · April 2024

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 Alpha Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences
(2024) 1/ 1: 33 – 48
Alfa Mühendislik ve Uygulamalı Bilimler Dergisi
(2024) 1/1: 33 – 48

Review Article
Received Accepted Published
25/03/2024 24/04/2024 30/04/2024

Advancements and Challenges in the Development of self-healing Concrete for

Sustainable Construction- A Critical Review
Farzin ASGHARPOUR a, b*, Mahmood HOSSEINI c
a
Doğu Akdeniz Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, İnşaat Mühendisliği Bölümü, Gazimağusa, Kuzey Kıbrıs
b
Doğu Akdeniz Üniversitesi, Tıp Fakültesi, Gazimağusa, Kuzey Kıbrıs.
c
Doğu Akdeniz Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, İnşaat Mühendisliği Bölümü, Gazimağusa, Kuzey Kıbrıs*
Corresponding author’s e-mail address: [email protected]
Abstract
This review paper delves into the innovative realm of self-healing concrete as a sustainable solution in the
construction industry. The study aims to differentiate itself by critically examining the development and
application of self-healing concrete, particularly focusing on its capacity to autonomously repair cracks and
microfractures, thereby enhancing structural durability and reducing environmental impact. Specifically, the
objectives of this study including Evaluating the effectiveness of self-healing concrete in various
environmental conditions and construction settings, comparing different self-healing mechanisms, including
microbial methods such as the use of bacteria like Bacillus sp., and other innovative approaches, Analysing
the economic feasibility of implementing self-healing technologies and their long-term cost benefits in
construction projects. The review explores in detail the mechanisms of self-healing concrete and its
sustainability benefits, including a prolonged lifespan of structures, reduced maintenance requirements, and
decreased carbon emissions. However, the paper also addresses the challenges and limitations associated with
the technology, such as the efficacy of bacteria over long-term applications and cost considerations.
Furthermore, the manuscript provides insights into practical applications and case studies of self-healing
concrete, showcasing its effectiveness in real-world scenarios. The incorporation of Life Cycle Assessment
(LCA) in evaluating self-healing concrete is discussed, offering a comprehensive understanding of its
environmental impact throughout its life cycle. Despite the challenges, the potential benefits of self-healing
concrete are emphasized, positioning it as a promising avenue for sustainable construction practices in the
context of growing global demand for concrete and the need for environmentally conscious solutions.
Keywords: Self-healing concrete, Sustainability, Construction materials, Structural durability, Environmental
impact
Sürdürülebilir İnşaat için Kendiliğinden İyileşen Betonun Geliştirilmesindeki
İlerlemeler ve Zorluklar - Eleştirel Bir İnceleme
Özet
Bu derleme makalesi, inşaat sektöründe sürdürülebilir bir çözüm olarak kendiliğinden iyileşen betonun yenilikçi alanına
derinlemesine bir bakış açısı sağlar. Makale, özellikle çatlaklara ve mikro çatlakları otonom olarak onarma kapasitesine
odaklanarak, kendiliğinden iyileşen betonun geliştirilmesi ve uygulanmasını eleştirel bir şekilde inceler. Onarma yapısal
dayanıklılığı artırır ve çevresel etkiyi azaltır. İnceleme, özellikle Bacillus sp. gibi bakterilerin kullanarak tamir sürecini
çevre dostu bir şekilde kolaylaştıran mikrobiyal yöntemlerin uygulanmasını vurgular. Kendiliğinden iyileşen betonun
mekanizmalarını, sürdürülebilirlik faydalarını, yapıların ömrünün uzamasını, bakım gereksinimlerinin azalmasını ve
karbon emisyonlarının azalmasını araştırır. Ancak, makale aynı zamanda uzun süreli uygulamalarda bakterilerin etkinliği
ve maliyet hususları gibi teknolojiyle ilişkili zorlukları ve sınırlamaları da ele alır. Ayrıca kendiliğinden iyileşen betonun
gerçek dünya senaryolarındaki etkinliğini sergileyen pratik uygulamalar ve vaka çalışmaları hakkında bilgiler sunar.
Kendiliğinden iyileşen betonun değerlendirilmesinde Yaşam Döngüsü Değerlendirmesi'nin (LCA) dahil edilmesi
tartışılmakta olup, bu da onun çevresel etkisine yaşam döngüsü boyunca kapsamlı bir anlayış sunar. Zorluklara rağmen,
kendiliğinden iyileşen betonun potansiyel faydaları vurgulanmakta ve artan küresel beton talebi ve çevre bilinçli
çözümlere duyulan ihtiyaç bağlamında sürdürülebilir inşaat uygulamaları için umut verici bir yol olarak
düşünülmektedir.
Anahtar kelimeler: Kendiliğinden iyileşen beton, Sürdürülebilirlik, İnşaat malzemeleri, Yapısal dayanıklılık, Çevresel
etki.
1. Introduction

