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POL3701 Study guide

Law of Property (University of South Africa)

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Crime Prevention Principles

for Policing IIIA

Only Study Guide for

Only Study Guide for

POL3702
POL3701

university
of south africa

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Crime Prevention Principles

for Policing IIIA

Only Study Guide for

POL3701
Department of Police Practice
University of South Africa
Pretoria

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© 2021 University of South Africa

All rights reserved

Printed and published by the

University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria

POL3701/1/2022–2026

10020632

InDesign, Florida Campus

A4_Icon_Style

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Contents

Page

PREFACE: ORIENTATION TO THE STUDY GUIDE vii

STUDY UNIT 1: Contemporary policing in African context 1

1. AIM AND LEARNING OUTCOMES 1

2. INTRODUCTION 1
3. REGIONAL POLITICAL CONTEXT 2
4. POLICING CONFLICT AND POST-CONFLICT ERAS 2
5. SELECTED ISSUES ON POLICING AFRICAN COUNTRIES 7
SUMMARY 11
LEARNING ACTIVITY 13
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 13

STUDY UNIT 2: Problem-oriented models for crime prevention 14

1. AIM AND LEARNING OUTCOMES 14

2. INTRODUCTION 14
3. POLICING PROBLEMS 26
4. CRIME IN THE COMMUNITY 17
5. COMMUNITY WORK PROCESS (CWP) MODEL: AN OVERVIEW 19
6. CWP MODEL: A DISCUSSION 21
7. SCANNING, ANALYSIS, RESPONSE AND ASSESSMENT (SARA) 23
8. SARA MODEL: A DISCUSSION 24
SUMMARY 27
LEARNING ACTIVITY 28
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 30

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Page

STUDY UNIT 3: Crime analysis 31

1. AIM AND LEARNING OUTCOMES 31

2. INTRODUCTION 31
3. RELEVANCE OF INFORMATION TO CRIME PREVENTION 33
4. ANALYSIS OF INFORMATION 35
5. STRATEGIC ANALYSIS: METHODS OF COLLECTION INFORMATION 37
6. OPERATIONAL ANALYSIS: METHODS OF COLLECTING INFORMATION 39
7. THE CRIME THREAT ANALYSIS (CTA) PROCESS 41
8. COMPILING AN OFFENDER PROFILE 44
9. THE ROLE OF STATISTICS 45
10. WAYS OF DISPLAYING DATA 47
11. PRIORITISING PROBLEMS AND PLANNING A RESPONSE 48
12. DESIGNING AN IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY 50
13. EVALUATING THE CRIME PREVENTION PLAN 50
14. CRIME PREVENTION PLAN CHECKLIST 51
SUMMARY 52
LEARNING ACTIVITY 53
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 55

STUDY UNIT 4: Community and stakeholder dynamics 56

1. AIM AND LEARNING OUTCOMES 56

2. INTRODUCTION 56
3. UNDERSTANDING COMMUNITY AND STAKEHOLDER DYNAMICS 57
4. COMMUNITY NETWORKS 58
5. FORMAL AND INFORMAL NETWORKS 58
6. ISSUE AND LIBERATED NETWORKS 59
7. POLICING AND NETWORKING 60
8. THE COMMUNITY PROFILE: AN OVERVIEW 61
9. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COMMUNITY 63
10. SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COMMUNITY 64
11. CRIME ANALYSIS 66
12. ESTABLISHING NETWORKS: SKILLS REQUIRED 68

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Page
SUMMARY 71
LEARNING ACTIVITY 71
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 72

APPENDICES
A: MULTILINGUAL GLOSSARY TERMS 73
B: ACRONYMS 79
BIBLIOGRAPHY 80

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Preface: Orientation to the study guide

Welcome
Kamogelo
uLwamkelo
uKwemukela
We are pleased to welcome you to this module, Crime Prevention Principles
for Policing 111A. We trust that you will find this module interesting and
rewarding. Crime Prevention Principles for Policing 111A is one of the final
modules in your qualification.
Remember, it is your responsibility to integrate the knowledge you gain into
your own law enforcement environment by means of dynamic application
and critical thinking.

Why should you study Crime Prevention Principles for Policing 111A?
In pre-colonial Africa, as elsewhere in the world, there were conflicts. Nations
rather than states did not have conventional policing organisations as we
know them today. Conflict, almost invariably, is precipitated by political
ideologies and economic control. In limited cases, religions and ethnic and
race discrimination have been the cause of conflict. In pre-colonial times,
migration by the defeated group was the main method of ending conflict.
Sometimes, defeated nations, a group within a nation or tribes, simply
subordinated themselves to the victorious leader or group.
Policing in Africa has been influenced by colonialism that took root in the
19th and 20th centuries. Economic, political and cultural domination meant
that the practice of law and law enforcement could no longer be along the
lines of customary law and traditional leadership as has been historically
prevalent since the pre-colonial era. Governments are the primary providers
of public safety and security. Whether they enjoy public support and have
been formed after credible regular elections, their success in safety and
security provisioning is always a contested face. This raises tensions for both
political leadership and senior political leadership who, in many respects,
are political appointees. For successes in at least managing public opinion
about crime preventive issues, political legitimacy is a prerequisite. Citizens
always accept that those who commit crime are not agents of the state. But
for the state to be generally trusted, the formulation of legislation policy,
police strategies and the selection of new police officials should all follow
transparent processes.

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viii

Public participation in the development of legislation and policy ensures

confidence in the choice of policing strategies and practices. In contemporary
times, Africa’s state provision of law and order is largely premised on Western
dimensions of policing. In the African continent, the political histories,
cultural practices, economic marginalisation and other influences determine,
for example, who victims of specific types of crime are. To the extent that
the state apparatus can command human and material resources to deal
with the scourge of crime, many challenges remain. The glaring problem of
resources problematises the effective and efficient implementation of crime
prevention strategies. African countries have unique challenges regarding
policing in general and with crime prevention.
In the countries with democratically elected governments, law enforcement
departments carry enormous responsibility for protecting human life.
This duty needs to be carried out with accountability, especially with the
increasing awareness of the importance of upholding human rights. It follows
then that the law enforcement departments meticulously follow the various
laws, public policy and fundamental policing principles and other directives
that require that they honour their responsibility towards communities and
the values of the diverse communities.
As you well know, policing is a dynamic field of study in the sense that law
enforcement officials constantly must adapt to a wide range of environmental
influences. These influences demand that you, as a law enforcement official,
should adapt (situations will differ) your style of policing, depending on the
diverse African community you serve to a more situational crime prevention
approach.
Community members should be treated with respect and dignity. They need
to have trust in the trained officials.
We developed this course using an outcomes-based approach. This means
that the content and activities are specially designed to enable you to
strive to be a competent law enforcement official. We will not expect you
to memorise information only, but rather to engage actively in the unit and
apply what you learn in your work environment to your studies.

PURPOSE
The purpose of this module is to equip students with knowledge, skills
and to practically apply the theory and principles of crime prevention at an
intermediate to advanced level. The module will equip students with the
skills to understand crime prevention in the African context, problem-solving
in crime prevention, crime analysis, community and stakeholder dynamics
and partnership policing.
The module will enable law enforcement officials to practise the principles of
Africanisation, ubuntu, humanising policing practice and social responsibility
within the communities that they serve.
Content of the Crime Prevention Principles for Policing 111A syllabus

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MODULE OUTCOMES
After completing this module, you should be able to:
identify and explain the selected African organisations
explain problem-solving in crime prevention
explain crime analysis for crime prevention
explain the community and stakeholder dynamics in crime prevention

INTRODUCTION
Well done for progressing to Crime Prevention Principles for Policing
111A, which consists of two modules.

MODULE A (POL3701) COVERS THE FOLLOWING:

Study unit 1: Contemporary policing in African contexts

This study unit covers the organisation of selected police services and
challenges of crime prevention in selected African countries. It orientates
you to policing perspectives beyond South Africa. It serves as an introduction
to a broader study of policing in the rest of Africa.

Study unit 2: Problem-oriented models for crime prevention

This study unit focuses on the application of problem-solving models for
crime prevention. The first model is the scanning, analysis, response and
assessment (SARA) model. Its phases and application in varied crime
prevention contexts are explained and discussed. The second model is
the community work process (CWP) model. Its phases and application in varied
crime prevention contexts are explained and discussed. The significance of
problem-solving in policing environments and the role of the community
are explained.

Study unit 3: Crime analysis

This study unit examines the significance of information in relation to crime
prevention. The concept of information-driven crime prevention is explained.
The various methods of collecting information for strategic and operational
analysis are discussed. The role of crime statistics in crime prevention is
explained.

Study unit 4: Community and stakeholder dynamics

This study unit deals with networking as an important tool for community
and stakeholder engagement in crime prevention. The importance of networks
in policing environments is discussed. A community profile is compiled, and
its importance is explained.

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MODULE B (POL3702) covers the following:

Study unit 1: Police media liaison in South Africa

This study unit covers the practice and limitations of police media liaison in
South Africa. The use of the media in promoting crime prevention awareness
is discussed as a way of enhancing proactive policing. The role of police media
liaison in community mobilisation both for policy formulation and operational
crime prevention is discussed. The different ways of communicating through
the media are explained.

Study unit 2: Evaluation at police stations

This study unit focuses on understanding the reasons for maintaining
standards in all the routine work of policing agencies in line with national
guidelines. Drawing from the South African experience in the main, it
develops practice-oriented skills in conducting evaluations at police stations.
For purposes of functionality in crime prevention and for promotion of
accountability, it focuses on the following:
human, physical and financial resources at a station
specific sections of policing agencies to enhance crime prevention, namely:
— visible policing (all officers wearing a uniform)
— detective services
— intelligence services
— other specialist units
— support services

Study unit 3: Innovative approaches in crime prevention

This study unit focuses on innovative approaches to crime prevention. The
characteristics of an entrepreneur and those of an entrepreneurial organisation
in the context of crime prevention are explained. Because police agencies
function in an environment of limited resources, obstacles to innovation in
policing are discussed.

Both modules
For the purposes of both modules, we will use the term “law enforcement
officer” – referring to any government (public-sector) employee whose
duties involve the enforcement of laws. This may include officials attached
to police, traffic, prisons, customs, immigration and home affairs, or any
official who has been granted powers to enforce specific laws.
We use examples from the South African Police Department’s policies and
principles. It is of the utmost importance to remember that the principles
taught in these modules should be used within the policy and legislative
scope of your own particular law enforcement department or organisation
and, most importantly, within the constitutional framework.

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Best wishes
We wish you every success in your studies. As a distance learner, you may
sometimes feel alone, but remember that there are other learners who feel
the same. Speak to your colleagues or a friend and discuss the new issues
that you come across in your studies. You could also find out if there are
other learners doing the same module as you and perhaps form a study
and/or WhatsApp group. Remember that this study guide teaches the steps
towards becoming an effective law enforcement official, and you should be
proud of yourself for trying to excel in your work environment.

Learning outcomes
At the beginning of each unit, you will find learning outcomes that provide
information on the knowledge, skills and attitudes you should acquire while
studying the specific unit.

Icons
Throughout this study guide, you will find icons in the margin alongside the
text. Their aim is to focus your attention on important aspects as follows:

ICON MEANING

Example
This icon indicates that an example of the issue under
discussion is being given to help you understand the
content by linking it with real-life situations.

Definition
This icon indicates the clarification of a word or concept.

Activity
This icon indicates that you must engage in a learning
activity. These activities may require you to answer
questions, consult with your colleagues in your work
environment, find information in a library or in newspapers
and/or write reports.

Feedback
Feedback to learning activities.

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xii

ICON MEANING

Learning outcomes
The learning outcomes indicate what aspects of the
particular study unit you have to master and demonstrate
your mastery.

Take note
This icon indicates information that you should take special
notice of.

Reflection
This icon indicates something for you to think about,
sometimes with reference to your own experience.

Self-evaluation questions
This icon indicates that you must answer some questions
on the content of the unit and assess your answers yourself.

Website link
The website icon will refer you to a website link with
additional relevant and interesting information about a
certain topic.

Please note the following basics concerning POL3701 and POL3702:

Read through the relevant study materials (especially Tutorial Letter 101)
and familiarise yourself with the processes and procedures at Unisa and
with this module.
Your studies should commence the moment you receive your study material.
Make time for your studies continuously throughout the semester and
keep to a study plan.
Register and access your personal student e-mail address (myLife account).
Important notifications are forwarded to this e-mail address only.

Should you encounter any difficulties with the content of this module, please
do not hesitate to contact us via e-mail on the contact details provided in
Tutorial Letter 101 and on myUnisa.

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xiii POL3701/1

IMPORTANT
Visit myUnisa regularly, as important information will be communicated
to you via announcements throughout the semester.
We consider your completion of the activities in the study guide and the
assignments as crucial to your successful completion of this module. In
each section of the study guide you have activities. We advise you to work
through these questions diligently since they provide extremely useful
opportunities to prepare yourself for possible assignment questions.
Self-assessment plays a very important role in the mastery of learning
outcomes, and you should therefore complete the self-assessment activities.
Assignments for this module will be provided in a series of tutorial letters.
The completion of assignments is crucial in helping you achieve the learning
outcomes. The assignment questions also give you the opportunity to
apply the theory to a case study or a practical situation related to your own
workplace. Below is an elaboration on how to approach a case study or a
scenario.

How to approach a case study

Read through the case study without trying to analyse it in any way.
Read through the questions asked on the case study.
Make sure that you understand the theoretical basis for each question.
You cannot look for a solution before you are completely sure what the
question is about.
Read through the case study again and remember the contents of the
questions.
Start working through the case study and identify the specific information
you need to answer each question.
Integrate the theory with the information from the case study by indicating
how the theory has or has not been applied.
Draw your own conclusions.

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xiv

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1 POL3701/1

3 STUDY UNIT 1

Contemporary policing in African contexts

Time required for study unit 1

This study unit will require approximately three (3) hours.

1. AIM AND LEARNING OUTCOMES

Aim of this unit
This study unit covers the organisation of selected police services and
challenges of crime prevention in selected African countries. It orientates
you to policing perspectives beyond South Africa. It serves as an introduction
to a broader study of policing in the rest of Africa. Please note that this is
only a brief overview.

Learning outcomes
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
discuss selected aspects of policing in Africa
discuss the policing of conflict and post-conflict countries
write a brief overview of the organisation of the Ghana Police Service
write a brief overview of planning in the Royal Swazi Police Service
discuss the profile profit ration of firearms in South Africa

2. INTRODUCTION
In countries with democratically elected governments, police departments
carry enormous responsibility for protecting human life. This duty needs to
be carried out with accountability, especially with the increasing awareness
of the importance of upholding human rights. It follows, then, that the police
should meticulously follow the law and other directives that require that they
honour their responsibility towards citizens and the values of their societies.
The incidence of crime, including crime causation, victimisation and
perpetration, as well as the dimensions of crime prevention, is in its entirety
influenced by the contours of human interaction that manifest themselves
in each society. This is vastly different from one society to the next. Even
in the African continent, the political histories, cultural practices, economic
marginalisation and other influences determine, for example, who victims

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of specific types of crime are. To the extent that the state apparatus
can command human and material resources to deal with the scourge of
crime, many challenges remain. The glaring problem of resources problematises
the effective and efficient implementation of crime preventive strategies.

