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Hätinen • in Neo-Assyrian and

Neo-Babylonian Times

The Moon God Sîn

The Moon God Sîn
in Neo-Assyrian and
Neo-Babylonian Times

Aino Hätinen

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The Moon God Sîn
in Neo-Assyrian and
Neo-Babylonian Times

Aino Hätinen
dubsar
Altorientalistische Publikationen
Publications on the Ancient Near East

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The Moon God Sîn
in Neo-Assyrian and
Neo-Babylonian Times

Aino Hätinen

Zaphon
Münster
2021
Cover illustration by Aino Hätinen.

Aino Hätinen :
The Moon God Sîn in Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Times
dubsar 20

© 2021 Zaphon, Einkingweg 36, Münster (www.zaphon.de)

All rights reserved.

Printed in Germany.
Printed on acid-free paper

ISBN 978-3-96327-140-3 (Buch)

ISBN 978-3-96327-141-0 (E-Book)

ISSN 2627-7174
Table of Contents
Preface ix
I. Introduction 1
I.1. The Moon God Sîn in Assyriological Research 1
I.2. Reflections on Methodology and Terminology 3
I.3. Sources 7
I.3.1. Prayers to Sîn 10
I.4. Lunar Phases 16
II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia 19
II.1. The Moon and the Moon God 19
II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 28
II.2.1. Sîn 28
II.2.2. Nannāru 31
II.2.3. The Crescent 38
II.2.4. The Boat and the Barge 45
II.2.5. The Fruit 54
II.2.6. Lord of the Crown 60
II.2.7. Crown of Splendour 65
II.2.8. Ellammê 68
II.2.9. Dilimbabbar/Namraṣīt 71
II.3. The Moon God as a Celestial Light 78
II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 90
II.4.1. The Moon God and Time 91
II.4.2. The Lunar Month and the Days Connected to Sîn 98
II.4.2.1. 1st Day (Reappearance of the Moon) 99
II.4.2.2. 2nd Day 101
II.4.2.3. 3rd Day 102
II.4.2.4. 5th Day 102
II.4.2.5. 6th Day 102
II.4.2.6. 7th Day (Waxing Half Moon) 102
II.4.2.7. 9th Day 103
II.4.2.8. 10th Day 103
II.4.2.9. 11th Day 103
II.4.2.10. 12th Day 104
II.4.2.11. 13th Day 105
II.4.2.12. 14th Day 106
II.4.2.13. 15th Day (Full Moon) 106
II.4.2.14. 16th Day 113
II.4.2.15. 17th Day 114
II.4.2.16. 18th Day 115
II.4.2.17. 20th Day 116
II.4.2.18. 21st Day (Waning Half Moon) 117
vi Table of Contents

II.4.2.19. 22nd Day 118

II.4.2.20. 23rd Day 119
II.4.2.21. 24th Day 119
II.4.2.22. 25th Day 119
II.4.2.23. 26th Day 119
II.4.2.24. 27th Day 120
II.4.2.25. 28th and 29th Day (Lunar Invisibility) 122
II.4.2.26. 30th Day 127
II.5. Sîn’s Association with Anu, Ea, and Enlil 136
II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 150
II.6.1. Sîn’s Power over Divine Decisions 150
II.6.2. Signs of the Moon 156
II.6.2.1. Unpropitious Appearances of the Moon 163
II.6.2.2. Lunar Eclipses 167
II.6.2.3. Protection Against the Evil of the Eclipse 175
II.6.3. The Presence of Sîn in the Extispicy Ritual 181
II.6.4. Sîn and Dreams 189
II.7. Sîn and Kingship 196
II.7.1. Sîn as King 196
II.7.2. Sîn as Giver of Royal Insignia and Protector of Kingship 206
II.7.3. Sîn, Šamaš, and the King 217
II.7.4. Sîn, Theophoric Personal Names, and Kingship 226
II.8. Sîn, Creation, Growth, and Animals 229
II.8.1. Sîn as Creator and Father 230
II.8.2. Fertility and Growth 236
II.8.3. Cattle 240
II.8.4. Wild Animals 247
II.9. Sîn, Oaths, Curses, and Punishments 249
II.9.1. Oaths and Contracts 250
II.9.2. Sîn and Forms of Punishment 254
II.9.2.1. Curse Formulae 255
II.9.2.2. Penalty Clauses 264
II.10. Sîn, Illness, and Healing 270
II.10.1. Epilepsy and Fever 271
II.10.2. Skin Diseases 281
II.10.3. Blindness 285
II.10.4. The Role of Sîn in Healing 286
II.11. The Family and Household of Sîn 289
II.11.1. Enlil and Ninlil 291
II.11.2. Ningal 296
II.11.3. Šamaš 305
II.11.4. Ištar 309
 Table of Contents vii

II.11.4.1. Nanaya 312

II.11.4.2. Anunītu 313
II.11.5. Nusku 314
II.11.6. Ningublaga and Nin(e)igara 317
II.11.7. Alamuš 322
II.11.8. Amarazu and Amaraḫea 324
II.11.9. Bēlet-ilī 325
III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria 330
III.1. Ur and the Neighbouring Area 331
III.1.1. The Temple Complex Ekišnugal 333
III.1.2. The Ziqqurrat Elugalĝalgasisa 343
III.1.3. The Temple of Ningal 349
III.1.4. Edublamaḫ 356
III.1.5. Eĝipar and the Consecration of En-niĝaldi-Nanna 360
III.1.6. Kissik 367
III.2. Other Cult Places of Sîn in Babylonia 368
III.2.1. Nippur 368
III.2.2. Uruk 371
III.2.3. Sippar 373
III.2.4. Larsa 377
III.2.5. Babylon 378
III.2.6. Borsippa 383
III.3. Ḫarrān 384
III.3.1. Local Aspects of the Moon God’s Cult in Ḫarrān 387
III.3.2. The Temple Eḫulḫul, Sargonid Kings, and Nabonidus 396
III.3.3. The Akītu-Festival of Sîn in Ḫarrān 410
III.3.4. The Moon God of Elumu 415
III.4. The Temples of Sîn in the Assyrian Capital Cities 416
III.4.1. Assur 416
III.4.2. Kalḫu 423
III.4.3. Dūr-Šarrukīn 426
III.4.4. Nineveh 431
IV. Conclusions 439
V. Text Editions 452
V.1. “Sîn 1” 452
V.2. “Sîn 2” 462
V.3. “Sîn 3” 464
V.4. “Sîn 9” 474
V.5. “Sîn 11” 477
V.6. “Sîn 14” 479
V.7. Ikrib-prayers to Sîn (K. 2751+//) 483
V.8. Making the Unpropitious Appearance of Sîn Good (K. 6018+//) 497
viii Table of Contents

V.9. Avoiding Childbirth during the Month Nisannu (VAT 8004//) 507
V.10. A War Ritual before the Moon and the Sun (CBS 1516) 520
Abbreviations 527
Bibliography 534
Index 596
Compositions 596
Text publications and museum numbers of cuneiform sources 600
Museum numbers of other objects 613
Names of deities 613
Names of temples and sanctuaries 619
Personal names 620
Geographical names (ancient and modern) 623
Thematic index 625
Selective glossary 639
Copies of Cuneiform Tablets
 Preface
This book is a revised version of the dissertation that was accepted at the Philo-
sophical Faculty of the University of Heidelberg in November 2017. The long
process resulting in the present study could not have been possible without the
help and advice from several people. The initial suggestion to write a mono-
graph about the moon god came from Prof. emeritus Simo Parpola. I am grateful
to Prof. Stefan M. Maul for accepting me as a doctoral student under his super-
vision at the University of Heidelberg. I also thank Sanna Aro-Valjus and Raija
Mattila (University of Helsinki) who offered their assistance in the preparatory
phase of my doctoral studies. In 2012–2014, my studies were financed by a
scholarship from Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD). In addi-
tion, smaller stipends from the Foundation for Finnish Assyriological Research
have made conference attendance and a brief visit to the British Museum pos-
sible. In the years 2014–2019 I had the pleasure of working in the project “Edi-
tion der literarischen Keilschrifttexte aus Assur” (Heidelberger Akademie der
Wissenschaften) led by Stefan M. Maul.
Previously unpublished tablets and fragments are published here courtesy of
the Trustees of the British Museum and the University of the Pennsylvania Mu-
seum. Collations of tablets at the British Museum and the University of
Pennsylvania Museum were kindly made possible by Jon Taylor and Philip
Jones, respectively.
During the time of writing my dissertation, my friends and colleagues have
always been open for discussions and sharing their unpublished work. I thank
Enrique Jiménez, who not only has shared his discoveries of unpublished frag-
ments and his unpublished work but also has taken numerous photographs for
me during his museum visits, and read parts of the present book. Anmar Fadhil
graciously gave his edition of a previously unknown prayer to Sîn to my dispos-
al before its publication. Also Erica Couto-Ferreira, Stefan M. Maul, Hanspeter
Schaudig, Daisuke Shibata, Lorenzo Verderame, and Kamran Zand have given
me the generous opportunity to see their unpublished work. I also thank Wiebke
Meinhold and Hanspeter Schaudig for their comments on certain topics dis-
cussed in the present study. In the initial phase of my research, access to the
digital database of the “Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project” developed by Simo
Parpola was highly valuable; I thank him for allowing me to have this access.
Since English is not my native language, this book initially benefited from the
comments made by Mary Frazer, Gina Konstantopoulos, and Selena Wisnom.
Furthermore, Denise Bolton thoroughly revised the final manuscript. Any re-
maining mistakes are, of course, my own. I also thank my friends and colleagues
Ali Al-Magasees, Saskia Baderschneider, Odette Boivin, Stefania Ermidoro, Ad-
rian Heinrich, Carlos Langa Morales, Changyu Liu, Saki Kikuchi, Sam
Mirelman, Luis Saenz, Marie Young, and Shana Zaia for their friendship and in-
evitable influence on the present work.
x Preface