The evolution of construction materials has been a cornerstone in the development of human
settlements, from ancient times to the present. The path of innovation in building materials has led us
to a critical juncture, marked by the urgent challenges of burgeoning population growth and the
dynamic requirements of today's society. Concrete, in particular, has emerged as a material of choice
in the construction sector due to its durability and flexibility in use. Yet, it is becoming increasingly
evident that concrete, despite its many advantages, has its set of limitations when juxtaposed with
other construction materials like steel and wood. These limitations are far from minor; they
encompass issues such as the restriction on the size of structures that can be efficiently built, the
problems associated with thermal expansion and contraction, and the material's notable susceptibility
to a range of external stresses. These stresses include, but are not limited to, phenomena such as
creep (the tendency of a solid material to move slowly or deform permanently under the influence of
mechanical stresses) and shrinkage (the process of volume reduction due to loss of moisture). These
inherent weaknesses of concrete necessitate continuous research and development efforts to enhance
its properties and extend its range of applications in the construction industry [1], [2].

Over time, concrete structures are prone to the formation of microcracks that gradually evolve into
larger, more significant cracks, undermining the structural stability of buildings. This gradual
degradation can severely impact the building's integrity. Additionally, these cracks can allow water
to penetrate the concrete, leading to the corrosion of steel reinforcements within. This process not
only accelerates the deterioration of the concrete but also weakens the structural framework, posing a
severe risk to long-term structural health and safety. This vulnerability underscores the necessity for
ongoing research and development in construction materials to enhance the durability and longevity
of concrete structures, ensuring they can withstand such challenges over time [3] [4].

1.1. Emergence and impact of self-healing

The use of substandard construction materials drastically increases the vulnerability of buildings in
regions prone to seismic activity. This increased risk stems from the materials' insufficient seismic
resilience, leading to a higher likelihood of structural failures during earthquakes. The consequences
of such failures are twofold: they lead to significant reconstruction expenses and raise serious
humanitarian concerns. Recent research efforts, highlighted by programs like the Earthquake Risk
Reduction in Buildings and Infrastructure Program, have emphasized the urgent need for improved
methods of assessing seismic performance and for developing designs that are resilient yet cause
minimal damage. These efforts are directed towards reducing risks by incorporating sophisticated
earthquake engineering techniques that consider both the structural integrity and the non-structural
elements of buildings. Adopting a comprehensive approach is vital for promoting the functional
recovery and resilience of structures situated in earthquake-sensitive areas, thereby diminishing the
chances of devastating failures and their subsequent socio-economic ramifications [5], [6].

In light of these challenges, self-healing concrete has emerged as a promising and innovative
solution. This material is notable for its unique capacity to automatically repair cracks and
microfractures, offering a cost-effective alternative that has piqued interest in recent research [7], [8],
[9], [10], [11]. Despite these technological advancements, the production of concrete remains a
major environmental issue, mainly because of the high energy consumption and carbon dioxide
emissions it entails [12], [13]. This problem is exacerbated by the soaring global demand for
concrete amid rapid urbanization. Thus, there's a growing advocacy for using materials that last
longer as a strategic way to lessen environmental impacts [14].

35
Further studies have delved into the environmental advantages and sustainability of self-healing
concrete, especially when innovative materials like geopolymers are used and life cycle assessment
(LCA) methods are applied to validate its environmental benefits. For example, the LCA of self-
healing geopolymer concrete indicates it can reduce the global warming impact compared to
traditional OPC concrete, though it may involve compromises in other environmental impact areas
[15].. Additionally, research into the role of bacterial activity in cement-based materials' self-healing
capabilities has shown that microbiologically induced carbonate precipitation significantly
contributes to improving concrete durability under extreme conditions [16].

