JUPEB – BIO 004
Respiratory System
Structure of Mammalian Respiratory System
The upper respiratory system includes the nose, pharynx, and associated
structures; the lower respiratory system consists of the larynx, trachea, bronchi,
and lungs. The conducting zone consists of a series of interconnecting cavities
and tubes—nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal
bronchioles—that conduct air into the lungs. The respiratory zone consists of
tissues within the lungs where gas exchange occurs—the respiratory bronchioles,
alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli.
Fig. 1:
Organs
of the
Respiratory system
Trachea
The trachea, or windpipe, is a tubular passageway for air that is located anterior
to the esophagus. It extends from the larynx to the upper part of the fifth thoracic
vertebra (T5), where it divides into right and left primary bronchi. The wall of the
trachea is lined with mucous membrane and is supported by cartilage. The
mucous membrane is composed of pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium,
consisting of ciliated columnar cells, goblet cells, and basal cells, and provides the
same protection against dust as the membrane lining the nasal cavity and larynx.
The cilia in the upper respiratory tract move mucus and trapped particles down
toward the pharynx, but the cilia in the lower respiratory tract move mucus and
trapped particles up toward the pharynx. The cartilage layer consists of 16 to 20
C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage stacked one on top of another. The open part
of each C-shaped cartilage ring faces the esophagus and permits it to expand
slightly into the trachea during swallowing. The solid parts of the C-shaped
cartilage rings provide a rigid support so the tracheal wall does not collapse
inward and obstruct the air Passage way. The rings of cartilage may be felt under
the skin below the larynx.
Fig. 2:
Branching of airways from the trachea and lobes of the lungs.
Bronchi and Bronchioles
The trachea divides into a right primary bronchus (windpipe), which goes to the
right lung, and a left primary bronchus, which goes to the left lung. Like the
trachea, the primary bronchi contain incomplete rings of cartilage and are lined
by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. Pulmonary blood vessels,
lymphatic vessels, and nerves enter and exit the lungs with the two bronchi.
On entering the lungs, the primary bronchi divide to form the secondary bronchi,
one for each lobe of the lung. (The right lung has three lobes; the left lung has
two.) The secondary bronchi continue to branch, forming still smaller bronchi,
called tertiary bronchi, which divide several times, and ultimately giving rise to
smaller bronchioles. Bronchioles, in turn, branch into even smaller tubes called
terminal bronchioles. Because all of the airways resemble an upside-down tree
with many branches, their arrangement is known as the bronchial tree. As the
branching becomes more extensive in the bronchial tree, structural changes
occur. First, plates of cartilage gradually replace the incomplete rings of cartilage
in primary bronchi and finally disappear in the distal bronchioles. Second, as the
amount of cartilage decreases, the amount of smooth muscle increases. Smooth
muscle encircles the lumen in spiral bands. During exercise, activity in the
sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) increases and
causes the adrenal medullae to release the hormones epinephrine and
norepinephrine. Both chemicals cause relaxation of smooth muscle in the
bronchioles, which dilates (widens) the airways. The result is improved airflow,
and air reaches the alveoli more quickly.
Lungs
The lungs are two spongy, cone-shaped organs in the thoracic cavity. They are
separated from each other by the heart and other structures in the mediastinum.
The pleural membrane is a double-layered serous membrane that encloses and
protects each lung. The outer layer is attached to the wall of the thoracic cavity
and diaphragm and is called the parietal pleura. The inner layer, the visceral
pleura, is attached to the lungs. Between the visceral and parietal pleurae is a
narrow space, the pleural cavity, which contains a lubricating fluid secreted by
the membranes. This fluid reduces friction between the membranes, allowing
them to slide easily over one another during breathing. The lungs extend from
the diaphragm to slightly above the clavicles and lie against the ribs. The broad
bottom portion of each lung is its base; the narrow top portion is the apex. The
left lung has an indentation, the cardiac notch, in which the heart lies. Due to the
space occupied by the heart, the left lung is about 10% smaller than the right
lung.
