P hysi cs | 18.

19

We choose our Gaussian surface to be a sphere of radius r ≤ a , as shown in

Fig. 18.41 (a).
Fig. 18.41 (b) shows Gaussian surface for uniformly charged solid sphere, for (a)
r
r ≤ a , and (b) r > a .
 
( )
∫∫ E ⋅dA= EA= E 4πr With uniform
The flux through the Gaussian surface is ΦE = 
S
2 a

4   r3 
∫ dV =
charge distribution, the charge enclosed is qenc =ρ ρ  πr3  =
ρV = Q 
2   a3  Gaussian suface
V  
Figure 18.43
Which is proportional to the volume enclosed by the Gaussian surface. Applying
Gauss’s law

= (
ΦE qenc / εο , we obtain E 4 πr 2= ) ρ 4 3
 πr  or=
εο  3 
E =
ρr Qr
3εο 4 πε a3
r≤a
ο 
Case 2: r ≥ a E

In this case, our Gaussian surface is a sphere of radius r ≥ a , as shown in Fig. 18.44
. Since the radius of the Gaussian surface is greater than the radius of the sphere

all the charge is enclosed in our Gaussian surface: qenc = Q . With the electric flux Gaussian surface
through the Gaussian surface given by ΦE= E 4 πr ( 2
) , upon applying Gauss’s law, Figure 18.44

we obtain
E
( )
E 4 πr 2 = Q / εο=
, or E
Q
= ke ,
4 πεοr 2
Q
r2
r>a
E=
keQ
2
r
The field outside the sphere is the same as if all the charges were concentrated
at the center of the sphere. The qualitative behavior of E as a function of r is
r
plotted in Fig. 18.45. a

Figure 18.45

PROBLEM-SOLVING TACTICS
The following steps may be useful when applying Gauss’s law:
(a) Identify the symmetry associated with the charge distribution.
(b) Determine the direction of the electric field, and a “Gaussian surface” on which the magnitude of the electric
field is constant over portions of the surface.
(c) Divide the space into different regions associated with the charge distribution. For each region, calculate qenc
, the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface.
(d) Calculate the electric flux ΦE through the Gaussian surface for each region.
(e) Equate ΦE with qenc / εο , and deduce the magnitude of the electric field.
In this chapter, we have discussed how electric field can be calculated for both the discrete and continuous charge
 1 qi
distributions. For the former, we apply the superposition principle: E = ∑ rˆ
4 πεο i r 2 i
i
 1 dq
For the latter, we must evaluate the vector integral E = ∫ rˆ
4 πεο r 2
1 8 . 2 0 | Electric Charges, Forces and Fields

Where r is the distance from dq to the field point P and r̂ is the corresponding unit vector. To complete the
integration, we shall follow the procedure outlined below:
 1 dq
(a) Start with dE = rˆ
4 πεο r 2
 λd (length)

(b) Rewrite the charge element dq as dq= σdA ( area)

 ρdV ( volume )

Depending on whether the charge is distributed over a length, an area, or a volume.


(c) Substituting dq into the expression for dE .
(d) Specify an appropriate coordinate system (Cartesian, cylindrical or spherical) and express the differential
element ( d ,dA or dV ) and r in terms of the coordinates (see table below for summary.)

Cartesian (x,y,z) (
Cylindrical ρ, φ, z ) (
Spherical r, θ, φ )
Dl dx, dy, dz
dρ, ρdφ, dz dr,rdθ,r sin θdφ
dA dxdy, dydz, dzdx
dρ dz, ρdφdz, ρdφdρ rdrdθ,r sin θdrdφ,r 2 sin θdθdφ
dV dxdydz
ρd ρdφdz r 2 sin θ dr d θ d φ

Differential elements of length, area and volume in different coordinates


(a) Rewrite dE in terms of the integration variable(s), and apply symmetry argument to identify non-vanishing
component(s) of the electric field.

(b) Complete the integration to obtain E .
In the Table below we illustrate how the above methodologies can be utilized to compute the electric field for an
infinite line charge, a ring of charge and a uniformly charged disk.

Line charge Ring of charge Uniformly charged disk

y  z 
dE dE

P dE P
P
r dp
dq
z r z
y
(1) Figure r’ y
R y
‘ R r’
x’ dr’
x dq
x
o dx’
L
Figure 18.46 Figure 18.47 x
Figure 18.48

(2) Express dq in
terms of charge dq = λdx' dq = λd dq = σdA
density
(3) write down dE λdx' λdl σdA
dE = k e dE = k e dE = k e
'2 2
r r r2
 P hysi cs | 18.21

Line charge Ring of charge Uniformly charged disk

(4) Rewrite r and
dx' d=
 Rdφ ' dA = 2πr 'dr '
the differential
element in terms y z z
cos θ = cos θ = cos θ =
of the appropriate r' r r
coordinates
r'
= x'2 + y 2 r r'2 + z 2
=r R 2 + z2 =
(5) Apply symmetry
argument dEy dEcos θ
= dEy dEcos θ
= dEy dEcos θ
=
to identify
non-vanishing λydx' λRzdφ ' 2πσzr 'dr '
= ke = ke = ke
(x )
3/2
component(s) of dE
(r ' + z )
3/2
(R )
'2 2 3/2
+y 2
+ z2
2 2

(6) Integrate to
get E
+  /2 dx Rλz R r 'dr '
Ey= k e λy ∫ = Ez k e ∫ dφ ' Ez = 2πσk e z ∫
( ) ( ) (r )
−  /2 3/2 3/2 0 3/2
x2 + y 2 R 2 + z2 '2
+ z2