This review meticulously explores self-healing concrete's dual function as both a sustainable repair
mechanism and a method for increasing structural durability [17], [18], [19]. It particularly looks at
the use of microbes in self-healing concrete, where bacteria like Bacillus sp. have proven effective in
generating calcium carbonate, thus aiding the repair process in an eco-friendly way [20], [21], [22],
[23]. This technology's wider benefits extend beyond structural advantages, offering possibilities for
reducing maintenance and future repair expenses [24].

Furthermore, in the quest for sustainable construction materials, a novel approach has been
developed through the creation of an Expanded Perlite-Silica aerogel composite for insulation.
Exhibiting remarkable properties like increased porosity and cost-efficiency, this innovative material
represents a significant step forward in promoting sustainability in construction materials. The
findings from this study could provide valuable insights for further exploring the potential of new
materials in enhancing the performance and environmental footprint of self-healing concrete
technologies [25].

The evolution of construction materials has been a continuous endeavor to address challenges and
enhance sustainability within the construction industry. While traditional concrete has been widely
used, its inherent weaknesses, such as susceptibility to cracks, microfractures, and environmental
impact during production, have spurred the exploration of innovative solutions. Self-healing concrete
has emerged as a promising avenue, offering the potential to autonomously repair structural defects
and reduce maintenance requirements.

However, existing literature primarily focuses on the concept and initial applications of self-healing
concrete. This study aims to contribute significantly to this field by delving deeper into the
mechanisms and practical applications of self-healing concrete, particularly emphasizing the
utilization of microbial methods, such as Bacillus sp., to facilitate environmentally friendly repair
processes. Our research seeks to bridge the gap between theoretical concepts and real-world
implementation, showcasing the effectiveness of self-healing concrete in enhancing structural
durability while reducing environmental impact.

The originality of this study lies in its comprehensive examination of self-healing concrete, including
its mechanisms, sustainability benefits, challenges, and practical case studies. By incorporating Life
Cycle Assessment (LCA), we aim to provide a holistic understanding of the environmental
implications of self-healing concrete throughout its life cycle. Through this study, we intend to
contribute novel insights and practical applications that can inform sustainable construction practices
and address the increasing demand for eco-conscious solutions in the construction industry.

2. Mechanism of Self-haling Agents

Over the last two decades, the field of self-healing concrete technology has witnessed substantial
advancements, driven by the quest to enhance the material's self-healing capabilities, thereby
36
improving its durability and extending the service life of civil infrastructure. Pioneering studies, such
as those by Li and Herbert (2012), have laid the groundwork by introducing robustness criteria for
self-healing concrete, evaluating various approaches for intelligent sustainable infrastructures [26].

The field of self-healing concrete technology has seen significant advancements, introducing
innovative methods aimed at enhancing the material's self-healing capabilities to improve durability
and extend the lifespan of civil infrastructure. Among these advancements, the application of
advanced computational techniques, like the Least Squares Support Vector Machines (LSSVM)
algorithm, has been explored to optimize the self-healing process in concrete, offering a more
efficient pathway to predict and enhance crack healing capabilities [27].

2.1. Autogenous and enhanced self-healing mechanism

Self-healing in concrete occurs through various mechanisms, primarily categorized into autogenous
and enhanced healing processes. Autogenous self-healing refers to the concrete's inherent ability to
repair cracks without external intervention, often triggered by the continued hydration of unreacted
cement particles in the presence of water, leading to the formation of new crystalline products that
seal the cracks [28]. Enhanced self-healing strategies involve the deliberate inclusion of healing
agents, such as microcapsules filled with silicate-based inorganic materials or bacterial spores, into
the concrete mix. These agents are designed to activate upon crack formation, with the microcapsules
releasing their contents to facilitate rapid crack closure and healing, significantly improving the
material's durability and reducing its permeability [29], [30].