3. REGIONAL POLITICAL CONTEXT

Policing in Africa has been influenced by colonialism that took root in the 19th
and 20th centuries. Even at the time of independence starting with Ghana
in 1957, economic, political and cultural domination meant that the practice
of law and law enforcement could no longer be along the lines of customary
law and traditional leadership as has been historically prevalent since the
pre-colonial era.
Governments are the primary providers of public safety and security. Whether
they enjoy public support and have been formed after credible regular
elections, their success in safety and security provisioning is always a contested
fact. Their claimed successes are often disputed not only by political opponents
but by victims of crimes and society at large. This raises tensions for both
political leadership and senior political leadership who, in many respects,
are political appointees.
For successes in at least managing public opinion about crime preventive
issues, political legitimacy is a prerequisite. Citizens always accept that those
who commit crime are not agents of the state. But for the state to be generally
trusted, the formulation of legislation policy and police strategies and the
selection of new police officials should all follow transparent processes. Public
participation in the development of legislation and policy ensures confidence
in the choice of policing strategies and practices.

4. POLICING CONFLICT AND POST-CONFLICT ERAS

In pre-colonial Africa, as elsewhere in the world, there were conflicts.
Nations rather than states did not have conventional policing organisations as
we know them today. Conflict, almost invariably, is precipitated by political
ideologies and economic control. In limited cases, religions and ethnic
and race discrimination have been the cause of conflict. In pre-colonial
times, migration by the defeated group was the main method of ending
conflict. Sometimes, defeated nations, a group within a nation or tribes, simply
subordinated themselves to the victorious leader or group.
Communities in countries across Africa are becoming more and more
aware of their right to be both served and protected. This growing interest
is demonstrated in citizens’ opposition to oppression and authoritarian
dictatorship across the African continent. The overthrow of the Libyan,
Egyptian and Tunisian governments in 2011, ongoing major protests in
Sudan, major protests in Algeria and Lebanon in 2010 and protests in
Morocco and Western Sahara in 2011 illustrate citizens’ consciousness of
their rights. As such, changes occur; they also raise serious questions about
the role of police organisations and their responsibility towards citizens.

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In contemporary times, Africa’s state provision of law and order is largely

premised on Western dimensions of policing. Commenting on African
policing dimensions, Baker (2010:XI) notes that, “primarily [Africans] do
not look to the state for either protection or response, but to a whole range
of non-state actors”.
This study unit covers selected police services and challenges of crime
prevention in selected African countries that can be found in figure 1.1
depicting the countries on the African continent. It orientates the student
to policing perspectives beyond South Africa. It serves as an introduction
to a broader study of policing in the rest of Africa. Please note that this is
only a brief overview.

Figure 1.1
Map of Africa
Baker (2010:3–4) lists the conflicts that have engulfed Africa in table 1.1
and table 1.2 below:

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TABLE 1.1
Recent conflicts in Africa

Country Type/cause Year

Angola Cabinda secessionists 1975 ff

DRC Congo War 1998 ff

Côte d’Ivoire/Ivory Coast Civil War 2002 ff

Namibia Caprivi Strip secessionist 1966 ff

Somalia Insurgency 1991 ff

Sudan (Darfur) Insurgency 1983 ff

Chad Insurgency 2008 ff

Kenya/Uganda Armed pastoralist conflict 1980s ff

Niger/Mali Tuareg rebellion 2007 ff

ff = & following

TABLE 1.2
Main conflicts since 1980 in Africa

Country Type/cause Year

Angola Civil war 1975–1992

Angola Civil war 1992–2002

Burundi Ethnic strife 1990–1994

Burundi Civil conflict 1993–2005

Central African Republic Civil war 1990s

Comoros Coups 1980s and 1990s

Comoros (Anjouan) Secession 1997–2008

Congo (Brazzaville) Civil conflict 1997–1999

DRC Kabila rebellion 1996–1997

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Country Type/cause Year

Eritrea Independence war 1958–1991

Ethiopia Civil war 1978–1991

Ethiopia Second war with 1998–1999

Somalia

Ethiopia Eritrea war 1998–2000

Guinea Mano River war 2000–2001

Guinea-Bissau Civil war 1998–1999

Liberia Civil war 1999–2003

Liberia Civil war 1989–1997

Madagascar Civil violence 1975–1992

Mozambique Civil war 1970s–1992

Namibia Independence war 1966–1990

Niger/Mali Tuareg rebellion 1990–1995

Rwanda Civil war and genocide 1991–1996

Senegal Casamance rebellion 1982–2004

Sierra Leone Civil war 1990–2002

Somalia Period of terror 1986–1990

South Africa Civil conflict 1985–1994

Southern Sudan Second civil war 1983–2004

Uganda Civil war 1980–1985

Northern Uganda LRA rebellion 1980–2008

An understanding of the parties participating actively in a conflict is

important for designing policing strategies. The oil-rich Niger Delta in
Nigeria has been widely reported on by the media and scholars (Sampson
2009; Baker 2010). At the time of writing, Sampson (2009:32), appropriately
attached to the African Centre for Strategic Research and Studies in the
National Defence College, Nigeria, poses the important question about the

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Niger Delta militancy. Is it “terrorism, liberation struggle or criminality?”

Having elaborated on the boundaries between “legitimate dissidence, freedom
fighting and terrorist activity”, Sampson argues that the Niger Delta militants
are not terrorists but liberation fighters. It is common knowledge too that
when liberation movements fought for political freedom on behalf of majority
populations in the many parts of Africa, they were labelled terrorists by minority
white governments and their supporters in the West. Baker (2010:5) notes
that conflict in African contexts has been between states, between states
and rebels, between rebel groups or with and between criminal groups. The
sophisticated military nature of a number of conflicts sometimes escalates
these beyond the operational scope of the police. As a result, defence forces
are required to step in. Policing conflict, even when it is just protecting
civilians, is complex. Sometimes, the communities that are affected have
divided loyalties, intelligence gathering, and consultation becomes difficult
with fewer residents willing to share information with the police.
Other crimes that are not directly linked to the conflict are usually ignored,
both with regard to prevention and detection. In the South African experience
during apartheid, the old South African Police Department was the most
resourced component. What this showed was that the political leadership of
the time saw it as a priority that the political conflict be policed.
Policing of a post-conflict society is an integral process of peacebuilding.
Various interventions by international organisations such as the United
Nations as well as regional organisations have played an important role
in ensuring police reform and professionalism once the conflict has been
managed successfully. In a post-conflict society, the key foundation is
legislation and clear regulation of the police service. This can only be achieved
if there is enough popular support for the political process that ushered
in the post-conflict era. Police reform has been an important element of
ensuring continued peace in countries like South Africa and the Democratic
Republic of Congo, for example. Progressive police reform has enhanced the
process of democratisation. The latter is reliant on human rights advocacy
which nations, modern states and leading figures in contemporary politics
have promoted. Lawrence (2004) notes that human rights help “secure
peace, promote the rule of law, combat crime and corruption”, among other
things. Under post-conflict regimes, the foremost important provision that
must be sought in legislation is one that severely limits and regulates the
use of police powers.
The nature of police work, the world over, requires extraordinary powers of
arrest, seizure, detention and playing a leading role in prosecuting those
accused of crime. Most conflicts are associated with police brutality, especially
those in which the state is the sponsor of violence, in one form or the other. Until
the formation of a government of national unity in Zimbabwe, citizens of that
country had, by many accounts, lived under a police state. It is important to
note that the era of President Robert Mugabe’s rule has been post the colonial
conflict. Over time, laws became draconian resulting in undue detentions
and arrests. Limiting and strictly regulating police discretion in post-conflict
societies is an important step towards reducing levels of police misconduct
at the organisational, leadership and line functionary levels.

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Owusu-Sekyere (2009:19) argues that the post-conflict management period

requires Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast) to institute peace-building mechanisms
such as democratic institutions and national reconstruction programmes to
ensure a sustainable peace. This example illustrates the point made above. As
noted, the state police form an important part of these democratic instructions.
Thus, there is a delicate balance that must be maintained throughout to help
the reconciliation process. Owusu-Sekyere (2009:23) points to the increased
crime in Côte d’Ivoire through small arms proliferation. He proposes the
enforcement of the ECOWAS Convention on Small Arms and Light Weapons
and the curtailment of local manufacture of arms in all post-conflict states.
Member states agree to control, regulate and/or prohibit the transfer,
manufacturing and possession of small arms and light weapons, thus, to
maintain sub-regional security.
The regional grouping, the Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS) has acknowledged the regional effects of national conflict and
instability, and in the 1990s expanded its focus from economic cooperation
to encompass security and stability. The ECOWAS’s engagement with
SSR has developed as part of a broader agenda to improve the state of
conflict prevention and governance efforts in the region. In 2001, the
ECOWAS adopted the Protocol on Democracy and Good Governance,
which supplemented the Mechanism. The ECOWAS Conflict Prevention
Framework (ECPF) was enacted in 2008 and includes a security sector
governance component (Liar 2009:16).

5. SELECTED ISSUES ON POLICING AFRICAN COUNTRIES

Ghana: The multi-layered organisation of the Ghana Police Service

(GPS)
Ghana is a politically stable country in which democratic elections are
held regularly with the parties respecting the outcomes of elections. This
phenomenon, against the backdrop of violent political contestation in other
parts of Africa, has made Ghana an attractive country for investors and
researchers over the years.
Ghana, often viewed as an African success story, was the first country in
sub-Saharan Africa to achieve independence. However, nine years later
in 1966, a coup initiated many years of military rule. The first successive
democratic handover of power in free and fair elections occurred only
relatively recently in Ghana.
The challenge for politically progressive countries is to provide safety and
security for its citizens among other social needs. The GPS is headed by
the inspector general of police, who is assisted by two deputies. Under
the latter are 14 deputy generals of police with a further fragmented and
bloated police service, the organisation of which increases bureaucracy and
not efficiencies. There has been an attempt at various times in history to
reorganise the GPS or parts thereof without long-term goals.

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During the years of political instability and military rule, police officers
found themselves involved in politics in matter of policing. The government
and civil society should now word together to create a democratic and
transparent police service (Bakrania 2010:10).

Nigeria
Nigeria has been under military rule for most of its history since gaining
independence from Britain in 1960. Elections in 1999 led to the first civilian
government in 15 years, but Nigeria continues to have serious governance
problems. In 2007, the first transition between elected civilian leaders was
marred by vote-rigging in what international observers condemned as a
heavily rigged election.
Nigeria is the largest country in the region. Its territory incorporates over 250
ethnic groups as well as a Muslim-dominated North and a broadly Christian
South. The increasing politicisation of ethnicity and religion throughout the
post-colonial period was a factor in the three-year Biafran civil war of 1967
that led to more than a million deaths. There has been no conflict of that
scale since then, but a myriad of smaller ethnic and religious conflicts has
broken out across the country. In addition, there is an ongoing insurgency
in the Niger Delta area. Late 2008 saw some of the Delta’s bloodiest fighting
between government forces and Delta militants, with instability spreading
across Nigeria’s borders.
In addition, Nigeria faces a long list of security challenges, including: the
proliferation of political, criminal, religious, communal and resource conflicts;
poor detection of early warning signals and poor conflict management;
the lack of effective and accountable policing; and limited parliamentary
oversight.
Nigeria is the region’s main power economically and militarily and it views
itself as such. For example, Nigerian forces have composed the largest part
of recent regional interventions in the conflicts of Sierra Leone and Liberia.
Yet, despite its strength, its security sectors enquire substantial attention.
A key task of security sector reform in Nigeria has been to ensure that the
military observe the supremacy of civilian institutions. However, difficulties
with political system and the legacy of military rule mean that civilian
oversight is still embryonic. Further crucial challenges include dealing with
endemic police corruption, incompetence and the crisis of public security.
Nigeria’s police are brutal and corrupt despite recent reform plans. Does
this mean that reforms do not raise policing standards and practices, even
in a relatively democratic environment like Nigeria? The research from the
University of Leeds has been analysing developments in the Nigerian Police
since 2005. It argues that reform can change organisational structures
and regulations but, without socio-political change, its effects tend to be
superficial, localised and temporary. Rather than being incremental, police
reforms follow a dialectical process where reform and resistance interact
(Bakrania 2010:18).

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Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone gained independence from Britain in 1961, but this was followed
by 30 years of one-party and military rule, during which the emphasis of the
security forces was on regime rather than state or human security. Economic
and political development stalled and this, combined with competition for
control of Sierra Leone’s lucrative mineral resources, the manipulation of
ethnic groups and the support of Charles Taylor in neighbouring Liberia,
resulted in an uprising led by Foday Sankoh’s Revolutionary United Front
(RUF) in 1991. Civil war, characterised by widespread human rights’ abuses
and collusion between ostensibly opposing military sides, continued for 11
years.
A peace accord signed in Lomé in 1999 quickly collapsed and the RUF took
several hundred UN peacekeepers as hostages. British troops intervened
and the security situation improved to the extent that an end to the conflict
was proclaimed in January 2002. President Ahmad Kabbah was re-elected
in the same year and was succeeded in 2007 by Ernest Bai Koroma. The
demand for better security is being satisfied by non-state providers (Bakrania
2010:21).

Côte d’Ivoire
Côte d’Ivoire (the Ivory Coast) was once a model of stability but has since
experienced two coups d’état and a civil war, which divided the country
between the rebel-held North and the government controlled South. Today,
what little is left of the security and defence forces defend the incumbent
regime rather than the country. Furthermore, parliamentary oversight is
almost non-existent, and primacy is given to the President.
Information on SSR and related matter in Côte d’Ivoire is not abundant,
but this topic guide will be updated as new information becomes available.
Disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) processes following
recent upheavals have stalled and the prospects for reform remains bleak.
There is a pressing need to restructure the form and content of the country’s
security system. However, these reforms are dependent on a desire for
democratic change within the country and the creation of peace in the
country and the wider sub-region (Bakrania 2010:28).

Senegal
Senegal is considered a model African democracy but is affected by widespread
poverty – a fact confirmed by its lowly Human Development Index ranking
of 166 out of a total of 182 countries. Since 1982, Senegal has experienced a
separatist rebellion in the Zinguinchor region. Although a peace agreement
was ratified in 2004, it has been overshadowed by dissention amongst rebel
factions. Attempted reforms of the security sector have not had any bearing
on concentration of power that the President and the executive wield.

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The Senegal’s security forces must become more effective and better
resourced within a framework of democratic security sector governance. In
addition, regional solutions are needed to security challenges, such as small
arms availability, trafficking and peacekeeping. A participatory approach to
security, which involves civil society and considers the security of individuals
as well as of the state, is essential. There is also an urgent need to establish
neighbourhood police services (Bakrania 2010:31).

