ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
PHYSICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Samrit Agrawal for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

Volume is the amount of space occupied.

Unit of volume: cubic metre (m³).
1. Motion, Forces and Energy Commonly used unit for volume: cubic centimetre (cm³).
Volume of a cylinder: V = πr 2 h
1.1. Physical Quantities and A measuring cylinder can measure the volume of a liquid.
Ensure the cylinder is upright and the eye is at bottom
Measurement Techniques level of the meniscus.

Units and basic quantities

A standard or unit must be chosen before a measurement

can be made.
The size of the quantity to be measured is found using an
instrument with a scale marked in the unit
Three basic quantities are measured in physics: length,
mass, and time.
Units for other quantities are based on length, mass, and
time.
The SI (Système International d’Unités) system is a set of
units used in many countries

Length
Unit of length: metre (m)
Time
1 decimetre (dm) = 10⁻¹ m
1 centimetre (cm) = 10⁻² m Unit of time: second (s).
1 millimetre (mm) = 10⁻³ m Time-measuring devices use oscillations.
1 micrometre (μm) = 10⁻⁶ m Choose a timer that is precise enough for the task (e.g., a
1 nanometre (nm) = 10⁻⁹ m stopwatch for the pendulum period or a millisecond timer
for measuring the speed of sound).
Multiples for large distances:
Scalars and Vectors
1 kilometre (km) = 10³ m
1 gigametre (Gm) = 10⁹ m Scalar quantity: has magnitude (size) only.
Many length measurements are made with rulers/meter Examples: distance, speed, time, mass, pressure,
rule energy, temperature.
Vector quantity: described by both magnitude and
For any length less than a meter, we use a tape measure
direction.
Examples: force, gravitational field strength, electric
field strength, weight, velocity, acceleration,
momentum.
Representing Vectors: a straight line with length indicating
the magnitude and an arrow showing direction.
Adding scalars: ordinary arithmetic.
Adding vectors: geometrically, considering both
magnitude and direction.

For two vectors, FX and FY, at right angles:

The magnitude of the resultant

Note: Take ± readings for accuracy
Area F = F X2 + F Y2
​ ​ ​

The area of a square with sides 1 cm long is 1 square

centimetre (1 cm²).
Area formula: area = length × breadth.
SI unit of area: square metre (m²), which is the area of a
square with sides 1 m long.

Volume

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The upward curve of decreasing gradient: decelerating.

Example:
AB 40m
Gradient of the tangent at T: BC = 2s = 20m/s ​ ​

Speed

Speed is the distance travelled by a body in unit time.

When the distance travelled is (s) over a short time period
(t), the speed (v) is given by:
s
v= t ​

Key definition: Speed is the distance travelled per unit

time.
Angle θ between FX and F General formula:
Total distance travelled
FY Average speed = Total time taken
tan θ =
​

FX Example: If a car travels 300 km in five hours, its average

​

speed is: Average speed = 300 km

5 h = 60 km/h ​

Velocity

Velocity is the distance travelled in unit time in a given

direction. Ie. Velocity = Speed given in a specific direction.
Speed is the distance travelled in unit time.
Example: If two trains travel due north at 20 m/s, they
have the same speed and velocity due north. If one travels
north and the other south, their speeds are the same, but
not their velocities.
Key definition: Velocity is the change in displacement per
unit of time.
Velocity formula:
Distance moved in a given direction
Velocity = Time taken ​ =
1.2. Motion Displacement
T ime ​

\
Distance-Time Graph Examples Velocity is the speed in a given direction.
A body's velocity is uniform or constant if it moves at a
At rest ( BC). steady speed in a straight line.
Constant speed (AB and CD)
Velocity is not uniform if the body moves in a curved path.
Speed is higher when the gradient is steeper. For
Speed and velocity units are the same: km/h, m/s.
example, the speed of the train at CD is 2m/s, but that at
AB is 1m/s. It is higher in CD, which can be seen as CD Note: Speed is a scalar quantity and velocity a
being steeper. vector quantity. Displacement is a vector,
unlike distance which is a scalar

Acceleration

When the velocity of an object changes, the object

accelerates.
Acceleration is defined as the change of velocity in unit
time:
Acceleration = Δv
Δt ​

Example: If a car starts from rest and reaches a

velocity of 2 m/s after 1 second, its acceleration is
2m/s2 , due north
Key definition: Acceleration is the change in velocity per
Non-Constant unit time.
Speed Example: For a steady increase of velocity from 20 m/s to
(50−20),m/s
50 m/s in 5 seconds: Acceleration = =
When speed changes, the gradient of the distance-time 5s ​

2
graph varies. 6m/s
Upward curve of increasing gradient: accelerating. Acceleration is a vector, and its magnitude and direction
should be stated.

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For motion in a straight line, the magnitude of the velocity

equals the speed, and the magnitude of the acceleration
equals the speed change in unit time.
Example: A car accelerating on a straight road with the
following speeds:

Time (s) Speed (m/s)

0 0
1 5
2 10
3 15
4 20 Variable Acceleration
5 25 Example 1: The figure shows acceleration from rest, constant
6 30 speed, and deceleration.

The speed increases by 5 m/s every second, and the

acceleration is constant at 5 m/s².
Acceleration is positive if the velocity increases.
Acceleration is negative if the velocity decreases (also
called deceleration or retardation).

Speed-Time Graphs

Speed-time graphs plot the speed of an object against

time.
Used to solve motion problems.
Example 2: The figure shows changing acceleration with a
Constant Speed curved shape.

Example: AB is a speed-time graph for an object moving Speed increases over time, but by a smaller amount each
with a constant speed of 20 m/s. second, indicating decreasing acceleration.

A straight horizontal line on a speed-time graph indicates

constant speed.

Using Gradient to Calculate Acceleration

The gradient of a speed-time graph represents the

acceleration.
Constant For constant speed, the gradient is zero, indicating zero
Acceleration acceleration.
The linear shape (AB) of the graph indicates constant For constant acceleration, the gradient is given by: \n
Δy Y2 −Y1
acceleration. Gradient = Δx ​ = X2 −X1
​

The speed increases by 4 m/s every second, indicating For changing acceleration, the gradient changes,
constant acceleration. indicating changing acceleration.
An object accelerates if the speed increases and
decelerates if the speed decreases with time.

Area Under a Speed-Time Graph

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Measures the distance travelled. A ball shot upwards with a velocity of 30 m/s decelerates by
The rule applies even if acceleration is not constant. about 9.8 m/s every second, reaching its highest point after 3
The distance equals the shaded area under the graph. seconds.
As an object falls, air resistance increases, reducing its
acceleration.

When air resistance equals the object's weight, it falls at a

terminal velocity.
Terminal velocity depends on the object's size, shape, and
weight.
A small, dense object has a high terminal velocity and
accelerates for a longer distance.
A light object or one with a large surface area, like a
raindrop or parachute, has a low terminal velocity and
accelerates over a shorter distance.
Following is the velocity-time graph for a falling
parachutist:
Equations for constant acceleration

First Equation
If an object is moving with constant acceleration ( a ) in
a straight line and its speed increases from ( u ) to ( v )
in time ( t ):
Acceleration is given by:
v−u
a= t ​

Rearranging gives:
v = u + at (Equation 1)
Second Equation
For an object moving with constant acceleration, its
average speed equals half the sum of its initial and
final speeds: Explanation:
u+v
Average speed = 2 ​

If (s) is the distance moved in time (t), then: Initial Phase: When the parachutist jumps out of the plane,
Average speed = s they experience free fall. During this phase, their velocity
t ​

Combining these, we get increases steadily due to the acceleration of gravity

2
s
= u+v (approximately 9.8m/s acting downwards. The graph
t ​

2 ​

Rearranging gives: slopes upwards steeply.

(u+v) Slowing down of Parachute: Air resistance increases
s= 2 ⋅ t (Equation 2)
significantly when the parachutist deploys their
​

Air Resistance and Free Fall parachute. This causes a decrease in acceleration,
leading to a less steep slope on the graph. The
In the air, a coin falls faster than a small piece of paper parachutist’s velocity continues to increase but at a slower
due to air resistance. rate compared to free fall.
In a vacuum, both fall at the same rate. Terminal Velocity: As the parachutist continues to fall,
Air resistance has a greater effect on light bodies their velocity eventually reaches a maximum constant
compared to heavy bodies. value known as terminal velocity. At terminal velocity, the
Air resistance is negligible for dense, heavy objects at low forces of gravity and air resistance (drag) balance out,
speeds. resulting in zero net acceleration. On the velocity-time
graph, this appears as a horizontal line where the velocity
Acceleration of Free Fall
remains constant.
All bodies falling freely under gravity accelerate uniformly
if air resistance is negligible. 1.3. Mass and Weight
This uniform acceleration is called the acceleration of free
fall, denoted by ( g ). Mass
The value of (g) varies slightly but is about 9.8 m/s² on
average. The mass of an object is the measure of the amount of
The velocity of a free-falling body increases by about matter in it. It is a measure of the quantity of matter in an
9.8m/s every second. object at rest relative to an observer.

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The standard unit of mass is the kilogram (kg), with the Method 1: Immerse the object in a measuring cylinder filled
gram (g) being one-thousandth of a kilogram: 1g = with water, record the initial and final water levels to find
10 −3 kg = 0.001kg volume.
Mass is different from weight, which is a gravitational
force on an object with mass.

Weight

Weight is the gravitational force acting on an object that

has mass.
The weight of an object can vary with location due to
differences in gravitational field strength.
The unit of force is the Newton (N). Weight is measured in
newtons and can be determined using a spring balance.

Aspect Mass Weight

Measure of the Gravitational force
Definition amount of matter in acting on an object
an object with mass
Kilogram (kg), gram
Units Newton (N)
(g)
Measured using a
This can be measured
Measurement spring balance or
using a balance
scale
Method 2: Displacement Can. Fill the can until the spout.
Independent of Depends on location Immerse the object in the water and find the volume of water
Dependency location and and gravitational field displaced. That volume of water is the volume of the object.
gravitational field strength
Symbol in
m (W ), or, (F g )
Equations
​

Gravitational Field

Gravity acts through space, causing objects not in contact

with the Earth to fall towards it.
Gravitational field strength (g) is the force per unit mass
and is a vector quantity with magnitude and direction.
On Earth's surface, g = 9.8 N/kg or 9.8 m/s^2,
representing both the acceleration due to gravity and the
gravitational field strength.