Recent studies have emphasized the role of bacterial mediation in self-healing concrete, wherein
particular bacterial strains are incorporated into the concrete matrix to initiate calcite precipitation,
thus efficiently sealing cracks and bolstering the material's structural integrity over time. This bio-
mediated self-healing process not only augments the concrete's longevity but also dovetails with
sustainable construction practices by employing environmentally friendly materials. The use of
bacteria to facilitate the natural healing of concrete represents a confluence of biological science and
construction technology, offering a green solution to the age-old problem of concrete degradation.
This approach leverages the natural processes of calcite formation to repair and reinforce concrete
structures, promising a new era of durable, self-sustaining, and eco-conscious construction materials
[1].

Additionaly, studies have underscored the potential of incorporating self-healing mechanisms into
composite materials, showcasing their ability to autonomously repair damage. This innovative
approach significantly boosts the materials' durability and reliability across a range of applications.
By embedding self-healing features into composites, these materials can recover from internal
damages without human intervention, extending their usable life and reducing maintenance costs.
This integration not only serves to enhance the structural integrity of the materials but also aligns
with sustainability objectives by minimizing waste and the need for frequent replacements. The
development of self-healing composites represents a progressive step in material science, aiming to
create more resilient and sustainable materials for future construction and engineering projects [31].

Furthermore, leading to the creation of diverse self-healing concrete technologies, among which
microcapsule-based self-healing materials stand out for their potential to improve the healing
capabilities of mortar. These technologies encapsulate healing agents within microcapsules that are
integrated into the concrete mix. When cracks form, the capsules break, releasing the agents that then
react with the concrete to seal the cracks. This method has demonstrated promising outcomes in
extending the lifespan of concrete structures by effectively mending cracks and preventing the onset
37
of more severe structural issues. The exploration of these microcapsule-based technologies is a
testament to the innovative directions in which material science is moving to enhance the durability
and functionality of construction materials [32].

The field of self-healing concrete technology has seen significant advancements, introducing
innovative methods aimed at enhancing the material's self-healing capabilities to improve durability
and extend the lifespan of civil infrastructure. Among these advancements, the application of
advanced computational techniques, like the Least Squares Support Vector Machines (LSSVM)
algorithm, has been explored to optimize the self-healing process in concrete, offering a more
efficient pathway to predict and enhance crack healing capabilities [27].

Self-healing in concrete occurs through various mechanisms, primarily categorized into autogenous
and enhanced healing processes. Autogenous self-healing refers to the concrete's inherent ability to
repair cracks without external intervention, often triggered by the continued hydration of unreacted
cement particles in the presence of water, leading to the formation of new crystalline products that
seal the cracks [28]. Enhanced self-healing strategies involve the deliberate inclusion of healing
agents, such as microcapsules filled with silicate-based inorganic materials or bacterial spores, into
the concrete mix. These agents are designed to activate upon crack formation, with the microcapsules
releasing their contents to facilitate rapid crack closure and healing, significantly improving the
material's durability and reducing its permeability [29], [30].

Recent studies have emphasized the role of bacterial mediation in self-healing concrete, wherein
particular bacterial strains are incorporated into the concrete matrix to initiate calcite precipitation,
thus efficiently sealing cracks and bolstering the material's structural integrity over time. This bio-
mediated self-healing process not only augments the concrete's longevity but also dovetails with
sustainable construction practices by employing environmentally friendly materials. The use of
bacteria to facilitate the natural healing of concrete represents a confluence of biological science and
construction technology, offering a green solution to the age-old problem of concrete degradation.
This approach leverages the natural processes of calcite formation to repair and reinforce concrete
structures, promising a new era of durable, self-sustaining, and eco-conscious construction materials
[1].

Additionaly, studies have underscored the potential of incorporating self-healing mechanisms into
composite materials, showcasing their ability to autonomously repair damage. This innovative
approach significantly boosts the materials' durability and reliability across a range of applications.
By embedding self-healing features into composites, these materials can recover from internal
damages without human intervention, extending their usable life and reducing maintenance costs.
This integration not only serves to enhance the structural integrity of the materials but also aligns
with sustainability objectives by minimizing waste and the need for frequent replacements. The
development of self-healing composites represents a progressive step in material science, aiming to
create more resilient and sustainable materials for future construction and engineering projects [31].