Guinea-Bissau
Guinea-Bissau is in desperate need of change in order to overcome its
vulnerable and unstable status at all levels: social, economic and political.
Its problems are embedded both in the legacy of the Portuguese and also of
its post-independence leaders, whose interest did not lie with the people or
the state but with their own individual concerns. Given the dominance of
the military in politics and its involvement in the recent unstable security
sector, reform is one area where change is vital.
A recent threat is that posed by the cocaine trade, as Guinea-Bissau has
become a key staging post on the trafficking route from South America into
Europe. Its security forces are unable to deal with this challenge and are
often themselves complicit in the trade. The international community, and
the EU in particular, has recently recognised the importance of reforming
the security sector and improving the economic and political situation
within the country.
Guinea-Bissau is highlighted as the country that has become one of the
major trans-shipment routes between South America and Europe. Drug
trafficking is beginning to undermine the burgeoning democratisation of
West African nations, feeding organised crime and threatening the rule of
law (Bakrania 2010:34).

Swaziland: Planning in the Royal Eswatini Police Service (REPS)

The REPS is a small organisation in line with the size of the population of
Swaziland. Its organisational structure, like many police services in the
post-colonial era, roughly reflects that of Britain. It is challenged by emerging
crime trends that are not traditionally associable with its population.
Swaziland is, by many accounts, a deeply conservative country which is
among the few in the world in which an absolute monarch is the head of
government.
Swaziland is a democratic kingdom, which currently practises a non-party
state democracy. The Royal Eswatini Police Service Act 22 of 2018 mandates
the police service to (REPS 2018:7):
maintain peace and public tranquillity
protect life and property
prevent, investigate and detect crime
execute all lawful order
bring offenders to justice

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The REPS takes a strategic view of developments that impact on its operations.

South Africa: The problem of the proliferation of firearms

The proliferation of firearms in South Africa is best illustrated by the rate of
violent crime in which firearms have been used. The roots of the gun craze
in South Africa are historically linked to the danger of terrorism that citizens
were warned about during apartheid. Considering that young men were
sent for military conscription and objectors persecuted, gun culture deepened
in the minds of South Africans. The armed struggle against apartheid also
contributed a lesser share of guns into society.
Provisions that restricted firearm ownership and provided for strict
enforcement have not been adequately applied in the repealed Arms and
Ammunition Act, 75 of 1969, and the new Firearm Control Act, 60 of
2000. All this coupled with general high levels of crime, both from a victim
and perpetrator perspective, predispose the South African society to a gun
mentality. Suddenly, large sections of the population believe that owning a
gun would improve one’s level of security.
The current situation in South Africa when analysing the crime statistics
since 2018 shows a bleak picture of crime prevention and it is as if the police
department cannot render a quality service towards all the communities.
Focused strategies and a willingness from all leaders are needed to have a
turnaround on crime prevention.

SUMMARY
From the above brief discussion, African countries have unique challenges
regarding policing in general and crime prevention in particular. Security
sector reform (SSR) is no longer a new agenda; it is necessary to reflect on
shortcomings and to identify innovations in the approach and its application.
While the results of reform efforts may be judged underwhelming, the fault
may lie less with the results themselves than the analytical tools at our
disposal for understanding and interpreting them.
While no one would claim that Africa’s nations no longer suffer the
dysfunctions that first made SSR relevant to the region, it would also be a
mistake to claim that no progress has been made. Instead, an analysis based
on a revaluation of what matters in SSR and what it looks like in practice
yields a distinctly more nuanced picture. This collection of local narratives
has sought to provide such a perspective through the lens of six unique
moments in long and uncertain trajectories of change.
Good governance of all aspects of public service delivery is a cross-cutting
theme of the post-2015 agenda for developments. Through emphasising
the need to build peaceful inclusive societies based on access to justice
and effective, accountable institutions, the framework of the Sustainable
Development Goals offers an important opportunity to promote a holistic
SSR approach. It will depend on collectively maintaining a commitment to
good governance, human rights and democracy.

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Unisa is a signatory of the relevant United Nations Global Compact (UNGC)

principles.
The Ten Principles of the UN Global Compact
https://www.unglobalcompact.org/what-is-gc/mission/principles
Corporate sustainability starts with a company’s value system and a principle-
based approach to doing business. This means operating in ways that, at a
minimum, meet fundamental responsibilities in the areas of human rights,
labour, environment and anti-corruption. Responsible businesses enact the
same values and principles wherever they have a presence and know that
good practices in one area do not offset harm in another. By incorporating
the Ten Principles of the UN Global Compact into strategies, policies and
procedures, and establishing a culture of integrity, companies are not only
upholding their basic responsibilities to people and planet, but are also
setting the stage for long-term success.
The Ten Principles of the United Nations Global Compact are derived from:
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Labour
Organization’s Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work,
the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, and the United
Nations Convention Against Corruption.

Human rights
Principle 1: Businesses should support and respect the protection of
internationally proclaimed human rights; and
Principle 2: make sure that they are not complicit in human rights abuses.

Labour
Principle 3: Businesses should uphold the freedom of association and the
effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining;
Principle 4: the elimination of all forms of forced and compulsory labour;
Principle 5: the effective abolition of child labour; and
Principle 6: the elimination of discrimination in respect of employment and
occupation.

Environment
Principle 7: Businesses should support a precautionary approach to
environmental challenges;
Principle 8: undertake initiatives to promote greater environmental
responsibility; and
Principle 9: encourage the development and diffusion of environmentally
friendly technologies.

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Anti-corruption
Principle 10: Businesses should work against corruption in all its forms,
including extortion and bribery.
Despite the challenges, the overall message emerging from is by no
means negative. If it is clear that the political space for reform is limited,
under-exploited channels do exist to create such space. We hope that these
narratives of security sector governance in Africa provide a basis to reflect,
learn and seize such opportunities.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

Time for activity: 35 minutes

Discuss any African country with regard to its policing context and how
the context affects or assists with crime prevention.

FEEDBACK

Learning activity 1
You need to look at unit 1 and focus on the factors that could prevent
any action towards crime prevention in the African countries.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Time for self-assessment: 30 minutes
To test and evaluate your knowledge of this study unit, complete the following
activities:
Make sure you have mastered the outcomes that were listed at the start
of the study unit by making brief notes.
Make a summary of the study unit.
Answer the following self-assessment question:
— Discuss what needs to be done to secure good governance and focused
crime prevention in the democratically elected African governments.

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4 STUDY UNIT 2

Problem-oriented models for crime

prevention

Time required for study unit 2

This study unit will require approximately three (3) hours.

1. AIM AND LEARNING OUTCOMES

Aim of this unit
The aim of this unit is to enable you to apply problem-solving models to
address local causes of crime.

Learning outcomes
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
explain the importance of problem-solving in your work environment
identify the two different models of problem-solving, and indicate the
importance of each
design a problem-solving model addressing the causes of crime in your
work environment
describe fully how to apply the problem-solving model to a specified
cause of crime

2. INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we are going to:
examine why problem-solving policing strategy is so important
explore two models that can be used to facilitate the implementation of
the problem-solving strategy
design and apply a problem-solving model to a specific practical situation

Resolving the crime problem

The police continuously confront various crime problems within both the
SAPS itself and the society it serves. These problems differ in degree
and kind, but all require a thorough knowledge of problem identification
and problem-solving skills – from both police officials on patrol and their
managers at the station. This will enable members of the SAPS to address the
crime problem at its roots rather than responding continually to its symptoms.

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Problem-solving policing is an answer to this huge task. It is not an end in

itself, but a means of ending the crime problem in our country.
Some prerequisites to implementing a problem-solving police strategy are
set out in table 2.1.
TABLE 2.1
Prerequisites to implementing a problem-solving police strategy

Before it is possible to implement a problem-solving policing strategy,

the following prerequisites should be met:

Prerequisite Relevance

Knowledge of problem-solving This knowledge will help police

strategy and models officials in identifying and solving
a variety of problems.

Analytical and communication Analytical skills entail learning how

skills to collect information, how to analyse
it and how to draw conclusions
upon which recommendations can
be made. Communication skills
will assist the officials in collecting
necessary information from
the community.

Thorough knowledge of the This serves as a point of departure

causes of crime for the problem-solving policing
strategy. The analytical skills
mentioned above will help
the officials to determine the
particular components and root
causes of problems.

Working partnership between the The police cannot fight crime

police and the community alone. They need the support of
the community they serve. It is
through such working partnerships
that the crime problem can be
reduced to manageable levels.
For problem-solving policing
to be effective, there must be
clear communication, cooperation
and coordinated efforts between
the police and the community they
serve.

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Prerequisite Relevance

Suitable conditions for community The task of creating these

participation conditions rests with the police.
According to Stevens and Yach
(1995:10), “the community must be
empowered to play an active part in
its own neighbourhood safety and
security”. Community involvement
and commitment are indispensable
in the quest to identify and resolve
problems.

Problem-orientated models
Problem-orientated models are required to implement any problem-solving
policing strategy. This, in turn, requires a thorough understanding of the
models. It is through such models that theory can be applied in practice.
Models are successful because they systematise information in a logical way
that is easy to follow. This ensures the coherence of facts and clear sequencing
of events. Later in this unit we will concentrate on two models of problem-
solving, namely the community work process (CWP) model and the scanning,
analysis, response and assessment (SARA) model.

3. POLICING PROBLEMS
Internal problems
Policing problems include both internal and external institutional problems:
Types of internal police problems are many and various – such as a lack
of particular resources (personnel, vehicles, two-way radios, etc).
External problems are those identified by both police and community
as crime problems. Our focus in this unit is specifically on the external
police problems.
Note, however, that not all incidents qualify as problems. It is therefore
vitally important that you be able to differentiate between an incident and
a problem.

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Let’s first define a problem in a policing context. Peak and Scott (2015:9)
define this as
(1) a cluster of similar, related, multiple or recurring incidents or cases
rather than a single incident;
(2) a substantive community and police concern; or
(3) a problem is unlikely to be resolved without special police
intervention;
(4) a problem involves conduct or conditions that fall within the broad,
but not unlimited, responsibilities of the police.

Such problems indicate disorder in a society. For order to be restored, all

stakeholders need to take part in finding solutions to the identified problems.
This is why it is important that the community and the police work together
to restore social order.
The nature of a problem, as defined here, should help us to distinguish
between incidents and problems.
Incidents
are one-off events
do not recur time after time
Problems
are repeated or continuous events
are continuous and disruptive in nature

4. CRIME IN THE COMMUNITY

Police-community strategy
As a strategy, police-community problem-solving is a method of dealing with
actual and potential causes of conflict and crime in a given locality. The
importance of this strategy lies, among other things, in bringing the police
and the community together to address the crime problem.
According to Scott (2015:12), the importance of problem-solving policing
can be expressed as follows:
It is a strategy that finds workable solutions for the police and the community.
It provides sufficient information on the root causes of crime.
It promotes partnerships between the police and the community.
Models applied in this approach facilitate the monitoring and evaluation
of progress towards solving a given problem and any deviations from the
anticipated course.
It challenges police officials to take initiatives in dealing with the problems
within their station areas.

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Knowing crime’s causative factors

In discussing community problems, crime is one problem that cannot be left
out. As a police official, you should know the interacting factors or elements
that contribute to the occurrence of crime. The community, too, should
understand how these elements interact and become problematic.
In this regard, the National Crime Prevention Centre (2000:4) states that
the occurrence of crime usually depends on the presence of three factors:
an offender
a potential victim
an environment where a crime is likely to be committed
In the absence of any of these three factors, no crime will take place. It is
these aspects you will have to consider when drawing up a crime prevention
strategy that will address the real causes of crime.

Additional factors
Other socioeconomic factors add to the challenges facing both the police
and community. Aspects such as poverty, unemployment, inadequate housing
and so forth go far beyond the boundaries of policing – yet they trigger
various crimes. This is why integrated policing has value, ensuring that the
perspectives of various disciplines are accounted for in dealing with crime.

Necessary skills summarised

The following basic skills are needed to implement a problem-solving strategy
in the community (as mentioned earlier in this section):
exercising analytical and problem-solving skills
collecting information
analysing information
drawing conclusions
making recommendations

Community’s role in problem-solving

The communities served by the SAPS can assist the police in solving problems
in the following ways as set out in table 2.2.

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TABLE 2.2
Community’s role in problem-solving

Community role Comment

Reporting crime and potential The community could, for example,

crime situations to the police report the problem of shebeens that
close very late, leading to rapes
and robberies in a given vicinity.
The community could also recommend
that municipalities intervene and
impose time limits on shebeen
operations.

Involvement in sector policing, The community could become involved

police forums, etc in sector policing or community police
forums, neighbourhood and farm
watches and other safety forums that
aim to prevent crime.

Involvement in lobbying and Communities could lobby for changes

putting pressure on others to to government legislation to be tougher
act on certain crimes, such as rape. They
could also put pressure on others to act
(e.g., pressurising the local city council
to install lighting in unsafe areas).

Determining the type of pro- The community should share leadership

gramme to implement in both the policymaking and decision-
making processes and, like the police,
should be held accountable for their
actions.

Such involvement helps to reduce the community’s chance of victimisation,

opportunities for crime and fear of crime.

5. COMMUNITY WORK PROCESS (CWP) MODEL: AN OVERVIEW

A process can be seen as a set of actions or steps taken to reach objectives.

Five phases of the CWP model

The CWP model consists of five interrelated phases, which are depicted in
figure 2.1.

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Figure 2.1
The five phases of the CWP model
This makes the order of activities reflected by this model very logical and easy
to understand. The five phases, along with the dominant activities in each
phase, can be summarised as follows commencing with phase 1, namely the
situational analysis, pre-assessment and pre-planning phase.

Phase 1: situational analysis, pre-assessment, pre-planning

Enter your community and visit various community groups.

Phase 2: environmental scanning

Compile a community profile.

Phase 3: needs assessment (identification and definition of needs

and problems)
Identify community needs and crime prevention priorities.

Phase 4: implementation and partnership development

Obtain the involvement of communities in policing.
Set up and support crime prevention structures.

Phase 5: evaluation/feedback (maintenance and capacity building)

Conduct an evaluation.

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Linkage between phases

The phases of the CWP model are linked in a manner that ensures continuity
between them. Thus, the information you gain in one phase provides you
with a platform to continue to the next phase. If you fail in a particular
phase, you can always go back to the beginning and start afresh.
Each of the aforementioned phases of the CWP model will be elaborated
on below.

6. COMMUNITY WORK PROCESS (CWP) MODEL: A DISCUSSION

6.1 CWP model – phase 1: situational analysis

The basis of success

This phase of entry into the community is very important because the initial action
you take at this point will determine the future responses of the community
towards you.
Traditionally, relations between the police and the community in South Africa
have not been close. The community will therefore perceive you as a stranger
at first and will subject you to thorough scrutiny before accepting you. The
outcomes of this phase will depend very much on your being accepted.

