Sep 19 2024

1. Samantha Khavai
2. Cherono Elizabeth
3. John Njuguna
4. Kiptoo Silvanus Langat
5. Ombati Bevalline Moraa
6. Muchiri Stephen Mungai
7. Kelvin Munyinyi Burugu
8. Billy Kimathi Nyaga
9. Arthur Ojunga Obura
10. Mambo Felix Kaya
11. Pascal Otieno Oduor
12. Albert Obote Ogamba
13. Priva Muthusi Nthege
 Introduction to Stars
A star can be defined as a body that satisfies two conditions:
(a) is bound by self-gravity;
(b) it radiates energy supplied by an internal source.
From the first condition it follows that the shape of such a body must be spherical,
for gravity is a spherically symmetric force field.
By this definition,a planet,for example, is not a star, in spite of its stellar appearance,
because it shines (mostly) by reflection of solar radiation. Nor can a comet be
considered a star, although in early Chinese and Japanese records, comets belonged
with the “guest stars” - those stars that appeared suddenly in the sky where none had
previously been observed. Comets, like planets, shine by reflection of solar radiation
and, moreover, their masses are too small for self-gravity to be of importance.
A direct implication of the definition is that stars must evolve: as they release energy produced
internally. changes necessarily occur in their structure or composition, or both. This is precisely
the meaning of evolution.
From the above definition we may also infer that the death of a star can occur in two ways:
● violation of the first condition — self-gravity — meaning breakup of the star and
scattering of its material into interstellar space, or
● violation of the second condition — internally supplied radiation of energy — that could
result from exhaustion of the nuclear fuel.
In the latter case. the star fades slowly away,while it gradually cools off radiating the energy
accumulated during earlier phases of evolution. Eventually, it will become extinct, disappearing
from the field of view of even the most powerful telescopes. This is what we call a dead star.
We shall therefore start pursuing the evolution of a star from the earliest time when both
conditions of the definition have been fulfilled, and we shall stop when at least one condition has
ceased to be satisfied, completely and irreversibly.
 STAR BIRTH
● Birthplace of Stars – Molecular cloud (Nebula)
● A nebula is a giant cloud of dust and gas in space. Some nebulae (more than one nebula) come
from the gas and dust thrown out by the explosion of a dying star, such as a supernova. Other
nebulae are regions where new stars are beginning to form For this reason, some nebulae are
called "star nurseries.".
● There are three types of nebulae: Emission nebulae, Reflection nebulae and Dark nebulae.

Omega Nebula Horsehead Nebula Eagle Nebula

 How do stars form in a nebula?
● Nebulae are made of dust and gases—mostly
hydrogen and helium. The dust and gases in a
nebula are very spread out, and exist in
equilibrium state.
● The equilibrium state can be disturbed by factors
such as collision with other clouds or shock
waves from nearby supernova event. These
factors trigger a collapse of the molecular cloud
and initiate the burst of star formation.
● The condition for the cloud to collapse is that it
must exceed a certain mass above which
gravity dominates.

https://youtu.be/4kJUsNmwwDE
 How do stars form in a nebula?
● The collapsing cloud region undergoes fragmentation into
even smaller clumps that are dense and cold. Gravity of the
core of the clumps causes it to collapse and pull in more gas
– protostars form.
● As the gas/dust falls in, it picks up speed and energy. It is
slowed by friction and the energy is converted to heat. The
protostar keeps contracting under it own gravity. It is
powered by gravity via contraction - not by fusion.
● The protostar becomes a star when it has contracted so
much that it is dense and hot enough to begin nuclear fusion.

https://youtu.be/4kJUsNmwwDE
Life Cycle of Stars
○ Main Sequence: Hydrogen burning and stability
○ Red Giant Phase: Helium burning and expansion
○ End Stages: Planetary nebulae, supernovae, white
dwarfs, neutron stars, black holes
Tutorial
1. Starting from the Virial theorem, derive the formula for the Jeans mass limit for
gravitational collapse.