Last but not least, I want to express my gratitude to my parents and my hus-
band, who have never questioned my endeavours in a field as marginal as Assyr-
iology; the years of research would not have been possible without their un-
wavering support.
The present study very much follows the path laid out by Knut Tallqvist
(1865–1949), the first professor of Assyriology at the University of Helsinki.
For this reason, I wish to dedicate it to Finnish Assyriology and Finnish
Assyriologists.
I. Introduction
I.1. The Moon God Sîn in Assyriological Research
The moon god Nanna/Sîn is one of the primary deities in the Sumero-Babyloni-
an pantheon, and, for this reason, has aroused the interest of many an Assyriolo-
gist since the early days of Assyriological research. In addition to the ubiquitous
presence of Sîn in cuneiform sources, and the crescent moon in Mesopotamian
art, scholarly interest in him can be attributed to his prominent role in the con-
text of celestial divination: the lunar omens dominate the sphere of celestial
divination in the 1st millennium BCE. Also, the marked interest of the Sargonid
kings of Assyria in the Ḫarranian moon god in the 8th–7th centuries BCE and the
veneration of Sîn by Nabonidus in the 6th century BCE have received much at-
tention from various scholars. Still, no extensive modern research on Sîn has
been published. The essential information concerning the moon and the moon
god (names, principal epithets, and designations of lunar phases) had already
been presented by the end of the 19th century,1 but it was not further utilised to
offer a comprehensive study of Nanna/Sîn. One reason, perhaps, for the abstin-
ence on the part of Assyriologists to treat the topic rises from the Panbabylonian
school of thought that was prominent at the beginning of the 20th century: the
speculations on astronomical knowledge and celestial interpretations of myths
presented by the Panbabylonian scholars marred the reputation of studying
Mesopotamian celestial deities in relation to celestial objects.2 The two studies
of the moon god that were written around the time of the polemic around the
ideas of Panbabylonists concentrated on the tangible philological facts: in the
year 1907, E. Guthrie Perry published the short study Hymnen und Gebete an
Sîn, and in the following year 1908, a monograph that combined text editions
with a study of the moon god’s cult (Histoire du culte de Sin en Babylonie et en
Assyrie) was published by Etienne Combe.
The endeavour to publish reliable editions of the textual sources pertaining to
the Sumero-Babylonian moon god continued to be the focus of research as the

1
See the chapter concerning the moon in P. Jensen’s monograph on Babylonian cosmo-
logy (Jensen 1890, 101–108).
2
For example, see the sections outlining the significance of the moon god in the Babylo-
nian pantheon and mythology in Jeremias 1906, 100–105 and Jeremias 1929, 355–362.
The ideas presented by Panbabylonian scholars like A. Jeremias were met with criticism
by F. Kugler, who stressed the shortcomings in their methodology and their inadequate
understanding of actual astronomical phenomena (see Kugler 1909 and 1910). For a re-
cent historical overview of the scholars who promoted Panbabylonism, see Marchand
2009, 236–244. Panbabylonism as a cultural theory and its influence at the beginning of
the 20th century has also been discussed by M. Weichenhan (2016). The stigma that Pan-
babylonianism attached to studying the astral aspects of Mesopotamian deities and myth
is briefly characterised in Cooley 2013, 2–13.
2 I. Introduction

dissertation of Åke W. Sjöberg, Der Mondgott Nanna-Suen in der sumerischen

Überlieferung, was published in 1960, around 50 years after the editions of
prayers to Nanna/Sîn presented by Perry and Combe. Sjöberg’s text edition was
intended to be the first part of a two-volume work, but the second part that was
to be dedicated to the analysis of the available sources was, however, never
completed.3 The study planned by Sjöberg was later written by a student of his,
Mark G. Hall, whose dissertation A Study of the Sumerian Moon-god, Nanna/
Suen (1985) is based on the Sumerian sources (from the Early Dynastic times to
the Old Babylonian period), and it remains the only detailed analysis of the
Sumerian moon god Nanna/Suen. Since the scope of Hall’s dissertation is the
Sumerian sources of the 3rd and 2nd millennium BCE, the materials from the 1st
millennium BCE have remained without any analysis that includes the spectrum
of theological ideas about the moon god and his cult in Babylonia and Assyria.
Nevertheless, substantial contributions have been published in the form of art-
icles. In his article from the year 1992, “The Moon as Seen by the Babylonians”,
Marten Stol outlines the broad range of notions connected to the moon and the
moon god. The most comprehensive overview of the Mesopotamian moon god
was delivered by Manfred Krebernik in his concise but informative article
“Mondgott” in the Reallexikon der Assyriologie (1995), in which the different
aspects concerning Nanna/Sîn – including names, family, cult places, and theo-
logical notions – are outlined. In the case of the iconographic sources depicting
the moon god, the discussions by Eva Braun-Holzinger (1993), Dominique Col-
lon (1992, 1995, and 1997), Othmar Keel (1994), Hartmut Kühne (1997), and
Tallay Ornan (2001) have been significant.
In respect to the epithets of the moon god, the value of Knut Tallqvist’s work
in his Akkadische Götterepitheta (1938a) cannot be stressed enough: with his list
of the moon god’s qualities, Tallqvist set the foundation for every discussion of
Nanna/Sîn to be published in the following decades, and his approach has also
served as a model for the structure of the present study. Incidentally, Tallqvist
authored two monographs on the moon and the moon god that have remained
unrecognised in Assyriology, primarily for linguistic reasons.4 The first book,
written in Finnish and published in 1938, was Kuu ja ihminen: kuu-uskomuksia
ja kuunpalvontaa itämailla ja muualla. In this book, Tallqvist used the epithets
that he had gathered for Akkadische Götterepitheta along with other sources and
comparative data from other cultures to present the principal aspects of the

3
See the introductory remarks in Sjöberg 1960, 9: the analysis he planned was intended
to cover the Sumerian sources from the 3rd millennium BCE until the end of the Old
Babylonian period.
4
As a notable exception, Å. Sjöberg was familiar with the Swedish version of Tallqvist’s
book, as shown by his references to it in his text edition of Sumerian prayers and hymns
addressing Nanna/Suen (see e.g. Sjöberg 1960, 178 note 11).
 I.2. Reflections on Methodology and Terminology 3

Mesopotamian moon god. Almost a decade later, an extended Swedish version

of the book was published with the title Månen i myt och dikt, folktro och kult
(1947). These two books were written for a non-academic audience and their fo-
cus was on ethnographic comparison instead of Assyriological philology, but
they nevertheless illustrate that Tallqvist was perceptive of even the most minute
details concerning Nanna/Sîn.
The significance of the moon god in the political and religious context of the
Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian empires has been a prominent topic of in-
terest. In this respect, specifically the Ḫarranian moon god and his home city
have been the focus of questions pertaining to his role alongside Aššur as a
supra-regional god in the western provinces of Assyria, and to his elevation to
the head of the pantheon during the reign of Nabonidus. Especially following
the publication of relevant sources in the series State Archives of Assyria, much
has been written about the Ḫarranian moon god, his city, and his/its significance
during the rule of the Sargonid dynasty.5 As to the importance of Ḫarrān as a re-
ligious centre in the western provinces of Assyria and the role of the Ḫarranian
moon god, as well as to the status of Sîn during Nabonidus’ years on the throne,
the contributions of Tamara Green (1992), Steven W. Holloway (1995; 2002),
Ursula Seidl (2000), and Christoph Uehlinger (1997) have been especially influ-
ential. In the dissertation of Gabriele Theuer, the moon god of Ḫarrān was stud-
ied alongside the other lunar deities in the Syro-Palestinian geographic area
(2000). The building activities of Assurbanipal in Ḫarrān have been treated ex-
tensively in Jamie Novotny’s dissertation (2003), in which modern translitera-
tions of the relevant sources are also presented. The relationship of Nabonidus
with Ḫarrān through his mother, and the exaltation of the moon god in his in-
scriptions, have been discussed chiefly by Julius Lewy (1945), Hayim Tadmor
(1965), and Paul-Alain Beaulieu (1989; 2007).