Some results of acceptance

Once accepted, you will be in a position to study your community in order to:
identify its strengths and weaknesses
identify various community groups and relate to them
attend meetings of some of these groups, taking care not to seem biased
towards or in favour of any one group
identify community problems

Useful groups or structures

Social groups or structures that could be important in providing solutions
to crime problems in their vicinity include youth clubs, sports associations,
pawn shops, churches, social clubs, shebeens and schools.
If housebreaking is a major problem, the immediate market for thieves to
sell their goods could be in taverns or shebeens. Items like cellphones and
videos are often sold in such places.

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6.2 CWP model – phase 2: environmental scanning

Purpose
The purpose of the environmental scanning phase is to provide a broad
overview of the demographics and socio-graphics of the community at large.
This information may be relevant later when you face the problems head-on.

How to obtain the data

This valuable data about the community is usually gathered through continual
informal interviews that you conduct with community members and leaders.

6.3 CWP model – phase 3: needs assessment

Purpose
The purpose of this phase is to identify the real needs of the community. This
phase is therefore one of the most important, facilitating policing that will
satisfy the real needs rather than those imagined by the SAPS.

Methods
Various methods or strategies can be used in gathering information about
the community’s needs:
additional informal, formal or semi-formal interviews with members of
the community
brainstorming sessions with community members
field observations
the nominal group technique

Nominal group technique

The nominal group technique can be used in situations where there is
uncertainty or possible disagreement about choices and priorities. It can be
used to identify strategic problems and develop appropriate and innovative
projects or programmes to solve them.
Several phases are involved:
In the first phase, all the members of the group(s) spend approximately 20
minutes listing aspects or ideas concerning a problem, without speaking
to anyone.
In the second phase, the facilitator asks one person to record the
written comments of each member.
In the third phase, the groups are given time to review the list and to
clarify, elaborate on or defend any item or added items.
In the fourth phase, each member is asked to select privately the items
he or she considers most crucial (e.g., the five most important items).

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The process provides a good idea of what people see as their needs, problems,
concerns or priorities.

6.4 CWP model – phase 4: implementation

Purpose
The purpose of this phase is to ensure that, having identified the community’s
needs, you develop partnerships and build up a support base to help address
these identified needs.
The establishment of various working groups or task groups is essential at
this point.

Skills required
The skills of organising, communicating and calling meetings are required
at this stage.
For example: You might have realised there is a need to establish a community
police forum or neighbourhood watch project. These would require that you
call certain meetings (such as an annual general meeting). It goes without
saying that communication skills would be very important in facilitating
these meetings.

6.5 CWP model – phase 5: evaluation/feedback

Purpose
The purpose of this phase is to check whether you have managed to do what
you intended to, from the first phase to the last.

Feedback
This phase provides you with feedback on how well you have managed all
the steps of this model, indicating any mistakes or deviations you have made
and how to rectify them.
We listed and elaborated on each of the phases of the CWP model. Next,
we will explore the SARA model of problem-solving.

7. SCANNING, ANALYSIS, RESPONSE AND ASSESSMENT (SARA) MODEL:

AN OVERVIEW
The four steps of the SARA model are shown in the following flowchart in
figure 2.2.

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Figure 2.2
The four steps of the SARA model
The SARA model of problem-solving consists of four sequential and
interrelated steps, which are listed below.
Scanning, analysis, response and assessment (Scott 2015:7).
Step 1: scanning: problem identification
Step 2: analysis: determining the extent of the problem
Step 3: response: formulating tailor-made strategies
Step 4: assessment: evaluating overall effectiveness
The abovementioned steps of the SARA model are expounded on in the
discussion below.

8. SARA MODEL: A DISCUSSION

We will first look at step 1 of the SARA model, namely scanning, followed
sequentially by the other steps.

8.1 SARA model – step 1: scanning

The purpose of the scanning stage is problem identification (Scott, 2015:8).
Here, police officials identify activities that are problematic or pose potential
problems in the execution of their duties.
The basic intention of this step is to determine whether a problem really
exists. If it does, a thorough analysis must be done, and a solution must be
sought. Priorities are determined, and specific police officials are assigned to
deal with the problem.

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Reminder: problems vs incidents

Can you recall the definition of a problem which we gave at the beginning
of this unit? It is important to remember that the SARA model is applicable
only to problems and not mere incidents.
Police agencies have various methods of determining whether an incident
qualifies as a problem. Determinants include:
calls for service data
the number of calls made from a specific area or a repeat series of similar
incidents
the crime cards for specific types of deviant behaviour or crime
details recorded in the computerised geographic information system
(GIS), indicating crimes committed in a specific area, including times and
the modus operandi
evidence derived from community complaints, census data, media
reports, community surveys and observations by community leaders

8.2 SARA model – step 2: analysis

Purpose
The analysis stage is the heart of the problem-solving process. The purpose
of this important step is to determine the extent of the problem and its
damaging impact on the community, by breaking the problem down into
its component parts. In doing so, officials gather information from sources
inside and outside their agency about the scope, nature and causes of the
problem (Scott, 2015:9).
As an analyst, therefore, you will need to determine the building blocks
of the problem. This will enable you to start addressing the problem by
tackling the sub-problems.
You can do this by:
identifying the types of harm
using the problem-analysis triangle
using third parties
We will consider each briefly.

Identifying the types of harm

You need to identify what types of harm are caused by the problem. You can
start by focusing on the resultant harmful behaviour. This will enable you
to break the problem down into smaller, more manageable problems, which
helps to identify the underlying causes.
An example of a problem with damaging effects is the theft of a new-born
baby from the hospital. This is traumatic and cruel. Think of the appeals
made by the parents of the stolen baby and the nature of the impact of

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this theft on society at large. Breaking the problem down into smaller, more
manageable problems helps the group to:
understand the problem better
select realistic objectives
formulate effective strategies that offer a reasonable prospect of success
This builds confidence and trust within the group.

Using the problem-analysis triangle

Earlier in this unit, we dealt with crime’s three causative factors or elements:
the offender, victim and location. These were said to be interrelated, giving
rise to crime incidents. You can imagine the three elements as the points of
a triangle. These problem-analysis triangles help us to analyse various crime
problems. The persistence of a problem indicates the continued presence
of all the elements that contribute to its occurrence. The solution lies in
removing one or more of the elements of the triangle.

Using third parties

As a police official, you also need to be aware of third parties who might
help or hinder the problem-solving effort by attempting to act on behalf of
one or more of the elements of the problem analysis triangle. Third parties
could include the following:
Controllers: These are people who act in the best interests of potential
offenders by trying to prevent them from committing crimes. Controllers
of potential gang members could be parents, teachers, neighbours, peers
or employers.
Guardians: These are people who try to prevent harm from coming
to potential victims. Guardians could include, relatives, the police,
neighbourhood watches, Department of Social Development and private
security firms.
Managers: These are people who oversee specific areas.

8.3 SARA model – step 3: response

Purpose
The purpose of the third step of the SARA model is to formulate long-
term, creative, tailor-made strategies that will probably solve the problem
concerned. Various alternative solutions should be considered, and the best
available option should be chosen for implementation. The best solution
may be to eliminate the problem completely, but this is not always possible.
Therefore, it is important to set realistic objectives in dealing with the
problem.

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Appropriate police response

A common belief is that the police response to crime problems should be to
arrest the offender. However, whether arrest is the best alternative depends
on the particular situation.
Because some crime problems are very complex, they should be treated with
great caution, and a wide range of possible responses should be considered.
This is why the problem needs to be broken down into its various components
(in the analysis stage) prior to choosing a probable solution.
Robbery in a field between a residential area and a bus terminus or taxi
rank in the early morning and late evening: An appropriate response could
be to put apollo lights in the field or to ask the municipality to clean it.
Theft from motor vehicles in parking areas: In this case, posting security
guards or installing alarms that deter offenders could be part of the solution.

8.4 SARA model – step 4: assessment

Purpose
The purpose of this final stage of the SARA model is to evaluate the overall
effectiveness of the strategies implemented as a response to the identified
problems.

Quantitative criteria
In most instances, the criteria will be quantitative. Accordingly, the frequency
of an incident could indicate whether the problem has been addressed
successfully or whether the implemented strategy has been effective in
addressing the problem.

In evaluating the effectiveness of a strategy to reduce or prevent rape

incidents, you would consider quantitative data such as the fact that in
September 2020, five fewer incidents of rape were reported than in the
previous month. This could be due to an awareness campaign by the
police and other departments. You could infer from the reduced number
of rapes that this strategy was effective.

SUMMARY

Value of problem-solving
In this unit, we discussed the importance of problem-solving policing, which
is a cornerstone of successful policing in our current situation. It helps police
officials to identify the root causes of various problems (as differentiated
from incidents) effectively and to find workable solutions to these problems.

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In this regard, the practical application of problem-solving models facilitates

the process of finding solutions to the problems at hand.
We examined two problem-solving models – the community work process
model and the scanning, analysis, response and assessment model –
and illustrated them with practical examples. Our emphasis was on the
importance and practical implementation of the models, as well as on the
evaluation of efforts to solve the identified problems.
The role of the community in identifying its problems and helping the
police to solve these problems is vital to problem-solving. The police cannot
function in isolation from their own clients. It is only through sustainable
partnerships and cooperation that the crime problem can receive sufficient
attention from all the parties involved in crime prevention. Problem-solving
policing creates a platform for establishing common ground between the
police and the community.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

Learning activity 1
Time for activity: 20 minutes
(1) The causes of crime vary according to the type of crime commit-
ted. From your practical experience and based on the preceding
information, identify crimes that are on the rise in your station area
and try to identify their causes.
(2) You are a crime prevention official, and your station experiences
the problem of rape of students and women who study or work at
a nearby tertiary institution. The problem is in its third month,
and so far, seven women have been raped in that area. You have
just returned from leave and your area commissioner states that
the problem cannot be left unattended. Your station commissioner
needs to solve this problem completely, and he expects you and
your team to do this.
(a) Indicate step by step how you will apply your analytical skills
and communication skills in gathering information (data) to
help you get to the root of the rape crisis.
(b) Briefly discuss the role of the community in problem-solving.

Learning activity 2
Time for activity: 20 minutes
As part of a situational analysis, identify various groups that you think
are relevant in addressing a crime problem in your station area.

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Learning activity 3
Time for activity: 15 minutes
In your station environment, what are the needs of the community you
are policing? Which method was used in needs assessment?

Learning activity 4
Time for activity: 20 minutes
In your opinion, can the community work process model address the crime
problem in your station area? Substantiate your answer by referring to
practical situations and actual experiences.

Learning activity 5
Time for activity: 25 minutes
For this activity, you need a thorough knowledge of the scanning, analysis,
response and assessment problem-solving model. Read the following set
of facts and answer the questions that follow by applying the SARA model:
The Zinto community is situated in one of the largest cities in South
Africa. This community comprises fairly educated middle-aged adults
who are very energetic and who always want to face the problems as
they come. Despite including a number of people with some insight
into how to improve their standard of living, there is something that
continues to trouble this community. This is the high crime rate, which
has been stabilised but never brought to acceptable levels.
Crimes committed in this community range from robbery (cellphones
and other valuables), rape in the poorly lit streets, housebreaking on the
houses situated on the periphery of the residential area and domestic
violence. Efforts to reduce these occurrences have been in vain. You
are the member responsible for bringing the crime statistics down and
keeping them there. The SARA model is the tool you intend to use.
Answer the following questions about the steps you are going to take:
(1) Several problems have been identified in the given scenario. How
are you going to ascertain that these are the real problems facing
your community?
(2) You have identified specific problems in the Zinto community. How
are you going to formulate strategies to deal with the problems?
(3) How are you going to evaluate the impact of your efforts?

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FEEDBACK

Learning activity 1
(a) Get hold of the area statistics.
(b) See point 4 on crime in the community.

Learning activity 2
Use the CWP model.

Learning activity 3
Read phase 3 of the CWP model.

Learning activity 4
Focus on situations within your own environment.

Learning activity 5
Focus on situations within your own environment.
See the SARA model under point 8.
(1) You need to scan and analyse.
(2) You need to use the response step in point 8.3.
(3) You need to use the assessment step in point 8.4.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Time for self-assessment: 30 minutes
To test and evaluate your knowledge of this study unit, complete the following
activities:
Make sure you have mastered the outcomes that were listed at the start
of the study unit by making brief notes.
Make a summary of the study unit.
Answer the following self-assessment questions:
— Discuss how you will increase partnership between the police and
the community.
— Discuss the external institutional problems in policing.
— Describe the occurrence of crime – the three factors.

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5 STUDY UNIT 3

Crime analysis

Time required for study unit 3

This study unit will require approximately three (3) hours.

1. AIM AND LEARNING OUTCOMES

Aim of this unit
The aim of this unit is to enable you to develop a programme to prevent
various types of crime, using information you obtain from crime trends.

Learning outcomes
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
explain in your own words the concept of information-driven crime
prevention
identify the methods used to gather information on crime trends for
crime prevention
interpret crime statistics to determine crime trends
develop crime prevention plans using problem-solving models
design an implementation strategy for your crime prevention plans
evaluate any crime prevention plan and make recommendations to improve
its effectiveness

2. DEFINITIONS OF KEY TERMS

You will remember studying crime prevention in Policing I and II. Do

you remember how you defined crime prevention there? To refresh your
memory, you can refer to those study guides once again. Also look at
the following definition (Naudé 1993:314):
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Crime prevention is defined as all those methods and strategies used

by the state at central or local level, industries and communities or
individuals to prevent, reduce or control the onset or continuation of
criminal behaviour or victimisation. Crime prevention can therefore be
person-centred, social and community-centred, situationally centred or
state-centred.
You may have identified as key concepts the “methods” or “strategies” that
are used to “prevent” or “reduce” crime. You may also have considered
it important that crime prevention take place at “central or local level”
and in “industries and communities”.
In addition to these factors, crime prevention is now seen around the
world as part of a shift towards information-driven or intelligence-led
policing. Intelligence-led or information-driven crime prevention is the
focus of this unit.
What do you understand the term “information” to mean?
You probably associate information with knowledge and facts. For the
purpose of the intelligence-led approach to crime prevention, information
is unevaluated written or oral reports or documents telling of an event
or activity.
How would you define “intelligence”?
Here you may regard intelligence as information collected specifically for
the purposes of investigation. Intelligence is widely accepted to be the
end result or product of an intellectual process whereby raw material is
collected, collated, analysed and evaluated in a timely manner to add
value to decision-making.
Interchangeable terms
You may have noticed that we have been using the terms “information-
driven” and “intelligence-led” interchangeably. In this unit, we will
usually refer to “information-driven crime prevention”. However, these
terms refer to the same approach to crime prevention, and we will use
both terms.
How can information and intelligence be used to prevent crime? Let’s
look at a few definitions of this type of crime prevention.
Definition 1: Mutua (2020:64) describes intelligence-led policing as a
crime prevention strategy that enables police detectives to be more
proactive, using intelligence techniques such as crime pattern analysis
and informants to develop the targeting of “known criminals”.
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Definition 2: According to Mashiloane (2014:6), the intelligence-led

approach aims to provide a wider definition of crime prevention that
includes the following features:
Counteraction — the application of knowledge and skill to anticipate,
identify, then remove or reduce crime
Intervention — operational policing in all its forms designed to stop,
disrupt and reduce crime
Deterrence — achieved by the existence of a strong professional police
service in support of a criminal justice system
Definition 3: Carter (2013:14) mentions that information-driven crime
prevention could be guided by the crime pattern analysis (CPA) that
is compiled at station level and that analyses crime in terms of time
(when) and place (where) dimensions, as well as the explanations of
crime based on analyses of modus operandi and target, victim and
suspect particulars. The CPA is compiled to identify distinct patterns
pertaining to the above. The compiled CPA is used to direct crime
prevention operations.

