Comprehensive Guide to

Hallucinogenic Plants

Hallucinogens have been traditionally used to encourage spiritual growth, heighten perception, inspire personal
­development, or expand reality. Comprehensive Guide to Hallucinogenic Plants focuses on ethnobotanical aspects of hal-
lucinogenic plant species, featuring the history on how they were used in ancient societies, identifying chemical com-
pounds, and explaining modern medicinal uses, as well as conservation initiatives. The book emphasizes the importance
of understanding the cultural, countrywide, environmental, and scientific importance of these medicinal plants.
Some of the 50 plants covered in this work include: ayahuasca, ginger, kanna, dream herb, iboga, peyote, canary broom,
coral tree, catnip, wild rue, kava, mandrake, and golden angel’s trumpet. Each chapter includes information on historical
plant use and identification of chemical compounds, and explains modern medicinal uses. The text highlights the impor-
tance of studying, evaluating, and utilizing these plants not in isolation, but from a global perspective.
Comprehensive Guide to Hallucinogenic Plants appeals to plant scientists, botanists, ethnobotanists, pharmacologists,
and those with an interest in alternative or herbal medicine.
Comprehensive Guide to
Hallucinogenic Plants

Edited by
Noureddine Chaachouay, Abdelhamid Azeroual,
and Lahcen Zidane
Designed cover image: Shutterstock

First edition published 2025

by CRC Press
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and by CRC Press

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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Chaachouay, Noureddine, editor. | Azeroual, Abdelhamid, editor. | Zidane, Lahcen, editor.
Title: Comprehensive guide to hallucinogenic plants / edited by Noureddine
Chaachouay, Abdelhamid Azeroual, and Lahcen Zidane Other titles: Exploring medicinal plants.
Description: First edition | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, 2025 | Includes bibliographical references and index |
Summary: “Hallucinogens have been utilized to encourage spiritual growth, heighten perception, inspire personal
development, or expand reality. Comprehensive Guide to Hallucinogenic Plants discusses the ethnobotany of
hallucinogenic plant species, featuring history on how they were used in ancient societies, identifying chemical
compounds, and explaining modern medicinal uses and conservation initiatives. This book examines the indigenous
medicinal practices of many countries and civilizations, and provides comprehensive and up-to-date information
on recent investigations and trends in medicinal plants and aromatics.
Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of understanding their cultural, country-wide, environmental, and
scientific factors. It highlights that studying, evaluating, and utilizing these plants cannot be done effectively
in isolation but requires a global perspective.
Approximately 120 hallucinogenic plants have been identified globally, although 3,000 plant species have been
routinely ingested by humans at some point in history, and only 150 are significant enough to join international trade.
Some of the 50 plants covered include Ayahuasca, ginger, kanna, dream herb, iboga, peyote, canary broom, coral tree,
catnip, wild rue, kava, mandrake and golden’s angel trumpet. Each chapter follows the structure of including information
on historical plant use, identification of chemical compounds, and an explanation of the modern medicinal uses.
Comprehensive Guide to Hallucinogenic Plants will appeal to plant scientists, botanists, ethnobotanists,
pharmacologists, and those with an interest in alternative medicine”– Provided by publisher
Identifiers: LCCN 2024009960 (print) | LCCN 2024009961 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781032591803 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032607320 (paperback) |
ISBN 9781003460336 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Hallucinogenic plants. | Ethnobotany. | Materia medica, Vegetable.
Classification: LCC SB293 .C56 2025 (print) | LCC SB293 (ebook) | DDC 633.8/8–dc23/eng/20240709
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2024009960
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2024009961

ISBN: 978-1-032-59180-3 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-60732-0 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-46033-6 (ebk)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003460336

Typeset in Times
by SPi Technologies India Pvt Ltd (Straive)
 This book is dedicated to
All our families, Chaachouay, Azeroual, and Zidane, for their unwavering support and endless love. Your
encouragement has been the guiding light through the journey of writing this book. This work is a tribute to your daily
strength and inspiration.

Our esteemed professors and cherished friends, whose wisdom, guidance, and companionship have been the
cornerstones of our journey. Your insights have not only shaped this book but have profoundly influenced our personal
and academic growth. This work is a testament to the invaluable lessons you’ve imparted and the enduring bonds
we’ve formed.
Contents
About the Editors...................................................................................................................................................................xi
List of Contributors...............................................................................................................................................................xii
Preface.................................................................................................................................................................................xvii
Acknowledgments..............................................................................................................................................................xviii

Chapter 1 Chambá (Justicia pectoralis Jacq. Acanthaceae).............................................................................................. 1

Noureddine Chaachouay and Lahcen Zidane

Chapter 2 Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus L. Acoraceae).................................................................................................... 11

Mustafa Keskin, Volkan Altay, and Munir Ozturk

Chapter 3 Kanna (Sceletium tortuosum (L.) N.E. Br. Aizoaceae)................................................................................... 16

Aneeqa Hanif and Alvina Gul

Chapter 4 Pancratium Lily (Pancratium trianthum Herb. Amaryllidaceae).................................................................... 21

Munir Ozturk, Mustafa Keskin, and Volkan Altay

Chapter 5 Dream Herb (Calea zacatechichi Schltdl. Asteraceae)................................................................................... 25

Iqra Siddique and Alvina Gul

Chapter 6 Tabernanthe iboga Baill. Apocynaceae........................................................................................................... 33

Emmanuel Muhumuza and Godwin Anywar

Chapter 7 False Peyote (Lophophora diffusa (Croizat) Bravo Cactaceae)...................................................................... 37

Ehsan Ali, Muhammad Farooq Azhar, and Ume Laila

Chapter 8 San Pedro Cactus (Echinopsis pachanoi (Britton & Rose) H. Friedrich & G.D. Rowley Cactceae)............. 42
Talha Imtiaz, Ehsan Ali, and Muhammad Farooq Azhar

Chapter 9 Peyote (Lophophora williamsii (Lem. ex J.F. Cels) J.M. Coult.- Cactaceae)................................................. 50
Viktória L. Balázs, Lilla Nagy-Radványi, Ágnes Farkas, and Eszter Csikós

Chapter 10 Devil’s Tobacco (Lobelia tupa L. Campanulaceae)........................................................................................ 54

Lilla Nagy-Radványi, Eszter Csikós, Ágnes Farkas, and Viktória L. Balázs

Chapter 11 Marijuana (Cannabis sativa L. Cannabaceae)................................................................................................ 57

Noureddine Chaachouay, Rahmatullah Qureshi, Ouafae Benkhnigue, Abdelhamid Azeroual,
and Lahcen Zidane

Chapter 12 Bushman’s Tea (Catha edulis (Vahl) Endl. Celastraceae)............................................................................... 77

Priyatama Vijaysing Powar and Noureddine Chaachouay

vii
viiiContents

Chapter 13 Chilean Holly (Desfontainia spinosa Ruiz & Pav. Columelliaceae)............................................................... 89

Murad Muhammad, Nimrah Ameen, Gopal Dixit, Yasir Arafat, Abdullah Abdullah, and Abdul Wahab

Chapter 14 Christmas Vine (Ipomoea corymbosa (L.) Roth Convolvulaceae).................................................................. 98

Eszter Csikós, Viktória L. Balázs, Ágnes Farkas, and Lilla Nagy-Radványi

Chapter 15 Beach Moonflower (Ipomoea violacea L. Convolvulaceae)......................................................................... 101

Anywar Godwin, Ojelel Samuel, Tugume Patience, Ssenku Jamilu, and Kakudidi Esezah

Chapter 16 Coca (Erythroxylum coca Lam. Erythroxylaceae)........................................................................................ 106

Shehar Bano, Alvina Gul, and Munir Ozturk

Chapter 17 Tepezcohuite (Senegalia tenuifolia (L.) Britton & Rose [syn.: Mimosa tenuiflora
(Willd.) Poir.] Fabaceae)............................................................................................................................... 112
Mustafa Keskin, Volkan Altay, and Munir Ozturk

Chapter 18 Sensitive Plant (Mimosa pudica L. Fabaceae).............................................................................................. 116

Mustafa Keskin, Volkan Altay, Alvina Gul, and Munir Ozturk

Chapter 19 Yopo (Anadenanthera peregrina (L.) Speg. Fabaceae)................................................................................. 121