2. Describe in detail the pre-main sequence stages of stars, highlighting the characteristics
of each.

3. Estimate the lifetime of the Sun for producing energy at its current rate from nuclear
fusion assuming 0.007 of the of each proton in the Sun converted into energy and 10% of
the mass of the Sun participating in nuclear reaction.
 Evolutionary Time Scales
● Changes in a star may take place on quite different time scales at different evolutionary phases.
● There are three important basic time scales: the nuclear time scale tn , the thermal time scale tt
and the dynamical or freefall time scale td .
● The Nuclear Time Scale
● The time in which a star radiates away all the energy that can be released by nuclear reactions.
● An estimate of this time can be obtained if one calculates the time in which all available
hydrogen is turned into helium.
● It is known that only just over 10% of the total mass of hydrogen in the star can be consumed
before other, more rapid evolutionary mechanisms set in. Since 0.7% of the rest mass is turned
into energy in hydrogen burning, the nuclear time scale will be:

● For the Sun one obtains the nuclear time scale 1010 years, and thus
● The Thermal Time Scale
● The time in which a star would radiate away all its thermal energy if the nuclear energy
production were suddenly turned off. This is also the time it takes for radiation from the centre
to reach the surface. The thermal time scale may be estimated as:

● The Dynamical Time Scale

● The time it would take a star to collapse if the pressure supporting it against gravity were
suddenly removed. It can be estimated from the time it would take for a particle to fall freely
from the stellar surface to the centre.

● The dynamical time scale of the Sun is about half an hour. td << tt << tn
Gravitational lifetime for a star

M⊙ = 2 x 1033 gm;
R⊙ = 7 x 1010 cm;
L⊙ = 4 x 1026 Watt;
G⊙ = 6.67 x 10-8 dyn cm2/g2; This is a lifetime of 20 million years.
However, we know from geological evidence that the Earth
has been around for over four billion years.
This means that the Sun must be at least that old. Therefore,
the Sun (and other stars) cannot exist in a stable
configuration on stored gravitational energy.
 Nuclear energy for stars
● When a star is on the main sequence, its basic source of energy is the conversion of hydrogen
into helium. We start with four protons and end up with one 4He nucleus.
● We can calculate the energy released by converting four protons to one 4He by comparing
their masses. We find that:
4mp - m(4He) = 0.007(4mp)
● This means that 0.007 of the mass of each proton is converted into energy.
● If 0.007 of the mass of each proton in the Sun is converted into energy, and if we assume that
most of the mass of the Sun was originally in the form of protons, then 0.007 of the Sun’s total
mass is available for conversion into energy. The total energy available is therefore:
E = 0.007 Mʘ c2
= (0.007)(2.0 Χ 1033 g)(3.0 Χ 1010 cm/s )2
= 1.3 Χ 1052 erg
The lifetime is this energy divided by the luminosity:
However, only 10% of the mass of the Sun is in a region hot enough for nuclear
reactions – the core, so we must lower our estimate by a factor of ten.
This leaves us with a lifetime of ten billion years. We think that the Sun has already
lived half of this time.
 Introduction to Stellar Clusters
Definition:
A star cluster is a group of stars that share a common origin and are bound together by gravity.

Types:
❖ Open (Galactic) Clusters:
Contain a few to thousands of stars.
Often found in the spiral arms of galaxies.
❖ Globular Clusters:
Dense clusters (compact spherical appearance) containing
thousands to millions of stars.
Orbit the cores of galaxies in a spherical distribution.
 Open Clusters
● Definition:

Open clusters are loose, irregularly shaped groups of stars that were
formed from the same molecular cloud and are bound together by mutual
gravitational attraction. They typically contain a few hundred to a few
thousand stars.