In the remainder of this unit, we will look at the process followed in collecting,
analysing and using information to prevent crime. This includes the process
of developing, implementing and evaluating a crime prevention plan.
To start with, we will consider the relevance of information gathering to
crime prevention and identify a number of methods used to gather this
information on crime.

3. RELEVANCE OF INFORMATION TO CRIME PREVENTION

Two categories of crime

Crime can be approached by dividing it into the following two categories (Van
Wyk & Krause 2000:4, 9):

1. General
General crime is committed by individuals rather than organised crime
syndicates.

2. Organised
Organised crime is the systematic commissioning of crimes motivated by a
craving for profit or power, involving one or two groups working together.

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Two approaches
The approach taken to prevent or combat general crime is called the
geographic approach. This seeks to identify crime in a specific area, and
it concentrates on eliminating or preventing the crime in that area.
The approach taken to prevent or combat organised crime is called the
organised crime approach. This focuses on identifying organised crime
syndicates and on preventing or combating their operation.

Information a necessity for both

For both general and organised crime, you need to collect information to
establish their trends in your area with a view to preventing or combating
them.

Two models
Study unit 1 introduced two important problem-solving policing models and
their role in local crime prevention. To refresh your memory, refer to that
unit before continuing with this section.
The problem-solving models discussed in study unit 1 – specifically the CWP
model and the SARA model – involve the same set of skills.

Skills involved
The skills common to the CWP and SARA models are the following:
exercising analytical and problem-solving skills
collecting information
drawing conclusions
analysing information
making recommendations
We will look at these skills in some detail, starting with the collection and
analysis of crime information.

Collecting information
The CWP model includes three phases that lead to the identification of crime
trends and problems. They involve the collection of information through:
analysing the situation
scanning the environment
identifying community needs and crime prevention priorities
Similarly, the SARA model advocates scanning to identify any problems, as a
first step.

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Internal and external resources

For collecting information, you can make use of both internal resources (those
within the SAPS) and external resources. (These resources can also be
used in analysing information, which will be discussed in more detail in
subsequent sections of this unit.) Your use of internal and external resources
could include the following:
When on patrol in the area, you would try to become familiar with the
environment you work in and get to know the external organisations or
prominent groups in your community, such as youth groups in the area
and the local community police forum (CPF).
You could interview members of the community to find out about the types
of people living in the area (e.g., pensioners) and to identify community
needs – CPF members are usually very happy to provide information about
vulnerable groups in the area.
You would probably also use some of the methods mentioned elsewhere
in this unit to collect information, such as the crime threat analysis (CTA),
which is the basis of any crime prevention plan (see section 6).
If you have identified the proliferation of illegal firearms as a priority,
for example, you could make use of internal resources such as firearm
units, detectives within the SAPS, your provincial crime information
management centre (CIMC) and others.

Automatic mapping
In the police service, a system of collecting and analysing information
through automatic mapping is often available. The automatic mapping system
is linked to the crime administration system (CAS) and will be outlined in
more detail later.

Crime trends
The following types of information are important for identifying crime trends
(National Crime Prevention Centre 2000:40–41):
profiles of the offenders
where and when the crimes were committed
the modus operandi used by the offenders
the types of crimes committed
use of a record management system
Home Affairs’ national identification system
This information on its own is not useful for establishing crime trends. Any
information that you collect needs to be analysed so that it can be used to
prevent crime.

4. ANALYSIS OF INFORMATION
To analyse mean to examine (something) in detail in order to discover its
meaning or essential features, to explain and interpret.

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Importance of analysis
As we said earlier, information on its own is not useful. It needs to be analysed
so that it can be turned into knowledge that you can use:
By applying the methods outlined later in this unit, you can analyse the
information to identify “specific and immediate crime problems in time
and space” (Van Wyk & Krause 2000:7). Analysing information thus
establishes the extent, causes and details of the problems you have
identified – see the definition of operational analysis later in this section.
Your analysis should also give you a profile of the victim and offender
– see section 8 for further detail on the offender profile.
You would use your analysis to draw conclusions about the type of action
you would need to take to deal with the problem you have identified, and
so to design an appropriate preventive strategy – see section 12.
This is in keeping with the SARA model’s steps for breaking down an
identified problem into its component parts, which, as we explained in
study unit 1, enables you to:
understand the problem better
select realistic objectives
formulate effective strategies that offer a reasonable prospect of success

Types of analysis
Methods used to analyse information on crime trends fall into one of two
categories, depending on the type of analysis concerned:
strategic analysis
operational analysis

Two definitions
What do these two types of analysis involve? De Kock (1998, cited in Van
Wyk & Krause 2000:7–8) states the following:
Strategic analysis involves the monitoring of crime trends in terms of time
and space. This is done to explain variations in crime figures over time
and among different geographic areas by endeavouring to correlate policing
or socioeconomic and demographic factors with the occurrence of crime.
The basic purpose of strategic analysis is to create knowledge to be used
by decisionmakers for long-term planning and the allocation of resources.
Operational analysis involves an evaluation of information and factors
directly relevant to police actions aimed at combating and preventing crime.
This analysis is further aimed at the identification of specific and immediate
crime problems in time and space.
It serves to identify prominent features, such as individual or groups of
criminals, relevant premises, contact points and methods of communication.
The method may result from a structured approach to information and

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intelligence gathering as a result of a criminal incident or the identification

of emerging trends.

5. STRATEGIC ANALYSIS: METHODS OF COLLECTING INFORMATION

The following six methods used in collecting information for strategic
analysis are shown in figure 3.1:

Figure 3.1
Six methods used in collecting information for strategic analysis
docket analysis
crime administration system (CAS)
global access control system (GACS)
special notification questionnaire
statistical analysis
surveys
We will consider each method used in collecting information for strategic
analysis in this section.

Docket analysis
As the name suggests, this is the analysis of information found in police
dockets. Docket analysis data is obtained by means of a questionnaire, which
ensures data integrity and makes it easier to do the analysis. For example, a
questionnaire about the crime of rape could include the following:
(1) CAS number
(2) day, period, unknown
(3) time

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(4) location
(5) approach of perpetrator
(6) age of victim
(7) relationship
(8) race
(9) occupation of victim
(10) intoxication level of perpetrator/victim
(11) method employed by perpetrator
(12) description of perpetrator
Docket analysis can also be used as a method of collecting information for
operational analysis, which will be dealt with in the next section.

Crime administration system (CAS)

The CAS is a computer system that contains information on all cases reported
per station. When analysing crime trends, it is important to gather information
on all the cases reported at your station.

Global access control system (GACS)

The GACS is a computer system linked to the CAS. It can be used for both
strategic and operational information gathering.

Special notification questionnaire

This is a questionnaire designed to answer specific research questions.
This type of questionnaire is used to analyse crimes such as the following
(Van Wyk & Krause 2000:7):
vehicle hijackings
attacks on farms and smallholdings
attacks on police officials
organised crime

Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis involves examining numbers of crimes to work out what
the crime trends for particular areas are. (We will look at this type of analysis
in greater detail in section 9.)

Survey
A survey is a way of obtaining responses from a group of people in a
standardised, impartial way that is worked out in advance. For example, by
asking a sample of people from a particular area a set of questions about a
certain issue, you will be able to establish what people in that area generally
believe about that issue.

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6. OPERATIONAL ANALYSIS: METHODS OF COLLECTING INFORMATION

Please note: Reference to area level in the South African context must
be read as reference to a cluster.
There are six methods of collecting information for purposes of operational
analysis as illustrated in figure 3.2 and listed below the diagram.

Figure 3.2
Six methods of collecting information for purposes of operational analysis
intelligence analysis
investigative analysis
geographic analysis/geographic information system (GIS)
crime threat analysis (CTA)
crime pattern analysis (CPA)
matrix schedule
We will consider each of these six methods listed above in this section.
(Remember that docket analysis and the BIS, which we discussed under
strategic analysis, may be used for operational analysis as well.)

Intelligence analysis
This is an analysis of all the intelligence or information that is available to
you.

Investigative analysis
Investigative analysis focuses on evidence obtained from crime scenes. It
is also concerned with information that can help to profile the suspects under
investigation. Information can be obtained from the following (Van Wyk &
Krause 2000:8):

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calls made from cellphones

offender groups
modus operandi used
timelines
signature identification
profiling

Geographic analysis
Geographic analysis indicates where crimes are committed within a specific
geographical area. This type of analysis is also known as crime mapping.
The GIS is the electronic version of crime mapping. It is a daily crime report
database. The CAS loads directly onto the GIS database information on any
crime reported to the community service centre. Every station team is
able to determine the crimes committed within a particular time frame by
accessing the GIS database. GIS documents give the following information:
CAS number
date of occurrence
types of crimes committed
address where incident took place
method used or modus operandi

Crime threat analysis (CTA)

According to Van Wyk and Krause (2000:8), CTA is used to provide an
overall picture of the crime taking place in a specific geographical area at a
particular point in time. The threats associated with crime in an area are
measured using specific criteria. (We will look at the CTA in more detail
later in this unit.)

Crime pattern analysis (CPA)

CPA indicates the frequency of crime in terms of when and where the crimes
happened, how they were committed and particulars of the target, victim and
suspect.
The CPA document is compiled weekly and shows the crime trend for the
week. It provides the following information on each type of crime:
comparative number of reported cases
peak times of occurrence
days of the week on which the crime occurs
the percentage increase or decrease of the crime
the hot spots of the crime
the modus operandi used

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Matrix schedule
A matrix schedule is compiled once a month to prioritise crimes that have
occurred during that month. The crimes are prioritised according to a points
system. Prioritisation questionnaires and other sources of information are used
to provide the information needed to compile matrix schedules for general
crimes and for organised crimes.
In the next section, we will concentrate on the steps in CTA.

7. THE CRIME THREAT ANALYSIS (CTA) PROCESS

General description
CTA follows a specific process. This process – which may be used to analyse the
threat of either general crime or organised crime – identifies the generators
of crime in order to understand the crime situation. It is used as a basis for
developing crime prevention plans.

A bottom-up process
The CTA process moves upwards, from station level to national level, as
follows:
station level
cluster level
provincial level
national level
In this section, we will look only at the CTA process as it is followed at station
level. The information presented here is derived largely from Van Wyk and
Krause (2000). However, the CTA process at cluster, provincial or national
level is also dealt with by Van Wyk and Krause (2000:31–48); so if you want
to research those aspects, you may refer to that source yourself.
There are five steps to the CTA process:

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Figure 3.3
Five steps to the CTA process
Graded list of crimes in the station area, graded from highest to lowest
levels
Inviting your CPF to give you information about crime
Doing a crime pattern analysis (CPA)
Prioritising general CTA documents for the station
Area-level assessment of the CTA
Let’s look at each step in more detail.

Step 1: Graded listing of crimes

You should focus on at least 80% of the types of crimes affecting your station.
The 20 crimes given in table 1 of the CIAC Semester Reports and presented
below (Van Wyk & Krause 2000:13) indicate national priorities, but if they
do not have an impact on your station, you should focus on crimes that do:
murder and attempted murder
robbery with aggravating circumstances and other robbery
rape (minor and adult)
assault GBH and common assault
burglary of residential or business premises
stock theft
shoplifting
theft of a motor vehicle or motorcycle
theft out of or from a motor vehicle
other thefts
all fraud, forgeries, misappropriations, embezzlements, etc
illegal possession of firearms
drug-related crimes
driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs

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Step 2: CPF information on crime

Your CPF may have information about crime that the police are unaware
of. You should encourage the CPF to provide you with any information they
have on crime in the area. Also, a need for the recruitment of informers to
assist officials.

Step 3: CPA
A CPA is done to identify the generators of crime (Van Wyk & Krause
2000:14). You can do a CPA using a GIS or, if this is not possible, you can
do it manually.
A CPA allows you to analyse crime patterns strategically and operationally.
An operational analysis enables you to post people to certain identified areas
to prevent or investigate crime. This type of analysis is based on recent
information on crime patterns and is called a “geographic crime pattern and
linkage analysis”. It uses a pinpointed geographic street map as well as a
matrix analysis to show crime patterns and areas. The CPA is done as follows:
Acquire a street map of the station area from the municipality, tourism
authority or private sector.
Plot all priority crimes on the map, giving each crime a different coloured
pin or sticker.
Number each pin or sticker according to the frequency of the crime.
Establish whether there are any links between the new crimes and any of
the previous crimes in the terms of the victims, suspects, targets, modus
operandi, time and place, and instruments used.
If any of the crimes correlate, you need to establish whether they
were committed by one person or an organised group.
If you discover that the crime is organised, you should register this crime
threat on the CTA (organised crime).

Step 4: Prioritise general CTA documents for the station

The matrix schedule is used with the map to do the linkage analysis. Once
you have compiled the matrix, you should complete the station linkage
analysis, which involves finding out whether any links exist between cases
on the matrix and any other cases on previous matrixes.
A copy of the matrix form and linkage analysis is sent to the area CIAC once
a month so that the station area crimes can be correlated with those in the
surrounding area.

Step 5: Area-level assessment of the CTA

At area level, the area crime combating forum (ACCF) will examine the CTA
document. When the ACCF is satisfied that the document presents a realistic
overview of the crime in the area, the station commissioners of the area
will be permitted to look at the document to see what threats are likely to
influence their stations.

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Earlier we listed the types of information you will need to prevent crime, one
being a profile of the offenders. The next section outlines the information
you can gain from compiling an offender profile.

8. COMPILING AN OFFENDER PROFILE

Purpose of profiling
Profiling is a useful method of gathering and organising information about
offenders. If you believe that a particular offender or group of offenders is involved
in committing crimes in your district, you may want to gather information
to compile a profile about them.

Types of information
The following types of information are usually included in a profile:
Personal details: full names, identity number, date of birth, present and
previous addresses
Vehicles: cars registered in the suspect’s name
Firearms
Crimes: previous arrests and convictions, fingerprint number and criminal
record number
Movements: movements across border posts (computer records of these
movements are kept by the Department of Home Affairs)
Modus operandi (if known)

Obtaining the information

You can obtain the information you need by using the CAS, doing a docket
analysis or interpreting statistics available to you. Computer systems can be
used both to obtain and to record information. There are further resources
and systems available both within the SAPS and external to it that you can
use to obtain this information.