Noureddine Chaachouay, Allal Douira, and Lahcen Zidane

Chapter 20 Vilca (Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell.) Brenan Fabaceae).......................................................................... 130

Ruvimbo Jessy Mapaya and Alfred Maroyi

Chapter 21 Canary Broom (Cytisus canariensis (L.) Kuntze Fabaceae)......................................................................... 136

Tamara Attard and Everaldo Attard

Chapter 22 Mescal Bean (Sophora secundiflora (Ortega) Lag. ex DC. Fabaceae)......................................................... 143
Noureddine Chaachouay and Lahcen Zidane

Chapter 23 Coral Tree (Erythrina americana Mill. Fabaceae)........................................................................................ 151

Anam Fatima, Muhammad Zafar, Mushtaq Ahmad, Wajiha Zaka Ansari, Salman Majeed, and Nida Zahra

Chapter 24 Snoutbean (Rhynchosia pyramidalis (Lam.) Urb. Fabaceae)........................................................................ 158

Syed Sabir Hussain Shah, Saba Latif, Rahmatullah Qureshi, Zia ur Rehman Mashwani,
Mubashrah Munir, and Noureddine Chaachouay

Chapter 25 Agara (Galbulimima belgraveana (F. Muell.) Sprague Himantandraceae).................................................. 163

Daniyal Hussain, Ehsan Ali, and Muhammad Farooq Azhar

Chapter 26 Queule (Gomortega keule (Molina) Baill. Gomortegaceae)......................................................................... 168

Saba Latif, Rahmatullah Qureshi, Syed Sabir Hussain Shah, and Noureddine Chaachouay
Contentsix

Chapter 27 Catnip (Nepeta cataria L. Lamiaceae).......................................................................................................... 176

̇
Belkıs Muca Yiğit, Ilker Çinbilgel, Sefa Gözcü, Ahmet Zafer Tel, and Ahmad Ali

Chapter 28 Inebriating Mint (Lagochilus inebrians Bunge Lamiaceae)......................................................................... 186

Rahmatullah Qureshi, Ayesha Siddiqa, and Noureddine Chaachouay

Chapter 29 Diviner’s Sage (Salvia divinorum Epling & Játiva Lamiaceae).................................................................... 193
Mai M. Younis, Ahmed M. Elissawy, Samir M. Osman, Gokhan Zengin,
Omayma A. Eldahshan, and Abdel Nasser B. Singab

Chapter 30 Sinicuichi (Heimia salicifolia (Kunth) Link Lythraceae).............................................................................. 208

Rahmatullah Qureshi, Bushra Jabeen, and Noureddine Chaachouay

Chapter 31 Ayahuasca (Banisteriopsis caapi (Spruce ex Griseb.) Morton Malpighiaceae)............................................ 217

Noureddine Chaachouay, Abdelkarim El Djiri, Abderrahmaine Katiri, and Lahcen Zidane

Chapter 32 Muiratinga (Maquira sclerophylla (Ducke) C.C. Berg Moraceae)............................................................... 228

Noureddine Chaachouay and Lahcen Zidane

Chapter 33 Epená (Virola theiodora (Spruce ex Benth.) Warb. Myristicaceae).............................................................. 235

Muhammad Younas, Ayesha Siddiqa, Rahmatullah Qureshi, Sabith Rehman, and
Noureddine Chaachouay

Chapter 34 Virola (Virola calophylla (Spruce) Warb. Myristicaceae)............................................................................. 244

Rahmatullah Qureshi, Ayesha Siddiqa, Muhammad Ishaq, Mehmooda Munazir, Muhammad
Maqsood, Sehrish Sadia, and Noureddine Chaachouay

Chapter 35 Red Ucuuba (Virola sebifera Aubl. Myristicaceae)....................................................................................... 252

Noureddine Chaachouay, Allal Douira, and Lahcen Zidane

Chapter 36 Fragrant Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt. Myristicaceae)....................................................................... 259

Abdulrahman Mahmoud Dogara, Harmand A. Hama, Aisha Abdullahi Mahmud,
Bawale Sani Halliru, Isah Labaran, and Hussaini Danlami

Chapter 37 Wild Rue (Peganum harmala L. Nitrariaceae).............................................................................................. 272

Fathia Benlarbi and Noureddine Chaachouay

Chapter 38 Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferum L. Papaveraceae)................................................................................. 283

Abdelhamid Azeroual, Noureddine Chaachouay, Ouafae Benkhnigue, Rahmatullah Qureshi,
Bouchaib Bencharki, Khadija Temmante, and Aziz Baidani

Chapter 39 Kava (Piper methysticum G. Forst. Piperaceae)............................................................................................ 292

Frank Kalungi and Godwin Anywar
xContents

Chapter 40 Belladonna (Atropa belladonna L. Solanaceae)............................................................................................ 298

Noureddine Chaachouay, Abdelhamid Azeroual, Mohd Kafeel Ahmad Ansari, Rahmatullah Qureshi,
Bouchaib Bencharki, and Lahcen Zidane

Chapter 41 Black Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger L. Solanaceae)...................................................................................... 308

Ouafae Benkhnigue, Noureddine Chaachouay, Jamaa Habchaoui, Khadija Temmante, Abdelhamid
Azeroual, and Lahcen Zidane

Chapter 42 Mandrake (Mandragora officinarum L. Solanaceae).................................................................................... 322

Jamaa Habchaoui, Noureddine Chaachouay, and Ouafae Benkhnigue

Chapter 43 Cultivated Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L. Cannabaceae)........................................................................... 333

Bouchaib Bencharki, Noureddine Chaachouay, Abdelhamid Azeroual, and Aziz Baidani

Chapter 44 Having Hairy Flowers (Latua pubiflora (Griseb.) Baill. Solanaceae)........................................................... 349
Ume Laila, Ehsan Ali, and Muhammad Farooq Azhar

Chapter 45 Pricklyburr (Datura innoxia Miller Solanaceae)........................................................................................... 354

Volkan Altay, Mustafa Keskin, Alvina Gul, and Munir Ozturk

Chapter 46 Golden Angel’s Trumpet (Datura stramonium L. Solanaceae)..................................................................... 361

Noureddine Chaachouay, Fathia Benlarbi, Abdelhamid Azeroual, Abdel Khalid Essamadi,
Rahmatullah Qureshi, and Lahcen Zidane

Chapter 47 Jimson Weed (Brugmansia pittieri (Saff.) Moldenke Solanaceae)............................................................... 371

Khola Rafique and Alvina Gul

Chapter 48 Squirting Cucumber (Ecballium elaterium (L.) A. Rich. Cucurbitaceae)..................................................... 387

Munir Ozturk, Volkan Altay, Mustafa Keskin, and Alvina Gul

Chapter 49 Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe Zingiberaceae)...................................................................................... 394

Khadija Temmante, Noureddine Chaachouay, Ouafae Benkhnigue, and Abdelhamid Azeroual

Chapter 50 Lesser Galangal (Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. Zingiberaceae)...................................................................... 411

Noureddine Chaachouay, Ouafae Benkhnigue, Khadija Temmante, Mohd Kafeel Ahmad Ansari,
Rahmatullah Qureshi, Abdelhamid Azeroual, Bouchaib Bencharki, and Lahcen Zidane