1.4. Density
Definition

Density (ρ ) is the measure of mass per unit volume

m
ρ= V ​

Standard units for density include kilograms per cubic Liquid: To determine the mass of an empty container, add
meter (kg/m³) or grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³). liquid, measure total mass, and subtract to find the mass
of the liquid. Divide by the known volume to find density.
Calculation Methods Air: Measure the mass of a flask filled with air, then
remove the air with a vacuum pump. Calculate air density
Regular Shape: Measure mass (m) using a balance, and by dividing the mass difference by volume measured
measure volume ( V ) by direct measurement of using water displacement.
dimensions.
Irregular Shape: Measure mass (m) using a balance. Example Calculations
Measure volume (V ) using displacement methods:

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Example 1: Calculate the density of copper given a mass Forces and Resultants
63 g
of 63 g and a volume of 7 cm³ ρ = m V = 7 cm³ =
Forces have magnitude and direction, represented by
​ ​

9 g/cm³
arrows in diagrams.
Example 2: Determine the mass of an aluminium sheet
Multiple forces acting on an object can be balanced (e.g.
with a volume of 73 cm³ and a density of 2.7 g/cm³
weight and support force) or have a resultant force.
m = ρ × V = 2.7 g/cm³ × 73 cm³ = 197.1 g
The resultant force is the single force that has the same
Floating and Sinking: effect as all forces acting together.
A resultant force can change the velocity of an object by
Objects float or sink in liquids based on their density altering its speed or direction of motion.
relative to the liquid's density. A higher-density object
sinks in a lower-density liquid and vice versa.

1.5. Forces
Force

A force is a push or a pull that can change the motion,

speed, or shape of an object.
It can cause objects at rest to move or alter the direction
of moving objects.
Newton’s First Law
Extension in Springs
An object remains at rest or continues to move at a
Springs follow Hooke's Law, where extension is
constant speed in a straight line unless acted upon by a
proportional to the stretching force up to the limit of
resultant force.
proportionality.
This means that no force is required to maintain constant
Symbolically, extension ∝ stretching force velocity if no external forces act on the object.
Spring Constant

The spring constant (k) measures the force needed to

cause a unit extension in a spring.
k = Fx , where (F ) is the force applied and (x) is the
​

resulting extension.

Load-Extension Graphs
Friction and Air Resistance
Used to graphically represent the relationship between
Forces like friction and air resistance cause objects to
applied force (load) and resulting extension in materials
slow down and eventually come to rest.
like springs.
In their absence, objects would continue moving
Non-linear graphs beyond the limit of proportionality
indefinitely with constant speed.
indicate permanent deformation.
Newton’s Second Law

States that the acceleration of an object is directly

proportional to the force acting on it and inversely
proportional to its mass.
Mathematically expressed as:
F = ma
where ( F ) is the resultant force in newtons ( N ), ( m) is
the mass in kilograms ( kg ), and ( a) is the acceleration in
meters per second squared (m/s2 ).

Proportional Relationships

Acceleration ( a) is directly proportional to the force ( F )

when mass ( m) is constant
a∝F

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Acceleration ( a) is inversely proportional to mass (m)

when force ( F ) is constant
1
a∝ m ​

Units and Constant (k )

The unit of force, the newton ( N ), is defined as the force

that gives a 1 kg mass an acceleration of 1m/s2
k in F = kma equals 1 when m = 1kg and a = 1 m/s2

Resultant Force and Motion

Resultant force ( F ) causes an object to accelerate in the

direction of the force.
When forces are balanced, there is no acceleration, but
changes in shape may occur due to internal forces within
the object.

Friction Acceleration in Circular Motion

Friction is the force that opposes the motion o of one Despite constant speed, circular motion involves
surface over another. acceleration because velocity direction changes
It is essential for walking and gripping surfaces but can continuously.
prevent proper movement on surfaces like ice. Acceleration towards the centre of the circle is necessary
to maintain circular motion.
Types of Friction
Factors Affecting Centripetal Force
Static Friction: The frictional force that opposes the
Centripetal force magnitude depends on the following:
starting of motion between surfaces in contact.
Kinetic Friction: The frictional force that opposes the Speed (v): Increasing speed increases centripetal force.
motion of surfaces sliding past each other.
Radius (r): Decreasing radius increases centripetal force.
Fluid Friction (Drag): Resistance encountered by an object
Mass (m): Increasing mass increases centripetal force.
moving through a fluid (air or liquid), increasing with
speed and reducing acceleration. Role of Centripetal Force

Effect of Force and Mass on Friction It ensures the object maintains a constant distance from
the centre of the circle.
Increasing the force pressing surfaces together increases
friction initially. Moment of a Force
Friction converts kinetic energy into thermal energy,
causing a rise in temperature when contacting surfaces. The turning effect of a force around a pivot point is called
the moment of the force.
It depends on both the magnitude of the force and the
perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action
of the force.
Mathematically, the moment is given by:
M =F ×d
Centripetal Force where d is the perpendicular distance from the pivot to
the line of action of the force.
In a circular motion, an object moves in a curved path due The unit of moment is the Newton metre (N m).
to a force directed towards the centre of the circle.

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Balancing a Beam and the Law of Equilibrium Stable Equilibrium: An object returns to its original
position when displaced slightly (e.g., a ball in a bowl).
To balance a beam around a pivot point, the principle of Unstable Equilibrium: An object moves further away from
moments (or law of moments) is used. its original position when displaced slightly (e.g., a ruler
The law states that for a beam in equilibrium, the sum of balanced on its edge).
clockwise moments about any point equals the sum of Neutral Equilibrium: An object remains in its new position
anticlockwise moments about the same point. when displaced (e.g., a ball sitting on a flat surface).
This principle is essential for designing and understanding
the equilibrium of lever systems and other balanced
structures.

Conditions for Equilibrium

An object is in equilibrium if:

The sum of all forces acting on it equals zero (static

equilibrium).
The sum of all moments (clockwise and anticlockwise) Momentum
around any point is zero (rotational equilibrium).
Momentum ( p ) is the product of an object's mass ( m) and
Centre of Gravity its velocity ( v ).
The centre of gravity (or centre of mass) of an object is Mathematically, p = mv
the point through which the entire weight of the object It is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and
acts. direction.
It behaves as if all the mass were concentrated at this The SI unit of momentum is kilogram metre per second
single point. (kgm/s) or newton second (N s).
For a uniform object, such as a ruler, the centre of gravity
Conservation of Momentum
is at its geometric centre.
The total momentum of a closed system of objects
Determining the Centre of Gravity
remains constant if no external forces act on it (such as
Finding the centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped friction or air resistance).
lamina involves suspending the object from different This principle is known as the conservation of momentum.
points and using a plumb line to mark the vertical line Momentum is conserved in collisions (both elastic and
through which it hangs. The centre of gravity is where inelastic) and explosions. For example, in a collision, the
these lines intersect. total momentum before and after the collision remains
the same.

p initial = p final
​ ​

Example:
A trolley of mass m1 = 3 kg moving with velocity u 1 = 5
​ ​

m/s collides and couples with a stationary trolley of mass

m2 = 2 kg. They move off together with the same velocity
​

(v). We need to find (v).

1. Calculate initial momentum (p initial ): ​

p initial = m1 ⋅ u 1 = 3 kg ⋅ 5 m/s = 15 kgm/s

​ ​ ​

2. Calculate final momentum ( p final ): ​

Stability and Toppling

Since they move off together with velocity (v):
The stability of an object depends on the position of its p final = (m1 + m2 ) ⋅ v = (3 kg + 2 kg) ⋅ v =
​ ​ ​

centre of gravity relative to its base. 5 kg ⋅ v

An object is stable if its centre of gravity remains over its 3. Apply conservation of momentum (p initial = p final ): ​ ​

base of support. 15 kgm/s = 5 kg ⋅ v

Toppling occurs when the vertical line through the centre 4. Solve for (v):
of gravity falls outside the base of support. v = 15 5kgm/s = 3 m/s
kg
Increasing the base area and lowering the centre of
​

gravity improves stability. So, the velocity (v ) of the two trolleys moving together after
Types of Equilibrium the collision is 3 m/s ​

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Impulse Ep = mgh , where (m) is mass, ( g ) is acceleration

​

due to gravity, and ( h ) is height.

Impulse ( J ) is the change in momentum (Δp) of an
Example Calculation: For a 0.1 kg mass raised vertically by
object when a force acts on it over a period of time (Δt). 1 m:
Mathematically, J = F Δt = Δp Ep = 0.1 × 9.8 × 1 = 0.98 J
​

Impulse is also a vector quantity and has the same

direction as the force causing it. Work

Force and Momentum: Work ( W ) is done when a force ( F ) displaces a body

through a distance ( d ) in the direction of the force.
Relation of force to the rate of change of momentum: Formula: W = F ⋅ d
Δp
(F = Δt ) , which is an alternative form of Newton's
​

Unit: The unit of work is the joule (J), where 1 J = 1 N⋅

second law.
m

1.6. Energy, work and power

Types of energy stores

Chemical Energy: Energy stored in chemical bonds of

substances like food, fuels (oil, gas, coal, wood).
Gravitational Potential Energy: Energy an object
possesses due to its position relative to a reference point
(usually the Earth's surface).
Elastic Strain Energy: Energy stored in an object when it is Example Calculation
compressed, stretched, or deformed.
Kinetic Energy: Energy possessed by a moving object. If a force of 50 N is used to move a crate 3 m horizontally:
Electrostatic Energy: Energy stored in charged objects W = 50 N × 3 m = 150 J
due to their separation in an electric field. If lifting a mass of 3 kg vertically by 2 m (where g ≈
Nuclear Energy: Energy stored in the nucleus of an atom.. 10 m/s2 ):
Internal (Thermal) Energy: Total energy stored in the W = 30 N × 2 m = 60 J
microscopic motions and interactions of particles within a
substance. Energy resources
Renewable or
Energy Transfers Energy Type Non- Advantages Disadvantages
renewable
Mechanical Working: Transfer of energy by the action of a
force, like lifting a weight. High energy Limited supply,
Electrical Working: Transfer of energy by an electric density, readily environmental
Non-
current, such as in batteries or electric motors. Fossil Fuels available pollution (CO2,
renewable
Waves (Electromagnetic and Sound): Transfer of energy during peak SO2), finite
through waves, like light or sound waves. demand. resource.
Heating: Transfer of energy through thermal processes, Radioactive
like heating water in a boiler. waste disposal
High energy issues,
Principle of Conservation of Energy Nuclear Non-
output, low potential for
Fuels renewable
CO2 emissions. accidents (e.g.,
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed
Chernobyl,
from one form to another. Thus the total amount of
energy is constant. Fukushima).
Abundant, no Intermittent
Energy Forms emissions availability,
during high initial
Kinetic Energy (Ek ): Energy possessed by an object due Solar Energy Renewable
​

operation, costs for large-

to its motion. diverse scale
Ek = 12 mv 2 , where (m) is mass and (v) is velocity.
​ ​

applications. installations.
Example Calculation: For a football of mass 0.4 kg moving
at 20 m/s:
1
Ek =
​

2× 0.4 × (20)2 = 80 J
​

Potential Energy (Ep ):Energy an object has due to its

​

position or condition or configuration.