Considering the rights of individuals

In compiling a profile, you need to keep in mind the provisions of the South
African Bill of Rights and Constitution (108 of 1996) that protect the individual’s
rights, such as the right to privacy and the right to freedom of association.
In obtaining information about an individual or group, you need to make
sure that you do not infringe any of these rights. You should also keep up to
date with SAPS directives on collecting information to prevent crime, given
in documents such as the National Crime Prevention Strategy.

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9. THE ROLE OF STATISTICS

Van Wyk and Krause (2000:11) define statistics as follows: A collection

of information depicted in numbers, which are processed and analysed
to provide intelligence. Statistics show that the crime rate increased or
decreased. See www.saps.gov.za/services/crimestats First and Second
Quarter Statistics (2020).

Interpretation needed
Every day numbers are collected of how many crimes are committed, which
types of crimes and when, where and how they are committed. These
numbers need to be interpreted so that you can:
establish crime patterns in your area
prioritise crimes
design and implement plans to prevent or combat them

Making statistics accessible

Statistics can be deceptive if the data are calculated incorrectly or are
incorrect to start with. However, because statistics are a vital decision-making
tool for the police, it is important to use them accurately.
Although statistical information can be difficult to interpret and understand,
it can be presented in ways that make this easier. They state an important
rule to remember when presenting statistics: You need to understand the
statistical information as well as know which information is important and
which is not.
In this section, we will present some of the basic formulae used to generate
correct, readable statistics. These formulae may seem very technical to you,
but they are very useful if you have only a few calculations to make. (There
are computer programs available for calculating statistics on a large scale.)
We will consider formulae for calculating each of the following:
percentages and percentage comparisons
upper and lower limits of crime – using the mean, median and standard
deviation
ratio between crime and population size

Percentage (%) calculations and comparisons

These are used to calculate the crime rate over a specified period. Here you
would be comparing two figures: a current figure and a past figure. Make
sure you compare figures over the same periods because crime patterns
always differ in time and space. For example, you would compare figures for
January 2020 with figures for January 2019. You would not compare figures
for January 2020 with figures for March 2019.

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To make this comparison, you could use the following formula:

(Current figure – Previous figure × Past figure = A number × 100 =
% change)
Say, for example, that you want to compare the number of murders that took
place in your area in 2011 with the number in 2013. Assume the numbers
were as follows:

Year Number of murders

2018 210

2020 250

You can see from these figures that the number of murders rose quite
substantially between 2018 and 2020. To calculate the percentage by which
these figures differ, you would apply the formula given above:
250 (current figure or most recent figure) – 210 (past figure) ÷ 210 (past
figure) = 0,19
0,19 × 100 = 19%
Your answer is that the number of murders rose by 19% between 2018 and
2020.
The second way you can work out the percentage difference between your
past and current (or most recent) figures is this:
Current figure ÷ Past figure – 1 = Answer × 100 = % change
For our example, this would be done as follows:
250 ÷ 210 –1 = 0,19
0,19 × 100 = 19%

Calculating upper and lower limits of crime

The upper and lower limits of crime are calculated to determine whether
crime thresholds are within “acceptable” limits. This calculation is done over
a period of years. To work out the upper and lower limits of crime, you need
to calculate the mean, median and standard deviation of the crime data.
The mean, in lay terms, is the average.
The median is the middle number, where data are arranged in an increasing
or descending order of magnitude.
The standard deviation reflects the average deviation from the mean.

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Formula for calculating the mean:

X = Σn Xi = X1 + X2 + X3 + …. X n (the sample)
n
i = 1/n
Formula for calculating the median:
X = (n + 1)/2
To work out the upper and lower limits of crime, respectively, the standard
deviation must be added to and subtracted from the mean.
Formula for calculating the standard deviation:
V = Σ (X - µ)2
n
V = variance
X = values of observation µ = mean of observations
n = number of observations
Where the standard deviation is the square root of the variance.
To calculate the upper limit, you then add the standard deviation to the
mean. To calculate the lower limit, you subtract the standard deviation
from the mean.
The mode is the value with the highest frequency greater than 1. It is not
used in the above calculation but may be of value in drawing inferences
from the figures obtained.

Calculating the crime ratio

To calculate the ratio of crime to population size, you would use the following
formula:
N/P × 100 000
Where N = number of observations (crime figure) and P = population size

10. WAYS OF DISPLAYING DATA

Three common methods

The most common ways of displaying the information you have collected (the
data) are in the form of a table or in a visual form such as a graph or chart.
These give you an overall impression of the figures you need to interpret.

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Tables
Tables are used to summarise statistical information. Your table should:
have enough information so that it can be read on its own
have an appropriate title
be discussed in your report to reinforce its message
use footnotes to explain any figures or sections
have a reference to its source if you did not create the table yourself
compare figures in columns
break long columns up (the authors suggest groups of five)
Look at the SAPS official crime statistics at www.saps.gov.za for the 2020
results. You will notice that in the various tables per station, province or
specific category of crime, the above features are there.

Charts
Charts should be numbered and have an appropriate title. They should:
be discussed in the text
show units and scales of measurement
not include too much information
have “graphical integrity” (i.e., represent what they are supposed to
represent)
be easy to read and interpret
Three useful types of charts are pie charts, line graphs and bar charts or
graphs.

11. PRIORITISING PROBLEMS AND PLANNING A RESPONSE

Factors to consider
You need to focus initially on the more urgent problems. When deciding how
urgent a problem is, consider the following factors:
the seriousness of the crime
its impact
risk and vulnerability factors
geographical areas
access and escape routes
specific institutions, e.g., schools

SAPS priorities
The SAPS has established what problems are urgent and need to be prioritised
nationally.
The SAPS Strategic Plan 2020–2025 lists the strategic priorities of the
organisation, based on government instructions, the needs of the population,
treasury directives and their own information and crime pattern analysis,
as follows:

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Key operational strategies

Community Policing Strategy, which includes the Community-in-Blue
Programme and the Traditional Policing Concepts
Youth Crime Prevention Strategy
On-line Crime Prevention Strategy
SAPS Safer City Framework, which includes the Local Crime Prevention
Framework
Rural Safety Strategy
National Crime Combating Strategy (NCCS)
Integrated Tourist Safety Action Plan
Public Order Policing Strategy (POP)
SAPS Anti-Gang Strategy Implementation Plan
SAPS Implementation Plan for the National Drug Master Plan
Integrated Sexual Offences and Gender-based Violence Strategy
SAPS Action Plan to Combat Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia
and Related Intolerance
Crime Detection Strategy, which includes the requirements related to
the implementation of the CJS 7-Point Plan
Organised Crime Threat Analysis (OCTA) Strategy
Cybercrime Strategy
Crime Intelligence Corporate Renewal Strategy

Key organisational support strategies

Ethics and Anti-Corruption Strategy
SAPS Transformation Plan
Employee Health and Wellness Strategy
Police Safety Strategy
Recruitment, Selection and Retention Strategy
SAPS Corporate Governance Framework, including, inter alia, a Combined
Assurance Approach (including consequence management)
Corporate Communication Strategy
Risk Management Strategy
Integrated Resource Management Strategy
Information Systems/Information and Communication Technology (IS/
ICT) Strategy and Plan
Infrastructure and Capital Asset Strategy
Access to Service Points Strategy

SAPS strategic approach

The SAPS has approached these priorities by analysing the crime situation
and finding out which areas are the “geographical hot spots” in the country
(the areas with the highest incidence of crime and violence). They have thus
been able to identify high crime areas (crime combating zones) where more
than 50% of violent and organised crimes occur.

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Since April 2000, the SAPS has focused on stabilising crime in these areas
so that normal crime management can take place and socioeconomic
development can occur. The strategies used to achieve this are the geographic
approach and the organised crime combating strategy (described in section
3 of this unit).
These approaches are carried out by multidisciplinary crime-combating
teams. The investigations are intelligence-driven, and the multidisciplinary
teams use an integrated, knowledge-sharing approach in combating these
crimes.

12. DESIGNING AN IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY

During which stage in the models is the strategy designed?

In terms of the SARA and CWP problem-solving models, the design of an
implementation strategy is dealt with at the following point:
SARA: step 3 – response
CWP: phase 4 – implementation

Involving the community

The CWP model suggests that implementation strategies should be designed
to meet the community’s needs. Therefore, partnerships with the community
should be built and working groups established to address these needs. This
is very important, as the community can provide valuable information on
offenders. It is also useful to know that you have support from the community
for your crime prevention operations in the area.

Long-term strategies
Although you will formulate short- and medium-term strategies to implement
your plan, the SARA model advocates that you adopt long-term, creative,
tailor-made strategies to solve each problem (see unit 1). This implies that
you should work out the best possible response to the specific problems – some
crimes can be prevented (e.g., by implementing patrols at a certain time of the
day when the crimes are likely to occur), whereas other crimes will have to be
investigated and the offenders arrested.

13. EVALUATING THE CRIME PREVENTION PLAN

Two stages
Your plan should be evaluated in two stages:
during its implementation, while you are carrying out the plan (monitoring)
after it has been completed (assessment)
We will briefly consider both monitoring and assessment.

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Monitoring
You need to monitor the strategies you have designed and the responses
you are giving for the following reasons:
to assess whether you are achieving your short- and medium-term goals
to assess whether you are meeting your time deadlines
Throughout the implementation of your plan, you need to have regular
meetings with all role players involved in the operation, so that they can
provide feedback on their progress.

Assessment
In terms of the SARA and CWP problem-solving models, assessment is dealt
with at the following point:
SARA: step 4 – assessment
CWP: phase 5 – evaluation/feedback
At the end of your operation, you need to establish whether you have achieved
all your goals. A good indicator of whether you have done so is a decrease
in the crime you were targeting or a solution to the problem you were
addressing. You could also assess whether the community is satisfied with the
results of the operation. There may be indications of success in the community,
such as an increased number of youth groups.

Making recommendations
The final section of your crime prevention plan deals with recommendations
for future crime prevention plans. You can use the conclusions you reach in
assessing your plan to make recommendations for future crime prevention
plans based on the successes and failures of your plan.

14. CRIME PREVENTION PLAN CHECKLIST

The following steps, as listed in table 3.1, can be used as a guide for
developing, implementing and evaluating a crime prevention plan.

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TABLE 3.1
Steps used as a guide for developing, implementing and evaluating a
crime prevention plan

Step Action

1 Obtain a map of your area.

2 Obtain crime information from the available registers for a

particular time frame. (You can use the automatic GIS if it is
available to you.)

3 Plot the various crimes on your map.

4 Use graphics to indicate whether there has been an increase or

a decrease in the incidence of crime for the period concerned.

5 Choose a problem-solving model to develop a crime prevention

plan for your area.

6 Design an implementation strategy for your crime prevention

plan.

7 Evaluate your crime prevention plan by monitoring and assessing

it.

8 Compare your plan with any other existing plan in your working
environment.

SUMMARY
In this unit, we have looked at various aspects of information-driven crime
prevention. We have:
defined the concept of intelligence-led or information-driven crime
prevention
listed the standard methods of gathering and analysing information
looked at the use of statistics in identifying crime trends
outlined how to devise, implement and evaluate a plan for crime prevention
based on the problem-solving models presented in unit 1
We have also provided you with learning activities that have guided you
through the process of:
developing a crime prevention plan
designing an implementation strategy for your plan
evaluating your plan

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Investigate how information-driven crime prevention is carried out in

your station or unit. Compare what you have learnt in this study unit
with what is done in practice. Then assess how useful this study unit
has been to your work situation and what information you still need in
order to practise information-driven crime prevention successfully.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

Learning activity 1
Time for activity: 20 minutes
Identify the key terms associated with crime prevention.

Learning activity 2
Time for activity: 20 minutes
Having read through all the foregoing definitions, and drawing on your
own knowledge and experience, write your own definition of information-
driven crime prevention.

Learning activity 3
Time for activity: 35 minutes
Speak to the colleagues in your station or unit who are usually responsible
for collecting information to establish the crime trends in your area.
(1) Find out from these people what types of information they look for
in order to identify both general crime and organised crime trends.
(2) Also establish which problem is the top priority for your station or
unit at the moment and identify the internal and external resources
that are needed to combat or prevent the challenges.

Learning activity 4
Time for activity: 35 minutes
Using the preceding information and the relevant information from
unit 1, design your own implementation strategy based on the crime
prevention plan you have drawn up. Remember to work out the most
practical strategy for dealing with each element of the problem.

continue/...

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Learning activity 5
Time for activity: 35 minutes
You have now written up most of the sections of a crime prevention plan.
In your station or unit, find an old crime prevention plan that has been
used successfully to combat or prevent a particular problem, and compare
your plan with it. Then write a short evaluation of your plan.
Obviously, you cannot assess whether you achieved the goals set out
in your plan, as you will not have implemented it. However, you will
be able to establish whether your goals are realistic and whether your
plan has taken into account all the important elements of the problem
and of the response you should make.

FEEDBACK

Learning activity 1
In this unit, read paragraph 2 on the all the terms.

Learning activity 2
Read paragraph 2 and formulate your own definition.

Learning activity 3
Read paragraph 3 and talk to your colleagues and prepare a list of
priorities.

Learning activity 4
Read aspects in this unit and do a practical strategy on any challenges.

Learning activity 5
Analyse any previous crime prevention plan. Then compare your plan
and do your own assessment.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Time for self-assessment: 20 minutes
To test and evaluate your knowledge of this study unit, complete the following
activities:
Make sure you have mastered the outcomes that were listed at the start
of the study unit by making brief notes.
Make a summary of the study unit.
Answer the following self-assessment questions:
— Discuss strategic and operational analysis.
— Discuss crime threat analysis (CTA) and crime pattern analysis (CPA).

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6 STUDY UNIT 4

Community and stakeholder dynamics

Time required for study unit 3

This study unit will require approximately three (3) hours.

1. AIM AND LEARNING OUTCOMES

Community and stakeholder engagement can be synonymously referred

to as networking. The terms are thus used interchangeably.

Aim of this unit

The aim of this unit is to enable you to develop networks within your work
environment.

Learning outcomes
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
explain the importance of networks in your work environment
indicate the importance of compiling a community profile
compile a community profile of the area where you work
establish networks within your community using a community profile

2. INTRODUCTION
The policing task cannot be addressed effectively by criminal justice agencies
alone. This is because crime is a problem caused by a range of factors,
requiring the assistance of the community to solve. Therefore, knowing how
to network with the community will benefit your policing task.
In essence, you need to know how to combine people in networks in order
to take action on problematic issues that affect their livelihood. This action
will contribute to the policing function.
As various authors observe in Crawford (2009), crime prevention is not
the reserve of police officials. The role played by various government
departments, the various levels of the non-governmental sector, police and
private security units, religious groups, other interest groups like women,

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the youth, the business sector and so on all have a role to play in order
to enhance crime prevention interventions. A holistic approach should be
implemented to assist with crime prevention.