Index................................................................................................................................................................................... 422
About the Editors
Noureddine Chaachouay, a experience in research, teaching, and administration. As
professor at the Ecole Normale part of his professional activities, he has received several
Supérieure (ENS) of Berrechid, scientific research grants (including the German DAAD)
Hassan First University in Settat, and participated in several European Tempus programs. As
Morocco, has had a distinguished a permanent member of the Agri-­Food and Health research
academic and professional jour- laboratory, he first developed his research on the ichthyo-
ney. His educational background fauna of the continental waters of Morocco, conducting the
is deeply rooted in the sciences, very first assessment of North African freshwater fish in
particularly botany and life sci- 2007. He later extended his area of research to include the
ences. He achieved his doctorate field of aromatic and medicinal plants. Since then, he has
in the sciences in 2020 from the successfully published numerous papers in reputed and
Faculty of Sciences at Ibn Tofail internationally recognized journals and several book chap-
University, Kenitra, with his thesis focusing on the floristic ters for internationally renowned publishers.
and ethnomedicinal study of aromatic and medicinal plants
in the Rif region of Northern Morocco. Before his current Lahcen Zidane has been a pro-
role as an assistant professor, which he has held since 2020, fessor since 1997 in the
he spent five years teaching secondary school in life and Department of Biology, Faculty
earth sciences at the Provincial Directorate of Education in of Science, Ibn Tofail University,
Salé, Morocco. His credentials, which include a Certificate Kenitra, Morocco. His work
of Pedagogical Qualification for Secondary Education and focuses primarily on plant spe-
a Certificate of Recognition of Success in the Professional cies and agro-­industrial produc-
Aptitude Examination for Secondary Education, further tion. This indicates a strong
demonstrate his dedication to education. His technical focus on applied biological sci-
skills are grounded in his diploma in systems and network ences, especially in areas that
computing. As a researcher, he is keenly interested in study- intersect with botany, agricul-
ing the use of plants in various areas, such as alternative ture, and biotechnology. In addi-
medicine, pharmacy, cosmetics, clothing, rituals, flavors, tion to teaching, Prof. Zidane is interested in research on
fragrances, and dyes. In recognition of his contributions to the use of medicinal and aromatic plants by the local com-
scientific research, Pr. Noureddine was awarded the presti- munities of Morocco. In addition, he is also the owner of a
gious Hassan First University Prize for Scientific Research project in Morocco focused on the inventory and preserva-
in 2023, underscoring his status as a “Young Researcher”. tion of plant species at the national level. This project aims
This accolade is a testament to his commitment to advanc- to establish the cataloging and mapping of different plant
ing knowledge in his field. His academic and professional species present and the identification of threatened or
experiences reflect a deep commitment to education and endangered species. Given his position and area of exper-
research, particularly in botany, climate change, and sus- tise, Prof. Zidane is involved in teaching, mentoring stu-
tainable development. dents, and contributing to the academic community at the
university. His role as a professor at a higher education
Abdelhamid Azeroual is a pro- institution confirms his commitment to educating the next
fessor at the Ecole Normale generation of scientists and researchers in plant biology.
Supérieure (ENS) of Berrechid,
Hassan First University of Settat,
Morocco. He earned his PhD
from Mohammed V-­ Agdal
University in Rabat, Morocco.
He has over 20 years of

xi
Contributors
Abdullah Abdullah Yasir Arafat
Faculty of Biology State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis and Ecology
Ludwig-­Maximilians-­University of Munich (LMU) Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography
Planegg-­Martinsried, Germany Chinese Academy of Sciences
Urumqi, PR China
Mushtaq Ahmad
Department of Plant Sciences Everaldo Attard
Plant Systematics and Biodiversity Lab Quaid-­i-­Azam Division of Rural Sciences and Food Systems
University Institute of Earth Systems
Islamabad Pakistan University of Malta
Pakistan Academy of Sciences Msida, Malta
Islamabad, Pakistan
Tamara Attard
Ahmad Ali Department of Pharmacy
Department of Life Sciences Faculty of Medicine and Surgery
University of Mumbai, Mumbai University of Malta
Maharashtra, India Msida, Malta
Ehsan Ali Abdelhamid Azeroual
Department of Forestry and Range Management Agri-­Food and Health Laboratory (AFHL)
Faculty of Agricultural Sciences & Technology ENS of Berrechid, Hassan First University of Settat
Bahauddin Zakariya University Morocco
Multan, Pakistan
Muhammad Farooq Azhar
Volkan Altay Department of Forestry and Range Management
Hatay Mustafa Kemal University Faculty of Agricultural Sciences & Technology
Faculty of Arts & Sciences Bahauddin Zakariya University
Department of Biology Multan, Pakistan
Hatay, Turkey
Aziz Baidani
Nimrah Ameen Agri-­Food and Health Laboratory (AFHL)
Department of Botany FST of Settat, Hassan First University of Settat
University of Faisalabad Morocco
Pakistan
Viktória L. Balázs
Mohd Kafeel Ahmad Ansari Department of Pharmacognosy
Department of Biology Faculty of Pharmacy
Faculty of Natural Sciences University of Pécs
University of Guyana Georgetown Hungary
Guyana, South America
Shehar Bano
Wajiha Zaka Ansari Atta-­ur-­Rahman School of Applied Biosciences
Department of Botany National University of Sciences and Technology
University of Mianwali Islamabad, Pakistan
Mianwali, Pakistan
Bouchaib Bencharki
Godwin Anywar Agri-­Food and Health Laboratory (AFHL)
Department of Plant Sciences FST of Settat, Hassan First University of Settat
Microbiology & Biotechnology Morocco
College of Natural Sciences
Ouafae Benkhnigue
Makerere University
Department of Botany and Plant Ecology
Kampala, Uganda
Scientific Institute, Mohammed V University
Rabat, Morocco

xii
Contributorsxiii

Fathia Benlarbi Ahmed M. Elissawy

Laboratory for Exploration and Valorization of Steppe Department of Pharmacognosy
Ecosystems (EVES) Faculty of Pharmacy
Department of Biology Ain Shams University
Faculty of Natural Sciences and Life Abbassia, Egypt
University of Djelfa
Kakudidi Esezah
Djelfa, Algeria
Department of Plant Sciences, Microbiology & Biotechnology
Noureddine Chaachouay College of Natural Sciences
Agri-­Food and Health Laboratory (AFHL) Makerere University
ENS of Berrechid, Hassan First University of Settat Kampala, Uganda
Morocco
Abdel Khalid Essamadi
İlker Çinbilgel Biochemistry, Neuroscience, Natural Resources, and
Department of Tourism Guidance Environment Laboratory (BNREL)
Manavgat Faculty of Tourism FST of Settat
Akdeniz University Hassan First University of Settat
Antalya, Turkey Settat, Morocco
Eszter Csikós Ágnes Farkas
Department of Pharmacognosy Department of Pharmacognosy
Faculty of Pharmacy Faculty of Pharmacy
University of Pécs University of Pécs
Hungary Pécs, Hungary
Hussaini Danlami Anam Fatima
Department of Biological Sciences Department of Botany
Faculty of Life Sciences University of Mianwali
Kaduna State University Mianwali, Pakistan
Kaduna
Anywar Godwin
Gopal Dixit Department of Plant Sciences, Microbiology &
Department of Botany Biotechnology
Upadhi PG College (MJP Rohilkhand University) College of Natural Sciences
Pilibhit, India Makerere University
Kampala, Uganda
Abdulrahman Mahmoud Dogara
Biology Education Department Sefa Gözcü
Faculty of Education Department of Pharmacognosy
Tishk International University-­Erbil Faculty of Pharmacy
Kurdistan Region, Iraq Erzincan Binali Yildirim University
Erzincan, Turkey
Allal Douira
Plant, Animal Productions and Agro-­industry Laboratory Alvina Gul
Department of Biology Department of Plant Biotechnology
Faculty of Sciences Atta-­Ur-­Rehman School of Applied Biosciences (ASAB)
Ibn Tofail University National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST)
Kenitra, Morocco Islamabad, Pakistan
Abdelkarim El Djiri Jamaa Habchaoui
Agri-­Food and Health Laboratory (AFHL) Laboratory of Animal Plant Production and Agro-­Industry
ENS of Berrechid, Hassan First University of Settat Department of Biology
Morocco Faculty of Sciences
Ibn Tofail University
Omayma A. Eldahshan
Kenitra, Morocco
Department of Pharmacognosy
Faculty of Pharmacy Bawale Sani Halliru
Ain Shams University Department of Biological Sciences
Abbassia, Egypt Al-­Qalam University
Katsina, Nigeria
xivContributors