I.2. Reflections on Methodology and Terminology

The enterprise of describing a deity, who existed in a semantic system that is
chronologically and geographically distant from modern Western European cul-
ture, is a formidable one. One can argue that to offer adequate depictions of the
divine beings that inhabited ancient Mesopotamia and of their veneration is not
at all possible since too much information has been lost as the Babylonian and
Assyrian cultures morphed into the cultures that followed them in the area that is
nowadays Iraq, and since the sources that are at our disposal illuminate merely
minor, individual aspects of extensive, plural systems of religious knowledge.6
Even within a short historical period, the often complete lack of sources and the

5
See the references to several works discussing Ḫarrān and the Ḫarranian moon god on
p. 384 below.
6
Oppenheim 1977, 172–183.
4 I. Introduction

concentration of textual evidence on the social context of the ruling elite indeed
rule out the possibility of offering a study that would present the complete spec-
trum of religious notions attached to a specific deity. Despite the obstacles posed
by the nature of the available sources, the description of a single deity – the
moon god Sîn – is the task that this study aims to fulfil. There are multiple ap-
proaches to a descriptive study of a deity: for example, one could focus on a
single genre of texts (such as royal inscriptions) or a single aspect of the divine
persona (such as the role of the moon god in relation to kingship). Since no
comprehensive, modern Assyriological study of the moon god Sîn has yet been
published, the approach in the present study, in order to offer a fuller under-
standing of the god Sîn, is forced to encompass a multitude of textual sources,
images, and material remains. Therefore, it is an attempt to present all available
information of the theologies and the cult of the moon god in Assyria and
Babylonia.
By the adoption of the term “theology” to describe the religious knowledge
in Mesopotamia, the present study advocates for the use of this term in the study
of Mesopotamian religion. Research in Assyriology traditionally abstains from
using such a term to describe the religious concepts of the Sumerians, the Baby-
lonians, and the Assyrians: it is indicative that there is no article concerning
Mesopotamian theology in the Reallexikon der Assyriologie, which advises the
reader to consult the articles dealing with god-lists, pantheon, and priests in-
stead, but does not name these as sources of theological knowledge.7 It has,
however, been shown by Angelika Berlejung that Assyriologists have a legitim-
ate claim for speaking of Mesopotamian theology, or rather theologies due to the
omnipresent plurality of religious traditions within this cultural area that only on
the surface is deceptively uniform.8 Despite the connotations that the term “theo-
logy” has in the context of Christianity, it can be utilised in connection with all
religious systems that have knowledge about the divine and about the human–di-
vine relationship, and that reflect and organise this knowledge.9 Berlejung ad-
vocates the adoption of terminology utilised by Jan Assmann in his description
of ancient Egyptian religion: implicit theology and explicit theology.10 The
former of these terms, implicit theology, denotes the theoretical system of reli-
gious knowledge that is the prerequisite for any religious activity, and that is

7
RlA 13, 632. The lack of discussions on Mesopotamian religious knowledge is, in part,
the result of a situation, in which comprehensive descriptions of the individual deities
and their cult have necessarily not been published.
8
Berlejung 2004, 105–124.
9
Berlejung 2004, 110. For the application of the term “theology” in religious studies to
describe non-Christian religions, see also von Stietencron 1986, 9–24 and Rudolph 2001,
196–198.
10
Berlejung 2004, 110–113. For the definition of this terminology, see Assmann 1986,
46–53 as well as Assmann 1991, 21–23; 178–183 and 192–198.
 I.2. Reflections on Methodology and Terminology 5

consequently present in the sources that concern these activities (e.g. rituals,
omen texts, and hemerologies).11 The elaboration, reflection, and systematisation
of this fundamental knowledge in different discourses are designated with the
latter term, explicit theology.12 Thus, as formulated by Berlejung, the primary
theological notions (implicit theology) can lead to questions that are answered
by elaborating on the subject (explicit theology), which does not demand the
construction of a uniform theological system.13 As a result, there is a plurality of
theologies tied to a specific context of discourse. The distinction between impli-
cit and explicit theologies of the moon god can be exemplified by his appella-
tion/epithet nannāru, “luminary”.14 Its general use stresses its first connotations:
celestial luminosity and brightness. Exceptionally, a commentary on the opening
lines of the omen compendium EAE delivers information to us about the possib-
ilities of theological interpretation and elaboration based on this noun: this com-
mentary notes how the written form of nannāru is comprised of the logogram
for the moon god (dNanna) and the sign RU, which, when read logographically,
denotes the Akkadian verb edēšu, “to become new”. Thus explicit theological
knowledge concerning the moon god’s regenerative abilities is created by the
analysis of the written form of nannāru.15 This example also illustrates the
nature of the material that is discussed in the following chapters. For the most
part, the information about the theologies of the moon god is implicitly present
in a variety of instances: in the names designating him, the epithets used to
praise him, and the theological connections between him and the deities belong-
ing to his household. These sources always stand in relation to their purpose,
which is the reason why, whenever possible, their “Sitz im Leben” has to be
taken into consideration.16 Through the combination of implicit and explicit

11
Implicit theology is compared to the grammar of a language: each language has a fixed
set of rules that govern it although they are not necessarily written down or studied. As
opposed to explicit theology which is connected to specific discourses, implicit theology
is ahistorical by nature, and it can endure, for example, political changes without being
modified to the extent of becoming unidentifiable (Assmann 1986, 46–53 and Assmann
1991, 178–183).
12
See Assmann 1986, 46–53 and Assmann 1991, 192–198.
13
Berlejung 2004, 113.
14
See the discussion on p. 31ff. below.
15
The nature of Mesopotamian knowledge as based on the written form, and the creation
or accentuation of ideas on the basis of writing has been recently discussed by M. van de
Mieroop (2015). For such hermeneutical methods see also Maul 2003a, 65–76. The
Mesopotamian commentaries have been studied by E. Frahm (2011).
16
For the plurality of divine names and divine personalities in different contexts, see Ue-
hlinger 2008, 31. Some dangers of a weak methodological approach, including the over-
interpretation of evidence with the little regard to the context, are outlined in Frahm
2000–2001, 31–45. The acknowledgement of the network of meaning within one cultural
system can be designated with the term “thick description”, coined by C. Geertz (see
6 I. Introduction

theologies, a nuanced description of the moon god Sîn should arise.

In contrast to views according to which religious information from each tex-
tual genre should be studied separately, the goal of attaining a synthesis of a
multitude of sources and theological information is, in my opinion, best tackled
by reaching across the boundaries of textual genres: if the focus is on a single
genre at a time, the overarching ideas are easily lost.17 It is common for a single
source to contain several layers of information. For example, a reference to Sîn
in the cylinder inscription of Sargon II from Dūr-Šarrukīn informs us that the
month Ṣītaš (Simānu) was associated with the moon god in Mesopotamia, that
Sîn was the son of the god Enlil, and that Sîn was considered to hold power over
divine decisions which were made manifest in lunar signs.18 This is why several
genres of sources are treated in a single chapter focusing on a specific theologic-
al aspect of the moon god. For this reason, the structure of the following
chapters – arranged by conceptual categories, not by textual genres – endeavours
to capture the spectrum of theological knowledge of the moon god in the Neo-
Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian sources. The analytic categories are modelled on
the overview of the moon god’s epithets presented by Knut Tallqvist: Sîn as a
celestial light, as a sign-giver and decision-maker, and as a god promoting fertil-
ity and growth.19 In addition, more context-bound categories such as Sîn’s activ-
ity in the context of oaths and contracts – an activity associated with his position
in the local cult – are also discussed. It should be stressed that although the fol-
lowing presentation perhaps reaches an adequate depiction of Sîn in relation to
his meaning in the sphere of official royal theology, it certainly does not do
justice to the theological ideas about the moon and the moon god in the minds of
the ordinary people living in Assyria and Babylonia. The available sources re-
veal only a minor portion out of several levels of theological knowledge that can
be distinguished: in practice, only the official theology of the land or the indi-
vidual cities is available in our sources, leaving the theologies of the households
as well as of the peripheral areas in the dark.20 This distortion in the sources is
especially pertinent in the context of lunar divination, which was a matter that in
Mesopotamia concerned only the ruler of the land. How normal people living in
cities or in the countryside perceived the different appearances of the lunar disc
is not revealed by the available sources.