3. UNDERSTANDING COMMUNITY AND STAKEHOLDER DYNAMICS

For you to understand what networking really is and how to use it, you need
to be able to answer the following questions:
What are networks?
How can networks be used for networking in my environment?
With whom do I network?
In this section, we will try to answer these questions.
Dizon (2012) describes a network as a “pattern of linked relationships
across which help and information flow on a particular issue”.
Makihara (2006) describes networking as a process of bringing people
together to assist one another and to serve mutual needs. Members of
a network are committed to sharing information and resources.
Miller and Hess (1998:164) describe networking as “the building and
keeping of professional relationships for mutual interest and mutual help”.
From these definitions, you can see that networks are formed to link people
with the same interest to one another in order for them to support one
another by sharing information and resources.
A network thus refers to the interactive ties between two or more people. This
linking and communication can take place between people and organisations
at local, national or international level. (Although networks usually link people
to each other, they also link organisations to each other through individuals
in the organisations who know each other. An example would be when
members of the CPF introduce the police to their respective employers with
the aim of obtaining funds.)

Linkages that empower

People who are connected through networks bring with them their different
resources, and the interactive linkage of these people can maximise their
functioning. Through their association, they are able to improve their social
wellbeing, and this develops their sense of power and significance.

How and with whom to network

We network personally by interacting with other people to get or share
information, support or resources. This is something we all do daily, and in
doing so we all come to know various people. These people, in turn, know
other people, all of whom form an ever-increasing network of contacts.
Each person in your network thus ties you into his or her network, and
eventually your network ties into countless such networks.

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4. COMMUNITY NETWORKS

Natural linkages
Communities are generally composed of natural networks of people helping
each other. For example, the natural networks between relatives, friends,
neighbours, religious groupings, colleagues and casual associates provide
valuable evidence of the ways in which people within communities link up
with each other.

Advantage for the police

Communities that have strong natural helping networks are an advantage
to the police, as these networks can be mobilised to assist in fighting crime.
However, for the police to mobilise a network, they have to be aware of it
and analyse it. Analysing existing community networks will help you to
determine how cohesive and united the community is.

Disorganised communities
When natural networks are linked to assist people in the community, the
social fabric of the community is strengthened and the quality of life in
that community is enhanced. However, disorganised communities with
powerless people and fewer resources are not always able to work with the
police. In these communities, the police will first need to build networks around
issues of common concern to community members.

5. FORMAL AND INFORMAL NETWORKS

Networks are groups or systems of interconnected people (social structure)

to exchange information and develop social contacts (individuals,
friends, organisations, business partners and community). There are
different types of community networks serving the needs of people in
a particular community. Networks can be divided primarily into formal
and informal networks.a

Formal networks are those in which the names of people in the network are
known and their relationship lasts over time. Accordingly, relationships with
family, neighbours, friends and colleagues would constitute formal networks.
Networks can also be informal, coming together only when needed – for
example, when campaigning against gangsterism, drugs or the licensing
of shebeens in a certain area.

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Relevance to the police

As a police official, you will need to be able to identify these networks,
understand their extent and functions and use them effectively in crime
prevention.
Through working with these different networks, you will begin to discover
the various roles people play in a specific community. Thus, you will identify
the pacesetters, critics, innovators and reactionaries. The pacesetters and
innovators are always willing to support new ideas, while the critics and
reactionaries always stand to the side waiting for something to go wrong.
Being aware of such clusters of relationships in communities will help you
in forming a network to tackle a crime problem in your area.

6. ISSUE AND LIBERATED NETWORKS

We have established that networks empower people by putting the connections
of other people at the disposal of those in need. We will now consider the
two types of network known as issue and liberated networks.
When people are organised to tackle a specific problem or issue, they are
organised into issue networks. Therefore, issue networks link people who
are interested in a particular issue or who share beliefs about a particular
issue, irrespective of their feelings on other topics.
Examples of issues around which people form networks are:
gangsterism
child abuse
prostitution
drug abuse and trafficking
domestic violence
As a police official, you must use such issues to mobilise communities to
prevent these crimes. Think of any other examples of issues for which you
think people might form issue networks.
Membership of liberated networks enables people to solve problems by
working with other people with whom they have no direct relationship.
This cooperation is made possible by the interpersonal ties that constitute
the network, through which help, information or support might flow.
Example
A woman who has been raped may want help in dealing with the trauma
of being raped. By talking to a clinic sister, she might learn about a support
group that she could join.
The police may want to raise funds for certain projects or announce
meetings or upcoming events. The chairperson of the CPF could approach
the manager of the petrol station, whom he already knows. The petrol
station manager, in turn, might approach the owner of a stationery shop,
whom he knows, who can print free pamphlets for the CPF.

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7. POLICING AND NETWORKING

The police need networking to prevent crime. They should:
develop the capability to analyse community needs
formulate multilateral strategies
mobilise all community resources
coordinate efforts to prevent crime
adapt the delivery of their services to various social circumstances
evaluate the effectiveness of what officials implement

Community policing values

Networking is also based on community policing values, which include the
following:
community safety and liveability
a belief in public input and participation in safety issues
cost-effectiveness
trust
a decentralised approach to the diverse needs of community
cooperation between organisations at all levels
the search for quality in public safety and law enforcement services
Staying informed about the networks in communities is very important for
police officials who hope to prevent crime successfully.

Establishing links
Police officials need to link with the following institutions and agencies in
their areas:
social service agencies such as Child Welfare and NICRO
hospitals, clinics and emergency care providers
religious institutions
schools
business associations and informal trade associations
courts and corrections personnel
politicians
local governments and other government departments
special interest groups such as WAWA (Women Against Women Abuse)

Individual or group linkage

There are various kinds of linkage:
linkage on an individual, face-to-face basis
linkage in groups against common threats such as housebreaking and
child abuse
linkage as communities for self-protection (e.g., through street committees
and farm watches)

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Key points summarised

Here is a summary of relevant points covered:
Networks are used to link people with each other to share information,
resources and support.
As a police official, you need to be aware of the various networks in order
to link them with each other to serve as support systems.
Through network analysis, you will be able to:
develop strategies that strengthen existing networks for crime prevention
and develop new networks where they are needed
locate people with similar interests in the community and link them with
issues of common concern
understand the process of how people make connections
Since policing is a function performed not solely by the police but with the
assistance of the community, it is important to know how to use the different
types of networks in the community for the benefit of the policing task.

8. THE COMMUNITY PROFILE: AN OVERVIEW

Since policing has diverse functions, of which networking is only one
part, you might be asking yourself how you are going to fit networking
into your busy schedule. To be able to do this, you need to start
by compiling a community profile reflecting your networking with other
role players who will give you information about community networks
that can help you with crime prevention. These networks could include
government departments, communities, businesses, non-governmental
organisations, community-based organisations, schools, churches and other
service providers.
Before starting to build networks for crime prevention, you need to get to
know the area in which you are working. This is achieved by compiling
a community profile. In this profile, you identify the problems, resources
and other factors for the purpose of mobilising community groups in order
to ensure cooperation in crime prevention.
A community profile is a planning tool used by various service providers
to give them a picture of the community’s needs, concerns and perceptions
and of the resources that exist within the community.

Planning tool
The community profile is a planning tool, since it will help you to organise
information about the community that can be helpful in planning policing
strategies that are relevant to your particular area. It also aims to:
improve the quality of life of the residents within a certain area by
developing programmes that can combat crime

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identify the shortcomings in police service delivery and attempt to

improve the service delivery (services can then be directed towards a
specific community, e.g., an informal settlement)

Identifying needs, perceptions and concerns

The community’s safety and security needs are identified, thus familiarising
the police with the specific needs in the area and helping them to prioritise
their services. During this identification process, people’s perceptions and
concerns about crime problems and public safety issues are also expressed.
This helps the police to develop crime prevention programmes that are
relevant and tailor-made for the specific community.

Identifying tangible resources

Resources refer to all the assets within the specific community that can be
used to its benefit. Resources can be divided into tangible and intangible
resources. These are distinguished in table 4.1 below:
TABLE 4.1
Resources can be divided into tangible and intangible resources

Tangible resources Intangible resources

These can include: These can include:

housing informal and formal skills

shops support networks such as:
community centres — families
clinics — neighbours
schools — friends
post offices — partners who are willing to
other institutions assist the police
formal and informal
businesses
employment opportunities in
a certain area

What does a profile consist of?

The community profile will include the following aspects of the community:
a demographic analysis of the community
analysis of the community’s physical and social characteristics
unemployment analysis
crime analysis
age, gender and disability composition of the population
level of education in the area
type and number of dwellings in the area

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number of people occupying each dwelling

type and number of formal and informal businesses in the area

Compiling the profile

You could start your community profile by gathering demographic details of
the community. Demographic information gives you an idea of the population
trends and characteristics of the community. This information is important
to know so you will be able to identify and predict future policing problems
and future needs. It includes information on the following:
size of the population in the area
its growth rate
its ethnic, cultural and linguistic composition
age and gender composition of the population
education levels
type and number of housing units in the area
size of the families occupying these units
number of employed and unemployed people in the area
Sources of demographic data
Demographic data can be obtained from local, town or regional planning
departments, Statistics SA, the Human Sciences Research Council,
provincial government departments, non-governmental organisations (NGOs)
and community-based organisations (CBOs).
While gathering the information from these various departments, you need
to network regularly with various key individuals in these departments who
can become part of your resource network.

9. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COMMUNITY

How will this information help?

Information on the physical characteristics of the community will help you
to analyse and understand the causes of crime in that community and to
design a crime prevention plan that is tailor-made to suit the community and
its physical environment.

What is relevant information?

You could gather information on:
the use of land
housing conditions
services available in the community
image
infrastructure
transport routes

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vacant land
business facilities in the area

How to obtain this information

You can obtain information on the community’s physical characteristics by
means of the following:
observation of any of the above aspects
interviews with people in the community
identifying key resourceful people whom you can include in your network
list for further involvement in crime prevention activities
requesting information from the local council and from Statistics SA in
Pretoria
You can obtain further information on the physical characteristics of
the community from your General reader for Police Practice.

10. SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COMMUNITY

How will this information help?

The social characteristics of the community will tell you about the type of
people living there and their personal conditions that might contribute to
crime.
What is relevant information?
You could gather information on:
age and gender
socio-economic status
levels of inequality
youth activities
community participation in community life
security of tenure
We will consider each briefly.

Age and gender

The age and gender categories of both victims and perpetrators of crime in
the area can be an important factor in understanding and anticipating crime
levels in a community, as well as the need to use qualitative and quantitative
methods.
In understanding crime prevention dynamics, age is one of the factors to be
taken into account as an example:
By June 2008, of the 113 333 sentenced offenders 34 819 were 25 years
old and younger (Dept of Correctional Services 2009). As Hopkins (2008)
notes, the involvement of young people in crime has been heightened in

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modern societies. The Service Charter for Victims of Crime in South Africa
(2007) affirms the Prevention and Eradication of Violence Against Women
and Children Addendum to the 1997 SADC Declaration on Gender and
Development. This recognises the vulnerability of women and children.

Socio-economic status
Relevant aspects that need to be considered in your crime prevention plan
include the following:
size of the economically active population in the area
how many people in the community receive social pensions and grants
from the government
poverty and unemployment, which the National Crime Prevention Strategy
identifies as factors that contribute to crime

Substantial inequality
The economic inequality in the area can contribute to crime. You need to
establish, for example, whether there are extreme cases of poor and wealthy
people living side by side in the community.

Youth activities
Since most perpetrators of crime are young people, it is necessary that you
target this group when doing crime prevention. You therefore need to explore
matters such as the following:
whether there are any recreational, sporting or social activities in the area
for the youth to participate in
whether schools have after-care programmes
to what extent the schools are involved in crime prevention

Participation in community life

In communities that have some cohesion, it is easier for people to become
involved in crime prevention activities than in communities where there is
no cohesion. You therefore need to determine the extent to which members
of the community are involved in local organisations and activities.
For example, do members of the community participate in the CPF or other
crime prevention activities such as neighbourhood and farm watches or
block and street committees? These could indicate people’s willingness to
participate in crime prevention activities.

Security of tenure
In areas where property occupancy changes rapidly, there tends to be a higher
crime rate. Rapid turnover of housing occupancy also affects community
cohesion.

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Unemployment analysis
Information about employment skills and training in your community forms
an important part of the profile. An unemployment analysis is very important
because there is a correlation between rising unemployment and rising crime
figures (South Africa 1997:38). You may want to know the following:
How many people are working and what do they do, including people
who are self-employed?
How many people are unemployed and for how long have they been
unemployed?
What is the average income per household and how many people are
supported on this income?
How many people in the area receive welfare grants or old-age pensions?
Which are the local businesses and how many vacancies do they have?
This information can be gathered from the local town councils, the Department
of Labour, local clinics, local businesses and schools and by surveying the
local community.

11. CRIME ANALYSIS

Your community profile should also include a crime analysis. Information
on the types and nature of crime that occur in your area will help you to
identify:
which of these crimes need to be prioritised in your crime prevention plan
who the offenders are
who the victims are

The nature of crime

You will need information about:
all categories of crime that occur
precisely where these crimes occur
who the victims are – their age, gender, race, occupation, etc
who the offenders are – their age, race, gender and socioeconomic status,
etc
how the crime was committed
whether any drugs or alcohol were involved

Amount of crime
To determine the amount of crime, you will need to do the following:
Obtain information on how much crime occurs in various given periods,
such as every year, month, season, day and even time of day.
Establish the changes in crime rate over the past five years. To do this, you
would divide the number of crimes by the population number. (However,
you will not need to do this as there are monthly crime reports at each
station, from which you can gather this information.)

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Assess the impact of the crime problem by asking the following questions:
How big is the problem?
How many people are affected?
Assess the seriousness of the problem by asking the following questions:
How much danger, damage, loss, public concern or political sensitivity
does the problem generate?
What are the consequences for the community and the police?
Does the problem have an impact on community-police relations?
Make a list of all the people from whom you intend to gather the above crime
information.
Using the network list that you compiled earlier, list all the people you will
contact to form a group to solve the problem.
Explain the steps you will follow to form a network that can help you deal
with the problem and prevent further problems from occurring.