Harmand A. Hama Isah Labaran

Biology Education Department Department of Sciences Laboratory Technology
Faculty of Education School of Science
Tishk International University-­Erbil Federal polytechnic Mubi
Kurdistan Region, Iraq Adamawa state, Nigeria
Aneeqa Hanif Ume Laila
Atta-­ur-­Rahman School of Applied Biosciences Department of Botany
National University of Sciences and Technology University of the Punjab
Islamabad, Pakistan Lahore, Pakistan
Daniyal Hussain Saba Latif
Department of Forestry and Range Management Department of Botany
Faculty of Agricultural Sciences & Technology Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University
Bahauddin Zakariya University Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Multan, Pakistan
Aisha Abdullahi Mahmud
Talha Imtiaz
Department of Plant Science and Biotechnology
Department of Forestry and Range Management
Federal University Dutsin-­Ma
Faculty of Agricultural Sciences & Technology
Katsina State, Nigeria
Bahauddin Zakariya University
Multan, Pakistan Salman Majeed
Muhammad Ishaq Department of Botany
Office of Research, Innovation & Commercialization University of Mianwali
PMAS-­Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi Mianwali, Pakistan
Rawalpindi, Pakistan Department of Plant Sciences
Plant Systematics and Biodiversity Lab Quaid-­i-­Azam
Bushra Jabeen University
Directorate of Hemp Project Islamabad, Pakistan
Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University
Rawalpindi, Pakistan Ruvimbo Jessy Mapaya
Department of Applied Biosciences and
Ssenku Jamilu Biotechnology
Department of Plant Sciences Midlands State University
Microbiology & Biotechnology, College of Natural Senga, Gweru, Zimbabwe
Sciences
Makerere University Muhammad Maqsood
Kampala, Uganda Department of Botany
PMAS-­Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi
Frank Kalungi Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Department of Plant Sciences
Microbiology and Biotechnology Alfred Maroyi
Makerere University Department of Botany
Kampala, Uganda University of Fort Hare
Alice, South Africa
Abderrahmaine Katiri
Laboratory of Biotechnologies and Valorization of Natural Zia ur Rehman Mashwani
Resources Department of Biological Sciences
Ibn Zohr University, Faculty of Sciences University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences
Agadir, Morocco Lahore, Pakistan

Mustafa Keskin Murad Muhammad

Institute of Pure and Applied Sciences State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis and Ecology
Biology Program, Göztepe Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography
Marmara University Chinese Academy of Sciences
İstanbul, Turkey Urumqi, PR China
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
Contributorsxv

Beijing, PR China Khola Rafique

Pest Warning and Quality Control of Pesticides
Emmanuel Muhumuza
Agriculture Department
Department of Plant Sciences
Punjab, Pakistan
Microbiology & Biotechnology
College of Natural Sciences Sabith Rehman
Makerere University Department of Botany
Kampala, Uganda Hazara University Mansehra
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
Mehmooda Munazir
Department of Botany Sehrish Sadia
Government College Women University Department of Biological Sciences
Sialkot, Pakistan University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences
Lahore, Pakistan
Mubashrah Munir
Department of Biological Sciences Ojelel Samuel
University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences Department of Plant Sciences
Lahore, Pakistan Microbiology & Biotechnology
College of Natural Sciences
Lilla Nagy-­Radványi Makerere University
Department of Pharmacognosy Kampala, Uganda
Faculty of Pharmacy
University of Pécs Syed Sabir Hussain Shah
Pécs, Hungary Department of Botany
Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University
Samir M. Osman Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Department of Pharmacognosy
Faculty of Pharmacy Ayesha Siddiqa
October 6 University Directorate of Hemp Project
6 October City, Egypt Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University
Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Munir Ozturk
Department of Botany and Centre for Iqra Siddique
Environmental Studies Department of Plant Biotechnology
Ege University Atta-­Ur-­Rehman School of Applied Biosciences (ASAB)
Izmir, Turkey National University of Sciences and Technology
(NUST)
Tugume Patience Islamabad, Pakistan
Department of Plant Sciences
Microbiology & Biotechnology Abdel Nasser B. Singab
College of Natural Sciences Department of Pharmacognosy
Makerere University Faculty of Pharmacy
Kampala, Uganda Ain Shams University
Abbassia, Egypt
Priyatama Vijaysing Powar
Assistant Professor Ahmet Zafer Tel
Dr. D. Y. Patil College of Pharmacy Department of Agricultural Biotechnology
Akurdi, India Faculty of Agriculture
Iğdır University
Rahmatullah Qureshi Iğdır, Turkey
Department of Botany
Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University Khadija Temmante
Rawalpindi, Pakistan Agri-­Food and Health Laboratory (AFHL)
Directorate of Hemp Project ENS of Berrechid, Hassan First University
Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University Settat
Rawalpindi, Pakistan Morocco
xviContributors

Abdul Wahab Muhammad Zafar

Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology Department of Plant Sciences
CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences Plant Systematics and Biodiversity Lab Quaid-­i-­Azam
Chinese Academy of Sciences University
Shanghai, China Islamabad, Pakistan
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
Nida Zahra
Beijing, PR China
Department of Botany
Belkıs Muca Yiğit University of Mianwali
Department of Organic Agriculture Management Mianwali, Pakistan
Faculty of Applied Sciences
Gokhan Zengin
Iğdır University
Department of Biology
Iğdır, Turkey
Science Faculty
Muhammad Younas Selcuk University
Department of Botany Konya, Turkey
PMAS-­Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi
Lahcen Zidane
Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Plant, Animal Productions and Agro-­industry Laboratory
Mai M. Younis Department of Biology
Department of Pharmacognosy Faculty of Sciences
Faculty of Pharmacy Ibn Tofail University
Ain Shams University Kenitra, Morocco
Abbassia, Egypt
Preface
The strong urge that drives man to leave the humdrum of While modern science has been able to effectively repro-
daily existence has led him to intuitively explore unex- duce these chemicals in most instances or even change their
pected substances. It has done so even when nature has molecular structures to generate unique synthetic versions,
been most stingy in supply and the goods seem unable to practically all hallucinogens have their beginnings in plants.
hold the attributes allowing him to fulfill this need. In This book covers several subjects, such as botany, geo-
recent years, hallucinogens have been utilized by some who graphic distribution, habitat and ecology, traditional and
think they encourage spiritual growth, heighten perception, hallucinogenic usage, phytochemicals, toxicity, clinical
inspire personal development, and expand reality. effects, and pharmacological uses of aromatic and medici-
Depending on their chemical nature, naturally occurring nal plants. Considering that plants are sometimes geo-
hallucinogens are employed in various methods. Most of graphically isolated, this text also examines the indigenous
these hallucinogens are alkaloids, a class of over 5,000 dif- medicinal practices of many countries and civilizations.
ferent biochemical molecules responsible for the biological This book aims to provide comprehensive and up-­to-­date
activity of the majority of toxic and medicinal plants. As information on recent investigations and trends in medici-
shown by the number of traditional treatments, they may be nal plants and aromatics. It is specifically designed to meet
absorbed by the human body in various ways. These hallu- the needs of students and researchers interested in medici-
cinogens are only present in varying concentrations in the nal plants, including hallucinogenic varieties. Additionally,
most advanced blooming plants in the plant world. So far it seeks to generate general interest in the study of medici-
approximately 120 hallucinogenic plants have been identi- nal plants by emphasizing the importance of understanding
fied globally. Perhaps 3,000 plant species were routinely their cultural, countrywide, environmental, and scientific
ingested by humans at some point in history, but just 150 factors. It highlights that studying, evaluating, and utilizing
taxa are still significant enough to join international trade these plants cannot be done effectively in isolation, but
today. Ancient man was familiar with several of these requires a global perspective.
plants and, due to their properties, attributed magical or
mystical significance to them, using them in religious cere- Noureddine Chaachouay
monies. The pharmacological effect of hallucinogens is Abdelhamid Azeroual
attributable to a restricted number of chemical components. Lahcen Zidane

xvii
Acknowledgments
We express our profound gratitude to all the esteemed our gratitude to the reviewers who contributed to enhancing
authors and co-­authors who contributed chapters and gener- the chapters. We sincerely express our thanks and apprecia-
ously dedicated their time and skills to this edited publica- tion to all who have helped, either directly or indirectly, in
tion. We thank Randy Brehm, Tom Connelly, and all Taylor producing this work. We encourage feedback and construc-
& Francis Group, LLC/CRC Press partners for their enthu- tive criticism from subject-­matter experts and readers.
siastic collaboration. In addition, we would like to express

xviii
 1 Chambá (Justicia pectoralis Jacq.
Acanthaceae)
Noureddine Chaachouay and Lahcen Zidane