Furthermore, leading to the creation of diverse self-healing concrete technologies, among which
microcapsule-based self-healing materials stand out for their potential to improve the healing
capabilities of mortar. These technologies encapsulate healing agents within microcapsules that are
integrated into the concrete mix. When cracks form, the capsules break, releasing the agents that then
react with the concrete to seal the cracks. This method has demonstrated promising outcomes in
extending the lifespan of concrete structures by effectively mending cracks and preventing the onset
of more severe structural issues. The exploration of these microcapsule-based technologies is a

38
testament to the innovative directions in which material science is moving to enhance the durability
and functionality of construction materials [32].

2.2. Material innovations in sustainable construction

Within the sphere of self-healing concrete technology, considerable progress has been achieved by
integrating cutting-edge materials, including shape-memory alloys (SMAs), polymer-based
microcapsules, and nanotechnologies. Shape-memory alloys, in particular, have been instrumental in
mechanically sealing cracks, thereby advancing the self-healing capabilities of concrete. The
research conducted by Huang et al. (2023) delves into the utilization of SMAs within self-healing
concrete frameworks, illustrating how these materials bolster the concrete’s intrinsic repair functions.
SMAs are unique in their ability to return to their original shape after deformation, a property that
proves invaluable in the context of self-healing concrete. When embedded within the concrete
matrix, SMAs can activate upon the detection of cracks, mechanically drawing the separated edges
together and facilitating the subsequent healing processes. This action not only closes the cracks
more efficiently but also reinforces the overall structure, potentially preventing the propagation of
further damage. Huang and colleagues' investigation into SMA-enhanced concrete provides critical
insights into the synergy between smart materials and traditional construction substances. By
leveraging the unique properties of SMAs, this research underscores a transformative approach to
building materials, where the self-healing process is not just a chemical reaction but a dynamic
interaction between mechanical and material engineering. The integration of SMAs into self-healing
concrete signifies a significant advancement in the field, offering a more robust and reliable solution
to structural maintenance and longevity. This development not only extends the lifecycle of concrete
infrastructures but also aligns with sustainable construction practices by reducing the frequency and
scale of repairs needed over time [33].

Polymer-based microcapsules stand at the forefront of innovative construction materials,

encapsulating a future where concrete can autonomously repair itself. These microscopic vessels,
ingeniously designed, house healing agents that are poised to spring into action to mend cracks the
moment they appear. The groundbreaking research by Van Tittelboom and De Belie (2013) offers a
deep dive into the world of microcapsule-based self-healing systems, shedding light on how these
tiny yet powerful entities can dramatically enhance the longevity and resilience of concrete
structures. In their study, Van Tittelboom and De Belie explore the intricate mechanics of how these
microcapsules integrate into the concrete matrix, staying dormant until the very moment a crack
forms. Upon activation, they release their contained healing agents, filling the cracks and binding the
concrete back together, almost like a biological healing process within an inanimate material. This
not only seals the cracks efficiently but also significantly extends the material’s life, reducing the
need for frequent repairs and maintenance. This approach embodies a perfect marriage of material
science and innovative design, offering a glimpse into a sustainable future where buildings and
infrastructures self-repair, much like living organisms heal their wounds. The work of Van
Tittelboom and De Belie is not just about fixing cracks; it's about reimagining the possibilities of
construction materials and paving the way for a new era of sustainable and self-sustaining urban
infrastructure [34].

In the domain of nanotechnology, the application of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) has
garnered substantial interest for enhancing the mechanical and self-healing attributes of concrete.
The investigative work by Han et al. (2015) specifically addresses the incorporation of MWCNTs
into the concrete matrix, evidencing a marked improvement in the material's intrinsic self-healing
efficacy. This research delineates the mechanisms by which MWCNTs contribute to the autogenous
healing processes, facilitating the closure of micro-cracks and thus augmenting the structural
39
integrity and longevity of concrete infrastructures. The integration of MWCNTs not only bolsters the
mechanical properties of concrete but also optimizes its self-repair capabilities, presenting a
significant advancement in the field of construction materials. This enhancement in self-healing
efficiency underscores the potential of nanotechnology as a pivotal contributor to the development of
more durable and sustainable concrete solutions [35].