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Renewable or As steam expands through the turbine, its energy is

Energy Type Non- Advantages Disadvantages transferred to the rotor, causing it to spin.
renewable The spinning rotor generates electricity through
Clean energy electromagnetic induction in the generator.
Visual and
source, How Nuclear Fuels (uranium) are used in Power Stations
noise impacts,
Wind Energy Renewable abundant in
intermittent
suitable Nuclear power stations use controlled nuclear fission
nature of wind.
locations. reactions with uranium to generate heat.
Renewable, Technologically This heat is used to produce steam indirectly through a
predictable in challenging, heat exchanger.
Wave Energy Renewable coastal areas potential The steam, similar to fossil fuel stations, drives turbines
with consistent environmental connected to generators to produce electricity.
waves. impacts. The operation involves the steam passing through a
High turbine's fixed blades (stator) onto the rotating blades
Predictable (rotor), where the expansion of steam energy is converted
infrastructure
and consistent, into rotational motion.
costs,
Tidal Energy Renewable minimal The rotational motion of the rotor then drives the
environmental
greenhouse electrical generator, producing electricity for
impacts on
gas emissions. consumption.
marine
ecosystems. Power
Disruption of
aquatic The power of a device is the work it does per second, or
Reliable, long ecosystems, the rate at which it does work.
operational potential Power also represents the rate at which energy is
Hydroelectric transferred from one store to another.
Renewable life, minimal displacement
Energy Formula:
greenhouse of
work done
gas emissions. communities, power = time taken ​

W
limited suitable P = t where W is the work done in time t
​

sites. P = ΔE
t where ΔE is the energy transferred in time
​

Limited to t
geologically Key definition: Power is the work done per unit time and
Reliable, low
active areas, the energy transferred per unit time.
Geothermal emissions,
Renewable high upfront Unit of power: watt (W ), where 1 W = 1 J/s
Energy constant
costs for Larger units:
energy source.
exploration 1 kW = 1000 W = 10 3 W
and drilling. 1 M W = 1,000,000 W = 10 6 W
Competition Example: If a machine does 500 J of work in 10 s, its
Renewable, with food power is:
lower production, 500J
= 50W
10s ​

Biofuels Renewable emissions land use

compared to issues, varying Efficiency
fossil fuels. energy
% Efficiency formula for energy
content.

Efficiency (%) = ( Useful

Total Energy Input ) × 100%
Energy Output
How Fossil Fuels are used in Power Stations
​

Coal: In coal-fired power stations, coal is burned in a % Efficiency formula for power
boiler to produce heat.
Natural Gas: In gas-fired power stations, natural gas is Efficiency (%) = ( Useful
Total Power Input ) × 100%
Power Output
​

burned directly in a gas turbine. Example a: Electric Motor

The heat generated from burning these fuels is used to
boil water, creating high-pressure steam. Given:
The steam drives turbines connected to electrical
Energy input = 400 J
generators.
Work done on load = 300 J
Turbines are designed with sets of blades (rotor) mounted
Calculate Efficiency:
on a shaft, which rotates when steam is directed onto
Efficiency = ( 300 J
400 J ) × 100 = 75%
them.
​

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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

Example b: Electric Drill Volume of the liquid column: ΔhA

Mass of the liquid column: m = ρΔhA (mass =
Given:
density × volume)
Power input to drill = 300 J/s Weight of the liquid column: mg = ρΔhAg
Useful power output (excluding thermal losses) = 200 J/s Force on area A: ρΔhAg
Pressure due to the liquid column:
Calculate Efficiency:
pressure = force
area ​

ρΔhAg
= ρgΔh
( 300 J/s )
200 J/s
Efficiency = × 100 = 66.67% A ​

Formula: Δp = ρgΔh \n Δp is the change in pressure

​

Sankey Diagrams
beneath the surface of the liquid at depth Δh due to the
Sankey diagrams are used to represent energy transfers weight of a liquid of density ρ
and efficiencies visually. g is the gravitational field strength
They show how input energy is divided into useful output This pressure acts equally in all directions at depth
energy and wasted energy. Δh and depends only on Δh and ρ .
The width of the arrows in a Sankey diagram is Value will be in pascals ( P a) if Δh = is in meters (m) and
proportional to the amount of energy they represent. (ρ) is in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³).
A wide arrow represents a large amount of energy, while
a narrow arrow represents a small amount.

2. Thermal Physics
2.1. Kinetic Particle Model of Matter
States of Matter
1.7. Pressure
Matter consists of tiny particles like molecules and atoms.
Pressure is the force per unit area. Matter exists as solids, liquids, or gases, each with
Formula: different characteristics.
force
pressure = area ​ Solids have a definite shape and volume, and particles are
Key definition: Pressure is the force per unit area. close together in fixed positions.
Unit of pressure: pascal (P a), where 1 P a = 1 N /m² Liquids have a definite volume and take the shape of their
Greater area over which a force acts results in less container. The particles are further apart and can slide
pressure. over each other.
Gases have no definite shape or volume, and particles
Liquid Pressure move much further apart and freely.

Pressure in a liquid increases with depth because the

further down you go, the greater the weight of liquid
above.
Pressure at one depth acts equally in all directions.
Pressure depends on the density of the liquid; the denser
the liquid, the greater the pressure at any given depth.
The change in pressure Δp at a depth Δh below the
surface of a liquid with density ρ is determined by
considering a horizontal area A.
Property Solids Liquids Gases
Force acting vertically downwards on area A equals the
weight of the liquid column of height Δh and cross-
sectional area A above it.

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Property Solids Liquids Gases Effect on Pressure of a Change in Temperature (Constant

Takes the Takes the Volume)
Shape Definite shape of the shape of the Heating a gas increases the kinetic energy of its particles.
container container Higher kinetic energy leads to more frequent and
Fills container energetic collisions with the container walls.
Volume Definite Definite
completely Increased collisions result in higher pressure according to
Vibrates in Move freely, a gas law:
Move rapidly
Particle Motion fixed slide past each (P V = nRT )
and randomly
positions other
Effect on Pressure of a Change in Volume (Constant
Slightly Highly
Compressibility None Temperature)
compressible compressible
Weaker than Reducing the volume of a gas increases the concentration
Intermolecular
Strong solids, stronger Very weak of particles.
Forces
than gases More particles per unit volume lead to more collisions
with the container walls.
Brownian Motion The pressure increases proportionally to the decrease in
volume:
Describes random motion of particles in fluids (liquids and
gases) and is caused by collisions with smaller, faster-
moving particles.

Variations in Gas Pressure with Volume

Boyle's Law states that at constant temperature, the

product of pressure and volume is constant:
(p 1 V 1 = p 2 V 2 )
​ ​ ​ ​

Temperature and kinetic energy Graphing pressure ( p ) against the reciprocal of volume
( V1 ) gives a straight line.
Particles in solids vibrate in fixed positions at room
​

temperature. Absolute Zero and Kelvin Temperature Scale:

Heating solids increases particle vibrations, raising their
average kinetic energy. Absolute zero, at −273°C or 0 K, is the lowest possible
Cooling a solid reduces particle vibrations until absolute temperature.
zero (-273°C or 0 K) stops all motion. Kelvin scale temperatures are derived by adding 273 to
Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature Celsius temperatures: (T (K) = θ(°C) + 273)
possible. In the Kelvin scale, all temperatures are always positive
and directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of
Pressure and Kinetic Energy
particles.
Gases have particles moving randomly at high speeds.
Each gas particle collision with a container wall changes 2.2. Thermal properties and
its momentum, creating a force.
temperature
The average force per unit area on container walls
remains constant at a constant temperature.
Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases
Increasing temperature raises collision frequency,
increasing average force and gas pressure. Solids and Liquids: When heated, particles vibrate more,
causing them to push apart slightly, resulting in
expansion.

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Gases: Heating increases particle speed and collisions Specific Heat Capacity
with container walls, which causes container expansion to
maintain pressure. Specific heat capacity ( c ) is defined as the energy
required per unit mass per unit temperature increase,
Applications measured in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius
(J/(kg°C)
Bimetallic Strips: Made from metals with different
The formula relating heat energy ( ΔE ), mass (m),
expansion rates (e.g., copper and iron). Used in:
specific heat capacity (c), and temperature change (Δθ)
Fire Alarms: Bends to complete an electrical circuit
is: \n ΔE = mcΔθ
when exposed to heat, triggering alarms.
Thermostats: Maintains temperature by bending to Specific heat capacity quantifies how much heat energy is
break or complete electrical circuits needed to raise the temperature of a substance.
Materials with higher specific heat capacities require
more heat energy per unit mass to achieve the same
temperature change.

Worked Example Calculation

Given:

Heat energy supplied, (ΔE = 20000, J)

Mass of the substance, (m = 5, kg)
Temperature change, (Δθ = 10°C )
Calculate the specific heat capacity (c) of the substance.
Shrink-fitting: Cooling components contracts them, fitting
Formula:
tightly into other parts upon warming. Used in
manufacturing for tight connections without fasteners. The specific heat capacity (( c )) is given by:
Lid Removal: Expanding metal lids with hot water loosens c= ΔE
mΔθ ​

them from glass jars, leading to easier opening.

Substituting the given values:
Precautions 20000
c= 5×10 ​

Expansion joints are spaces left between rail tracks used Calculation:
in railways, and pipes to allow for thermal expansion
c = 20000
50
without damage
​

c = 400J/(kg°C)
Internal Energy and Heating
Change of State
Internal energy increases when an object is heated.
Heating can change a solid to a liquid (melting) and a
Different materials require varying amounts of heat to
liquid to a solid (freezing).
raise their temperatures due to differences in specific
Pure substances melt and freeze at specific
heat capacity.
temperatures, such as water at 0°C.
Specific heat capacity (c) measures the amount of heat
Melting involves particles of a solid overcoming
required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1
intermolecular forces to become a liquid.
degree Celsius per unit mass.
Solidification (freezing) involves the transfer of potential
Temperature and Thermal Energy energy from particles to surroundings as a liquid
becomes solid.
Temperature is related to the average kinetic energy of Vaporisation requires substantial energy to overcome
particles. intermolecular forces in a liquid to become gas (vapour).
Thermal energy is the total energy of particles in a Condensation involves gas particles losing potential
substance, and more particles can hold more total energy to their surroundings as they return to a liquid
thermal energy even if they have lower individual particle state.
energies.

Heat Transfer and Equilibrium

Heat transfers from higher to lower temperature bodies

until thermal equilibrium is reached.
This transfer is caused by collisions between particles,
making their average kinetic energies equal.