1.1 INTRODUCTION analysis of J. pectoralis identified many substances, such as

coumarin, Umbelliferone (UMB), ortho-­methoxylated gly-
Employing plants for medicinal reasons, either in the man- cosylflavones, and justicidin B (de Lima et al., 2022; Leal
agement or prevention of illnesses, is one of the most et al., 2017). The hydroalcoholic extract of ‘chambá’ under-
ancient traditions in human medicine, and several tradi- went a preclinical toxicological study, which revealed that
tional medical treatments have been documented using the plant has a low level of toxicity (Guimarães et al., 2023).
various plant species (Houghton, 1995). Recent technologi- Furthermore, the plant extract and its chemical compo-
cal advancements have successfully addressed multiple nents, coumarin and UMB, have been shown to possess
challenges associated with discovering new drugs derived antioxidant, anti-­ inflammatory, antinociceptive, and
from natural sources (Atanasov et al., 2021; Cragg & muscle-­relaxant properties. Recent studies have shown that
Newman, 2001). These include improvements in chemical they also have central effects in rats (Arteaga et al., 2011;
pharmaceuticals and pharmacological studies and integrat- Carneiro et al., 2023; de Oliveira et al., 2023; Chaachouay
ing metabolomics and genomics approaches to enhance tra- et al., 2019a, 2019b). Nevertheless, more comprehensive
ditional natural product study methods (Sumner et al., morpho-­anatomical studies and phytochemical analyses on
2015). This has facilitated the development of secure, effec- J. pectoralis are needed, which are imperative for ensuring
tive, and high-­quality herbal medications, which excel in the efficacy and safety of this plant as an herbal remedy.
the global pharmaceutical industry. This chapter thoroughly evaluates the existing scientific lit-
Justicia pectoralis Jacq. ‘fresh cut’ is a tropical plant erature on the beneficial impacts of J. pectoralis on health.
classified under the Acanthaceae family. It is indigenous to This chapter covers traditional applications, taxonomy, hab-
Central and South America and is present in several coun- itat and geographical distribution, ecology, phytochemistry,
tries (Leal et al., 2017). The plant is renowned for its con- pharmacological activities, toxicity, and clinical uses of
ventional therapeutic use and is sometimes planted for J. pectoralis.
decorative reasons. J. pectoralis is often found in tropical
and subtropical areas, flourishing in warm and humid con-
ditions (Oliveira & Andrade, 2000; Benlarbi et al., 2023). It
1.2 SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION
often thrives in unobstructed spaces beside highways, dis- Justicia pectoralis Jacq. is classified as a species within the
rupted environments, and the lower layer of woods genus Justicia, which comprises an estimated 1163 species
(Roersch, 2018; Chaachouay et al., 2022a, 2022b, 2022c). and is a member of the Acanthaceae family. Justicia pecto-
The plant has a preference for well-­drained soils and pos- ralis Jacq. was first described by Nikolaus Joseph von
sesses the ability to endure various soil types. J. pectoralis, Jacquin in 1760, and he published more information in
commonly called chambá in Brazil, is extensively used in 1763. 1958, Emery Clarence Leonard reported a distinct
traditional northern and northeastern medicine to manage and identifiable variation called Justicia pectoralis var.
coughs, asthma, and bronchitis (Leal et al., 2017; Locklear Stenophylla. This species is only distributed in South
et al., 2010; Benkhnigue et al., 2022). America, while Justicia pectoralis Jacq. has a broader dis-
Much research suggests that the aerial components of tribution range that includes Central America and the
the plant are used to alleviate symptoms of insomnia, anx- Caribbean.
iousness, hypotension, and epilepsy (Chanfrau et al., 2013). Domain: Eukaryota
Nevertheless, only a few authors have documented its anti-
Kingdom: Plantae
neoplastic properties. In contrast, most research on this
plant has focused on its efficacy in treating respiratory tract Phylum: Spermatophyta
diseases and its potential as an anti-­inflammatory agent Subphylum: Angiospermae
(Lino et al., 1997). These investigations include clinical tri- Class: Dicotyledonae
als using J. pectoralis syrups to treat individuals with Order: Scrophulariales
asthma, specifically targeting inflammation. Phytochemical
Family: Acanthaceae

DOI: 10.1201/9781003460336-1 1
2 Comprehensive Guide to Hallucinogenic Plants

Genus: Justicia The leaves are narrow to broadly lanceolate, measuring

Species: Justicia pectoralis Jacq. 5–11 × 0.5–1.8 cm. They have an acuminate apex and an
acute to obtuse base. The cystoliths are dense and promi-
nent on the upper surface of the leaves but not visible on the
1.3 VERNACULAR NAMES lower surface. The upper surface of the leaves is glabrous to
Arabic: Adalah Al-­Sadr; English: Carpenter’s, fresh cut, strigose along the costa, while the lower surface is glabrous.
grassdeath-­angel; Spanish: Carpintero, cariñito, hierba The leaf margins are entirely undulatory shaped (Roersch,
tila, tila, tilo, hierba de carpintero, té criollo; French: Herbe 2018). The petioles are short, approximately 5 mm long,
à charpentiers; Portuguese: Anamú, Takurushni; German: and have a strigose upper surface. The inflorescences are
Justicia; Italian: Giustizia; Dutch: Justicia; Russian: arranged in loose, spike-­like clusters at the end of the stem.
Жустиция пекторалис (Zhustitsiya pektoralis); Chinese: They can grow up to 25 cm long and 15 cm wide. The lower
胸型爵床 (Xiōng xíng juéchuáng); Hindi: जस् टीश िया sections of the groups are about 2 cm long and covered in
पे क् टोराल िस जै क (Jastiśiyā pekṭ orālis jaiḳ); Korean: 저 tiny glandular hairs (Guimarães et al., 2023). The bracts
스티시아 펙토랄리스 자크 (Jeosṭ isia Pektoraliseu Jak); and bracteoles are slender, measuring 2 mm long and 1 mm
Greek: Δικαιοσύνη πεκτοράλις (Dikaiosýni pektorá- wide at the base. They are covered in fine hairs and have a
lis); Swahili: Haki ya kifua Jacq.; Thai: ยูสติเซีย เป็ คทอ few glandular hairs (Oliveira & Andrade, 2000). The flow-
ราลิส จัค (Yūs tị cīyā Pĕk tʰxrā lịs Cạk); Hebrew: ‫ג’וסטיסיה‬ ers have a calyx with five narrow and subulate segments,
‫( פקטורליס יאק‬Jusṭ isya Pekṭ orlis Yak); Filipino: Katarungan measuring up to 2 mm long and 0.5 mm wide at the base.
ng Dibdib Jacq.; Bengali: জাস্ টিস িয়া পেক্টোরাল িস জ্যাক The calyx is glandular and tuberculous. The corollas are
(Jāsṭ isīẏā pekṭ ōrālis jyāk); Malay: Keadilan pectora- white or purple, measuring 8–12 mm long. They are tuber-
lis Jacq.; Malayalam: ജസ്റ്റീഷ്യ പെക�്ടൊറാലിസ് culous on the outside and have a transversely plicate throat,
ജാക്ക് (Jasr̲ r̲is̄ ỵ a pekṭ or̲ālis jāk kŭ); Urdu: ‫جسٹسیا پیکٹورالس‬ often spotted with dark purple (de Oliveira et al., 2023). The
‫( جیک‬Jasṭ siyā pekṭ orālis jaiḳ); Persian (Farsi): ‫عدالت پکتورالیس‬ corolla tube is narrowly funnel-­shaped, 1.25 mm wide at
‫( جاک‬Adalat Pectoralis Jacq.) the base and 2.5 mm wide at the mouth. The upper lip of the
corolla is erect and triangular, measuring 3.5 mm long and
3 mm wide, with an acute apex. The lower lip is spreading,
1.4 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNONYMS measuring up to 5 mm long, and has three lobes. The lobes
The genus Justicia is named in honor of Giacomo Justice, are 1 mm long, with the middle lobe 2 mm wide and the
a Scottish farmer who authored the Scottish Gardener in lateral lobes 1.5 mm wide. All lobes have obtuse apices.
1754 and the English Gardener in 1767 (Carneiro et al., The stamens extend to the tip of the upper lip, with slightly
2023). The particular epithet pectoralis is derived from superposed anther cells that are apiculate at the base
the Latin word ‘pectoralis’, which means ‘of the breast’, (Chanfrau et al., 2013). The filaments are glabrous. The
originating from the Latin phrase pectus (genitive pecto- capsules are slender and club-­shaped, measuring up to 8
ris), meaning ‘breast’. The etymology of pectus is still mm in length and 2 mm in width. They are covered with
being determined. The terms are synonymous with fine hairs. The seeds are round, flattened, and have a diam-
J. pectoralis: eter of 1.5 mm (Figure 1.2).