Geertz 1973, 3–30).

17
The analysis of cultic texts, god-lists, and mythological literature separately is advoc-
ated in Komoróczy 1976, 80–86.
18
Sg Zyl, 57 (Fuchs 1994, 41 and 294; see also the citation on p. 294 below).
19
Tallqvist 1938a, 442–448.
20
Six different spheres of theological thinking are recognised in Berlejung 2004, 118–
119: 1) official theology of the land/the king 2) official local theology of the cities 3) loc-
al cult of the periphery 4) personal piety of the urban elite 5) piety of the city dwellers 6)
private cult of the household.
 I.3. Sources 7

The dangers of generalisation must also be noted in connection with regional

differences: theological notions concerning the moon god were not the same in
his two cult cities, Ur and Ḫarrān. The local traditions in both these cities had
their own traits that, unfortunately, are far too seldomly explicitly expressed.
The best illustration of these local differences can be found in the household of
Sîn: in Ur, Sîn’s son is Ningublaga and his vizier is Alamuš, but in Ḫarrān, both
of these roles belong to Nusku. Further aspects of local cults pertain to the moon
god’s position in cities other than his own cult centres. If he was present in the
cult, he was a part of the local theological framework, often fulfilling the role of
a son (Nippur) or a father (Uruk).21 Theological pluralism, particularism, and re-
gionalism are relevant notions in this respect,22 and it has been my goal to indic-
ate the aspects connected to local cults when possible. Adding to the regional di-
fferences or similarities, the theologies of the moon god do not remain static
through the centuries and millennia of Sumero-Babylonian religion in Mesopot-
amia. For this reason, sources from the 3rd and 2nd millenniums BCE, which oth-
erwise remain outside the scope of this study, are at times referred to in order to
illustrate continuity or change, or to offer a background for particular theological
concepts.

I.3. Sources
The textual sources used in this study to outline the theologies of the moon god
and his cult in Assyria and Babylonia have been chosen to cover as much relev-
ant information as possible. This means that in addition to the prayers and dedic-
atory inscriptions praising Sîn and his divine qualities, a broad range of textual
sources has been taken into consideration. Although a single source can contain
information about several theological aspects of the moon god, it is possible to
roughly outline the importance of particular types of texts to certain aspects of
this study. In the section that deals with the lunar names and epithets of Sîn
(Chapter II.2.), especially the scholarly reflections accompanying the attesta-
tions in literary sources rise in importance. In the chapters outlining the signific-
ance of individual days in the lunar month (Chapter II.4.), hemerological
sources, in addition to sporadic references to specific days in ritual and cultic in-
structions, are fundamental. The power of the moon god over divine decision-
making and kingship is particularly reflected in his epithets found not only in
prayers but also in royal inscriptions (Chapter II.6.). In connection with illnesses
caused by the moon god, the diagnostic and therapeutic texts rise to importance,
but curse formulae in contracts are also significant (Chapters II.9. and II.10.). Fi-
nally, administrative records can offer information concerning the cult in the

21
The plurality of theologies in Mesopotamia – each city having its own pantheon and
theological system – is stressed in Lambert 1997, 158–159.
22
Berlejung 2004, 115–118.
8 I. Introduction

moon god’s temples (Chapter III.). The textual sources form the backbone of the
present study, but whenever possible, artistic representations of the moon god, as
well as other pertinent material remains, have been taken into consideration. The
images of the moon god – be they the two-dimensional crescent emblems depic-
ted in the iconography of stelae and seals or the three-dimensional divine objects
making him manifest in the material world – become especially significant in
the discussion of the equation of the moon with the moon god. It has not been
my purpose to present a thorough survey of the moon god’s iconography, but the
most prominent depictions of him and his crescent emblem are brought forward,
especially in connection with his lunar names and epithets.
The textual sources included in this study fall into three principal categories:
“literary texts”, royal inscriptions, and documents (epistolary sources and ad-
ministrative records). The term “literary” is used here to designate texts that are
a part of the corpus that was transmitted through the centuries of scribal activity
in Babylonia and Assyria. The most important types of “literary” texts for the
present study are the texts with explicit religious or theological meaning (pray-
ers,23 ritual instructions, mythological compositions) and divinatory texts (espe-
cially astrological texts and hemerologies). Also valuable are the commentaries
that offer insights into the way the Assyrian and Babylonian scholars understood
the aforementioned texts.
Setting chronological boundaries for a study of the moon god in the 1st mil-
lennium BCE has its complications. As the title of the present study exhibits, I
have chosen to concentrate on the sources that derive from the Neo-Assyrian
and Neo-Babylonian periods. To be clear, these limits were chosen for practical
purposes rather than to claim that they represent clear markers for cultural
changes in the Mesopotamian geographical area. Due to the nature of the texts,
the definition of the temporal boundaries has to be clarified for each of the three
principal textual categories: royal inscriptions, “literary” texts, and documents
and epistolary sources.
In the case of royal inscriptions, that definition is clear: the inscriptions de-
riving from the time of the Neo-Assyrian rulers (Aššur-dān II to Sîn-šarru-iškun:
from 934 to 609 BCE) and of the Neo-Babylonian rulers (Nabopolassar to Na-
bonidus: from 626 to 539 BCE) fit this category. Since the purpose of the ana-
lysis is to present a description of the theological notions attached to the moon
god, each individual reference to him – for example, in lists of deities in royal
inscriptions – is not recorded here, rather the focus is on the attestations that can
be meaningfully analysed. In the context of Assyrian royal inscriptions, the ref-
erences to the moon god are mostly found in the inscriptions of the Sargonid
dynasty, which may lead to the assumption that his role in the preceding era was
insignificant – a distortion plausibly caused by the style used by the Sargonid

23
A more detailed overview of the prayers to Sîn follows on p. 10ff. below.
 I.3. Sources 9

kings in their inscriptions.24 In Babylonia, very few kings refer to the moon god
in their inscriptions: references to the moon god Sîn or his temple in Ur (or other
Babylonian cities) are mainly found in the texts written in connection with Neb-
uchadnezzar II’s building projects throughout the land, and in the inscriptions of
Nabonidus.25
A different definition of temporal boundaries must be employed in the case
of administrative documents. In Assyria, the end of Neo-Assyrian sources and of
the centralised Assyrian state is tied to the destruction of the central Assyrian cit-
ies (Assur in 614 and Nineveh in 612 BCE) by the allied Babylonian and Medi-
an forces. Still, it should be noted that in provincial cities, such as Dūr-Katlim-
mu, cuneiform documents in Neo-Assyrian language and form continued to be
used during the reign of the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II.26 In Babylonia,
the end of the Neo-Babylonian era should not be equated with the end of Na-
bonidus’ reign after the Persian invasion in 539 BCE; in the following period of
ca. 60 years various aspects of Babylonian culture remained the same despite the
change in political control. This period, which has been labelled as the “long
sixth century”, came to an end in 484 BCE when the Persian king Xerxes re-
moved the native Babylonian elite from their positions in response to revolts
against him. As a result, the archives in the major cities in northern Babylonia
came to an abrupt end.27 The “end of archives” is significant in respect to the
cult in cities where extensive archives of the temple administration and private
persons have been preserved (for example, Babylon and Uruk). Since such
archives that reach into the Persian period present valuable information about
the cult in these cities, the documents from the “long sixth century” have been
included in the discussion of the moon god’s cult in Babylonia. As for Ur and
the cult of the moon god there, the “long sixth century” is less significant due to
the nature of the preserved archives; no temple archive from this period has been
preserved in Ur, and only sporadic references to the moon god and his cult can