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Non-metals transfer heat through slower atomic or

molecular vibrations, lacking free electrons.

Convection

Heat transfer method in fluids like liquids and gases.

Evaporation Transfer of thermal energy by movement of the matter
itself.
Higher temperatures, larger surface areas, and wind or
draughts increase the rate of evaporation. Convection Currents
Energy is transferred to the surroundings from the liquid
during evaporation, cooling the liquid. Warm fluids rise because they expand and become less
Evaporation cools the body through sweat, helping to dense.
maintain a constant temperature. Cooler, denser fluids sink and replace the rising warm
fluid.
Differences between boiling and evaporation
Feature Boiling Evaporation This movement of fluids due to temperature differences is
Occurs at any known as a convection current.
Occurs at a specific
Temperature temperature below
boiling temperature.
the boiling point.
Bubbles of vapour Occurs at the surface
Process
form within the liquid. of the liquid.
Requires less heat
Requires sufficient
Energy and occurs due to
heat to reach boiling
Requirement energetic particles
point.
escaping.
Rapid compared to Slower compared to
Speed
evaporation. boiling.
Happens throughout
Throughout Happens only at the
the entire volume of
Liquid? liquid's surface.
the liquid.

Radiation
2.3. Transfer of thermal energy
A method of thermal energy transfer which occurs
Conduction without matter, even in vacuum.
Emits as electromagnetic waves, travels at speed of light.
Conduction is heat transfer through matter from hot to
cold without moving matter. Absorption and Reflection
Metals conduct heat well (e.g., copper, aluminum);
Surfaces vary in radiation absorption.
insulators (wood, plastic) are poor conductors.
Black surfaces absorb more than shiny white ones.
Metals feel colder due to rapid heat transfer from the
hand compared to insulators at the same temperature. Emission
Liquids and gases conduct heat slowly because the
particles are further apart and need time to transfer Surfaces emit radiation differently when hot.
energy to each other. Dull black surfaces emit more than shiny surfaces.
Metals transfer heat via fast-moving free electrons, All bodies emit radiation above absolute zero.
raising temperatures in cooler areas and lattice
vibrations.

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Surface Absorption of Emission of Wave speed ( v): Distance moved by a crest or any point
Reflectivity
Type Radiation Radiation on the wave in 1 second.
Shiny Amplitude ( a): Height of a crest or depth of a trough from
Poor absorber Poor emitter High the undisturbed or mean position.
White
Phase: Particles in ‘phase’ have the same speed and
Dull Black Good absorber Good emitter Low
direction of vibration.

Greenhouse effect Wave equation

Greenhouse gases trap heat similar to glass in a Faster vibration produces a shorter wavelength.
greenhouse. Therefore, higher frequency results in a smaller
Balance between incoming solar radiation and emitted wavelength.
Earth radiation crucial for climate stability. Wave equation:
Increased carbon dioxide and methane upset this balance v = fλ
and absorb more infrared which cannot escape.
Wavefronts and rays

Wavefront: A straight line where the wave has the same

phase at all points.
Ray: Line drawn at right angles to a wavefront showing
direction of travel.

3. Waves
3.1. General properties of waves
Progressive waves carry energy from one place to
another without transferring matter.

Two types of progressive waves:

Transverse waves
Longitudinal waves

Reflection of a wave at a plane surface

Straight water waves (transverse waves) hit a metal strip
in a ripple tank at x ° angle.
Angle of incidence (i) and angle of reflection (r)are both
Transverse Waves Longitudinal Waves x° .
Particles vibrate Angle of incidence equals angle of reflection: (i = r)
Particles vibrate parallel to Same wavelength as reflected wave
perpendicular to the
the propagation of the wave
propagation of the wave
Represented by a rope Represented by pushing and
moving up and down pulling the end of a spring

Wavelength ( λ ): Distance between 2 successive crests/

troughs.
Frequency ( f ): Number of complete waves created per
second, measured in hertz (Hz).

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Same wave speed \n

Speed of light

The speed of light is about 1 million times faster than the

speed of sound.
The speed of light is 3 × 10 8 meters per second.
Reflection of light against a plane mirror
Refraction
Continuous straight waves in shallow water have shorter The normal is the perpendicular to the mirror at the point
wavelengths than in deeper water. where the incident ray strikes.
Waves in shallower water have a smaller speed and
The angle of incidence (i) is between the incident ray and
smaller wavelength.
the normal.
Direction of travel bends towards the normal in shallow
The angle of reflection (r) is between the reflected ray
regions.
and the normal.

The law of reflection states: The angle of

incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

Diffraction

Straight water waves meet narrow gaps and create

circular wavefronts. Real and virtual images
Diffraction can also occur at edges of obstacles causing
wave spreading. A real image can be produced on a screen and is formed
by rays that pass through the screen.
A virtual image cannot be formed on a screen.
A virtual image is produced by rays that seem to come
from it but do not actually pass through it.
The image in a plane mirror is virtual. Rays from an object
are reflected at the mirror and appear to come from a
point behind the mirror where the rays would meet when

3.2. Reflection and refraction of light

Light travels in a path called a ray.
A beam is a stream of light shown by several rays.
Beams can be parallel, diverging, or converging.

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extrapolated (extended) backward.

3.3. Lenses
Converging and diverging lenses

A converging (or convex) lens is thickest in the center and

bends light inwards.
A diverging (or concave) lens is thinnest in the center and
spreads light out.
The center of a lens is its optical center (C ) and the line
through C at right angles to the lens is the principal axis.

Principal focus
Refractive Index
When a beam of light (parallel to the principal axis)
Light refracts due to speed change when entering a passes through a converging lens, it refracts to converge
different medium. at a point called the principal focus (F ).
In air, light travels at 300, 000 km/s ( 3 × 10⁸ m/s) The principal focus of a converging lens is a real focus.
In glass, it slows to 200,000 km/s (2 × 10⁸ m/s) A diverging lens has a virtual principal focus behind the
Refractive index (n) is the ratio of light speed in air to lens, from which the refracted beam appears to diverge.
A lens has two principal focuses, one on each side, each
light speed in the medium.
300,000km/s 3 equidistant from the optical center (C ).
For glass: n = 200,000km/s = 2 = 1.5
The distance ( CF ) is the focal length (f) of the lens.
​ ​

Refractive index is the ratio of speeds of a wave in two

different regions.
sin(i)
Experimentally it is true that n = sin(r) where
​ (i) is the
angle in air and (r) is the angle in glass.
Higher refractive index means greater bending of light as
it slows down more.

Critical Angle

When light passes from an optically denser to an optically

less dense medium at small angles of incidence, there is a
Ray diagrams
strong refracted ray and a weak reflected ray.
Increasing the angle of incidence increases the angle of A ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted through the
refraction. principal focus (F ).
Critical angle ( c ) occurs when the angle of refraction is
A ray through the optical center (C ) is undeviated (not
90°.
refracted) for a thin lens.
For angles of incidence greater than ( c ), light undergoes
A ray through the principal focus (F ) is refracted parallel
total internal reflection.
to the principal axis.
Total internal reflection means that the light does not
The intersection of rays (in one beam) after refraction
cross the boundary and reflects inside the denser
gives the location of the image.
medium.
1
For the critical angle: sin(c) = n where
​ n is the How to draw a ray diagram step-by-step
refractive index. Parallel Ray (Ray 1):

Draw a straight line (parallel to the principal axis).

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Start the line from the top of the object towards the lens.
After refraction through the lens, draw this directly ray
through the focal point F on the opposite side of the lens.

Central Ray (Ray 2):

Draw a straight line from the top of the object through the
optical center C of the lens.
This ray will continue in the same direction without
bending at all.
3.4. Dispersion of light
Refraction by a prism

In a triangular glass prism, a ray bends due to refraction

at each surface.
The bending at the first surface combines with the
bending at the second surface.
Image formed: This combined change in direction is called the deviation.
Unlike in a parallel-sided block, where the emergent
These two will intersect on the opposite side of the lens to (exiting) ray remains parallel to the incident ray, these
form the image of the object. bendings do not cancel out in a prism.

Dispersion

When white light)passes through a triangular glass prism,

it separates into a band of colors known as a spectrum.
This separation of colors is called dispersion and occurs
because the refractive index of glass varies with the
Magnification wavelength of light.
White light consists of many colors with different
The linear magnification (M ) is given by: wavelengths, and the prism separates them based on
image size their refractive indices.
M = object size ​

Magnification can also be expressed as: The colors of the visible spectrum, from longest to
M = distance of image from lens shortest wavelength, are: red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
distance of object from lens ​

indigo, and violet

Image properties at different object positions are shown
Red light, with the longest wavelength and lowest
below:
frequency, is refracted the least by the prism.
Image Violet light, with the shortest wavelength and highest
Object Position Image Position Image Size frequency, is refracted the most by the prism.
Nature
Real,
At 2F At 2F Same size
inverted
Between 2F Real,
Beyond 2F Larger
and F inverted
Real, Infinitely
At F At infinity
inverted large
Between F and On the same side of Virtual,
Larger
lens lens upright

3.5. Electromagnetic spectrum

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Light waves and Electromagnetic Spectrum Shorter wavelengths than visible light; causes sunburn
and skin damage.
Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which Used in fluorescent applications (e.g., security marking,
extends beyond visible light in both directions (with water treatment, artificial skin-tanning) and sterilising
greater wavelength vs. smaller wavelength) water.
The spectrum includes gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet, Can be harmful in high doses.
infrared, microwaves, and radio waves.
Wavelength increases from gamma rays to radio waves, X-rays and Gamma Rays
while frequency increases from radio waves to gamma
rays. X-rays have smaller wavelengths than ultraviolet rays and
are used in medical imaging, security screening, and
industrial inspection.
Gamma rays are highly penetrating (smallest wavelength
and largest frequency) and used in cancer detection
cancer treatment to kill cells, sterilization, and material
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves inspection.
Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light in
Communication Systems
vacuum, approximately 3 × 10 8 m/s.
They can undergo reflection, refraction, and diffraction Below are the differences between digital and analog
and are transverse waves. signals:
They follow the wave equation v = fλ , where ( v ) is the
speed of light, ( f ) is the frequency, and ( λ ) is the Aspect Digital Signals Analog Signals
wavelength. Continuous, varying
Discrete, binary (0s
Higher frequency means smaller wavelength and Signal Type amplitude and
and 1s)
therefore more energy carried. frequency
Limited by bandwidth
Radio Waves and Microwaves Transmission Higher transmission
and signal degradation
Rate rates
Radio waves are longest-wavelength electromagnetic over distance
waves used for communication, radio and television Digital data, internet Audio signals, analog
transmission, astronomy and radio frequency Examples signals, computer television, older
identification. memory telephone systems
Microwaves have shorter wavelengths than radiowaves
and are used in telecommunications, satellite
communication, radar, and microwave ovens.