● Characteristics:
○ Age: Generally younger, ranging from a few million to a few
billion years.
○ Metallicity: Tend to have higher metallicities (more elements
heavier than hydrogen and helium) compared to globular
clusters, reflecting their more recent formation from
interstellar material enriched by previous generations of stars.
○ Distribution: Found mainly in the galactic plane and the
spiral arms of galaxies, often associated with regions of active
star formation.
 Globular Clusters
● Definition:
Globular clusters are dense, spherical collections of hundreds of
thousands to millions of stars. They orbit the galactic core and
are thought to be some of the oldest stellar populations in the
galaxy.
● Characteristics:
○ Age: Typically very old, ranging from 10 to 13 billion
years, making them among the oldest stellar objects in
the galaxy.
○ Metallicity: Generally have lower metallicities
compared to open clusters, reflecting their formation
in the early universe when heavier elements were less
abundant.
○ Distribution: Found in the halo of galaxies, including
the Milky Way, often in globular clusters orbiting the
galactic core.
TOPCAT
 Term Paper Topics
1. The Role of Stellar Clusters in Understanding Stellar Evolution:
- Explore how observations of open and globular clusters contribute to our understanding of stellar evolution, with a focus on the initial mass
function and cluster dynamics.
2. Nuclear Fusion Processes in Stars: From Main Sequence to Supernova:
- Investigate the various nuclear fusion processes that power stars throughout their life cycles, with an emphasis on how these processes influence
stellar evolution and lead to different end-states such as white dwarfs, neutron stars, or black holes.
3. The Physics of Gas and Radiation in Stellar Interiors:
- Analyze the role of gas pressure, radiation pressure, and energy transport mechanisms within stellar interiors, and how these factors determine
the structure and evolution of stars.
4. Equilibrium Configurations and the Fate of Stars:
- Examine the conditions for equilibrium in stars and the various paths of stellar evolution, particularly focusing on the transition from main
sequence to giant phases and the eventual formation of stellar remnants.
5. Stellar Variability as a Diagnostic Tool in Astrophysics:
- Explore the different types of stellar variability (e.g., pulsating variables, eruptive variables) and how studying these phenomena provides
insights into the internal structure and evolutionary status of stars.
6. The Impact of Stellar Evolution on Galactic Evolution:
- Investigate how the life cycles of stars, including supernova events and the formation of stellar remnants, influence the chemical enrichment,
structure, and evolution of galaxies.
Sep 24, 2024
1. Samantha Khavai
2. Cherono Elizabeth
3. John Njuguna
4. Kiptoo Silvanus Langat
5. Ombati Bevalline Moraa
6. Muchiri Stephen Mungai
7. Lynne Wonder
8. Billy Kimathi Nyaga
9. Arthur Ojunga Obura
10. Mambo Felix Kaya
11. Pascal Otieno Oduor
12. Priva Muthusi Nthege
Distance Determination To Stellar Clusters
Tutorial

1. The Pleiades open cluster contains 230 stars within 4 pc. Estimate the velocities of
the stars in the cluster using the virial theorem. For simplicity, let the mass of each
star be replaced by 1 M.

2. A globular cluster consists of 100,000 stars of the solar absolute magnitude.

Calculate the total apparent magnitude of the cluster, if its distance is 10 kpc
Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium (LTE)

Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium (LTE) refers to a condition where the properties of

thermodynamic equilibrium apply locally within a system, even if the system as a whole is not in full
thermodynamic equilibrium.

This means that each infinitesimally small volume within the system is considered to be in
equilibrium with its immediate surroundings.

In LTE, the temperature, pressure, and chemical potential are well-defined and uniform within these
small volumes, allowing for the use of equilibrium thermodynamic relations locally.

This concept is particularly useful in fields like astrophysics and atmospheric science, where it helps
in simplifying the analysis of complex systems.
 Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium (LTE) in Astrophysics
1. Stellar Atmospheres

● Assumes gas in a star’s atmosphere is in local equilibrium.

● Helps determine temperature, pressure, and chemical composition.

2. Spectral Line Formation

● Uses Boltzmann and Saha equations under LTE assumptions.

● Predicts atomic energy levels and ionization states for stellar spectra.

3. Radiative Transfer

● Approximates emission and absorption of radiation.

● Essential for understanding energy transport in stars.

4. Astrophysical Plasmas

● Analyzes physical conditions in interstellar medium and accretion disks.

● Studies processes occurring in these environments.
Internal Equilibrium Conditions

of
u a tion
eq m.
th ilibriu
e
is equ
i s i c
Th rostat
hyd
The derivative dT/dr is negative, since the temperature
increases inwards. Clearly there has to be a temperature
gradient, if energy is to be transported by radiation.

If the radiative transfer of energy becomes inefficient,

the absolute value of the radiative temperature gradient
becomes very large. In that case motions are set up in the
gas, which carry the energy outwards more efficiently
than the radiation.

In these convective motions, hot gas rises upwards into

cooler layers, where it loses its energy and sinks again.
The rising and sinking gas elements also mix the stellar
material, and the composition of the convective parts of a
star becomes homogeneous. Radiation and conduction,
on the other hand, do not mix the material, since they
move only energy, not gas.
 Stellar Energy Sources
● For the Sun, the central temperature must be about ten million kelvins, which is high enough for
thermonuclear fusion reactions to take place.
● In fusion reactions light elements are transformed into heavier ones. The final reaction products have a
smaller total mass than the initial nuclei. This mass difference is released as energy according to
Einstein’s equation: E = mc2 .
● The atomic nucleus consists of protons and neutrons, together referred to as nucleons. We define:
● m p = proton mass , m n = neutron mass , Z = nuclear charge = atomic number , N = neutron number , A =
Z + N = atomic weight , m(Z, N) = mass of the nucleus .
● The mass of the nucleus is smaller than the sum of the masses of all its nucleons. The difference is called
the binding energy. The binding energy per nucleon is:

● It turns out that Q increases towards heavier elements up to iron (Z = 26). Beyond iron the binding energy
again begins to decrease
 ● Reactions are (depend on mass of
the stars) :
− Proton-proton Chain
− Carbon cycles
− Triple Alpha reaction
− Alpha reactions
− Carbon burning
− Oxygen burning
− Silicon burning

The mass of a proton is 1.672 × 10⁻²⁷ kg and

that of a helium nucleus is 6.644 × 10⁻²⁷ kg.
The Proton–Proton Chain
● In stars with masses of about that of the Sun or
smaller, the energy is produced by the
proton–proton (pp) chain. It consists of the
following steps:

● The neutrino produced in the reaction (1) can

escape freely from the star and carries away
some of the energy released.
● The last step in the pp chain can take three
different forms. The ppI chain shown above is
the most probable one. In the Sun 91% of the
energy is produced by the ppI chain. It is also
possible for 3 He nuclei to unite into 4He nuclei
in two additional branches of the pp chain.
The pp chain is the most important energy
source in stars with mass below 1.5 M
 The Carbon Cycle
● At temperatures below 20 million degrees the pp
chain is the main energy production mechanism. At
higher temperatures corresponding to stars with
masses above 1.5 M , the carbon(CNO) cycle
becomes dominant, because its reaction rate
increases more rapidly with temperature.
● In the CNO cycle carbon, oxygen and nitrogen act
as catalysts.
● Reaction (4) is the slowest, and thus determines the
rate of the CNO cycle. At a temperature of 20
million degrees the reaction time for the reaction (4)
is a million years.

The CNO cycle is catalyzed by 12C.

It transforms four protons into a
helium nucleus, two positrons, two
neutrinos and radiation.

● The fraction of energy released as radiation in the

CNO cycle is slightly smaller than in the pp chain,
because more energy is carried away by neutrinos.
● The Triple Alpha Reaction Alpha Reactions
● As a result of the preceding reactions, the abundance of ● During helium burning some of the carbon
helium in the stellar interior increases. At a temperature
nuclei produced react with helium nuclei to form
above 108 degrees the helium can be transformed into
carbon in the triple alpha reaction: oxygen, which in turn reacts to form neon, etc.
● These reactions are fairly rare and thus are not
important as stellar energy sources. Examples
are:

● Here 8 Be is unstable and decays into two helium nuclei

or alpha particles in 2.6 × 10−16 seconds. The
production of carbon thus requires the almost
simultaneous collision of three particles. The reaction is
often Written :

● Once helium burning has been completed, at higher

temperatures other reactions become possible, in which
heavier elements up to iron and nickel are built up.
Examples of such reactions are various alpha reactions
and oxygen, carbon and silicon burning.
● Carbon Burning Oxygen Burning
● After the helium is exhausted, carbon ● Oxygen is consumed at slightly higher
burning sets in at the temperature (5–8) × temperatures in the reactions
1010 K:

● Carbon/Oxygen burning happens in high

mass stars
● Silicon Burning
● After several intermediate steps the burning of silicon produces nickel and iron. The total
process may be expressed as:

● When the temperature becomes higher than about 109 K, the energy of the photons becomes
large enough to destroy certain nuclei. Such reactions are called photonuclear reactions or
photodissociations.
● Elements heavier than iron are almost exclusively produced by neutron capture during the
final violent stages of stellar evolution.
 Radiation Flow through the Solar Atmosphere
Radiation is being emitted and absorbed in the Sun in all layers. However, we see radiation
mostly from the surface. Most radiation from below is absorbed before it reaches the surface.

To understand what we are seeing when we look at the Sun, we need to understand about the
interaction between radiation and matter. For example, much of what we know about the solar
atmosphere comes from studying spectral lines as well as the continuum. In studying how
radiation interacts with matter, known as radiation transport theory, we see how to use spectral
lines to extract detailed information about the solar atmosphere.
Radiation Flow through the Solar Atmosphere
To any beam of radiation, a sphere looks like a circle of projected area πr². If the
beam is within that circle, it will strike the sphere and be absorbed. We say that the
cross section for striking a sphere is

σ=πr².

r
We consider a cylinder of these spheres, with the radiation entering the cylinder from one end.