2.3. Sustainability benefits of self-healing concrete

The concept of self-healing in construction is gaining traction as a viable solution to the myriad
challenges faced by the industry. This forward-thinking approach is celebrated for its extensive array
of advantages across environmental, economic, and social spheres. From an environmental
perspective, self-healing construction minimizes the demand for new materials and reduces the waste
associated with repair work, thus aligning seamlessly with eco-friendly construction practices.
Economically, this methodology offers a cost-effective alternative, prolonging the service life of
buildings and infrastructure while reducing the need for frequent maintenance, leading to significant
cost savings. Socially, it improves safety and reliability, which in turn has a positive impact on the
welfare of communities. This comprehensive strategy highlights the overarching value of self-
healing construction, demonstrating its potential to foster sustainability and innovation within the
construction sector [36].

2.3.1. Prolonged lifespan of structures

Self-healing concrete is increasingly becoming a pivotal element in improving the durability and
extending the lifespan of architectural constructions. Its ability to autonomously mend cracks and
damages plays a vital role in reducing the frequency of extensive repairs and maintenance
operations. This advanced material technology significantly cuts down on the consumption of raw
materials, obviating the need for complete structural teardowns in the event of damage.
Consequently, it fosters a more sustainable and judicious utilization of resources, aligning with eco-
friendly construction methodologies. By conserving materials, self-healing concrete not only
minimizes waste but also represents a forward-thinking approach to resource management. It
epitomizes a strategic shift towards more sustainable construction practices, envisaging a future
where buildings are both resilient and environmentally responsible [37].

2.3.2. Key sustainability nenefits of self-healing concrete

Self-healing concrete marks a significant shift in construction technology, offering a plethora of

advantages that promise to redefine the industry’s standards. This cutting-edge material reduces the
need for constant upkeep by autonomously sealing cracks and mitigating damage, thereby
prolonging the structural lifespan. It also plays a crucial role in curbing carbon emissions tied to
frequent repair work and the broader construction activities, aligning with eco-conscious practices.
By diminishing the need for repetitive repairs and lessening the demand for new construction
materials, self-healing concrete aids in preserving water and energy, tackling some of the critical
sustainability challenges. Additionally, this method drastically cuts down on waste generation,
limiting the rubble from demolished buildings and reducing the surplus materials often associated
with maintenance tasks. In essence, self-healing concrete signifies a leap towards sustainable
building practices, supporting the global drive towards better environmental care, economic
prudence, and societal benefits in the construction realm [38], [39].

40
2.4. Challenges and limitations
Self-healing concrete introduces the remarkable capability of concrete to autonomously mend its
own damages, akin to the way human skin heals after being wounded. Central to this innovative
phenomenon is the generation of calcium carbonate, which functions akin to a natural plaster, sealing
the fissures and restoring the structure's integrity. This process not only repairs the concrete but can
also enhance its strength, potentially surpassing its original state. Nevertheless, perfecting this
technology is complex and requires precision. It resembles the delicate art of baking, where
achieving the ideal balance of ingredients, in this case, bacteria, is crucial. These microscopic
organisms are pivotal, as they produce the healing compound that mends the concrete. Additionally,
the application context of self-healing concrete is paramount. Similar to dressing appropriately for
various weather conditions, self-healing concrete must be customized to fit its specific environmental
conditions and functional requirements, whether it’s exposed to outdoor weathering or supporting
structural loads [40].

2.5 Efficacy in long term

Bacteria, in their natural habitat, demonstrate a longevity of up to fifty years; however, their viability
is markedly reduced when applied within construction contexts, particularly in self-healing concrete
applications, where their survival span does not exceed two months. This temporal limitation
significantly impacts the practical utility of bacterial self-healing mechanisms in construction
materials. Additionally, the efficacy of these bacterial agents is contingent upon the spore
characteristics inherent to the concrete and the dimensional attributes of the bacteria. Certain
bacterial strains exhibit an inability to adequately infiltrate cracks within the concrete matrix, which
impedes the hydration process. This limitation not only diminishes the effectiveness of the self-
healing process but also precipitates the premature expiration of the bacteria, thereby undermining
the overall potential of this innovative technology to extend the structural lifespan and enhance the
durability of concrete infrastructures [41].