Infrared Radiation

Detected as heat by the body; used in thermal imaging,

heating, and remote controls.
Also used in communication (optical fibers), electric grills
and intruder alarms.
However, high-intensity infrared can cause burns and eye
damage.

Visible Light

Red light has the longest wavelength, and violet light has
Infrared Optical Fibers
the shortest.
Monochromatic light consists of one color (single Infrared optical fibers use the principle of total internal
frequency), where frequency is more responsible than reflection to make infrared or light travel along the fiber
wavelength to express the colour. without much loss.
Visible light enables vision and is used for illumination and Used for long-distance data transmission, offering high
photography. bandwidth and low signal loss compared to electrical
Optical instruments like microscopes and telescopes use transmission.
light properties to form images.

Ultraviolet Radiation

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Audibility can also be affected by the intensity (loudness)

of the sound which is determined by amplitude.

Reflection of sound (Echo)

Sound waves reflect off hard and flat surfaces like how
light reflects off a mirror.
When sound reflects, it creates an echo, which is a
repetition of the original sound heard after a short delay.
3.6. Sound
Longitudinal waves

Sound waves are longitudinal

Particles in the medium (like air or water molecules)
vibrate back and forth parallel to the direction of wave
propagation.
This creates areas of compression (where molecules are
closer together) and rarefaction (where they are far
apart) as the wave travels through the medium.
The movement of particles transfers energy through the
medium.
This vibration causes sound to be heart

Compressions and Rarefactions Speed of Sound

Sound waves are made of compressions ( C ) and The speed of sound in air is approximately 330–350
rarefactions ( R) as they move through a medium. meters per second ( m/s) at room temperature.
Compressions are regions where air molecules are In other materials, such as water or steel, the speed of
densely packed together and the regions have higher sound varies due to differences in the density.
pressure. Temperature affects the speed of sound in air nd it
Rarefactions are regions where air molecules are less increases with temperature because warmer air
densely packed and the regions have lower pressure. molecules move faster.

Measurement of the Speed of Sound

Echo Method
Stand at a known distance (like more than 300 meters)
from a large wall.
Clap hands or produce a sharp sound and start a
stopwatch simultaneously.
Frequency and Wavelength Wait for the distinct echo from the surface and stop the
stopwatch when you hear it.
Frequency (f) of a sound wave is the number of Calculation: Use the formula ( v = 2d t ), where ( d ) is the
​

complete wave cycles per second, and is measured in distance to the surface and ( t ) is the time interval
Hertz ( Hz ). measured with the stopwatch.
Higher frequencies mean higher pitch sounds, while lower
frequencies mean lower pitch sounds. Note: Twice the distance is used because the
Wavelength ( λ ) is the distance between two consecutive sound travels away from you and then back
compressions or rarefactions in a sound wave. again, covering the entire distance two times.
The speed of sound ( v ) in a medium is determined by the
Direct Method
product of its frequency and wavelength: ( v = fλ ).
Place two microphones a known distance (like 10 meters)
Limits of hearing
apart.
Humans can only hear sound frequencies ranging from Connect microphones to an oscilloscope to detect the
about 20Hz (low pitch) to 20,000Hz (high pitch). sound.
The upper limit of audibility decreases with age due to Produce a sound source equidistant from both points and
changes in the sensitivity of the ear. start timing when the sound is produced.

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Stop timing when the sound is detected at the second Ferromagnetic materials like iron can be made into
point. magnets.
Use the formula ( v = dt ), where ( d ) is the known distance
​
Magnetic materials are naturally attracted to magnets
between the two microphones and ( t) is the measured even when not magnetized.
time interval between detection at the two points.
Magnetic Poles

Magnetic poles attract magnetic materials and are found

near the ends of magnets.
Poles always come in pairs: north and south.
Every magnet has a North Pole ( N ) and a South Pole ( S ).
The North Pole of a magnet points towards the Earth's
geographic North Pole.

Law of Magnetic Poles

Similar poles ( N− N or S − S ) repel each other.

Opposite poles ( N − S ) attract each other.
The attraction or repulsion decreases as poles move
farther apart.
Musical Notes

Pitch of the note is determined by the frequency of the

sound wave (higher frequencies produce higher pitch
notes).
Loudness is determined by the amplitude of vibrations (
greater amplitude produces louder sounds)
Quality (timbre) of a sound its its unique shape or texture,
causes by the instrument's construction. Induced Magnetism

Magnetic materials can become magnetized when near a

magnet.

Magnetisation of Iron and Steel

Iron nails and steel paper clips can be magnetised by

hanging them from a magnet.
Each nail or clip magnetises the next in a chain, with
unlike poles attracting each other.
Removing an iron chain by pulling the top nail causes it to
collapse because iron shows temporary magnetism.
Steel chains do not collapse when removed because they
have permanent magnetism.
Soft materials (e.g. iron) are easily magnetised but lose
magnetism quickly.
Ultrasound
Hard materials (e.g. steel) are harder to magnetise but
Ultrasound refers to sound waves with frequencies above remain magnetised longer.
the upper limit of human hearing ( > 20, 000Hz ).
It is used in medical imaging and industrial applications
for precision and non-destructive testing.
Ultrasound waves behave similarly to audible sound
waves but can penetrate materials and provide detailed
imaging without harmful effects.

4. Electricity and Magnetism

4.1. Simple Phenomena of Magnetism
Magnetic Materials

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Closer Poles: Moving the magnetic poles closer together

increases electromagnet strength.

Magnetic and Non-magnetic Materials

Magnetic materials (iron, steel, nickel, cobalt) are

attracted to magnets and can be magnetised.
Non-magnetic materials (e.g., aluminium, wood) are not 4.2. Electrical quantities
attracted to magnets and cannot be magnetised.
Electric Charge
Magnetic Fields
Like/same charges (+ and + or – and – ) repel, while unlike
A magnetic field is the region around a magnet where charges (+ and –) attract.
magnetic forces act.
Field strength is higher where magnetic field lines are Force Between Charges
closer together and lower where they are further apart.
Magnetic fields are shown using lines of force, showing The force between electric charges decreases as their
the direction from North to South poles. separation increases.
The density of these lines indicates field strength: closer Positive charges repel other positive charges and attract
lines represent stronger magnetic fields. negative charges.
Negative charges repel other negative charges and
attract positive charges.

Charges, Atoms, and Electrons

Atoms consist of a central nucleus with protons (positive)

and electrons (negative) orbiting around it.
Electromagnets Protons and electrons have equal but opposite charges,
making atoms electrically neutral overall.
They are formed from a coil of wire through which an
electrical current passes. Production of Charges
Magnetism is temporary and can be switched on and off,
unlike permanent magnets. Charges are produced by friction, which transfers
electrons between materials.
They contain a core of soft iron that only becomes
magnetised when current flows through the coil. Electrons move between materials during rubbing;
protons remain in the nuclei and do not move.
Factors Affecting Electromagnet Strength
Units of charge
Current Increase: Higher current in the coil results in
stronger magnetism. Charge is measured in coulombs ( C ) and defined in
More Turns: Increasing the number of turns in coils terms of the ampere ( A)
around the core increases magnet strength. The charge on an electron is ( e = 1.6 × 10 −19 ) C .

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Electrons, Insulators, and Conductors Conventional current flows from positive to negative
terminals of a battery, opposite to electron flow.
Insulators: Electrons are firmly bound to atoms; rubbing Circuit diagrams show conventional current direction with
can charge them statically. arrows, while electrons move in the opposite direction.
Conductors: Electrons can move freely; they require
insulation to hold a charge. Direct and Alternating Current
Direct Current (d.c.) Alternating Current (a.c.)
Type Description Examples
Electrons flow continuously in Electrons regularly change
Electrons are firmly one direction. their direction of flow.
Plastics (polythene,
bound to atoms;
Insulators cellulose acetate), Provided by batteries Produced by generators.
rubbing can charge
Perspex, nylon
them statically.
Frequency of Alternating Current
Electrons can move
freely; require Frequency refers to the number of complete cycles per
Conductors Metals, carbon
insulation to hold a second.
charge. It is measured in Hertz ( Hz ), where 1 Hz equals one
cycle per second.
Electric Fields

When charges are near each other, they experience a

force known as the electric force.
Electric field is a region where a charge feels a force due
to nearby charges.
Uniform electric field exists between oppositely charged
parallel metal plates, shown by evenly spaced lines
perpendicular to the plates.
Electric field direction is indicated by arrows, showing the
force acting towards a small positive charge (acting away
from negative charges).

4.3. Voltage, resistance and power

Electromotive Force (e.m.f.)

Chemical actions inside a battery produces electron

excess at the negative terminal and shortage at the
positive terminal
The Ampere and the Coulomb (units of current and charge) Battery maintains electron flow (electric current) in a
connected circuit as long chemical actions last.
Electric Current is defined as charge passing a point per Work is done by the battery in moving charge around the
unit time, symbolized as circuit.
Q
(I = t ).
​

Electromotive force ( e.m.f.) is the electrical work done

Unit of current is the ampere ( A), with one milliampere ( by a source in moving unit charge around a complete
mA) equal to one-thousandth of an ampere and is circuit.
measured by an ammeter. Electromotive force is measured in volts (V ).
Unit of charge is the coulomb ( C ), defined as the charge
passing a point when a steady current of 1 ampere flows Potential Difference
for 1 second ( 1C = 1As).
Electric current transfers energy from a battery to circuit
Charge Calculation components and then to surroundings.
Q=I×t Potential difference ( p.d.) is the work done by unit charge
where Q is charge, I is current, and t is time in seconds. passing through a component
Conventional Current P .d. is measured in volts.
Voltage is sometimes used instead of p.d.
J
1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb 1 V = 1 C ) ​

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Formula: V = W
Q or ​ W =Q×V Semiconductor Diode

Resistance Diode has small resistance when connected one way, very
large resistance when p.d. is reversed.
Electrons move more easily through some conductors It conducts electricity in one direction only and it is a non-
when p.d. is applied. ohmic conductor.
Resistance is the opposition of a conductor to current.
Good conductors have low resistance while poor
conductors have high resistance
Ohm (Ω) is the unit of resistance.
Formula: R = VI ​

Variable Resistors

They can change current in a circuit (rheostat mode) or

act as a potential divider by dividing voltage across
components as desired.

Resistance depends on the length, cross-sectional area,

and material of the wire Filament Lamp
Resistance increases with length but decreases with
Non-ohmic conductor at high temperatures
larger cross-sectional area
Formula: ( R ∝ l I –V graph curve flattens as V and I increase, showing
A) ​

increasing resistance with increasing current and

I –V graphs and Ohm’s Law increasing temperature.