We would like to know how much radiation is absorbed, and how much passes through to the far end. We let n
be the number of spheres per unit volume. The cylinder has length l and area A, so the volume is Al. The
number of spheres in the cylinder is:

We define the total cross section of all the spheres as the number of spheres multiplied by the cross section per
sphere:

Under these conditions, the fraction of the incoming radiation that will be absorbed, f, is just that fraction of
the total area A that is covered by the spheres. That is:
We define the optical depth to be this quantity. The optical depth of any section of material is simply the
fraction of incoming radiation that is absorbed when the radiation passes through that material. (For example,
if the optical depth is 0.01, then 1% of the incoming radiation is absorbed.)

In general, 𝜎 will be a function of wavelength. For example, we know that at a wavelength corresponding to a
spectral line, a particular atom will have a very large cross section for absorption. At a wavelength not
corresponding to a spectral line, the cross section will be very small. To remind us that 𝜎 is a function of λ (or
𝝂), we write it as σλ (or σ𝝂 ). This means that the optical depth is also a function of λ (or 𝝂), so we rewrite
equation as:

The quantity nl: It is the product of a number density and a length : It is the number of particles along the full
length, l, of the cylinder per unit surface area. For example, if we are measuring lengths in centimeters, it is
the number of particles in a column whose face surface area is 1 cm², and whose length is l, the full length of
the cylinder. We call this quantity the column density.
We can see that the optical depth depends on the properties of the material – e.g. cross section and
density of particles – and on the overall size of the absorbing region. It is sometimes convenient to
separate these two dependencies by defining the absorption coefficient, which is the optical depth per
unit length through the material,

If K𝛌 gives the number of absorptions per unit length, then its inverse gives the mean distance between
absorptions. This quantity is called the mean free path, and is given by:

In terms of these quantities, the optical depth is given by:

In the above discussion, we required that the optical depth be much less than
unity. Our interpretation of 𝝉 as the fraction of radiation absorbed only holds for 𝝉
<< 1.

What if that is not the case? We then have to divide our cylinder into several
layers. If we make the layers thin enough, we can be assured that the optical depth
for each layer will be very small. We then follow the radiation through, layer by
layer, looking at the fraction absorbed in each layer:

Let’s look at the radiation passing through some layer with optical depth d𝝉. Since
d𝝉 << 1, it is the fraction of this radiation that is absorbed. The amount of
radiation absorbed in this layer is Id𝝉. The amount of radiation passing through to
the next layer is I(1-d𝝉 ). The change in intensity, dI, while passing through the
layer, is:

Notice that dI is negative, since the intensity is decreased in passing through the
layer.
The Path of a Photon from the Centre of a Star to Its Surface
previous sections.
 The Solar Neutrino Problem
The central nuclear reactions produce neutrinos at several of the
steps in the pp chain. These neutrinos can propagate freely
through the outer layers, and thus give direct information about
conditions near the centre of the Sun. When neutrinos from the
Sun were first observed in the 1970’s, their number was found to
be only about a third of what was predicted. This disagreement
is called the solar neutrino problem.

In the first experiments only neutrinos from the ppII and ppIII
branches were observed. Since only a small fraction of the solar
luminosity is produced in these reactions, it was not clear what
were the consequences of these results for solar models. In the
1990’s neutrinos produced in the ppI branch, the main branch of
the pp chain, were observed.
Although the disagreement with the standard models was slightly smaller in these observations (about 60%
of the predicted flux was observed), the neutrino problem still remained. Perhaps the most popular
explanation for the solar neutrino problem was based on neutrino oscillations. According to this
explanation, if neutrinos have a small mass (about 10−2 eV), an electron neutrino could change into a µ or
a τ neutrino as it passed through the outer parts of the Sun.

In the early experiments only electron neutrinos were observed, representing only part of the total number of
neutrinos produced. In 2001 results were announced from experiments in Canada and Japan that measured
both the number of electron neutrinos and the total number of neutrinos arriving from the Sun. The total flux
agreed with the predictions of the standard solar model, whereas the flux of electron neutrinos were in
agreement with the lower values measured in the earlier experiments. This result proved the existence of
neutrino oscillations turning some of the electron neutrinos produced in the centre of the sun into other
kinds. The solar neutrino problem can now be considered to be solved. The solution is a great success for the
standard solar model.