Sources of information about crime

Information about crime can be gathered from the police and the community.
Table 4.2 below is adapted from Making South Africa safe: a manual
for community-based crime prevention (National Crime Prevention Centre
2000:43), indicating where information about crime can be gathered.
TABLE 4.2
Indicating where information about crime can be gathered

Police Statistics Interviews

Crime statistics can be Information about crime

gathered from: can also be gathered by
figures at national, interviewing:
provincial, area and your local station
local level and from commissioner
the CIAC in Pretoria head of crime prevention
and in your province head of detectives
local community the area commissioner
service centres

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The community Victim surveys Other community sources

These tell you about: Other important crime

the extent of crime information sources are:
most serious crimes community surveys
degree of fear of interviews with key
crime people
community concerns CBOs, welfare agencies,
local municipalities,
schools, clinics, NGOs,
private security firms,
CPFs, businesses, etc
newspaper, radio and TV
reports

12. ESTABLISHING NETWORKS: SKILLS REQUIRED

A range of skills
To build strong networks, you will have to acquire a broad range of
interpersonal and technical skills. These skills will be developed with
regular practice. They are illustrated in table 4.3 below:
TABLE 4.3
Acquire a broad range of interpersonal and technical skills

Interpersonal communication Technical skills

skills

meeting and talking to people starting, building and maintaining

asserting yourself an organisation
questioning doing research
listening achieving sound public relations
empathising planning and managing projects
being non-judgemental marketing
being aware of prejudices fund-raising
empowering others

We will deal with the interpersonal skills first.

Effective interpersonal skills

The relevance of these skills is indicated in table 4.4 below:

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TABLE 4.4
The relevance of effective interpersonal skills

Interpersonal skill Relevance

Meeting and talking to people The relevance of this skill is self-

evident, since you will need to meet
many community members and
converse with them.

Asserting yourself Being self-assured and assertive when

meeting people and talking to them will:
help you to get what you want
draw others to you
help you to accept any rejection that
you may experience when networking

Asking good questions Good questions allow people to know

what you want and lead to good answers
and relevant information. You should
be clear about why you need to build
a network and should formulate your
questions beforehand.

Listening A great deal of networking depends

on effective listening for information
and answers. (Revise your Policing II
learning material on active and effective
listening skills, and consult additional
reading material on this topic.)

Empathising with people This is essential when listening – it

entails understanding what people
believe and feel, and why they do so.

Being non-judgemental Being non-judgemental enables you to

listen to others even if you disagree
with what they are saying. It is implied
by empathy.

Becoming aware of your own When networking, you need to be aware

prejudices of any prejudices you hold (e.g., racism,
sexism and classism) so that they do
not prevent you from involving certain
people.

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Interpersonal skill Relevance

Empowering others This means showing real interest and

having a helpful attitude towards others.
People are more likely to be part of
your network when you help to empower
them.

Technical skills
You will also need technical skills such as starting, maintaining and building
an organisation. Other skills you will need when networking are indicated
in table 4.5 below:
TABLE 4.5
The relevance of technical skills

Technical skills Relevance

Research skills To mobilise the community effectively, you

will need information about it. You can obtain
this by doing research, using techniques
such as statistical analysis, interviewing,
questionnaires and observations.

Public relations The task of the police is essentially to work

daily with the public. It is therefore important
to develop meaningful relations with the
public through regular communication.

Project planning and To form a network to deal with a specific

management crime problem, you will have to know how to
plan, keep the planned activities to schedule,
maintain the momentum of the project and
achieve its objectives.

Marketing You should be able to “sell” the project

to community members to gain their
involvement and interest. You can use a
range of marketing tools such as advertising,
newsletters, public meetings and public
events.

Fund-raising skills The police depend on public involvement and

funding to perform their duties successfully,
and you will need to persuade people to
contribute all sorts of resources to the project.

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You may not need to exercise all of these technical skills, but you could
develop them or recruit people into your network with these skills.

SUMMARY
Interpersonal communication and technical skills are essential for networking.
You might not have all these skills to begin with, but effective networkers
are lifelong learners who continually improve their current skills. These
skills are used continually throughout the process of networking.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

Time for activity: 30 minutes

Survey your community and draw up a community profile and compile
a network list. You will need some kind of record so that you can keep
track of your contacts. You could use index cards, a personal organiser
or a computerised database for this purpose.
Your network list can include the following:
a list of all your current contacts – both internal and external – with
all their contact details, such as addresses and phone numbers
your personal contacts such as friends, relatives and colleagues
a resource list that could include
specialised units in the police
emergency services – ambulance, fire brigade, traffic department
medical services – district surgeon, hospitals, clinics, doctors
welfare services – child welfare, NICRO, etc
educational institutions – pre-primary, primary, secondary and other
legal institutions – magistrates’ courts, advice offices, etc
any other resources and information that you might find useful in
building networks in your community

FEEDBACK

Learning activity 1
You had to work with paragraph 5, 6 and 7. Also, think out of the box
when compiling your own network list.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Time for self-assessment: 20 minutes
To test and evaluate your knowledge of this study unit, complete the following
activities:
Make sure you have mastered the outcomes that were listed at the start
of the study unit by making brief notes.
Make a summary of the study unit.
Answer the following self-assessment questions:
— Discuss how networking will assist you with proper crime prevention
in your environment.
— Discuss the relevant information that is needed to inform officials on
the social characteristics of the community.

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A. MULTILINGUAL GLOSSARY OF TERMS:

English to isi Setswana

Term Meaning Mareo Bokao

communication Means of sending or Tlhaeletsano Tsela ya go romela gongwe

receiving information. go amogela tshedimosetso.

courteous To be polite and to show Maitseo Go nna maitseo le go

respect. bontsha tlotlo.

ethics Moral principles that Maitsholo Dintlhatheo tsa maitsholo

govern a person’s tse di laolang maitsholo a
behaviour or performance motho gongwe tiragatso ya
of an activity. sengwe.

hierarchy A system in which Tatelano ya Thulaganyo e mo go yona

people are arranged maemo batho ba rulaganngwang
according to their status or go ya ka maemo a bona.
authority. Upper levels in Magato a a kwa godimo
organisations. mo ditheong.

law enforcement Any public sector Motlhankedi wa Modiri mongwe le mongwe

official and/or employee whose duties tiragatso ya molao wa lephata la setšhaba yo
officer involve the enforcement tiro ya gagwe e akaretsang
of laws, including a police tiragatso ya melao. Bona
official, a traffic officer, a ba ka akaretsa batlhankedi
prison official, a customs ba ba dirang mo
official, an immigration sepodising, pharakanong,
official, a Home Affairs dikgolegelong,
official or any official who melelwaneng,
has been granted powers bofudugeding le kwa
to enforce specific laws. mererong ya selegae
gongwe batlhankedi
bangwe le bangwe ba ba
neilweng dithata tsa go
diragatsa melao e e rileng.

standard A criterion that refers to Seemo/peelo Tlhokego e e kayang

the basis for making a motheo wa go tsaya
judgement. tshwetso gongwe go
atlhola.

transformation A marked change in the Diphetogo Phetogo e e bonalang

appearance, nature or mo tebegong, mokgwa
character of something gongwe semelo gongwe
or someone, especially so sengwe gongwe mongwe,
that the thing or person bogolo segolo moo e leng
improves, thus going in a gore selo gongwe motho o
new direction. a tokafala, mme ka jalo a
ya kwa ntlheng e ntšhwa.

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Term Meaning Mareo Bokao

universal Concepts of legal Dintlhatheo tsa Megopolo ya kamogelesego

principles legitimacy. kakaretso ya semolao.

values The fundamental Dintlhatheo Ditumelo tsa botlhokwa

beliefs of a person or tsa motho gongwe setheo.
an organisation. The Se se leng botlhokwa, se le
importance or usefulness mosola e bile se dira.
of something; the regard
that something is held to
deserve.

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English to isiXhosa

Term Meaning Mareo Bokao

communication Means of sending or Unxibelelwano Iindlela zokuthumela

receiving information. okanye zokufumana
ulwazi.

courteous To be polite and to show Ukuba nembeko Ukuchubeka

respect. nokubonakalisa
intlonipho

ethics Moral principles that Imikhwa Imithethosiseko

govern a person’s esulungekileyo yokuziphatha elawula
behaviour or performance indlela yokuziphatha
of an activity. komntu okanye ukuqhuba
umsebenzi.

hierarchy A system in which people Uluhlu Inkqubo apho abantu

are arranged according lwemigangatho belungelelaniswa
to their status or yabasemagunyeni ngokuphathelele
authority. Upper levels in ngokwamawonga okanye
organisations. ngokwamagunya abo.
Amanqanaba aphezulu
kumaqumrhu.

law enforcement Any public sector Igosa Nawuphi na

official and/or employee whose duties lezonyanzelisomthetho umsebenzi wecandelo
officer involve the enforcement likarhulumente
of laws, including a police omsebenzi wakhe
official, a traffic officer, a ubandakanya unyanzeliso
prison official, a customs lomthetho. Oku
official, an immigration kungaquka amagosa
official, a Home Affairs awayamene nobupolisa,
official or any official who amagosa ezendlela,
has been granted powers iijele, irhafu, ungenelelo
to enforce specific laws. lwabangaphandle kunye
nemicimbi yezekhaya
okanye nawaphi na
amagosa anikwe
amagunya okunyanzela
imithetho ethile.

transformation A marked change in the Inguqu Utshintsho olubonakalayo

appearance, nature or ngokwembonakalo, isimo
character of something okanye isimilo sento
or someone, especially so okanye umntu, ukuze
that the thing or person ngokungakumbi into leyo
improves, thus going in a okanye umntu aphucuke,
new direction. ngako oko atshintshe.

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Term Meaning Mareo Bokao

universal Concepts of legal Imithethosiseko Iingqikelelo zokuba

principles legitimacy. yoluntu lonke sesikweni kwezomthetho.

values The fundamental Imikhwa esesikweni Iinkolelo ezisisiseko

beliefs of a person or zomntu okanye
an organisation. The zequmrhu.
importance or usefulness Okubalulekileyo,
of something; the regard okuluncedo kwaye
that something is held to okufanele ukuvuzwa
deserve.

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English to isiZulu

Term Meaning Mareo Bokao

communication Means of sending or Ukuxhumana Lezi yizindlela/yimigudu

receiving information. zokuthumela noma
zokuthola umlayezo

courteous To be polite and to show Ukuzithoba/ Ukuzithoba kanye

respect. ngenhlonipho nokubonisa inhlonipho

ethics Moral principles that Imigomo Yimigomo yokuzihlonipha

govern a person’s yokuziphatha elawula indlela
behaviour or performance yokuziphatha komuntu
of an activity. noma yokwenza into
ethize.

hierarchy A system in which people Uhlaka olukhombisa Lolu wuhlelo lapho

are arranged according ukushiyana abantu babekwa
to their status or kwamandla ngokwezikhundla zabo
authority. Upper levels in noma ngokwamandla abo.
organisations. Kunezigaba eziphezulu
ezinhlanganweni.

law enforcement Any public sector Isisebenzi esiyisikhulu Yinoma yisiphi

official and/or employee whose duties sezokuqiniswa isisebenzi sombuso
officer involve the enforcement komthetho kanye/ umsebenzi waso uxuba
of laws, including a police noma isisebenzi nje ukuqiniswa komthetho
official, a traffic officer, a Lokhu kungaxuba
prison official, a customs abasebenzi abasondelene
official, an immigration namaphoyisa, amaphoyisa
official, a Home Affairs emigwaqo, asejele,
official or any official who ezikweni lezokukhokhwa
has been granted powers kwentela, amaphoyisa
to enforce specific laws. abhekene nabantu
bakwamanye amazwe
kanye nasemnyangweni
wezindaba zasemakhaya
nomayinoma yibaphi
abasebenzi abanikezwe
igunya lokuqinisa
imithetho othile.

transformation A marked change in the Uhlelo lokuguquka Le yinguquko

appearance, nature or ephawuliwe, ebonakala
character of something kwisimo sento noma
or someone, especially so somuntu semvelo noma
that the thing or person kwizimpawu zayo/
improves, thus going in a zakhe zemvelo, ikakhulu
new direction. ngenhloso yokwenza
ngcono ley onto noma
lowo muntu, lokhu
ukungena kwindlela
entsha

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Term Meaning Mareo Bokao

universal Concepts of legal Imigomo eyamukeleka Amagama angaphansi

principles legitimacy. emhlabeni komthetho

values The fundamental Izinto ezithandwa/ Yizinkolelo

beliefs of a person or ezingamagugu eziyisissekelo somuntu
an organisation. The noma senhlangano.
importance or usefulness Yilokho okusemqoka,
of something; the regard okunomsebenzi kanye
that something is held to nalokho okuthathelwa
deserve. phezulu

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B. ACRONYMS
ACCF – Area Crime Combating Forum
BIS – Business Intelligence System
CAS – Crime Administration System
CIAC – Crime Information Analysis Centre
CPA – Crime Pattern Analysis
CTA – Crime Threat Analysis
CWP – Community Work Process
DCAF – Democratic Control of Armed Forces
DRC – Democratic Republic of Congo
ECOWAS – Member States of the Economic Community of West African
States
ECPF – ECOWAS Conflict Prevention Framework
EU – European Union
GIS – Geographic Information System
GPS – Ghana Police Service
RSPS – Royal Swaziland Police Service
RUF – Revolutionary United Front
SAPS – South African Police Service
SARA – Scanning, Analysis, Response and Assessment
SSR – Security Sector Reform

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South Africa. 2000. National Crime Prevention Centre. Making South Africa
safer: A manual for community-based crime prevention. Pretoria.
South Africa. Department of Safety and Security. 1997. A manual for the
South African Police Service. Pretoria: Government Printer.
South African Police Service. 2020. Strategic Plan 2020–2025. Pretoria.
Stevens, P & Yach, DM. 1995. Community policing in action: a practitioner’s
guide. Kenwyn: Juta.
Trojanowicz, RC & Bucqueroux, B. 1994. Community policing: how to get
started. Cincinnati: Anderson.
Van Dyk, PS, Nel, PS, Loedolff, P van Z & Haasbroek, GD. 1998. Training
management: a multidisciplinary approach to human resources
development in Southern Africa. 2nd edition. Johannesburg: Thompson.
Van Wyk, R & Krause, A. 2000. Crime threat analysis. Pretoria: National
Crime.

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RECOMMENDED: ADDITIONAL REFERENCES FOR OWN

READING
At the time of writing, there was no prescribed book for Crime Prevention
Principles for Policing 111, but the sources listed below are part of your integrated
recommended reading list. Please read as widely as you can, even beyond
this list. Your assignments must contain various sources other than the study
guide. Please note that you are not restricted to this list when working
on your assignment activities. Reading and research are foundations of
academic excellence.
The following websites have valuable information and, in the case of
publications from the Institute for Security Studies and the Centre for the
Study of Violence and Reconciliation, for example, you may be able to source
articles or abstracts of those articles:
South African Police Service: www.saps.gov.za/strategicplan/crimestatistics
Institute for Security Studies: www.issafrica.org
Institute of Criminology, University of Cape Town: www.uct.ac.za/depts/
criminology
National Institute for Crime Prevention and the Reintegration ofOffenders:
www.nicro.org.za
Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation: www.csvr.org.za
Ghana Police Service
http://www.ghanapolice.info/news_2.htm
www.policeaccountability.co.za
Royal Police Service www.RoyalEswatiniPoliceService.co.za
http://www.gov.sz/home.asp?pid=74
A wealth of information is to be found online in the latest and historical
journals, both on policing and related subjects. Please access these via the
Unisa library website.

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