Metals and some alloys give I –V graphs that are straight

lines through the origin, showing that I is directly
proportional to V or that I ∝V.
Doubling V doubles I .
Such conductors obey Ohm’s law: V = I R
Ohmic or linear conductors are the conductors where
resistance does not change with V .

Thermistor

Increase in temperature generally increases the

resistance of metals.
Thermistors' resistance is different and decreases with
rising temperature.

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It is a non-ohmic conductor by the units you consume.

4.4. Electric circuits

Electrical component symbols

Current in a Series Circuit

In a series circuit, there is a single path for the current to

flow.
The current remains the same throughout:
Light-dependent Resistor (LDR) Current ( I ) is consistent at every point in the series
Resistance of some semiconductors decreases with circuit.
increased light intensity. The reading on an ammeter will be identical no matter
Light-dependent resistors (LDRs) use this property to where it is placed in the circuit.
function.
Current in a Parallel Circuit
I –V graph for an LDR is similar to that of a thermistor
LDR is also a non-ohmic conductor. In a parallel circuit, components are connected side by
side, providing alternative paths for current flow.
Power in Electric Circuits The total current is the sum of the currents through each
branch
Power defined as work done or energy transferred per
If the total current from the source is ( I 0 ), and the current
time taken: P = W
​

t through each branch is I 1 , I 2 and I 3 then I 0 = I1 +

​

P is power in watts ( W ), W is work done in joules ( J ), t is ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

time in seconds ( s)
I2 + I3
​ ​

For a steady current (I ) in a device with a potential

difference ( V ) across it, the work done has a formula
W = I × t× V
Substituting work done with the power P = I V
multiplied by time in seconds ( t), the energy transferred
is: E = Pt = I V t

Example

Lamp with 240 V supply and 0.25 A current

Power = P = I V = 240 V × 0.25 A = 60 W
60 J of energy transferred to the lamp each second
Potential Difference (p.d.) in Series and Parallel Circuits
Voltage in terms of power and current
In a series circuit, the total potential difference across the
Volt can be defined as a watt per ampere: \n V = PI ​

components is the sum of the individual potential

If all energy transferred to thermal energy in a resistor of differences: V 0 = V 1 + V 2 + V 3
​ ​ ​ ​

resistance R: In a parallel circuit, the potential difference across each

P = V × I = I R × I = I 2R component is the same as the potential difference across
Doubling the current produces four times the thermal one branch: V across each branch ​
= V0 ​

V2
energy per second P = R ​

Larger unit for energy: kilowatt-hour ( kWh) Cells, Batteries, and Electromotive Force ( e.m.f.)
1 kWh = 1000 Js × 3600 s = 3600000 J = 3.6 M J
​

Cells in series increase the total e.m.f. of the battery. For

The cost of electricity in houses is calculated by using
example, if two 1.5 V cells are connected in series then
kWh where each kWh has a fixed price and is multiplied
the e.m.f.= 1.5 V + 1.5 V = 3.0 V

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Resistors in Series potential difference.

In a series circuit, the total resistance (R0 ) is the sum of ​

the individual resistances: R0 = R1 + R2 + R3 ​ ​ ​ ​

Given resistors R1 , R2 , and R3 the total voltage ( V )

​ ​ ​

across them is: V = I × R

Worked Example

For a 4.5 V battery across resistors of 3 Ω , 4 Ω and 5 Ω in

series:
Combined resistance: R0 = R1 + R2 + R3 = 3 Ω + 4 Ω ​ ​ ​ ​

+ 5 Ω = 12 Ω
Current ( I ): I = VR = 4.5V
12Ω = 0.375 A ​ ​

p.d. across 4 Ω resistor: V 2 = I × R2 = 0.375 A × 4 Ω = ​ ​

1.5 V
Resistors in Parallel

The combined resistance (R0 ) of resistors in parallel is ​

given by: R10 = R11 + R12 + R13 …

​ ​ ​ ​
Potential Divider
Two resistors R1 and R2 have resistance of R1 = R1 +
​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​ ​
For two resistors R1 and R2 in series with a supply voltage
​ ​

0 1 ​ ​

1 R 1 ×R 2 (V ):
= R0 =
​ ​

R2 ​
​

R 1 +R 2
​

​ ​
​

V
Properties of Parallel Circuits The total current (I ) is given by: I = R 1 +R 2
​ ​
​

1. The current from the source is greater than the Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR)
current in each branch.
2. The combined resistance of parallel resistors is less An LDR’s resistance decreases with increasing light
than that of any individual resistor. intensity.
In a circuit, as light intensity increases:
The LDR’s resistance decreases, allowing more
4.5. Applications of electric circuits current to flow.
This increase in current can light a lamp or cause
Increase in Resistance of a Conductor
other actions.
In metals, current is carried by free electrons. As the
temperature of the metal increases:
The atoms vibrate more, making it harder for electrons to
move.
This results in an increase in resistance.

From Ohm's Law V = I R , if resistance ( R) increases while

maintaining a constant current(I ), the potential difference (
V ) across the conductor also increases.
Variable Potential Divider

In a thermistor, resistance decreases with increasing

temperature.
When it’s used in a potential divider circuit:
As temperature rises, the thermistor's resistance
decreases.
This lowers the combined resistance of the two
resistors, increasing the current if the supply voltage
remains constant.
Thermistor
The potential difference across the fixed resistor
increases relative to that across the thermistor. A thermistor's resistance decreases significantly with
A variable resistor can also act as a potential divider by temperature increase.
adjusting the position of the contact, changing the output In a series circuit with a thermistor:

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As temperature rises, its resistance drops, decreasing Electric Shock: Current flows from an electric circuit
the potential difference across it. through a person's body to earth.
This causes an increase in voltage across a series Dry Skin: Resistance ~10,000 Ω and current around 24
resistor, which can trigger a relay or alarm. mA (it is safe).
Wet Skin: Resistance ~1,000 Ω and current ~240 mA
(can be deadly).
Larger currents are more dangerous.
Longer exposure increases risk.

Reducing Risk

Turn off power before repairs.

Use earth pin and cord grips.
Keep appliances dry and away from water.
Avoid trailing cables and damage, especially with cutting
tools.

First Aid for Electric Shock

Switch off the power if the person is still in contact with

the equipment.
Relays Call for medical assistance.

A relay allows a small current to control a larger current Causes of fires

needed to operate an appliance.
In a switching circuit: Flammable materials near hot appliances or wiring.
If the switching circuit output is high, a small current Overheated wiring produces excessive current and can
flows through the relay, closing the mains switch. lead to fire.
This isolates the low voltage circuit from the high Preventive Measures:
voltage mains supply. Match fuse rating to appliance.
Do not overload sockets or use too many adapters.
Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Use thick wires for high-power appliances.

An LED emits light when forward-biased (cathode House Circuits

connected to the negative terminal):
Reverse bias (anode connected to the negative Live and Neutral Wires: Both supply electricity and the
terminal) does not emit light and can damage the LED neutral is earthed.
if the reverse voltage exceeds 5 V . Earth Wire: Provides safety by connecting metal cases to
A suitable resistor R (e.g. 300 Ω on a 5 V supply) is
needed to limit the current.

Semiconductor Diode

A diode allows current to pass in only one direction:

Forward-biased: current flows when the anode is
connected to the positive terminal and the cathode to
the negative terminal.
Reverse-biased: the diode does not conduct and has
high resistance. earth.

Switches and Fuses

4.6. Electrical safety
Switches and fuses are in the live wire to prevent shocks.
Dangers of Electricity Fuse breaks the circuit if the current exceeds safe levels.

Damaged Insulation: Exposes wires, increasing shock and Circuit Breakers

fire risk.
Electromagnetism breaks the circuit when current
Overheated Cables: Can lead to fire.
exceeds a preset level.
Damp Conditions: Increase shock severity due to reduced
Advantages: Faster operation and can be reset.
resistance.
Excess Current: From overloaded plugs, extension leads, Earthing
and multiple sockets.

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Prevents shock by providing a path for fault currents.

Earth pin connects appliance metal cases to earth,
preventing them from becoming live.

Double Insulation

Appliances with two layers of insulation don’t need an

earth wire.

4.7. Electromagnetic induction Factors Affecting Induced e.m.f.

Process of generating electricity from a changing Faster movement of magnet or coil increases induced
magnetic field. e.m.f.
More turns in the coil increase the induced e.m.f.
Electromagnetic Induction Experiments Stronger magnets increase the induced e.m.f.
e.m.f. is directly proportional to the rate at which the
Straight Wire and U-shaped Magnet
conductor cuts through magnetic field lines.
Wire held still between magnet pole leads to no induced
current. Direction of Induced e.m.f. (Lenz’s Law)
Moving wire vertically (up or down) between poles
induces current because of changing magnetic flux Induced e.m.f. always opposes the change causing it.
(cutting magnetic field lines) If a magnet approaches a coil, the induced current
Upward movement: current flows in one direction. generates a magnetic field that opposes the motion.
Downward movement: current flows in the opposite If a magnet is withdrawn, the coil’s induced current
direction. generates a field that attracts the magnet.
Deflection on meter is temporary and occurs only while
wire is moving. Magnetic Fields

Straight Wire:
When current flows through a vertical wire, iron filings
around it form circles.
Meaning that around a straight wire, there are circular
magnetic field lines.
Field direction changes with current direction
(upwards or downwards through the wire)
Use right-hand grip rule: direction of thumb (upwards
or downwards) indicates magnetic field direction by
the remaining fingers (clockwise or anti-clockwise).

Bar Magnet and Coil (solenoid)

Inserting magnet into coil (solenoid) induces current in

one direction. Solenoid
Removing magnet from solenoid induces current in the A long cylindrical coil produces a magnetic field
opposite direction. similar to a bar magnet.
No current is induced when magnet is stationary inside End A behaves like the north pole, and end B behaves
solenoid. like the south pole.
Current direction reverses with the direction of magnet Right-hand grip rule: grip solenoid in current direction,
movement. thumb points to the north pole.
This also works if the solenoid is moved instead of the Magnetic field inside the solenoid is stronger and
magnet. denser compared to outside.

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Reed Switch

A reed switch uses magnetic fields to control a circuit.

Operated by current flowing through a coil, which
magnetizes reeds of magnetic material.
Current flows: Reeds become magnetized, attract each
other, and close the circuit.
Current stops: Reeds lose magnetization, separate, and
open the circuit.