Dianthera pectoralis (Jacq.) J.F.Gmel.; 1.6 ORIGIN AND

Dianthera pectoralis (Jacq.) Murray; GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION
Ecbolium pectorale (Jacq.) Kuntze; Since its description in 1760 by NJ Jacquin based on speci-
Justicia stuebelii Lindau; mens taken in the Caribbean islands of Dominica, it has
Leptostachya pectoralis (Jacq.) Nees & Mart.; been proposed that the natural distribution of the species
Psacadocalymma pectorale (Jacq.) Bremek.; J. pectoralis encompasses tropical America (such as Belize,
Bolivia, Brazil, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala,
Rhytiglossa pectoralis (Jacq.) Nees;
Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Venezuela,
Stethoma pectoralis (Jacq.) Raf. and others) and the Caribbean islands. Nevertheless, sev-
eral writers argue that its origin is exclusively confined to
tropical America and subsequently introduced to the
1.5 BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Caribbean islands (Roersch, 2018; UK, 2014). Nowadays,
J. pectoralis is an herb that grows upright at an average J. pectoralis is only found in tropical America, which is
height of 30–40 cm. The plant stems are weak and may regarded as its indigenous distribution area, as well as in the
either be erect or ascending (Figure 1.1). They frequently Caribbean. Regarding the Caribbean, more than the avail-
root at the lower nodes and have a sub-­quadrangular shape able data is needed to determine if this species is indige-
with grooves. The stems are smooth or somewhat hairy, nous or foreign. Nevertheless, if the species were transported
with the hairs pointing backward. into the Caribbean islands, its introduction would have had
Chambá3

FIGURE 1.1 Aerial parts of J. pectoralis (leaves and flowers).

FIGURE 1.2 Young seedlings of J. pectoralis.

4 Comprehensive Guide to Hallucinogenic Plants

to occur in the early stages of European colonization Cuba. The term used for this in Haiti is chapantye, whereas,
(Oliveira & Andrade, 2000). The likelihood of the opening in Dominica and Martinique, it is referred to as Zeb cha-
of J. pectoralis is modest. This species, which tends to grow pantyè. Additional well-­ known aliases include freshcut,
like a weed, reproduces via seeds and vegetative means by chambá, carpintero (‘carpenter’), té criollo (‘Criollo tea’),
forming roots at its nodes. It is often cultivated in gardens curia, the angel of death, masha-­hari, or ‘piri piri’. The
and residential yards. Therefore, J. pectoralis can expand plant has leaves and stems that contain coumarin, an anti-
its distribution range well beyond its current extent (Leal coagulant compound that functions as a glucose metabo-
et al., 2017). lism regulator due to luteolin (Locklear et al., 2010). It is
used in traditional medicine in South America and added to
Virola cigarettes, mainly because of its fragrance, which is
1.7 HABITAT AND ECOLOGY like that of vanilla. Cubans in South Florida cultivate this
plant, initially used by the indigenous populations of
J. pectoralis has a wide distribution encompassing several
Eastern Colombia and the Amazon basin. Waika communi-
countries, such as Brazil, Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia,
ties from different groups desiccate and grind the leaves,
Puerto Rico, and other Central America and the Caribbean
combining them with the powdered ‘resin’ derived from
areas. This herbaceous plant is very adaptable and may be
Virola thetodora to produce a hallucinogenic snuff (Leite &
found in a wide range of environments, including open
de Oliveira, 2017; Chaachouay et al., 2021a, 2021b, 2021c;
spaces, road edges, woodland edges, and regions that have
Orch et al., 2021). The Peruvian Amazon extracts comprise
been disrupted (UK, 2014). Moreover, it thrives in grass-
betaine, coumarin, and Umbelliferone, which were grown
lands and savannas, demonstrating its capacity to adapt to
and harvested from the region (Leal et al., 2017). However,
many ecological habitats. J. pectoralis is a common plant
in animal trials, these extracts did not exhibit hallucino-
that thrives along highways and abandoned areas
genic properties, nor did they generate synergistic effects
(Guimarães et al., 2023). It may be found at various alti-
similar to those caused by tryptamines. Herb vendors in
tudes ranging from sea level to 1400 m in tropical regions of
Cuba and Panama offer bundles of this botanical specimen.
America and the Caribbean. Inside Central and South
A decoction in Panama is used to alleviate stomach sick-
America, this plant thrives in low-­lying areas inside the
ness and leg pain (de Oliveira et al., 2023). In Mexican folk
lower layer of damp to saturated woods, as well as beside
medicine, the plant known locally as turbo is administered
streams and on the banks of rivers (Cassola et al., 2019; de
to treat elevated body temperatures. Barbadians and Puerto
Lima et al., 2022). The leaves of this plant are organized in
Ricans use sweet herbs as a remedy to promote the expul-
an opposing pattern and have a simple and elliptical shape.
sion of mucus from the respiratory system (Fonseca et al.,
They have a noticeable light green color and provide a
2010). In Guadeloupe and Martinique, a decoction is used
pleasant fragrance when crushed. The plant’s reproductive
as a digestive aid, while the infusion of the plant combined
cycle entails the generation of tubular, two-­lipped flowers
with frying oil serves as a treatment for chest afflictions.
organized in spikes, a characteristic shared by plants in the
Occasionally, dampened foliage is used as an exterior dress-
Acanthaceae family. J. pectoralis is a plant collected in its
ing for wounds. In Brazil, the leaves of J. pectoralis are
original form for local use as a medicinal substance
often used in homemade remedies to treat respiratory tract
(Kujawska et al., 2023). This plant is often seen growing
ailments, including cough, bronchitis, and asthma (Carvalho
beside highways and in areas not planted, typically at
et al., 2021; Guimarães et al., 2023). The syrup is exten-
heights around sea level. This fragrant plant may be repro-
sively manufactured and supplied under the public phyto-
duced by seeds or by splitting rooted stems. It thrives best
therapy program ‘Farmácias Vivas’. In Trinidad, a decoction
in well-­drained and moist soils. Pollination, which insects
treats coughs, chest colds, influenza, fever, and vomiting. A
like bees and butterflies most likely aid, plays a crucial role
traditional Jamaican cure for infantile colic and TB com-
in the plant’s seed production (Aoyama & Indriunas, 2015;
bines J. pectoralis and Cuscuta Americana with orange
Arteaga et al., 2019). These seeds are distributed through
and sugar.
many mechanisms, including wind and animals. Its remark-
able adaptation to various climatic circumstances and soil
types is shown in its capacity to flourish in disturbed regions 1.9 HALLUCINOGENIC EFFECTS
and beside road networks, highlighting its endurance in the
Hallucinogens are widely utilized in cultures that ascribe
face of human-­altered environments (Vieira et al., 2019;
positive connotations to the altered state of consciousness
Chaachouay et al., 2020a, 2020b).
they induce, such as providing access to the spiritual realm
(De Rios et al., 2002; Dupuis, 2022). The widespread use of
J. pectoralis-­based hallucinogenic snuffs in the Amazonian
1.8 ETHNOBOTANY
areas has been documented during the past century. The
J. pectoralis is a medicinal herb that has been traditionally bark resin of this plant was reported as one of the sources of
used for a significant period in South and Central America. these snuffs, and their uses are now well-­ established
J. pectoralis is often referred to as tilo in Latin America and (Schultes, 1969, Chaachouay & Zidane, 2021). The primary
Chambá5