24
For the classification and style of Assyrian royal inscriptions, see the discussion in
Grayson 1981, 35–47. As for the references to the moon god becoming more elaborate
during the reign of the Sargonid dynasty, note use of astrological motifs in the inscrip-
tions composed for Sargon II, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and Assurbanipal (see the dis-
cussion in Koch-Westenholz 1995, 152–161). One of the most prominent references to
the moon god in the inscriptions of the pre-Sargonid kings is Assurnaṣirpal II’s account
of rebuilding the temple of Sîn and Šamaš in Assur (see the discussion on p. 416ff.
below).
25
Overviews of the Neo-Babylonian royal inscriptions are given by P.-R. Berger (1973)
and R. Da Riva (2008).
26
Four documents from Dūr-Katlimmu are dated to the 2nd and 5th regnal year of Neb-
uchadnezzar II (see Radner 2002, 16–17).
27
For the definition of the term “long sixth century” see Jursa 2010, 3–5. For the revolts
leading to the “end of archives” see Waerzeggers 2003–2004, 150–173.
10 I. Introduction

be found in the documents belonging to private archives.28

Clear temporal boundaries for “literary” sources are difficult to establish: the
texts were transmitted over centuries of scribal activity, and separating the ma-
nuscripts of a single text from each other only because they were written in dif-
ferent periods leads to an artificial construct. One can argue that all the Babylo-
nian literary sources written before the end of the cuneiform culture in the 1st
century CE should be included in a study such as the present analysis of the
moon god, but, for practical reasons, some limits must be set. A major factor in
limiting the sources is the emergence of new astrological-astronomical ideas (for
example, the horoscope) during the Late Babylonian period: a discussion of the
moon god’s role in this respect needs to be presented elsewhere. In order to keep
the sources manageable, the Late Babylonian literary sources from the 5th cen-
tury BCE onward are only referred to when it is appropriate. It should be noted
that some of the discussed texts – most notably the god-list An = Anum – are at-
tested in Middle Assyrian, Neo-Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, and Late Babylonian
manuscripts; in such cases, the Late Babylonian (as well as the Middle Assyrian)
material is of course, as already pointed out, included in the discussion. Some of
the discussed sources derive only from the Late Babylonian period (the eclipse
ritual from Hellenistic Uruk, for example), but their inclusion is justified by the
parallels that they show with the earlier sources. It should be acknowledged that
many of the texts discussed in the present study were the result of a long process
of textual transmission, which means that it generally can be assumed that the
theological notions found in them were based on older tradition. Since the age of
the compositions is in many cases unclear – for many texts, most, if not all, of
the manuscripts derive from Neo-Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian or Late Babylonian
sources – it has not been my purpose to trace their transmission.
Due to the high number of relevant sources, no bibliographical overview of
them is possible here. For this reason, information about publications, editions,
and discussions of the written and other sources are given for each citation or
reference in footnotes. As to the citations of texts, it should be noted that al-
though they – especially in the case of texts that have multiple manuscripts – are
generally named according to their latest editions (SAA 10 no. 59 or Schaudig
2001, 3.1, for example), the transliteration has been modified to fit the style of
the present study. Moreover, unless otherwise specified, all the translations of
cuneiform sources are my own.

I.3.1. Prayers to Sîn

Although a variety of sources are utilised in this study, a substantial portion of
the theological information about the moon god derives from Akkadian or bilin-

28
See the overview of the archives found at Ur in Pedersén 1998, 201–204 and Jursa
2005, 133–137.
 I.3. Sources 11

gual prayers addressed to him. These prayers – especially the Akkadian pray-
ers – known from manuscripts dating to the 1st millennium BCE, form the core
of the present study. Three categories of function and performance can be identi-
fied since the prayers in question are associated with three different groups of
professionals who communicated with the divine: the healer (āšipu), the
“lamenter” (kalû), and the diviner (bārû). The following overview of the prayers
is based on this distinction between these professions.
The majority of the prayers to the moon god are associated with the craft of
the healer (āšipūtu): they form a group of 16 “incantation prayers” presented in
Tables 1–2 on p. 13–14.29 Most of these prayers are labelled šu’ila-prayers in the
manuscripts, which means that they were used to greet the moon god in the ritu-
al performance that had the structure of an audience: the human petitioner ap-
proached the divine authority in order to attain their benevolent response.30
However, the prayers in the category “incantation” can also be intended for a
specific purpose, for example to appease the angered deity (the rubric diĝir-šà-
dab-ba gur-ru-da is attested for the prayer “Sîn 6b”). In addition to the prayers to
Sîn, three prayers addressing Sîn and Šamaš as a pair are attested among the
prayers of the healer (see Table 3 p. 14). It should be noted that due to their
sheer number, the āšipūtu-prayers are the most important source for the moon
god’s various epithets. The more general epithets of the moon god attested in
these prayers – Sîn as the celestial light, for example – are naturally found also
in other sources, but the use of the epithets pertaining to a person’s health and
well-being sets the prayers of the āšipu apart from the other types of Sîn’s
praise. In the following tables of the “incantation prayers”, the identifications
(e.g. “Sîn 1”) follow the list given in Mayer 1976, 408–409. Prayers published
after Mayer’s list was compiled are presented with a continuing numbering in
the tables below (written with bold typeface).
In comparison to the prayers performed by the healer, attested prayers of the
lamenter (kalû) to Sîn are very few in number.31 Although the moon god is fre-
quently named in balaĝ-lamentations among other deities, to my knowledge no

29
The category of “incantation” or “incantation prayer” is based on the noun šiptu (Sum.
én) which was used to refer to these prayers in Mesopotamian sources. For the termino-
logy and the different sub-genres belonging to the group “incantation prayer”, see Mayer
1976, 7–18 and Frechette 2012, 1–10.
30
For the ritual type, in which the petitioner is brought by the āšipu before the god(s) to
convey their issue in an audience, see Maul 1994, 67–71 and Zgoll 2003, 181–203. For a
further discussion of the hand-lifting gesture of communication between the human peti-
tioner and the divine authority, see Frechette 2008, 41–47 and Frechette 2012.
31
For the genres of Emesal prayers in the 1st millennium BCE, see the overview in Gab-
bay 2014a, 5–9. The role of the kalû (Sum. gala) in Mesopotamia is discussed in Gabbay
2014a, 63–69 and Gabbay 2014b, 115–144.
12 I. Introduction

individual compositions from the 1st millennium BCE are associated with him.32
In the case of eršema-prayers, the situation is similar since no eršema from the
1st millennium BCE can be directly linked with the moon god.33 Available
sources for eršaḫuĝa-prayers to Sîn – meant to appease the angered heart of the
moon god – are likewise scarce: a single fragmentary manuscript for the er-
šaḫuĝa with the incipit “Let me raise my hand to him, I will perform a ritual of
intercession” (šu ga-an-na-ab-íl ér mu-un-da-ab-ir) is available to us.34 The only
other attested eršaḫuĝa to Sîn is known only by its incipit. The šu’ila-prayers of
the lamenter stand out in respect to the preserved manuscripts, since the prayer
“Lord, ruler” (ù-mu-un nir-ĝál) is almost completely preserved. Two other
Emesal šu’ila-prayers to Sîn are known to us only from their incipits – “Lord,
ruler of the heaven and the earth” (umun še-er-ma-al-la an-ki-a) and “The vener-
able one, strong lord” (alim-ma umun ĝìr-ra) – that are preserved in a catalogue
deriving from Nineveh.35 Similarly to the šu’ila-prayers of the healer, the šu’ila-
prayers of the kalû also functioned as greetings to the deities, but in a different
context; they were performed for the gods and goddesses who returned to their
homes in a procession.36 The setting for the performance of this ritual is apparent
in the contents of the single preserved šu’ila to Sîn that stresses his role as the
tutelary deity of Ur.
Lastly, five different prayers to the moon god belonging to the profession of
the diviner (bārû) can now be identified. These are the prayers that have the des-
ignation ikrib in Babylonian and Assyrian sources and they were recited during
the ritual that preceded the inspection of the sacrificial animal’s entrails for
divination.37 The ikrib-prayers to Sîn are mainly known from a single Sam-
meltafel that derives from Nineveh and that is edited as a part of the present
study.