But it has also revealed the existence of neutrino oscillations, proving that neutrinos have a small but
non-zero rest mass. This shows that the standard model of particle physics needs to be revised in some
respects.
Physical State of the Gas
 Tutorial
G ʘ =6.67 × 108 dyn cm2/g2 Mʘ=2 × 1033 g Rʘ=6.96 × 1010 cm

1 The Gravitational Acceleration at the Solar Surface

2 The Average Density of the Sun
3 Pressure at Half the Solar Radius
4 Time of the Path of a Photon from the Center of a Star to Its Surface
5 An interstellar cloud has a mass of one solar mass and density of 1010 hydrogen atoms per
cm3 . Its rotation period is 1000 years. What is the rotation period after the cloud has
condensed into a star of solar size?
6 The mass absorption coefficient of a neutrino is κ = 10−21 m2 kg−1 . Find the mean free path
at the centre of the Sun.
 The Giant Phase
The main-sequence phase of stellar evolution ends when hydrogen is exhausted at
the centre. The star then settles in a state in which hydrogen is burning in a shell
surrounding a helium core.

The transition takes place gradually in lower main-sequence stars, giving rise to
the Subgiant Branch in the HR diagram, while the upper main-sequence stars make
a rapid jump at this point.

The mass of the helium core is increased by the hydrogen burning in the shell. This
leads to the expansion of the envelope of the star, which moves almost horizontally
to the right in the HR diagram. As the convective envelope becomes more
extensive, the star approaches the Hayashi track. Since it cannot pass further to the
right, and since its radius continues to grow, the star has to move upwards along
the Hayashi track towards larger luminosities. The star has become a red giant.

In low-mass stars (M ≤ 2.3 M ), as the mass of the core grows, its density will
eventually become so high that it becomes degenerate. The central temperature
will continue to rise. The whole helium core will have a uniform temperature
because of the high conductivity of the degenerate gas. If the mass of the star is
larger than 0.26 M the central temperature will eventually reach about 100 million
degrees, which is enough for helium to burn to carbon in the triple alpha process.
Helium burning will set in simultaneously in the whole central region and will
suddenly raise its temperature. Unlike a normal gas, the degenerate core
cannot expand, although the temperature increases, and therefore the increase
in temperature will only lead to a further acceleration of the rate of the nuclear
reactions. When the temperature increases further, the degeneracy of the gas is
removed and the core will begin to expand violently. Only a few seconds after
the ignition of helium, there is an explosion, the helium flash.
The energy released in the flash is turned into potential energy of the expanded
core. Thus after the helium flash, the star settles into a new state, where helium
is steadily burning to carbon in a nondegenerate core.

The asymptotic giant branch.

The evolution that follows core helium burning depends strongly on the stellar
mass. The mass determines how high the central temperature can become and
the degree of degeneracy when heavier nuclear fuels are ignited.
When the central helium supply is exhausted, helium will continue to burn in a
shell, while the hydrogen burning shell is extinguished. In the HR diagram the
star will move towards lower effective temperature and higher luminosity. For
this reason it is known as the asymptotic giant branch, AGB.
After the early phase, when the helium shell catches up with the extinguished
hydrogen shell, the AGB star enters what is known as the thermally pulsing
phase, where hydrogen and helium shell burning alternate.
A configuration with two burning shells is unstable, and in this phase
the stellar material may become mixed or matter may be ejected into
space in a shell, like that of a planetary nebula.
The thermally pulsing AGB continues until radiation pressure has led
to the complete expulsion of the outer layers into a planetary nebula.
Low- and intermediate-mass giants (M ≤ 8 M ) never become hot
enough to ignite carbon burning in the core, which remains as a
carbon–oxygen white dwarf.

The End of the Giant Phase.

After the end of helium burning the evolution of a star changes
character.
This is because the nuclear time scale at the centre becomes short
compared to the thermal time scale of the outer layers. Secondly,
the energy released in nuclear reactions will be carried away by
neutrinos, instead of being deposited at the centre. In
consequence, while the thermonuclear burning follows the same
pattern as hydrogen and helium burning, the star as a whole does
not have time to react immediately.
In stars with masses around 10 M either carbon or oxygen may be
ignited explosively just like helium in low-mass stars: there is a
carbon or oxygen flash. This is much more powerful than the
helium flash, and may make the star explode as a supernova.