benefit of J. pectoralis leaves is that they are used as an or thin-­layer chromatography demonstrated the existence of
ingredient in psychedelic snuffs made from the dried resin coumarins, flavonoids, steroids, triterpenoids, and alkaloids
of DMT-­containing plants from the Anadenanthera and (Guimarães et al., 2023; Vieira et al., 2019). Research
Virola genera. In certain regions along the Caribbean coast reports the presence of alkaloids in J. pectoralis at low lev-
of Central America, it is regarded as possessing aphrodisiac els, which may explain the plant’s hallucinogenic properties
qualities (Chanfrau et al., 2013). Before use, the whole plant and its use for this purpose by indigenous groups in South
is desiccated under sunlight and then pulverized into a fine America. Nevertheless, other writers deny the existence of
powder. Significantly, the powder demonstrates efficacy alkaloids and argue that using these substances in ritual
only when administered via the nasal membranes, such as preparations is only for enhancing the taste, attributed to
snuff, or when smoked in combination with Cannabis the delightful fragrance of coumarins (de Sousa Nunes
sativa. Justicia pectoralis var. stenophylla, a kind of plant et al., 2018). The aerial component of J. pectoralis was ana-
found in South America, is used for its ability to induce lyzed using chromatographic and spectrometric techniques,
psychedelic experiences or as an ingredient in ayahuasca resulting in the identification and characterization of many
(Banisteriopsis caapi). The plant contains tryptamines that compounds. These compounds include coumarin deriva-
have hallucinogenic properties. Tilo tea, known for its anti-­ tives such as 1,2-benzopyrone-­coumarin, dihydrocouma-
inflammatory and relaxing properties, is often available in rin, 7-hydroxydocumarine, and Umbelliferone (Carvalho
supermarkets (Brewer-­Carias & Steyermark, 1976; Lima et al., 2021; Fonseca et al., 2010; Roersch, 2018).
et al., 2020). Additionally, it has been documented that ortho-­
The desiccated leaves possess a fragrant perfume. hydroxytranscinnamic acetylated acid, ortho-­ hydroxy-­
Several indigenous groups in the Amazon area use these dihydro cinnamic acetylated acid, betaine, and justice in B
methods. The Waika or Yanomamö tribe uses J. pectoralis exist, as well as o-­methoxylated C-­glycosyl flavones includ-
leaves and Virola resin to produce a kind of snuff known as ing swertisin, 2-O-­rhamnosyl-­eswertisin, eswertiajaponin,
machohara. According to popular belief, alone, either of the and 2-O-­ ramnosileswertiajaponin. Also, derivatives of
two substances may be inhaled to produce slight hallucina- phenylpropionic acid were detected and characterized.
tions. However, when combined, the effects are enhanced, According to some publications, J. pectoralis is believed to
increasing the potency (Leal et al., 2017). It is possible that contain essential oils (Leal et al., 2017). Essential oils are
J. pectoralis was used as a powdered tobacco product in volatile substances that have a role in the distinct scent of
ancient Mexico. According to Shipibo, the plant stimulates plants. Essential oils typically consist of a combination of
the work ethic of individuals and enhances their chances of terpenes and terpenoids, but their specific composition may
success in fishing (Roersch, 2018). To get these advantages, vary. Another research indicates the existence of alkaloids
an individual must consume a concoction made from in small amounts in J. pectoralis, which likely explains the
the leaves. plant’s hallucinogenic properties and its use for this pur-
pose by indigenous tribes in South America (Arteaga et al.,
2019; de Oliveira et al., 2023). Nevertheless, other writers
1.10 PHYTOCHEMISTRY
deny the existence of alkaloids and argue that using these
Initial phytochemical investigations conducted on the substances in ritual preparations is only for enhancing the
J. pectoralis extract using general identification procedures taste, attributed to the delightful fragrance of coumarins.

TABLE 1.1
Phytochemicals Present in Different Parts of J. pectoralis
Chemical Compounds Sub Class References

Coumarins 1,2-benzopyrone-­coumarin, dihydro coumarin, 7-hydroxydocumarine, Carneiro et al. (2023), de Lima et al.
Umbelliferone, phenyl propionic acid, ortho-­hydroxytranscinnamic (2022), Leal et al. (2017), Lima et al.
acetylated acid, ortho-­hydroxy-­dihydro cinnamic acetylated acid, betaine, (2020), de Oliveira et al. (2023)
justicidin B, o-­methoxylated C-­glycosyl flavones, 2-O-­rhamnosyl-­eswertisin,
eswertiajaponin, 2-O-­ramnosileswertiajaponin
Flavonoids O-­methylated, 2′-Orhamnosylswertisin, 2′-O-­rhamnosylswertiajaponin, Guimarães et al. (2023), Vieira et al.
Swertisin, swertiajaponin, C-­glycosyl flavones, justicidin B (2019)
Other Compounds 2-methyl-­2-pentanol, 3-hexanol, 3-methyl-­3-pentanol, 3-hexanone, de Sousa Nunes et al. (2018), Locklear
2-hexanone, 2-hexanol, Cis (Z)-2-hexenal, Trans (E)-2-hexenal, Cis (2008), Vieira et al. (2019)
(Z)-3-hexenol, Cis (Z)-2-hexenol, Cyclohexanol, Heptanal, Benzaldehíde,
1-octen-­3-ol, 1-octen-­3-ona, 3-octanol, Octanal, Nonanal, Phytol, Undecanal,
Dodecanal, Ethyl decanoate, (E)-2-Decenal, Safranal, 2-Decanone,
Phenylacetaldehyde, Limonene, 2-Furfural, Benzaldehyde,
6 Comprehensive Guide to Hallucinogenic Plants

1.11 PHARMACOLOGY a reduction in the binding strength of estradiol and proges-

terone to their receptors in human breast cancer cells when
1.11.1 Anti-­Inflammatory Effects tested in a laboratory setting (Leal et al., 2017; Moura et al.,
In the formalin model of nociception in mice, the antinoci- 2017). Additionally, these extracts increased the activity of
ceptive effects of the hydroalcoholic extract derived from genes sensitive to estrogen in human osteoblastic osteosar-
J. pectoralis leaves and its isolated compounds were investi- coma cells (de Sousa Nunes et al., 2018). Furthermore, they
gated. It was observed that the opioid system does not play a were shown to suppress the activity of recombinant human
role in these effects, as the administration of naloxone, an COX-­2. These effects explain the conventional use of the
opioid antagonist, did not reverse the antinociceptive effects plant for alleviating symptoms associated with premen-
(Lino et al., 1997). Nevertheless, the administration of strual syndrome and menopause, as well as its anti-­
L-­arginine before therapy counteracted the impact of UMB, inflammatory properties. Recent research found that
indicating the involvement of the nitric oxide pathway in this administering the standardized dry extract effectively
phenomenon (Locklear et al., 2010). Furthermore, hydroal- reduced the development of stomach ulcers caused by etha-
coholic extract exhibited bronchodilation effects in the tra- nol (Carvalho et al., 2021).
chea of guinea pigs, supporting the traditional usage of
J. pectoralis in treating respiratory conditions, including 1.11.4 Anti-­Asthmatic Properties
bronchitis and asthma (Moura et al., 2017). A study assessed
the biological impact of hydroalcoholic extracts from cou- A research group recently assessed the anti-­asthmatic prop-
marin plants, commonly used in Brazil’s Northeast region to erties of the standardized hydroalcoholic extract of J. pec-
treat respiratory disorders (de Sousa Nunes et al., 2018). The toralis in rats exposed to ovalbumin (OVA), an experimental
researchers observed that when administered to rats at 200 model that mimics clinical asthma (Leal et al., 2017). The
and 400 mg/kg and 50 mg/kg (i.p.), the extracts exhibited section contains bioactive markers, specifically coumarin
antinociceptive and antidematogenic effects. Research has (1.5 mg/ml) and Umbelliferone (0.17 mg/ml). When admin-
shown that the standardized dry extract of J. pectoralis, with istered orally, the standardized extract decreased the hyper-­
concentrations of 8.84 mg/g (CM) and 1.27 mg/g (UMB), responsiveness in trachea preparations that were challenged
decreased paw edema generated by carrageenan by up to with OVA and stimulated with either potassium chloride) or
38% and capsaicin-­induced nociception in mice by 79.6% at acetylcholine. The observed effects on the airways of rats
doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg (Lino et al., 1997). may be attributed to the anti-­inflammatory properties of the
substance, as shown by its considerable inhibition of the
elevation of TNF-­ α and IL-­ 1β levels, which are pro-­
1.11.2 Antibacterial Effect inflammatory cytokines, in the bronchoalveolar lavage of
An investigation assessed the antibacterial efficacy of rats challenged with OVA (Moura et al., 2017). Furthermore,
medicinal herbs commonly used in Trinidad and other the J. pectoralis extract seems to modulate the gene expres-
Caribbean islands. The study discovered that the petro- sion of TRPC (canonical transient receptor potential) pro-
leum ether fraction derived from the aerial parts of J. pec- teins in the lung tissue of animals challenged with OVA. The
toralis var. stenophylla exhibited significant antibacterial TRPC channels are non-­selective and allow the passage of
effects against E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. epidermidis, Ca2+. They regulate many processes, including smooth
E. faecalis, and S. typhimurium (Guimarães et al., 2023; muscle activity, endothelial cell function, and cell cycle
de Oliveira et al., 2023). Furthermore, the ethyl acetate regulation (de Sousa Nunes et al., 2018).
fraction inhibited the growth of these microorganisms and
demonstrated inhibitory effects on S. aureus. The same 1.11.5 Effects on Central Nervous System
investigation showed that both fractions, when present at a
concentration of 0.5 mg/ml, have a toxic impact on stage The aqueous extract derived from the leaves of J. pectoralis
IV larvae of A. aegypti. This resulted in the death of the was shown to decrease aggressive behavior and exploratory
larvae after 2 and 9 days, respectively. In a separate inves- activity in rats when its impact on the central nervous sys-
tigation, an unstandardized aqueous extract of J. pectora- tem was assessed (Venâncio et al., 2011). It inhibited the
lis was shown to have no antibacterial effects at any of the stimulation caused by phencyclidine, an NMDA receptor
tested doses (25, 50, and 100 mg/ml) against E. coli and antagonist. Nevertheless, the plant was ineffective in stop-
K. pneumonia (Arteaga et al., 2011; de Sousa Nunes ping seizures induced by GABAergic antagonists (picro-
et al., 2018). toxin and pentilenotetrazole), unlike diazepam, which
exhibited neuroprotection (Chanfrau et al., 2013). This indi-
cates that the plant’s anxiolytic effects do not operate via a
1.11.3 Anxiolytic and Anti-­Asthmatic Effects
benzodiazepine-­mediated mechanism. In addition, it was
Studies have shown that J. pectoralis has anti-­inflammatory, shown that the intraperitoneal injection of the plant’s aque-
anxiolytic, and anti-­asthmatic actions and hormonal and ous extract could not counteract the effects of apomorphine,
gastroprotective properties. The methanolic extracts a dopaminergic agonist (Venâncioa et al., 2019). This indi-
derived from the aboveground sections of the plant caused cates a lack of antidopaminergic action comparable to
Chambá7