2.6. Cost efficacy

In scholarly discourse, it is noted that the prevailing market rates for conventional concrete within
the United States for the calendar year 2023 were projected to oscillate between $125 and $165 per
cubic yard. In juxtaposition, the financial outlay associated with the utilization of self-healing
bacteria within concrete was quantified at approximately $6,876 per cubic meter, as delineated in
2015 data. This stark contrast underscores the economic considerations inherent to the adoption of
self-healing technologies in construction practices. Additionally, the engagement of specialized
personnel, encompassing engineers and chemists, is imperative for the bespoke selection of
materials. This tailored approach ensures compatibility with the nuanced conditions and functional
requisites of the construction site, taking into account various media and other pertinent factors. The
complexity of integrating self-healing technologies into construction materials thereby necessitates a
multidisciplinary approach to optimize material performance within specific environmental contexts
[42].

3. Practical Applications and Case studies of self-healing Concrete

Self-healing concrete has the ability to heal itself after a crack appears automatically, and it can
reduce the maintenance of the structure. However, this idea has been explored by many researchers
in the laboratory, but not in the exact environment and construction for large scales. In one of the
studies, the addition of the bacterial agent (MUC+) took place in both the admixture and concrete
mixer. Subsequently, it was transported to the construction site to harness the self-healing capability
41
for the roof slab. The findings indicate that, in this particular experiment, there is an increased water
requirement for initiating the production of CaCO3 by the bacteria. There is a notable enhancement
in capillary water absorption post self-healing. Notably, after a year of casting, there were no
observed cracks in the bottom of the slab room [43]. In another instance, a case study highlights the
effectiveness of employing self-healing concrete in underground engineering. The results
demonstrate that, following a 28-day curing period, cracks treated with the self-healing mechanism
exhibit visible recovery. It's worth noting that, in this particular study, the sidewall is identified as
having the highest risk of cracking, posing a challenge for crack prevention. Furthermore, no adverse
effects on compressive strength, adiabatic temperature rise, or drying shrinkage were observed in the
experiment. Additionally, it's important to mention that the cracks are filled with calcite [44].

3.1. Life cycle assessment (LCA)

Utilizing and incorporating Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) can yield the optimal rehabilitation option
tailored to environmental considerations. In other words, LCA furnishes a comprehensive and
systematic evaluation of the environmental impact throughout the life cycle of a product, process, or
system. As previously mentioned, the production of cement and subsequent reconstruction processes
is deemed environmentally unfriendly, taking into account factors such as energy consumption, labor
inputs, and the potential increase in CO2 emissions. It is reported that, the global warming can be
solve by reducing the 50% of OPC [45] [46].Moreover, there is a prevailing belief that geopolymers,
as an alternative substitute for Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), are more susceptible to cracking.
This assertion can potentially influence experimental outcomes, resulting in reduced concrete
strength. To address this, embedded microcapsules containing alkali-activators are introduced into
the geopolymer concrete, fostering an environment conducive to Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and
facilitating self-healing mechanisms. The outcomes demonstrate that Self-Healing Geopolymer
Concrete (SHGC) exhibits superior performance in mitigating global warming impacts. However,
comparative analysis with OPC indicates that it may not be the most environmentally favorable
option. This experiment unequivocally highlights the advantages of self-healing, particularly through
the production of sodium silicate and enhancements in the chlor-alkali process [47].

3.2. Durability and longevity of self-healing concrete

Employing self-healing concrete can yield benefits; nevertheless, despite its potential to diminish
maintenance and repair needs for structures, the cost implications pose a challenge for many
construction projects. This technology has the capacity to enhance the durability of structures and
augment the resistance of self-healing concrete to chloride ingress [46].

Mechanism of self-healing concrete can be different by choosing the different materials including
cement, admixtures and types of bacteria which is mentioned in Table 1. By considering these
factors, the improvement of the structure can be observed and it can makes reduction of the material
consumption.