Deep grooves called fissures divide each lung into lobes. The oblique fissure
divides the left lung into superior and inferior lobes. The oblique and horizontal
fissures divide the right lung into superior, middle, and inferior lobes. Each lobe
receives its own secondary bronchus. Each lung lobe is divided into smaller
segments that are supplied by a tertiary bronchus. The segments, in turn, are
subdivided into many small compartments called lobules. Each lobule contains a
lymphatic vessel, an arteriole, a venule, and a branch from a terminal bronchiole
wrapped in elastic connective tissue. Terminal bronchioles subdivide into
microscopic branches called respiratory bronchioles, which are lined by non-
ciliated simple cuboidal epithelium. Respiratory bronchioles, in turn, subdivide
into several alveolar ducts. The two or more alveoli that share a common opening
to the alveolar duct are called alveolar sacs
Alveoli
An alveolus is a cup-shaped outpouching of an alveolar sac. Many alveoli and
alveolar sacs surround each alveolar duct. The walls of alveoli consist mainly of
thin alveolar cells, which are simple squamous epithelial cells. They are the main
sites of gas exchange. Scattered among them are surfactant secreting cells that
secrete alveolar fluid, which keeps the surface between the cells and the air
moist. Included in the alveolar fluid is surfactant, a mixture of phospholipids and
lipoproteins that reduces the tendency of alveoli to collapse. Also present are
alveolar macrophages, wandering phagocytes that remove fine dust particles and
other debris in the alveolar spaces. Underlying the layer of alveolar cells is an
elastic basement membrane and a thin layer of connective tissue containing
plentiful elastic and reticular fibers (described shortly). Around the alveoli, the
pulmonary arteriole and venule form lush networks of blood capillaries. The
exchange of O2 and CO2 between the air spaces in the lungs and the blood takes
place by diffusion across the alveolar and capillary walls, which together form the
respiratory membrane. It consists of the following layers:
1. The alveolar cells that form the wall of an alveolus.
2. An epithelial basement membrane underlying the alveolar cells.
3. A capillary basement membrane that is often fused to the epithelial
basement membrane.
4. The endothelial cells of a capillary wall.
Despite having several layers, the respiratory membrane is only 0.5 µm wide. This
thin width, far less than the thickness of a sheet of tissue paper, permits O 2 and
CO2 to diffuse efficiently between the blood and alveolar air spaces. Moreover, the
lungs contain roughly 300 million alveoli. They provide a huge surface area for
the exchange of O2 and
CO2—about 30 to 40 times greater than the surface area of your skin.
Fig. 3: Lobule of the lung.
Pulmonary ventilation, the flow of air between the atmosphere and the lungs,
occurs due to differences in air pressure. We inhale or breathe in when the
pressure inside the lungs is less than the atmospheric air pressure. We exhale or
breathe out when the pressure inside the lungs is greater than the atmospheric
air pressure. Contraction and relaxation of skeletal muscles create the air
pressure changes that power breathing.
Muscles of Inhalation and Exhalation
Breathing in is called inhalation or inspiration. The muscles of quiet (unforced)
inhalation are the diaphragm, the dome shaped skeletal muscle that forms the
floor of the thoracic cavity, and the external intercostal, which extend between
the ribs. The diaphragm contracts when it receives nerve impulses from the
phrenic nerves. As the diaphragm contracts, it descends and becomes flatter,
which causes the volume of the attached lungs to expand. As the external
intercostals contract, they pull the ribs upward and outward; the attached lungs
follow, further increasing lung volume. Contraction of the diaphragm is
responsible for about 75% of the air that enters the lungs during quiet breathing.
Advanced pregnancy, obesity, confining clothing, or increased size of the
stomach after eating a large meal can impede descent of the diaphragm and may
cause shortness of breath. During deep, labored inhalations, the
sternocleidomastoid muscles elevate the sternum, the scalene muscles elevate
the two uppermost ribs, and the pectoralis minor muscles elevate the third
through fifth ribs. As the ribs and sternum are elevated, the size of the lungs
increases.
Movements of the pleural membrane aid expansion of the lungs. The parietal and
visceral pleurae normally adhere tightly because of the surface tension created
by their moist adjoining surfaces. Whenever the thoracic cavity expands, the
parietal pleura lining the cavity follows, and the visceral pleura and lungs are
pulled along with it.