32
See the edition of the balaĝ-lamentations by M. Cohen (1988).
33
See the list in Cohen 1981, 19. A catalogue of the prayers and lamentations of the kalû
does not identify any eršema-prayers to Sîn (K. 2529+, 61–102; see the edition in Gab-
bay 2015a, 17–18). The Old Babylonian eršema BM 13930 (CT 15 pls. 16–17)// is ed-
ited in Sjöberg 1960, 44–54 and there it is taken to have the Late Babylonian duplicate
SBH no. 38. However, Gabbay 2015a, 41 note 27 maintains that although SBH no. 38
(note the writing error SBH 28 by Gabbay) seems to duplicate parts of the Old Babyloni-
an eršema, it may actually be a part of a šu’ila or balaĝ to Sîn.
34
See the overview in Maul 1988, 133. It is possible that the catalogue K. 9618, 1’–11’
names 13 eršaḫuĝa-prayers to Nanna/Sîn, but the matter remains uncertain (see Maul
1988, 66–67).
35
K. 2529+, 48–50 (see the edition in Gabbay 2015a, 18 and Shibata, HES
[forthcoming]).
36
The function of the Emesal šu’ila-prayers is discussed in Shibata 2010, 67–85 as well
as in Shibata, HES (forthcoming).
37
See the short overview of ikrib-prayers in Lambert 2014, 53–55.
 I.3. Sources 13

Identification Incipit Attested rubrics Text/Edition

“Sîn 1” Sîn nannāru ŠU.ÍL.LÁ K. 155, 1–28//
d
šūpû SUEN.NA.KÁM (p. 452ff. below)
“Sîn 2” Sîn nannār[(u) not preserved K. 10151
...] (p. 462ff. below)
“Sîn 3” Sîn nannār šamê ŠU.ÍL.LÁ K. 2106, 36–70//
d
NANNA.KÁM (p. 464ff. below)
ŠU.ÍL.LÁ d30.[KÁM]
“Sîn 4” unknown [ŠU.ÍL.LÁ(?) K. 13277 (BMS
d
SU]EN.NA.[KAM] 23)
“Sîn 5” unknown ŠU.ÍL.LÁ K. 6018+//, 1’–4’
[dEN?.ZU?.KAM] (p. 497ff. below)
“Sîn 6a” bēlu nannāru ŠU.ÍL.LÁ K. 6018+//, 8’–13
kullat binût Asar dEN.ZU.[KAM] (p. 497ff. below)
“Sîn 6b” bēlu nannāru IGI.DU8.A d30 K. 6018+//,
kullat binûti SIG5.GA.KÁM; x+36’–x+44’
DINGIR.ŠÀ.DAB.BA (p. 497ff. below)
GUR.RU.DA.KAM
“Sîn 7” tattapḫa Sîn ap- IGI.DU8.A d30 K. 6018+//,
kal ilānī kalāma SIG5.GA.KÁM x+27’–x+33’
(p. 497ff. below)
“Sîn 8” unknown [ŠU.ÍL.L]Á K. 10550 (BMS
d
+SUEN.NA.KÁMv 26)
“Sîn 9” unknown ŠU.ÍL.LÁ d30(.KÁM) KAR 25, III 1’–
20’//
(p. 474ff. below)
“Sîn 10” ilānū rabûtū — BM 121037, r. 1–8
linammirūka (Maul 1994, 458–
459)
“Sîn 11” [S]în ilu ellu ša — KAR 74, r. 2’–24’
ša[mê] ellūt[i] (KAL 10 no. 11; p.
477ff. below)

Table 1: “Incantation prayers” to Sîn

14 I. Introduction

Identification Incipit Attested rubrics Text/Edition

“Sîn 12” Sîn nannār šamê — VAT 8004//, 11–13
u erṣeti (p. 507ff. below)
“Sîn 13” (this designation
should be dis-
carded; see p. 479
below)
“Sîn 14” Sîn aplu ašarēdu ŠU.ÍL.LÁ STT 57+, 36–42//
d
attā +SUEN.NA.KE4 (p. 479ff. below)
“Sîn 15” Sîn bēlu šaqû — BM 47509+, r. 18–
attā 22
(Schuster-Brandis
2008, 265–269)
“Sîn 16” [Sîn nannā]r not preserved KAL 4 no. 40, r.?
āšib šamê [ellūti] 11’–18’
“Sîn 17” Sîn nannār šamê [...] šá kiš-pi i-pu-uš IM 148516, 1–r. 3
u erṣeti BÚR-ri-im (Fadhil 2018, 197–
198)

Table 2: “Incantation prayers” to Sîn (continued)

Identification Incipit Rubric Edition

“Sîn & Šamaš 1” Sîn u Šamaš ilānū kilallān — CBS 1516, r. 3–25
(p. 520ff. below)
“Sîn & Šamaš 2” ina šumēlīja Sîn nannār — BAM 4 no. 323//,
šamê rabûti 99–102
(Scurlock 2006, no.
91)
“Sîn & Šamaš [Sî]n nūr šamê u erṣeti — Si. 34(+)//, 15–30
3” [m]unammir ukli (Schwemer 2010,
486–503)

Table 3: “Incantation prayers” to Sîn and Šamaš

 I.3. Sources 15

Identification Incipit Rubric Edition

“Emesal šu’ila to umun še-er-ma-al- — catalogue entry K.
Sîn 1” la an-ki-a 2529+, 48
(Shibata, HES
[forthcoming])
“Emesal šu’ila to alim-ma umun ĝìr- — catalogue entry K.
Sîn 2” ra 2529+, 49
(Shibata, HES
[forthcoming])
“Emesal šu’ila to ù-mu-un nir-ĝál šu-íl-la 4[8-àm 4 R2 9+//
Sîn 3” mu-ni-im (Sjöberg 1960,
d
(+)Su]en-na-kám 166–179; Shibata,
HES
[forthcoming])
“eršaḫuĝa to Sîn šu ga-an-na-ab-íl not preserved K. 13454
1” ér mu-un-da-ab-ir (Maul 1988, Ešḫ
n13)
“eršaḫuĝa to Sîn ša-ba-ni ga-an-ḫun — incipit in rituals K.
2” a-ra-zu ga-an-na- 3653, 12 (Maul
ab-du11 1988, Rit. n1) and
K. 3457+, 20(+)
Sm. 95, 2’ (Maul
1988, 133)

Table 4: Emesal prayers to Sîn

16 I. Introduction

Identification Incipit Rubric Edition

“ikrib to Sîn 1” unknown fragmentary K. 2751+//, 1’–3’
(p. 483ff. below)
“ikrib to Sîn 2” [Sîn? ilu? namru?] ik-rib [d30 ...] K. 2751+//, 4’–22’
šūpû e[tellu ...] (p. 483ff. below)
“ikrib to Sîn 3” Sîn ilu ellu namru ik-rib d30 ka-a-a- K. 2751+//, 23’–
nannāru [...] [m]a-nu-ti 56’
(p. 483ff. below)
“ikrib to Sîn 4” [Sîn na]nnāru ša [ik-rib d30] K. 2751+//, 57’–
šamê UD.15.KÁM 78’
(p. 483ff. below)
“ikrib to Sîn 5” [Sîn ... nann]ār not preserved K. 2751+//, 79’–
šamê 87’
(p. 483ff. below)

Table 5: Ikrib-prayers to Sîn

I.4. Lunar Phases

Before commencing the description of the moon god Sîn in Mesopotamia, it is
useful to offer some basic information on the lunar cycle for the readers not
well-acquainted with it; an understanding of the movement of this satellite as
observed from the earth provides a better grasp of the sources, which refer to the
different lunar phases. Variations within the lunar cycle involve both the dura-
tion of the moon’s visibility in the sky and the shape of the illuminated lunar
disc (Figs. 1 and 2). As the moon orbits the earth, it completes its synodic period
in ca. 29.5 days, which means that in this time it completes its cycle in relation
to the earth. The sidereal period of the moon (that is, its cycle in relation to the
fixed stars) is shorter: ca. 27.3 days.38 The shape of the illuminated part of the
lunar disc is dependent on the moon’s position with respect to the earth and the
sun. This means that as the moon is in conjunction with the sun at the end of the
cycle, its illuminated part is not visible when observed from the earth. Con-
sequently, as it is in conjunction with the sun in the middle of the cycle (i.e. op-
posite of the sun), it is fully illuminated.
Moonrise and moonset times vary considerably during a lunar cycle. At the
beginning of the cycle the moonrise occurs during the morning or day, but the
thin crescent moon is especially difficult to observe during the sunlit hours. This
means that the crescent moon becomes visible shortly after the sunset above the
western horizon, but disappears soon after that. As the cycle proceeds towards
the conjunction of the moon and the sun, the moonrise shifts into the evening

38
Unsöld & Baschek 1999, 17–19.
 I.4. Lunar Phases 17

and the moonset into the night and dawn hours. In other words, the moon’s day-
time visibility diminishes and its nocturnal visibility increases in accordance
with the waxing lunar disc. Moreover, as the moonrise occurs closer and closer
to the eastern horizon, the distance that the moon travels during the night in-
creases until it reaches its peak during the full moon: at this point the moon rises
from the eastern horizon as the sun sets, moves west across the sky and sets in
the western horizon shortly after sunrise. During the latter half of the cycle, the
moonrise takes place in the evening or during the night, and the moon appears to
be moving westwards until it reaches its conjunction with the sun at the end of
the cycle. This cycle is exemplified by the exact information for the moonrise
and the moonset in Baghdad in February–March 2017.39 At these geographical
coordinates, at the time of the first crescent moon (February 28th), the moonrise
occurred at 07:00 and moonset at 18:54. Since the sunset on the same day was at
17:59, the crescent moon remained visible only for around one hour. During the
half moon (March 7th), the moonrise had already shifted to midday, occurring at
12:05, and the moon did not set until 02:20. As the moon was full (March 14th),
it rose at 19:00 (sunset at 18:10) and set at 06:45 (sunrise at 06:14). During the
waning half moon (March 21st), the moonrise took place after midnight (at
01:14), and in the morning the moon remained visible until almost midday
(moonset at 11:03). On the last day before the conjunction of the moon and the
sun (March 25th), the moonrise was at 03:32 and the moonset at 12:33. A couple
of days later, on the final day before the reappearance of the crescent (March
29th), the moon rose at 06:57 in the morning and set at 20:58 in the evening.