42
 Table 1. Application of Bacteria in the constructions

S. No Bacteria Concentration of Bacteria Performance

Bacteria
1 Bacillus Subtilis 2.8 x 108 cells/ml Improvement of compressive strength
by 12%
2 Sporosarcina 105 cells/ml Compressive strength 34% more than
pasteurii the control concrete
3 Bacillus sp. CT-5 5 x 107 cells/ml Improvement of compressive strength
by 40% compared to control concrete

4 Akkrs 105 cells/ml Improvement of compressive strength

by 10% contrast to control concrete

5 Bacillus megaterium 30 x 105 cells/ml Improvement of compressive strength

by 24% contrast to control concrete
6 Bacillus aerius 105 cells/ml Improvement of compressive strength
by 11.8%
7 Shewanella species 105 cells/ml Improvement of compressive strength
by 25%

4. Discussion

4.1. Optimizing bacterial concentration and viability

One critical area for ongoing investigation in the realm of self-healing concrete is the fine-tuning of
the bacterial concentration and their enduring viability. Although existing research has confirmed the
effectiveness of bacterial-induced self-healing, the sustained survival of these bacteria under diverse
environmental conditions still needs to be fully understood. Prospective studies should aim at
bolstering the bacteria's resilience to withstand the harsh conditions prevalent in construction
settings, such as fluctuating pH levels, extreme temperatures, and varying humidity levels. This
research direction is essential for ensuring that the self-healing properties of concrete remain active
and effective over the long term, thereby maximizing the material's durability and functional lifespan
in real-world applications.

4.2. Advanced materials for encapsulation

Advancements in materials science for encapsulating healing agents, such as bacteria and their
essential nutrients, represent a significant and promising field of research. Investigating bio-
compatible materials that are both durable and permeable could lead to substantial improvements in
the effectiveness of self-healing concrete. The goal would be to find materials that not only protect
the bacteria and nutrients but also ensure their controlled release over time, enhancing the longevity
and efficacy of the self-healing process. This research could pave the way for more efficient self-
healing mechanisms in concrete, optimizing the material's ability to repair itself and extending its
functional life in various construction applications.

4.3. Environmental impact assessment

Although self-healing concrete offers substantial sustainability advantages, a thorough understanding

of its environmental impact requires comprehensive assessments, notably Life Cycle Assessments
43
(LCAs). Future research should focus on quantifying the environmental benefits of self-healing
concrete, such as decreased carbon emissions and enhanced resource conservation, throughout its
entire life span. This entails evaluating not only the immediate effects of reduced repair and
maintenance needs but also the long-term implications for resource use and environmental
sustainability. Such assessments will provide a holistic view of the ecological footprint of self-
healing concrete, ensuring that its development and application align with broader environmental and
sustainability goals.

5. Conclusions

To sum up, the evolution of construction materials throughout history has been marked by a
continuous quest to enhance their quality and address emerging challenges. Concrete, a widely used
material, presents inherent disadvantages, including susceptibility to cracks, microcracks, and
deterioration over time and also producing green house while it is produced from the factory. The
aging process of concrete often leads to issues such as water infiltration, corrosion of steel rebars,
and structural degradation.

Addressing these challenges, the concept of self-healing concrete has emerged as a sustainable and
innovative solution. The incorporation of self-healing agents, particularly microbial applications like
Bacillus sp., facilitates the autonomous repair of cracks through the production of calcium carbonate.
Despite the promising sustainability benefits of self-healing concrete, challenges and limitations
persist, such as the efficacy of bacteria over the long term and cost considerations.

The sustainability benefits of self-healing concrete are substantial, contributing to the prolonged
lifespan of structures, reduced maintenance requirements, and a decrease in carbon emissions.
However, challenges related to the optimal concentration of bacteria and the associated costs require
careful consideration. Practical applications and case studies have showcased the effectiveness of
self-healing concrete in real-world scenarios, demonstrating its potential for reducing maintenance
and enhancing durability.

Furthermore, incorporating Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) in the evaluation of self-healing concrete
allows for a comprehensive understanding of its environmental impact throughout its life cycle.
Comparative analysis with traditional materials like Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and the
exploration of alternatives such as geopolymers provide insights into the environmental
sustainability of self-healing concrete.

6. Acknowledgments

..

7. Author Contribution Statement

Author 1 conducted an in-depth investigation and research for their term project. Author 2 served as
the instructor, providing supervision and guidance throughout the project.

8. Ethics Committee Approval and Conflict of Interest

“There is no conflict of interest with any person/institution in the prepared article”

44
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