Variation of Magnetic Field Strength

Magnetic field strength decreases with distance from the

wire.
Field lines spread out as distance increases.
Increasing current strengthens the magnetic field and
Loudspeaker
lines become closer together.
It converts electrical signals into sound waves.
Reversing current direction reverses the direction of the
Varying currents pass through a coil placed in a magnetic
magnetic field.
field.
Magnetic fields interact, causing the coil to vibrate.
4.8. Applications of electromagnetic A paper cone attached to the coil moves with it.
effects Vibrations create sound waves in the surrounding air.
Components
Coil: Receives electrical signals and vibrates.
Relay
Magnet: Provides the magnetic field for interaction.
A relay is a switch that operates using an electromagnet. Paper Cone: Moves with the coil to produce sound.
It allows one circuit to control another
When current flows through the coil, it magnetizes the
soft iron core.
The magnetized core attracts the L-shaped iron armature.
The armature rocks on its pivot and closes contacts in
another circuit.

Electric Bell

A device that produces sound by ringing is an electric bell

Pressing the bell push completes the circuit.
Current flows through electromagnet coils, magnetizing
Components them.
Coil: Creates the magnetic field. Electromagnet attracts a soft iron bar (armature), causing
Soft Iron Core: Magnetized by the coil, attracts the the hammer to hit the gong.
armature. The circuit breaks at contact screw point
L-shaped Iron Armature: Moves to close or open Electromagnet loses magnetism, armature returns to its
contacts. original position.
Contacts: Switches the second circuit on or off. The springy metal strip reconnects the circuit, and the
cycle repeats as long as the bell push is pressed.

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The a.c Generator

Components
4.9. Motors and generators Rectangular coil: Positioned between the poles of a C-
shaped magnet.
Simple d.c. Electric Motor Slip rings: Connected to the ends of the coil, rotate with
the coil.
Components Carbon brushes: Press against the slip rings to conduct
Rectangular coil: Fixed up on an axle that can rotate. current.
C-shaped magnet: Provides the magnetic field.
Split-ring commutator: A copper ring split into two
halves, connected to the ends of the coil. It rotates
with the coil.
Brushes: Carbon blocks pressed against the commutator
to supply current continuously.

Operation

As the coil rotates in the magnetic field, it cuts through the

Operation field lines, inducing an electromotive force ( e.m.f.)
When direct current ( d.c.) flows through the coil, a force The e.m.f. varies as the coil moves
acts on the coil due to the interaction with the magnetic Vertical Position: No e.m.f. as the coil cuts the least
field.
number of field lines.
This force creates a turning effect, causing the coil to
Horizontal Position: Maximum e.m.f. as the coil cuts the
rotate.
most field lines.
The split-ring commutator reverses the direction of
The direction of e.m.f. reverses as the coil continues to
current in the coil as it rotates, making sure there is
continuous rotation by maintaining the direction of force. rotate, producing alternating current ( a.c.) in the circuit.
The frequency of the a.c . is determined by the rotation
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule is used for the d.c. speed of the coil. For example, a coil rotating twice per
motor \n second generates an a.c . with a frequency of 2 Hz.

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule is used for the a.c.

generator.

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Turns ratio: Np = 230V 23

N
10V = 1
​

​ ​ ​

s ​

If the secondary has 80 turns, the primary has 80 × 2 3=

182 turns.

Energy Losses

If V s stepped up, current I is stepped down

proportionally.
Ideal transformer (100% efficient): I p V p = I s V s ​ ​ ​ ​

I p and I s are primary and secondary currents.

​ ​

If V is doubled, I is halved.

4.10. Transformers
5. Nuclear Physics
The transformer changes alternating voltage to different
values.
Consists of primary and secondary coils on a soft iron 5.1. Nuclear model of the atom
core.
Coils can be wound on top of each other or separate Current atomic model
limbs.
Electrons orbit a positively charged nucleus.
Mutual Induction Mostly empty space between the orbits and the nucleus.

This occurs when current changes in one coil, inducing a Scattering experiments by Ernest Rutherford
voltage in a neighboring coil.
α-particles directed at thin gold foil.
Magnetic field lines from the primary cut through the
Observations of α-particles:
secondary coil, inducing voltage.
Induced voltage increases with a soft iron rod or complete
iron ring core due to increased magnetic field lines.

Proof of atomic
Observation Description
nodel

Transformer Equation Passed through the

Atom is mostly
Most α-particles gold foil without
empty space.
The alternating voltage applied to the primary induces an deflection.
alternating voltage in the secondary. Presence of a
V N
Relationship given by Vp = Np dense, positively
​ ​

Deflected at small
​ ​

s s ​ ​

V p and V s the primary and secondary voltages. Some α-particles charged nucleus
angles.
​ ​

Np and Ns are the primary and secondary turns.

​ ​
which repels the α-
Step-up transformer: More turns are on secondary particles
(V s > V p ). Nucleus is very
Deflected back
​ ​

Step-down transformer: fewer turns on secondary, ( V s < Approximately 1 in small and dense
towards the source
​

V p ). 8000 α-particles compared to the

at large angles.
​

rest of the atom.

Worked Example
Rutherford’s nuclear model
A transformer steps down the mains supply from 230V to
10V.

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Positive charge and most mass are concentrated in a 3H.

1 ​

small, dense nucleus.

Electrons orbit the nucleus at a large distance away. Isotopes have identical chemical properties but
Nucleus and electrons occupy about one-million-millionth different physical properties.
of the atom’s volume.
Nuclides
The nucleus
Radioactive isotopes are called radioisotopes or
The nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons. radionuclides and have unstable nuclei.
Three basic particles in an atom include protons,
Nuclear Energy
neutrons, and electrons.
Proton = a hydrogen atom minus an electron charge Einstein’s equation: E = mc 2 , where E is energy, m is
+1 , mass about 2000 times that of an electron. mass, and c is the speed of light.
Neutron: Uncharged and with a mass almost equal to Mass loss in nuclear reactions results in energy release.
that of a proton. Nuclear reactions involve large energy changes
Relative charges: Proton = +1 and neutron = 0 while compared to other physical and chemical changes.
electron = -1.
Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus and Nuclear fission
are together called nucleons.
Uranium-235 is an isotope that undergoes fission when
struck by neutrons.
Fission breaks the nucleus into smaller radioactive nuclei,
releasing additional neutrons and energy.
Mass loss is converted into kinetic energy of fission
products.
Neutrons from fission can trigger further fission
reactions.

Nuclear Reactor

Reactors use controlled chain reactions to produce

energy.
Control rods absorb neutrons to regulate the reaction.
Graphite moderates neutrons to slow down fission.
Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge Location
Proton 1 +1 In nucleus
Neutron 1 0 In nucleus
Electron 1 -1 Outside nucleus
1840

In a neutral atom the number of protons equals the

number of electrons.
Atomic number ( Z ): Number of protons in the nucleus (it
also equals the number of electrons).
Mass number ( A): Total number of nucleons (protons +
neutrons) in the nucleus.
Relationship: Number of neutrons = A − Z .
Nuclide notation: Atom X is represented as A
Z X , where A
​

is the nucleon number and Z is the proton number.

Relative charge: Product of proton number ( Z ) and the 5.2. Types of radioactivity
charge of a proton.
Relative mass: Total mass of neutrons and protons; Natural Background Radiation
approximately A times the mass of a proton. Radiation sources include:

Isotopes Cosmic rays (high-energy particles from the Sun) are

mostly absorbed by the atmosphere but some reach the
Forms of the same element with the same number of Earth's surface.
protons but different number of neutrons. Radon gas present in the air.
Example: Chlorine has isotopes 35 37
17 Cl and 17 Cl while
​

Granite rocks in homes, particularly in Scotland, emit

Hydrogen has isotopes 11 H , deuterium 21 H , and tritium
​
radioactive radon gas that can accumulate in poorly

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ventilated areas. Type of Penetrating Ionising

Mass Charge
Radioactive potassium-40 is present in food and absorbed Radiation Power Power
by our bodies. High (Helium Low (stopped
Various radioisotopes are used in medical procedures. Alpha (α) +2 High
nucleus) by paper)
Radiation from nuclear power stations and fallout from
Moderate
nuclear bomb testing
(stopped by
Beta (β) Low (electron) -1 Moderate
Ionising Effect of Radiation few mm of
aluminum)
A charged electroscope discharges when a lighted match None High (stopped
or a radium source is brought near the cap. Gamma (
(electromagnetic 0 by several cm Low
γ)
wave) of lead)
Electroscope Discharge: Neutral Atom →
Positive Ion + Electron
Particle Tracks
A lighted match knocks electrons out of air molecules,
Cloud chambers reveal the tracks of particles based on
creating positive ions.
the ionisation they produce.
Radiation causes ionisation by neutralising the charge on
Alpha Particles: Straight, thick tracks.
the electroscope.
Beta Particles: Thin, straight or twisted tracks.
Ionisation: Neutral Atom + Electron → Negative Ion Gamma Rays: Eject electrons which then produce
Geiger–Müller (GM) Tube tracks similar to β particles.

The ionising effect of radiation is used to detect radiation. Electric deflection

Radiation entering a GM tube creates argon ions and
The positive alpha particles are heavier and slowly deflect
electrons, which then causes more ionisation.
towards the negative plate.
Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Radiation The negative beta particles are lighter and quickly deflect
towards the positive plate.
Alpha Particles (α) The neutral electromagnetic gamma radiation remains
Stopped by thick paper; range in air is a few undeflected.
centimetres.
High ionising power due to frequent collisions.
Deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
Represented as helium ions with a double positive
charge.
Alpha Decay: 226 222 4
88 Ra → 86 Rn + 2 He
Beta Particles ( β )
Stopped by a few millimetres of aluminium; range in
air is several metres.
Lower ionising power than alpha particles.
Deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
Streams of high-energy electrons.
Beta Decay: 90 90 −
38 Sr → 39 Y+ β + energy
Gamma Radiation ( γ ) Magnetic deflection
Most penetrating
Stopped only by many centimetres of lead. Alpha particles follow the rule of positive conventional
Least ionising power. current.
Not deflected by electric and magnetic fields. Fleming’s left hand rule is used with the middle finger
Electromagnetic radiation. pointing in the direction of alpha particles.
Gamma Emission: 60 60
27 Co → 28 Ni + γ
Beta particles are shown in the direction opposite to the
middle finger, as it represents electron flow, opposite of
conventional current.

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Gamma radiation is not deflected. \n For heavier nuclides, N > Z .

Unstable nuclides decay to move towards the stability
line.
Nuclides above the stability line decay by β-emission to
decrease the N
Z ratio. ​

Nuclides below the stability line decay by beta emission

(β+) to increase the N
Z ratio. ​

Nuclei with more than 82 protons usually decay by α-

emission.

