 Example: Your ISP might provide you with a public IP like 203.0.113.20.

b. Private IP Address:
 Definition: Private IP addresses are used within a local network and are not visible to the outside
world. They are reserved for internal use.
 Usage: These addresses allow devices within the same local network to communicate with each
other.
 Example: Common private IP address ranges include 192.168.x.x, 10.x.x.x, and 172.16.x.x to
172.31.x.x.

Why IP Addresses Matter

 Routing Data: IP addresses help route data from one device to another, ensuring that your email or
website request reaches the correct destination.
 Network Identification: They uniquely identify devices on a network, which is essential for
communication and troubleshooting.
 Security: Proper management of IP addresses can help secure networks by preventing unauthorized
access and tracking network activity.

Switching Techniques (Circuit switching, Packet switching)

Circuit Switching vs. Packet Switching

Switching techniques determining how data is routed and managed across networks. The two primary
switching techniques are circuit switching and packet switching.

1. Circuit Switching
Circuit switching is a technique where a dedicated communication path or circuit is established between
two devices for the duration of their conversation. This path remains open and exclusive to the two devices
for the entire session.

Example:
 Traditional Telephone Networks: When you make a phone call, a dedicated circuit is established
between your phone and the recipient's phone for the duration of the call.
Pros:
 Reliable Connection: Since the path is dedicated, there is less chance of data loss or delay due to
other traffic.
 Consistent Quality: The quality of the communication is consistent throughout the session.
Cons:
 Inefficient Use of Resources: The dedicated path is reserved whether or not data is being
transmitted, which can lead to inefficient use of network resources.
 Scalability Issues: Circuit switching is less flexible and can be less scalable compared to other
techniques.
2. Packet Switching
Packet switching is a technique where data is divided into small packets, which are sent independently
through the network. Each packet may take a different path to reach the destination, where they are
reassembled in the correct order.

Example:
 The Internet: When you browse the web or send an email, data is split into packets that travel
through different routes and are reassembled at the destination.
Pros:
 Efficient Resource Utilization: Network resources are used more effectively as packets from
multiple sources can share the same network paths.
 Scalability: Packet switching is highly scalable and can handle a large number of simultaneous
communications.
Cons:
 Variable Quality: The quality of communication can vary due to the shared nature of the network
paths and possible delays or packet loss.
 Overhead: Packet switching introduces some overhead due to the need for packet headers and
reassembly at the destination.

Circuit Switching Packet Switching

Circuit switching requires a dedicated path before Packet switching does not require any dedicated
sending data from source to destination. path to send data from source to destination.

It reserves the entire bandwidth in advance. It does not reserve bandwidth in advance

No store and forward transmission It supports store and forward transmission

Each packet follows the same route A packet can follow any route

Call setup is required No call setup is required

Bandwidth wastage No bandwidth wastage

.

Transmission Media
Transmission media are the physical or logical channels through which data is transmitted from one device
to another in a network.
They can be broadly categorized into two types
1. Guided Media (Wired Media)
Guided media, also known as wired media, refers to physical transmission mediums used to transfer data
signals through a controlled path.
Guided media offer reliable and high-speed data transmission. They are commonly used in network
infrastructures for both local and wide area networks.

a. Twisted Pair Cables

Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together to reduce interference.
Types:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Common in Ethernet networks. Offers good
performance at a lower cost.
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Provides additional shielding to reduce
electromagnetic interference.
 Speed and Range: Generally supports speeds up to 1 Gbps over short distances.
Categories like Cat5e, Cat6, and Cat6a support different speeds and bandwidths.
Example: Used for telephone lines and local area networks (LANs).

b. Coaxial Cables
Comprises a central conductor, an insulating layer, a metallic shield, and an outer insulating layer.
Speed and Range: Supports higher bandwidth than twisted pair cables. Commonly used for
cable television and broadband internet.
Example: Coaxial cables are used to connect cable modems to routers.

c. Fiber Optic Cables

Uses glass or plastic fibers to transmit data as light pulses. Offers very high bandwidth and speed.
Speed and Range: Supports speeds ranging from 1 Gbps to several terabits per second over
long distances. Less susceptible to interference and signal loss.
Example: Used for high-speed internet connections, long-distance telecommunications, and
data center connections.

2. Unguided Media (Wireless Media)

Unguided media, or wireless media, refers to transmission methods that send data signals through the air or
space without physical cables.
a. Radio Waves
Electromagnetic waves used for various types of wireless communication.
 Speed and Range: Suitable for short to medium-range communication. Commonly used in
Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.
 Example: Wi-Fi routers use radio waves to provide wireless internet access in homes and
offices.

b. Microwaves
High-frequency radio waves used for point-to-point communication over long distances.
 Speed and Range: Can support high data rates but require line-of-sight between the
transmitting and receiving antennas. Used in satellite communication and some long-
distance communication systems.
 Example: Satellite television and microwave relay stations.

c. Infrared
Electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths longer than visible light but shorter than microwaves.
 Speed and Range: Typically used for short-range communication. Requires direct line-of-
sight between devices. Commonly used in remote controls and some short-range data
transfers.
 Example: Remote controls for televisions and some data transfer applications between
devices.

d. Satellite Communication
Uses satellites in geostationary orbits to relay data between ground stations.
 Speed and Range: Can cover large geographical areas and provide high-speed
communication. Subject to latency due to the distance signals must travel.
 Example: Satellite internet services and global broadcasting.
Network Devices
Network devices are hardware components that facilitate communication and data exchange within and
between networks. Together, these devices ensure efficient and reliable network operation.

1. Modem
 Function: Modem stands for Modulator/Demodulator. The modem is defined as a networking
device that is used to connect devices connected in the network to the internet. The main function of
a modem is to convert the analog signals that come from telephone wire into a digital form.
 Usage: Connects your home network to the Internet via your ISP.

2. Ethernet Card
 Function: A hardware component that allows a computer to connect to a network via Ethernet
cables.
 Usage: Provides wired network connectivity for data transfer.

3. RJ45 Connector
 Function: A type of connector used for Ethernet cables. It has eight pins that connect to the wires
inside the cable.