Fig. 1: A sketch of the synodic lunar cycle (drawing by A. Hätinen)

39
Information generated by the calculator for moonrise and moonset on the website
Greenwich Mean Time (URL: https://greenwichmeantime.com/time-gadgets/moonrise/).
18 I. Introduction

Fig. 2: Overview of the lunar phases (drawing by A. Hätinen)

II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia
II.1. The Moon and the Moon God
The nature of Sîn as both an anthropomorphic divine being and as a celestial
phenomenon is a fundamental issue in any discussion concerning him, or any
other Mesopotamian deities with celestial manifestations. The importance of ad-
dressing this issue rises from our modern conceptions, which draw a clear dis-
tinction between deities as anthropomorphic divine beings on the one hand and
celestial bodies as physical objects on the other. From this point of view, the
Mesopotamian textual sources describing Sîn and the moon, or the prayers ad-
dressed to Sîn explicitly as the moon, reveal ambiguous conceptions of deities
that represent natural phenomena. However, this ambiguity is the result our own
modern ontological categories rather than by those employed by ancient Meso-
potamians.40 Therefore, the short study that is titled “The Moon as Seen by the
Babylonians” by Marten Stol, in which he gives an overview of how the moon
in its different phases is depicted in sources deriving from Babylonia and Assyr-
ia, is simultaneously a study of a natural phenomenon and of a deity.41 Despite
this, a tendency to separate the moon god from the moon by modern scholars
can be seen in the context of astrology-astronomy.42 The sphere of celestial ob-

40
As noted in Wiggermann 1992, 279, if nature is defined as an entity that operated ac-
cording its own laws, no such concept existed in Mesopotamia. The absence of such a
concept of nature and its implications for the Mesopotamian systems of knowledge, es-
pecially astrology-astronomy and divination, has recently been discussed by F. Rochberg
(2016), who concludes that the cosmos was understood to function according to divinely
set principles and was governed by divine decisions, and that the notion of a physical
world apart from what Western science would term as “supernatural” is alien to Babylo-
nian and Assyrian cultures. Rochberg’s evaluation of the Mesopotamian systems of
knowledge and the attested ontological and epistemological notions shows that the cat-
egory “natural” as opposed to “supernatural” is not applicable in Assyriological research.
Her arguments are also vital in dismissing outdated notions according to which the
people in Mesopotamia lacked the ability to separate deities and natural phenomena (as
implied, for example, in Lambert 1990, 120: “There was always some ambiguity about
the precise relationship of the deity to the aspect of nature, whether, for example, the sun
god was in very fact the actual fiery ball moving across the sky, or whether he was not of
human form, living in a palace and directing the actual solar body in its daily motions
from a distance. Probably they were not so conscious of such problems as we are.”).
41
Stol 1992, 245–277.
42
It is maintained e.g. in Britton & Walker 1996, 43–44 that the celestial deities and ce-
lestial phenomena were perceived as distinct entities in the context of astrology-astro-
nomy: “The sun, moon and Venus were certainly gods, but the Babylonians were able to
maintain a distinction between a god as such and his or her celestial manifestation. [...]
Even where the link between a deity and, say, a planet is secure, the Mesopotamian as-
tronomer-astrologers normally used a specific name for the planet rather than the name
20 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

servations is, in fact, exactly the context in which the question concerning the
divine character of the moon becomes especially important: are there indications
that the moon was observed solely as a celestial object separate from the moon
god – in a manner that we would call naturalistic, rational, or empirical – or was
it perceived as a divine manifestation of the god Sîn? It is important in this re-
spect to understand that there are no indications that the people who observed
the sky in Assyria and Babylonia had interest in laying out empirical observa-
tions of the celestial objects as natural phenomena: even when descriptions of
the stars, the planets, and the moon exist, they serve the purpose of divination.43
This question of differentiating between deities and celestial objects has recently
been addressed by Francesca Rochberg, whose main point of interest was to see
if such notions existed.44 She identifies two different modes, or perspectives, that
can be found in the Mesopotamian sources.45 First, some of the gods have an as-
tral nature that is elementary to their character despite the fact that they are also
represented in an anthropomorphic form and often have other, additional as-
pects.46 Second, celestial bodies are seen as manifestations and images of deities
in mythological texts or in prayers and hymns, as well as indicators of the divine
will in the context of celestial divination. In this mode, celestial bodies as per-
sonifications of deities have features that would otherwise be connected with an-
thropomorphic beings: they act as recipients of prayers and offerings, and they
can possess the same feelings as humans or human-like beings.47 The presence
of deities inside or outside of the visible universe, connected with materiality,
becomes significant in this respect: immaterial deities are materialised in cult
statues, symbols, and stars.48 Therefore, like its cult image, the moon is a visible
manifestation of the immaterial, transcendent divine being that is the god Sîn.49

of the god in recording observations.”

43
To name an example, the compendium MUL.APIN is not a description of celestial bod-
ies as natural phenomena, but rather presents the elements that are necessary for practi-
cing divination (Rochberg 2015, 228; see also Ossendrijver 2015, 51–52). The argument
that observations were not made in order to understand natural phenomena, but rather in
order “to interpret the perceived, experienced, or imagined phenomena for the purpose of
divination” is also made in Rochberg 2016, 125.
44
Rochberg 2009, 41–91 as well as Rochberg 2011, 117–137. For a discussion on the as-
tralisation of Mesopotamian deities see also Pongratz-Leisten 2011, 137–187.
45
In her first discussion on the topic, Rochberg differentiated between three different
modes (Rochberg 2009, 48–83: gods as celestial bodies, celestial bodies as images and
manifestations of gods, and the personifications of stars as gods), but later she modified
her view to include only two modes by combining the two latter modes into one (Roch-
berg 2011, 123–130: “gods as stars” and “stars as gods”).
46
Rochberg 2009, 48–54.
47
See Rochberg 1996, 475–485; Rochberg 2009, 64–83 and Rochberg 2011, 123.
48
Rochberg 2009, 85.
49
For Rochberg, this means that offerings and prayers performed before the moon must
 II.1. The Moon and the Moon God 21

As to the first perspective presented by Rochberg, the moon god is an ideal

example of a deity with an astral aspect since the unchangeable core of his being
is his nature as a celestial luminary. All the other aspects of his persona are at-
tached to this core, forming a conglomerate of different traits and aspects that
can be stressed, detached, reattached, or transferred.50 These further traits may
be related to his celestial being – they often are, as is shown by the analysis of
the main notions attached to Sîn in the following chapters – or they may reflect
other theological aspects, such as his status in the local cult.51 In written sources,
the fundamental lunar aspects of the god Sîn are exhibited in his descriptive epi-
thets. His main names (Sîn, Nannāru, and Dilimbabbar/Namraṣīt) all refer to
him as the moon, and the same applies to the most important epithets used to de-
scribe him as the moon in its different phases.52 The second perspective – the
moon as a personification of the god Sîn – is prevalent in rituals in which an of-
fering and a petition in the form of a prayer are addressed to the moon god,
present in his celestial form. The performance of nocturnal rituals before the
moon, a manifestation of Sîn, is made clear by both ritual instructions53 and for-

be understood as symbolic acts, in which the moon is only a physical representation of