standard neuroleptics. A study group recently studied the forced expiratory volume in the first second (FEV1), forced
impact of coumarin, a critical active compound found in vital capacity (FVC), and maximum expiratory flow volume
J. pectoralis, on the central nervous system. Research pro- (MEFV) (Locklear et al., 2010). Furthermore, there was an
vided evidence of the sedative, anxiogenic, and depressant-­ evident improvement in sputum quality and a lack of any
like properties of coumarin. adverse reactions. A clinical trial involving 21 asthmatic
patients aged 6–12 years showed that administering J. pecto-
ralis syrup for two weeks improved symptoms and reduced
1.11.6 Antioxidant Properties obstruction in patients with intermittent, mild, or persistent
moderate asthma. This trial revealed that the herbal medi-
An investigation demonstrated the antioxidant properties of
cine has a bronchodilator effect (Carvalho et al., 2021;
J. pectoralis dry extract (at concentrations ranging from
Venâncio et al., 2011).
0.0138 to 2.97 mg/ml) in preventing lipid peroxidation in rat
In a double-­ masked placebo-­ controlled clinical trial,
brain homogenates (Arteaga et al., 2011; Cassola et al.,
researchers conducted a study to evaluate the therapeutic
2019; Chanfrau et al., 2013; Guimarães et al., 2023). In a
effects of a standardized syrup containing leaves of J. pec-
streptozotocin-­induced model of diabetes, rats exhibited
toralis, Plectranthus amboinicus, and Mentha arvenis. The
restored lipid peroxidation levels after the oral administra-
syrup, prepared by the Pharmacy School of the Federal
tion of Umbelliferone at a dosage of 30 mg/kg. This indi-
University of Ceará, was administered to 35 patients with
cates a potential impact on the β cells of the pancreas (de
mild asthma as a complementary therapy. The patients were
Oliveira et al., 2023).
instructed to take 20 ml of syrup thrice daily for 14 con-
secutive days. However, the study found that this treatment
1.11.7 Anticonvulsant Properties did not change lung test parameters, including FVC, FEV1,
FEV1/FVC ratio, and forced expiratory flow (FEF) between
An experiment showcased the anticonvulsant properties of
25 and 75% of FVC (Venâncioa et al., 2019). Nevertheless,
the SDEJP in mice, revealing its efficacy in countering sei-
there was a notable improvement in the quality of life, as
zures caused by picrotoxin, strychnine, electroshock, or
assessed by the outcomes derived from the standardized
pilocarpine (Carneiro et al., 2023). In seizures caused in the
Asthma Quality of Life Questionnaire – AQLQ(S), without
pilocarpine model, the levels of inhibitory amino acids
inducing any toxic or detrimental consequences. The dis-
(GABA, glycine, and taurine) were elevated. In contrast, the
parities in the therapeutic effectiveness of J. pectoralis
levels of excitatory amino acids (glutamate and aspartate)
syrup are likely due to many factors, such as variances in
were reduced (Leal et al., 2017). Neuroprotection was
the syrup’s composition (whether it contains just J. pectora-
detected in this research, as shown by decreased neuronal
lis or is combined with other species) and maybe inadequate
damage in the CA1 and CA3 regions of the hippocampus
analytical characterization of the herbal medication
(Locklear et al., 2010).
(Nascimento et al., 2021).

1.11.8 Smooth Muscle Effects 1.13 TOXICITY

An investigation conducted in the laboratory assessed the Preclinical assessment of the toxicity of natural products is
calming impact of a hydroalcoholic extract derived from crucial to substantiate their safety for subsequent clinical
the leaves of J. pectoralis, as well as coumarin and other investigations. An investigation found that the lethal dosage
coumarin plants (Pterodon polygaliflorus, Amburana cea- (LD50) of the non-­ standardized hydroalcoholic extract
renses, Eclipta alba, and Hybanthus ipacacuanha), on the derived from the leaves of J. pectoralis in rats was 3.0 ± 0.2
guinea-­pig trachea that had been contracted with carbachol g/kg. Nevertheless, the animals did not experience any fatal-
(Leal et al., 2017; Moura et al., 2017). The hydroalcoholic ities when the extract was delivered orally in a single dosage
extract elicited a relaxing effect that varied in intensity (de Oliveira et al., 2023). Administering a plant extract to
depending on the dose, with an EC50 value of 1.5 ± 0.18 rats at a dosage of 400 mg/kg daily for 30 days resulted in
mg/ml. This EC50 value is twice as high as that of CM changes in their blood composition and biochemistry. These
(0.08 ± 0.01 mg/ml), which is one of the active compounds changes included an elevation in hematocrit and alkaline
found in the plant (Locklear, 2008). phosphatase levels and a decrease in hemoglobin concentra-
tion. This investigation demonstrated that the oral adminis-
tration of a non-­ standard hydroalcoholic extract of
1.12 CLINICAL EFFECTS
J. pectoralis at a single dosage of 2 g/kg did not result in any
A pilot clinical trial investigated the effects of administering deaths or anatomopathological changes (Lagarto et al.,
J. pectoralis and Plectranthus amboinicus syrup to patients 2009). The extract is categorized as non-­toxic according to
with mild or moderate asthma. The trial included 37 partici- the Global Harmonized System of Classification and
pants given a 5 ml syrup dose thrice daily for two consecu- Labeling of Chemicals. Another investigation assessed the
tive weeks. The results showed a reduction in airway harmfulness of the unconventional hydroalcoholic extract
obstruction, as assessed by respiratory parameters, including from J. pectoralis on Artemia salina L. It established its
8 Comprehensive Guide to Hallucinogenic Plants

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Coral Tree (Erythrina americana Mill. Fabaceae)

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Snoutbean (Rhynchosia pyramidalis (Lam.) Urb. Fabaceae)

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Agara (Galbulimima belgraveana (F. Muell.) Sprague Himantandraceae)

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Inebriating Mint (Lagochilus inebrians Bunge Lamiaceae)

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Diviner's Sage (Salvia divinorum Epling & Játiva Lamiaceae)

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Mandrake (Mandragora officinarum L. Solanaceae)

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Cultivated Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L. Cannabaceae)

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