Breathing out, called exhalation or expiration, begins when the diaphragm and
external intercostals relax. Exhalation occurs due to elastic recoil of the chest wall
and lungs, both of which have a natural tendency to spring back after they have
been stretched. Although the alveoli and airways recoil, they don’t completely
collapse. Because surfactant in alveolar fluid reduces elastic recoil, a lack of
surfactant causes breathing difficulty by increasing the chance of alveolar
collapse.
Fig. 4:
Structure of
an alveolus.
Fig. 5: Muscles of inhalation and exhalation and their actions.
Because no muscular contractions are involved, quiet exhalation, unlike quiet
inhalation, is a passive process. Exhalation becomes active only during forceful
breathing, such as in playing a wind instrument or during exercise. During these
times, muscles of exhalation—the internal intercostals, external oblique, internal
oblique, transversus abdominis, and rectus abdominis—contract to move the
lower ribs downward and compress the abdominal viscera, thus forcing the
diaphragm upward
Glucose Catabolism
The catabolism of glucose to produce ATP is known as cellular respiration.
Overall, its many reactions can be summarized as follows.
1 glucose + 6 oxygen 36–38 ATP
+ 6 carbon dioxide + 6 water
Four interconnecting sets of chemical reactions contribute to cellular respiration:
1. During glycolysis (breakdown), reactions that take place in the cytosol
convert one six-carbon glucose molecule into two three carbon pyruvic acid
molecules. The reactions of glycolysis directly produce two ATPs. They also
transfer some chemical energy, in the form of high-energy electrons, from
glucose to the coenzyme NAD +, forming two NADH + H +. Because glycolysis
does not require oxygen, it is a way to produce ATP anaerobically (without
oxygen) and is known as anaerobic cellular respiration. If oxygen is
available, however, most cells next convert pyruvic acid to acetyl coenzyme
A.
2. The formation of acetyl coenzyme A is a transition step that prepares
pyruvic acid for entrance into the Krebs cycle. First, pyruvic acid enters a
mitochondrion and is converted to a two-carbon fragment by removing a
molecule of carbon dioxide (CO2). Molecules of CO2 produced during glucose
catabolism diffuse into the blood and are eventually exhaled. Then, the
coenzyme NAD+ is converted to NADH + H +. Finally, the remaining atoms,
called an acetyl group, are attached to coenzyme A, to form acetyl
coenzyme A.
3. The Krebs cycle is a series of reactions that transfer the chemical energy
from acetyl coenzyme A to two other coenzymes—NAD and FAD—thereby
forming NADH + H+ and FADH2. Krebs cycle reactions also produce CO2 and
one ATP for each acetyl coenzyme A that enters the Krebs cycle. To harvest
the energy in NADH and FADH 2, their high-energy electrons must first go
through the electron transport chain.
4. Through the reactions of the electron transport chain, the energy in
NADH + H+ and FADH2 is used to synthesize ATP. As the coenzymes pass
their high-energy electrons through a series of “electron carriers,” ATP is
synthesized. Finally, lower-energy electrons are passed to oxygen in a
reaction that produces water. Because the Krebs cycle and the electron
transport chain together require oxygen to produce ATP, they are known as
aerobic cellular respiration.
Glucose Anabolism
Even though most of the glucose in the body is catabolized to generate ATP,
glucose may take part in or be formed via several anabolic reactions. One is the
synthesis of glycogen; another is the synthesis of new glucose molecules from
some of the products of protein and lipid breakdown. If glucose is not needed
immediately for ATP production, it combines with many other molecules of
glucose to form a long-chain molecule called glycogen. Synthesis of glycogen is
stimulated by insulin. The body can store about 500 grams (about 1.1 lb) of
glycogen, roughly 75% in skeletal muscle fibers and the rest in liver cells. If blood
glucose level falls below normal, glucagon is released from the pancreas and
epinephrine is released from the adrenal medullae. These hormones stimulate
breakdown of glycogen into its glucose subunits. Liver cells release this glucose
into the blood, and body cells pick it up to use for ATP production. Glycogen
breakdown usually occurs between meals.
Fig. 6: Cellular respiration