Half-Life

5.3. Radioactive decay and half-life The half-life of an isotope is the time taken for half the
nuclei in a sample to decay.
Radioactive Decay It is a measure of the rate at which a radioactive
substance decays.
Radioactive decay is the emission of an α-particle or a β-
Each isotope has its own special half-life.
particle from an unstable nucleus.
It can be from fractions of a second to millions of years.
This changes the nucleus into that of a different element
A decay curve plots the activity of a sample over time,
until a stable element is formed.
showing the exponential decrease in activity.
These changes are spontaneous and random
The activity decreases by half in each half-life period from
Alpha Decay (α-decay) the previous half-life period.
Example: If a sample's activity is 80 decays per second, it
An α-particle is a helium nucleus with two protons and two will reduce to 40 in one half-life, then to 20 in the next, and
neutrons. so on.
When an atom undergoes α-decay, its nucleon number Radioactive decay is random and unpredictable; the exact
decreases by 4 and its proton number decreases by 2. time when a particular nucleus will decay cannot be
Example: When radium ( 22688 Ra ) emits and alpha particle, determined.
it becomes radon (222
86 Rn) . The overall decay rate of a sample follows a predictable
The equation for this decay is: 226
88 Ra → 222 4
86 Rn + 2 He
​ ​
pattern, called its half-life.

Beta Decay (β-decay)

In β-decay, a neutron changes into a proton and an

electron.
The proton remains in the nucleus, while the electron is
emitted as a β-particle.
The nucleon number stays the same, but the proton
number increases by 1.
Example: Radioactive carbon 14
6 C decays into nitrogen (
14 N) by β-emission.
7
The equation for this decay is: 14
6 C → 14 0
7 N + −1 e
​ ​

Gamma Emission (γ-emission)

After α- or β-decay, some nuclei are left in an excited or

energetic state.
Rearrangement of protons and neutrons releases energy 5.4. Safety precautions
in the form of γ-emissions.
γ-emissions are high-energy electromagnetic waves with Dangers of Nuclear Radiation
no mass or charge.
Exposure to small doses of radiation is not damaging, but
Nuclear Stability large doses are harmful to health.
Nuclear radiation's ionising effect damages cells and
Stability of a nucleus depends on the number of protons ( tissues, it can lead to gene mutations.
Z ) and neutrons ( N ). Damage can cause cell death and cancers.
Stable nuclides fall within a specific stability level called α-particles are less dangerous unless the source is
the stability line. ingested or inhaled.
For light nuclides, N = Z. β- and γ-radiation can cause radiation burns, eye
cataracts, and cancer.

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Radiation hazard signs warn of the presence of Moon is a satellite of Earth, orbiting approximately every
month
Average distance from Earth is about 400,000 km.
Revolves on its axis, always showing the same side to
Earth
Reflects sunlight, has no atmosphere, weaker
gravitational field (one-sixth of Earth)

Phases of the Moon

Moon's appearance changes during its monthly orbit

New Moon: Moon between Sun and Earth, unlit side faces
Earth
radioactive material. Crescent appears and increases until the first quarter
(half of the Moon visible)
Safety Precautions
Full Moon: Moon opposite Earth from the Sun, fully visible
Minimize exposure time to radiation.
Keep a large distance between the radiation source and Waning phases follow, leading to the last quarter and old
crescent
individuals.
Use shielding materials that absorb radiation to protect
people.
In industry, sources are handled with long tongs and
transported in thick lead containers.
Workers are protected by lead and concrete walls and
wear radiation dose badges.
Radiation dose badges track the amount of radiation
exposure over a period, typically one month.
The badge has windows that allow different types of
radiation to expose photographic film, indicating exposure
levels when developed.

6. Space Physics
Orbital speed
6.1. The Earth and the solar system
Average orbital speed: u = 2πrT ​

Motion of the Earth r is the average radius of the orbit.

T is the orbital period (time for one orbit)
The Earth spins on its axis, causing day and night. The Moon travels in a circular path around the Earth
One complete rotation takes 24 hours. Distance traveled in one orbit is the circumference of
Day is for the half of the Earth facing the Sun and night for the circle, 2πr
the half facing away. Time taken for one orbit is T
Speed is distance divided by time, so orbital speed is
Rising and setting of the Sun 2πr
T ​

Earth's rotation causes the Sun to appear to move east to

The Solar System
west daily.
Rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the west at It contains:
equinoxes. The sun as a star
In northern hemisphere summer, rises north of east and Eight planets in elliptical orbits (slightly oval orbits)
sets north of west. Dwarf planets and asteroids orbiting the Sun
In winter, rises and sets south of these points. Moons orbiting many planets
Smaller bodies like comets and natural satellites
The seasons
Inner Planets
Caused by Earth's motion around the Sun (365 days) and
tilt of its axis. Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
Small, similar size
Motion of the Moon
Solid and rocky with layered structures

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High density Comets have highly elliptical orbits, while planets' orbits
Formed close to the Sun where it was too hot for gases to are more circular
condense, allowing only metals and silicates to form solid
bodies Origin of the Solar System
In the early Solar System, the Sun's heat caused lighter
Formed from gravitational attraction pulling together
gases to evaporate, leaving only heavy elements like iron
clouds of hydrogen gas and dust (nebulae)
and silicon to form solid planets.
Solar System formed about 4500 million years ago
Outer Planets Planets formed from the disc of matter left over from the
nebula that formed the Sun
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune Inner planets formed from materials with high melting
Much larger and colder temperatures like metals and silicates
Mainly consist of gases, low density Outer planets formed from light molecules that existed in
Many moons and rings of icy materials solid icy forms, growing large enough to capture
Formed in cooler regions where gases could condense, hydrogen
capturing even the lightest elements
In the outer regions of the Solar System, lower
temperatures allowed gases like hydrogen and helium to
remain in solid or liquid forms, leading to the formation of
gas giants with thick atmospheres.

Travel Times

Distance from the Sun to Earth: approximately 150 million

km ( 1.5 × 10 8 km)
Speed of light: 300,000 kilometers per second ( km/s)
Asteroids
Using the formula for time:
Distance
Pieces of rock of various sizes, mostly between Mars and Time = Speed ​

Jupiter Substitute the values:

Similar density to inner planets 1.5×108
Time = 300,000 ​

Burn up in Earth's atmosphere as meteors Calculate the time:

1.5×108
Comets Time ≈ 300,000 ​ seconds ≈ 500 seconds
Convert the time from seconds to minutes:
Dust embedded in ice made from water and methane Time ≈ 500
≈ 8.33 minutes
60 ​

Orbits the Sun in highly elliptical paths

Develop a bright long tail when approaching the Sun due It takes light from the sun around 8 minutes to reach the
to radiation pressure Earth.

6.2. The sun

Medium-sized star composed mainly of hydrogen and
helium.
Emits energy in the infrared, visible, and ultraviolet
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Source of Energy

Energy from nuclear reactions in the core.

Hydrogen undergoes nuclear fusion to form helium,
releasing energy.
Energy from the core heats outer layers, causing them to
Elliptical Orbits glow and emit radiation.

Planets, dwarf planets, and comets orbit the Sun in an

ellipse
Sun is at one focus of the ellipse, not the center

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Hydrogen converts to helium in the core.

Red Giant/Red Supergiant

As hydrogen depletes, the star becomes unstable.

Core collapses; outer layers expand and cool.
Star turns into a red giant (or red supergiant if massive).
Helium fuses into carbon in the core.

Low Mass Stars

End Stage
Core collapses into a white dwarf after all helium is
used.
Outer layers expelled, forming a planetary nebula.
White dwarf cools into a black dwarf over about a
billion years.

High Mass Stars

End Stage
Use hydrogen rapidly, with a shorter stable phase
Nuclear Reactions in Stars (about 100 million years).
Stars like the Sun are powered by nuclear fusion. After helium fusion, core collapses into a red
Core conditions supergiant.
Fusion of carbon into heavier elements occurs until
Hot and dense enough for hydrogen to fuse into helium. iron forms.
Fusion process releases energy, maintaining high core
Supernova explosion releases energy and heavy
temperatures. elements into space.
Some core energy moves to outer layers, which emit Neutron Star: Dense core, may act as a pulsar.
electromagnetic radiation. Black Hole: Extremely dense core with gravitational
field so strong that even light cannot escape; identified
Light-years
by X-ray radiation from nearby material.
Distance light travels in a vacuum in one year.
1 light-year = 9.5 × 10¹² km = 9.5 × 10¹⁵ m

Galaxies
Large collections of stars, gas, and dust.

6.3. Origin and life cycle of stars

Formation

Interstellar clouds of dust and gas collapse under

gravitational attraction.
A protostar forms as mass increases and core
temperature rises.
Hydrogen fuses into helium when the core is hot enough,
resulting in a star.

Star Types

Large mass: Blue or white stars.

Smaller mass: Yellow or red dwarfs (e.g., the Sun).
6.4. The universe
Life Cycle of Stars Milky Way
Stable Phase
Approximately 100,000 light-years in diameter.
Forces of gravity inward balance with thermal pressure Contains around 800 billion or more stars.
outward. A spiral galaxy with a central bulge and spiral arms.
Stable phase lasts up to 10 billion years.

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Redshift Big Bang Theory

The phenomenon where light from distant galaxies shifts Initial State: Proposes that the Universe began from an
towards the red end of the spectrum (longer wavelength). extremely hot and dense state around 14 billion years
Light emitted from stars in distant galaxies appears ago.
redder compared to light from closer galaxies. Expansion: The Universe has been expanding ever since
the Big Bang.
Doppler Effect
Microwave Background Radiation
Occurs when a source of waves (e.g., sound or light)
moves relative to an observer. This radiation is a remnant from the Big Bang and fills the
Approaching Source: Waves are compressed, resulting in entire Universe.
a higher frequency and pitch (blue shift for light). The radiation has been redshifted into the microwave
Receding Source: Waves are stretched, resulting in a region due to the expansion of the Universe.
lower frequency and pitch (red shift for light). Provides strong evidence for the Big Bang theory and
insights into the early Universe.

Age of the Universe

Hubble’s Law: The relationship between the speed of

recession ( v ) and the distance ( d ) of galaxies is given by:
v = H0 × d ​

v
Hubble Constant ( H0 ): H0 = d ​ ​ ​

H0 measures the rate of the Universe's expansion. A

​

higher value indicates a faster rate of expansion.

H0 is estimated to be approximately 2.2 × 10 −18 s−1
​

Age Estimation: The age of the Universe is approximately:

1
Age of the Universe ≈ H0 ​

Speed of Recession
​

Detailed Calculation
The speed at which distant galaxies are moving away can
be calculated from the amount of redshift observed. Age of the Universe ≈ 2.2×101−18 s−1 ≈ 4.5 × 10 17 s ​

Some of the most distant galaxies are receding at speeds 4.5×1017 s

Age of the Universe ≈ 3.2×10 7 s/year ≈ 1.4 ×
up to one-third the speed of light.
​

10
The observed redshift supports the idea that the Universe
10 years ≈ 14 billion years
is expanding, which is consistent with the Big Bang theory.

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Physics

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