2k e λ /2 == k e
( 2πRλ ) z z
= 2πσk e  −
z 

= z 
(R )
3/2
y 2
+ z2  z + R2
2

(  / 2)
2
+ y2
Qz
ke
(R )
3/2
2
+ z2

Uniformly Charged solid

System Infinite line of charge Infinite plane of charge
sphere

+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + +
+++++++++++++ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + a
Figure Figure 18.49 + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + +

Figure 18.50
Figure 18.51

Identify the symmetry Cylindrical Planar Spherical

Determine the z

direction of E E 
E y 
E

+++++++++++++

x

E

Figure 18.52 Figure 18.54

Figure 18.53

Divide the space into r>0 Z >0 and z<0

different regions r ≤ a and r ≥ a
1 8 . 2 2 | Electric Charges, Forces and Fields

Choose Gaussian  
E1
surface E3
 

dA1 
dA3 E2 E3


s1 r
s3 Gaussian pillbox
r dA2 
s3 dA3 Gaussian
+++ +++ + + + + + + + + shere
 + + + + + + + + + + a
dA1 s1 s2 + + + + + + + + + + +

Gaussian s2 Concentric shpere

E1 surface

dA2 Figure 18.57

Figure 18.55 E2

Figure 18.56

Calculate electric flux

ΦE = E(2πrl) ΦE = EA + EA= 2EA ΦE = E(4 πr 2 )

Calculate enclosed  (r /a)3

charge qin qenc = λl qenc = σA qenc = Q r≤a
Q r≥a

Apply Gauss’s law

 Qr
Φ=E qin / ε0 to find  , r≤a
λ σ 3
E E= E=  4 πε0 a
2πε0r 2ε0 E=
 Q r≥a
 4 πε r 2
 0

FORMULAE SHEET

Electric Charges, Forces and Fields

S. No Term Description

Charge Charges are of two types

1 (a) Positive charge (b) Negative charge
Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.
2 Properties of charge 1. Quantization:-q=ne where n=0, 1, 2…… and e is charge of an electron.

∑q
2. Additive: −qnet =
3. Conservation: - total charge of an isolated system is constant
3 Coulomb’s law
The mutual electrostatic force between the charges q1 and q2 separated by a
distance r is given by Force on the charge q1 F = Kq q r / r 2
1 1 2 12

Where r12 is the unit vector in the direction from q2 and q1 .
For more than two charges in the system, the force acting on any charge is
vector sum of the coulomb force from each of the other charges. This is called
principle of superposition for q1 , q2 , q3 ….. qn Charges are present in the system.
 P hysi cs | 18.23

S. No Term Description

4 Electric Field -The region around a particular charge in which its electrical effects can be
observed is called the electric field of the charge
-Electric field has its own existence and is present even if there is no charge to
experience the electric force.
5 Electric field
Intensity E=F/ q0 Where F is the electric force experienced by the test charge q0 at this
point. It is a vector quantity.
Some points to note on this
1. Electric field lines extend away from the positive charge and towards the
negative charge.
2. Electric field produces the force so if a charge q is placed in the electric field
E, the force experienced by the charge is F=qE
3. Principle of superposition also applies to electric field so
E = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 + .....
 KQ r
Electric field intensity due to point charge E =
r2
Where r is the distance from the point charge and r is the unit vector along the
direction from source to point.

Electric Field Intensities due to various Charge Distributions

Name/Type Formula Note Graph

Point Charge •• q is source charge


•• r is vector drawn from source
Kq  Kq 
r= r charge to the test point. E
2 r3
r
r

Infinitely long line λ is linear charge density

charge ••
λ  2Kλ  (assumed uniform) E
r= r
2πε0r r •• r is perpendicular distance of
point from line charge r

•• r is radial unit vector drawn from
the charge to test point

Uniformly Charged Ring •• Q is total charge of the ring E

•• x=distance of point on the axis Emax

KQx from centre of the ring.
E=
(R 2 + X 2 )3/2 R r
•• Electric field is always along the 2
Ecentre = 0
axis.
1 8 . 2 4 | Electric Charges, Forces and Fields

Infinitely large non- σ is surface charge density

•• E
conducting thin sheet (assumed uniform)
σ
n̂  /20
2ε0 •• n is unit normal vector
•• Electric field intensity is r
independent of distance

Infinitely large charged σ is surface charge density

•• E
conducting sheet (assumed uniform)
σ
n̂  /0
ε0 •• n is unit normal vector
•• Electric field intensity is r
independent of distance

Uniformly charged (i) for r ≥ R •• R is radius of the sphere

hollow conducting/non  E
 KQ •• r is vector drawn from centre of
conducting sphere or 2
E=
2
rˆ the sphere to the test point. KQ/R
solid conducting sphere r
•• Sphere acts like a point charge
placed at the centre for point R r
(ii) for r<R
 outside the sphere.
E=0 
•• E is always along radial direction.
•• Q is total charge ( =σ 4 πR 2 ).
( σ = Surface charge density)

Uniformly charged solid 

(i) for r ≥ R •• r is vector drawn from centre of
non conducting sphere the sphere to the test point.
E
(insulating material)  KQ 2
E= rˆ •• Sphere acts like a point charge
KQ/R
2
r
placed at the centre for points
outside the sphere. R r
(ii) for r ≤ R 
 KQ  •• E is always along radial direction
ρ 
=E = r r 4
R 3 3ε0 •• Q is total charge ( =ρ πR 3 ).
3
( ρ =volume charge density)
•• Inside the sphere E ∝ r
•• Outside the sphere E ∝ 1 / r 2

Note: (i) Net charge on a conductor remains only on the outer surface of a conductor.
(ii) On the surface of spherical conductors charge is uniformly distributed.