The final stages of stellar evolution may be described as an

implosion of the core, although the exact mechanism is not yet
understood, the end-point of the evolution of stars more massive
the about 8 M is that the outer layers explode as a supernova. In
the dense central core, the protons and electrons combine to form
neutrons. The core will finally consist almost entirely of neutrons,
which become degenerate because of the high density. The
degeneracy pressure of the neutrons will stop the collapse of a
small mass core. However, if the mass of the core is large enough,
a black hole will probably be formed.
Stellar Models
 Supernova
A supernova is a catastrophic Energy Release:
explosion that occurs when a Supernovae outshine entire galaxies
massive star reaches the end of its temporarily.
life.
Release an enormous amount of energy,
Types: synthesizing heavy elements.
● Type I Supernova:
Occurs in binary systems with a Outcome:
white dwarf.
Leaves behind a remnant such as a neutron
Explosion results from mass star or, for very massive stars, a black
transfer or merger, leading to a hole.
thermonuclear explosion.
● Type II Supernova: Significance:
Results from the collapse of a Essential for the production and
massive star's core. distribution of elements in the universe.
Core collapse triggers a shockwave, Crucial for understanding the life cycles of
leading to a powerful explosion. massive stars.
 Nova Outcome:
A nova is a sudden, temporary increase in
the brightness of a star. The system may undergo multiple
nova eruptions.
After the outburst, star fades to the initial
brightness level over several years or The white dwarf remains intact, and
decades. the process can repeat over time.

Significance:
Process:
Novae contribute to the chemical
Occurs in binary star systems. enrichment of the interstellar medium.

Material from one star, often a white Studying novae helps understand
dwarf, accumulates on the surface. binary star interactions.
When a critical mass is reached, a
thermonuclear explosion ensues.
Results in a sudden increase in brightness,
but the star survives.
 Stellar Variability - Variable Stars
Variable stars are like cosmic musicians, exhibiting fluctuations in
brightness that unveil crucial details about their properties and the vast
cosmos.
A variable star is defined as a star whose apparent brightness changes
over a period of time, as seen from the Earth.
Why Study Variable Stars?
Variable stars are cosmic beacons that provide astronomers with
valuable insights into stellar evolution, galactic dynamics, and the scale
of our universe. By studying their brightness variations over time, we
uncover the complex interplay of forces shaping the cosmos.
Strictly speaking, all stars are variable. The structure and brightness of a
star change as it evolves. Although these changes are usually slow,
some evolutionary phases may be extremely rapid. In certain
evolutionary stages, there will also be periodic variations, for example
pulsations of the outer layers of a star.
Small variations in stellar brightness are also caused by hot and cool spots on a star’s surface, appearing and disappearing
as it rotates about its axis. The luminosity of the Sun changes slightly because of the sunspots. Probably there are similar
spots on almost all stars.

Initially stellar brightnesses were determined visually by comparing stars near each other.

The magnitude variation as a function of time is called the lightcurve of a star. From it one obtains the amplitude of the
magnitude variation and its period, if the variation is periodic.

Stellar variability, or changes in a star's brightness or other properties over time, can provide insights into a star's
structure by acting as a "laboratory" for studying the star's physical properties:
Observing variable stars
Each time a variable star is observed, evidence is collected about how the star is behaving. This evidence can be used to
build hypotheses about why stars vary, which can then be tested against the data.

Studying young stars

Studying the variability of young stars in the pre-main-sequence (PMS) phase can provide insight into the physical
processes that occur in young stars.

Determining stellar evolution

Variable stars play a crucial role in determining the extragalactic distance scale and provide insights into stellar evolution
theory.
 Stellar Variability
Intrinsic Variables –
Intrinsic Variables are those stars in which changes in brightness
takes place inside the star as a result of some physical process in
the star itself.
These are important to understand the internal structure of the
stars and models of stellar evolution.
Extrinsic Variables–
Extrinsic variables are those which vary due to processes external
to the star such as if it eclipses with a binary companion or its
rotation due to spots
Intrinsic Stellar Variability
● Intrinsic stellar variability refers to changes in a star's brightness due to physical
changes within the star itself.
● Studying these variations helps astronomers understand stellar structure, evolution,
and the physical processes occurring within stars.

Types of Intrinsic Variables

1. Pulsating Variables: Stars that periodically expand and contract.

○ Examples: Cepheids, RR Lyrae stars, RV Tauri stars, Long Period
Variables.
2. Eruptive Variables: Stars that experience flares or mass ejections.
○ Examples: Eta Carinae, T Tauri stars.
3. Cataclysmic or Explosive Variables: Stars that undergo dramatic changes in
brightness due to violent events.
○ Examples: Novae, Supernovae
Pulsating Variables

● Regular and periodic changes in luminosity.

● Examples:
○ Cepheids: Used as standard candles for measuring astronomical
distances.
○ RR Lyrae stars: Important for studying the age of stellar populations.
○ RV Tauri stars: Often found in the post-asymptotic giant branch
phase.
○ Long Period Variables: Includes Mira variables, which are red
giants.
Significance of pulsating variables
● Calculating distances
The relationship between the luminosity and period of pulsation of some pulsating variables
allows astronomers to calculate distances to stars. This is a vital method for determining
distances within and beyond the Milky Way galaxy.
● Understanding stellar interiors

Analyzing light curves from pulsating variables provides information about the processes that
occur inside stars.

● Understanding stellar evolution

Pulsating variable stars are going through an unstable stage late in their lives, which allows
astronomers to study how stars evolve over time.
Eruptive Variables
● Sudden increases in brightness due to flares or mass ejections.
● Examples:
○ Eta Carinae: Known for its massive eruptions.
○ T Tauri stars: Young stars with strong stellar winds and flares.

Cataclysmic or Explosive Variables

● Sudden and dramatic changes in brightness due to violent events.
● Examples:
○ Novae: Explosions on the surface of a white dwarf in a binary system.
○ Supernovae: Explosive deaths of massive stars, often outshining entire
galaxies.
Extrinsic Stellar Variability
Understanding External Influences on Stellar Brightness.

● Extrinsic stellar variability refers to changes in a star's brightness caused by

external factors such as eclipses by companion stars or rotation of the star.
● Studying these variations helps learn about stellar companions, star systems, and
the environments around stars.

Types of Extrinsic Variables

1. Eclipsing Binaries: Stars that periodically eclipse each other as they orbit around
a common center of mass.

Regular dips in brightness due to one star passing in front of the other.

Examples:

Algol (Beta Persei): Known as the "Demon Star" for its dramatic
brightness changes.

Beta Lyrae: Features mass transfer between two close stars.

W Ursae Majoris: Contact binary stars sharing a common envelope.

2. Rotating Variables: Stars that show variability due to rotation and surface features
such as starspots or irregular shapes.

Variations in brightness due to surface features or deformations.

Examples:

a. Alpha² Canum Venaticorum (α² CVn): Stars with strong magnetic fields and
surface spots.
b. SX Arietis stars: Rapidly rotating stars with strong magnetic fields and
variable brightness.
Binary Stars and Stellar Masses

❖ Quite often, two stars may appear to be close together in the sky, although they are really at very different distances. Such chance pairs
are called optical binary stars.
❖ Less than half of all stars are single stars like the Sun. More than 50% belong to systems containing two or more members. In general,
the multiple systems have a hierarchical structure: a star and a binary orbiting around each other in triple systems, two binaries orbiting
around each other in quadruple systems.

❖ Binaries are classified on the basis of the method of their discovery.

1. Visual binaries can be seen as two separate components, i.e. the separation between the stars is larger than about 0.1 arc seconds. The
relative position of the components changes over the years as they move in their orbits (Fig. 9.1).
2. In astrometric binary stars only one component is seen, but its variable proper motion shows that a second invisible component must be
present.
3. The spectroscopic binary stars are discovered on the basis of their spectra. Either two sets of spectral lines are seen or else the Doppler
shift of the observed lines varies periodically, indicating an invisible companion.
4. The fourth class of binaries are the photometric binary stars or eclipsing variables. In these systems the components of the pair regularly
pass in front of each other, causing a change in the total apparent magnitude.
 Binary Stars and Stellar Masses
❖ Binary stars can also be classified on the basis of their mutual
separation.
1. In distant binaries the separation between the components is tens or
hundreds of astronomical units and their orbital periods are from tens
to thousands of years.
2. In close binaries the separation is from about one AU down to the
radius of the stars. The orbital period ranges from a few hours to a few
years. The components of contact binaries are so close that they are
touching each other.

The stars in a binary system move in an elliptical orbit

around the centre of mass of the system.
Photometric Binary Stars
In the photometric binaries, a periodic variation in the total brightness is
caused by the motions of the components in a double system.
Usually the photometric binaries are eclipsing variables, where the
brightness variations are due to the components passing in front of each
other.
A class of photometric binaries where there are no actual eclipses are the
ellipsoidal variables.
In these systems, at least one of the components has been distorted into an
ellipsoidal shape by the tidal pull of the other one.

The variation of the magnitude of eclipsing variables as a function of time is

called the lightcurve. According to the shape of the lightcurve, they are
grouped into three main types: Algol, β Lyrae and W Ursae Majoris type
Example: The Mass of a Binary Star
TERM PAPER STRUCTURE
Term paper title

Student name
Registration number

Term paper towards the unit of SPA 301: Introduction to stellar evolution.

Date: (month, year)

Abstract
Introduction
Body
Conclusion
Reference

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