the god Sîn, not the actual deity. Moreover, she considers that the moon as a celestial
phenomenon cannot be equated with the entire divine being that is Sîn: “The moon can-
not represent the totality of, but only a manifestation or image of, the god Sin, who was
conceived of as transcending the limits of the physical world, yet was manifested in the
lunar phenomena. Both notions, the transcendent and the immanent, were expressible.
Thus, Sin, as divine agent removed from the visible lunar disc, could be said to ‘show’
the eclipse, just as the eclipse could be described in terms of it being the despondent
moon-god in mourning.” (Rochberg 2009, 89). For a discussion concerning the existence
of the moon god inside and outside the visible universe see also Rochberg 2011, 134.
50
This is given the term “divine constellation” by M. Hundley, who stresses the fluid
character of Mesopotamian deities: according to him the concept of a single deity was
based on the anthropomorphic core that was surrounded by different aspects and attrib-
utes that surround the core in the way that stars are grouped in constellations (Hundley
2013, 68–106). B. Pongratz-Leisten points out that as a human persona was formed out
of the physical body, name, social roles, image, and physical objects such as the seal, di-
vine personas were also thought to be amalgamations of their different qualities and the
divine images or symbols that represented them (Pongratz-Leisten 2011, 139).
51
For example, the moon god as a provider of fertility is related to the celestial nature of
the moon, but also to his status as the city’s patron god in Ur and Ḫarrān (see the discus-
sion on p. 229ff. below).
52
See the discussion on p. 28ff. below.
53
That the ritual took place before the moon is shown by the instruction that specify the
time and the place for the actions: e.g. K. 6018+//, x+45’ (see the edition on p. 497ff. be-
low) specifies that the procedure should take place before the moon as it becomes vis-
ible. A similar instruction in LKA 25 further specifies that the procedure should take
place at night before the moon in the river meadow – a clear indication for the actions
22 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

mulations in the performed prayers.54 As the moon, the god Sîn is able to be
present in the physical world and therefore to be accessible for people who wish
to communicate with him. Seen against this background, the question whether
the moon is equal to the god Sîn appears redundant. The moon is the main phys-
ical form in which Sîn makes himself manifest, and although it may not encom-
pass all of his possible attributes from all contexts, it holds a central position in
the spectrum of notions that define him as a divine persona. A telling feature
speaking for the indistinguishable nature of the moon and the moon god is the
tendency to write the name of the celestial object with the determinative for di-
vine beings not only when referring explicitly to the god Sîn, but also in the con-
text of observations of the moon. In fact, no separation between the moon and
the moon god can be made on a lexical basis: the divine name Sîn is also the
designation of the moon as a celestial phenomenon and of objects having the
shape of the moon.55 Therefore, it is unproblematic for Assyrian astrologer-astro-
nomers to report the opposition of the moon and the sun in the middle of the
lunar cycle by stating that “one god is seen with the other”.56 This shows that the
moon and the sun as celestial bodies were understood to be the divine beings Sîn
and Šamaš, simultaneously visible at the time of their opposition.57
The fundamental role of the moon as a defining aspect of the god Sîn can
also be observed in his representations in Mesopotamian art. Although he was
conceived of, and depicted, as having an anthropomorphic form – the form that
he certainly had as a divine individual – it was more common to depict him as
the crescent moon.58 In comparison to the popularity of the crescent emblems in
iconography, anthropomorphic depictions of Sîn are rare in Neo-Assyrian and
Neo-Babylonian art. In fact, most of the attested depictions of Sîn in human

taking place under the open sky (see p. 506 below).

54
For example, the ikrib-prayers to Sîn underline the emergence of the moon in the night
sky (see the edition of K. 2751+// on p. 483ff. below).
55
See the discussion on p. 28ff. below.
56
SAA 8 no. 371, 3: DINGIR KI DINGIR IGI-ma. The same expression is also used to
indicate the opposition of the moon and the sun in the two astronomical diaries dating to
the reigns of Šamaš-šumu-ukīn and Nebuchadnezzar II (Nos. -651 and -567 in Sachs &
Hunger 1988, 42–53), but is no longer found in the later diaries. Note also the use of the
noun ilum, “god”, in the meaning “the moon” in the Old Babylonian lunar omens (BM
22696, 22 in Rochberg 1996, 478; see also VAT 7525 in Bauer 1936, 309–312).
57
This in my opinion speaks against the view that a manifestation of a deity (e.g. the
moon) was not considered to be equal on the conceptual level to the god it represented
(so Pongratz-Leisten 2011, 140–147, where the argument is based on the idea of perceiv-
ing divinity as a difference in status, not in species: according to this view the material or
celestial manifestations are perceived as part of the deity, but not identical to the deity,
who holds the highest status).
58
See the discussion concerning the crescent on p. 38ff. below.
 II.1. The Moon and the Moon God 23

form involve a combination of the symbolic and anthropomorphic images: an

anthropomorphic moon god standing inside the lunar crescent.59 Furthermore, al-
though anthropomorphic deities as objects of worship were often depicted in
Neo-Assyrian cylinder seals, devotional scenes involving the moon god com-
monly depict him in a non-anthropomorphic form, as the crescent emblem or the
crescent standard.60 Despite this scarcity of attestations, anthropomorphic Sîn is
known from two Neo-Assyrian reliefs. The more prominent image is a part of
the rock relief of Sennacherib at Maltai (Fig. 3).61 In this relief, the seven most
important deities of the Assyrian pantheon are shown in a procession in front of
the king, and the moon god Sîn is positioned directly after Aššur and Mullissu.
His identity is revealed by the crescent moon emblem that is mounted on his he-
address, and he is standing on a horned lion-dragon.62 Another rare example is
the Neo-Assyrian relief found at Til Barsip (modern Tell Ahmar) in northern
Syria, depicting the moon god standing on top of his temple (Fig. 4).63 That this
deity is the moon god is clear from the presence of seven crescent moon sym-
bols in the relief: five of the crescents are attached to the deity’s headdress,
sword, hilt, and sceptre, and two large crescent standards flank the temple.64 Due
to the proximity of Til Barsip to Ḫarrān and the use of the tasseled crescent
standards of the Ḫarranian moon god on the stele, it is clear that this is the moon
god of Ḫarrān.

59
The depictions of the moon god were first discussed in Combe 1908, 40–45. A much
more recent overview can be found in Collon 1995, 371–376. For a discussion of the
motif “god in the crescent” see p. 51ff. below.
60
The anthropomorphic representation of deities in Neo-Assyrian seals in comparison to
the divine symbols used in Neo-Babylonian iconography is noted in Seidl 2000, 106–
107. For the depictions of Sîn on Neo-Assyrian seals see Collon 1995, nos. 33–35.
61
Thureau-Dangin 1924, 185–197 and Boehmer 1975, 42–84.
62
For a discussion of this lion-dragon see Seidl 1998, 100–113. In Ornan 2001, 24 this
animal is claimed to be a bull, thus equating the moon god with the storm god Adad, who
is mounted on a bull and a lion-dragon.
63
This relief was broken into two pieces, of which one is housed in Louvre and the other
in Aleppo. The Aleppo piece was published in Bisi 1963, 215–221, pl. 40 and in Börker-
Klähn 1982, 222 no. 240, and the piece in Louvre was published in Thureau-Dangin &
Dunand 1936, 159 no. 9, pl. XVI 5a,b. The fact that these two pieces belong together
was noticed by both K. Kohlmeyer and U. Seidl (Kohlmeyer 1992, 99–100 and Seidl
1993, 72). For a discussion of this relief see Keel 1994, 143–144 and Theuer 2000, 333–
334.
64
These crescent standards are further discussed on p. 41ff. below.
24 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

Fig. 3: Sîn, a detail from the Maltai

rock relief (Collon 1992, no. 20)

Fig. 4: The moon god of Ḫarrān on

top of his temple (Keel 1994, no. 10)

Influence from the Syro-Anatolian tradition in the representations of the moon

god in Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian art has been suggested by Tallay Or-
nan in her discussion of the representation of anthropomorphic deities in Meso-
potamia.65 According to her, although the anthropomorphic representation of the
moon god was well-established in Mesopotamian iconography during the 3rd and
early 2nd millennium BCE,66 a shift towards representation through symbol oc-
curred during the late 2nd millennium BCE. After this, Mesopotamian depictions
of the moon god were overwhelmingly non-anthropomorphic. However, this
shift did not occur in the Syro-Anatolian area, where anthropomorphic depic-
tions of the moon god are attested for the late 2nd and also the 1st millennium
BCE, as is shown by the stele found at Til Barsip.
It is clear that the physical appearance of the moon god’s anthropomorphic
cult images took different forms in Babylonia, Assyria, and the Syro-Anatolian
area. These differences, that are otherwise only seen in the depictions of the an-
thropomorphic Sîn in reliefs and on cylinder seals, are given a political meaning
in the propaganda text Verse Account written in the aftermath of king Na-
bonidus’ reign.67 In this text, the king Nabonidus is criticised for fashioning a
cult image of the Ḫarranian moon god. The critique is based on actual events:

65
Ornan 2009, 139–140.
66
For a discussion on these earlier depictions of the moon god see Braun-Holzinger
1993, 119–135.
67
Edited as Schaudig 2001, P1.
 II.1. The Moon and the Moon God 25

when Nabonidus rebuilt the temple Eḫulḫul in Ḫarrān, he also restored the cult
statue that had apparently been completely destroyed in the past attack by the
Babylonian-Median alliance.68 The cult statue has since entirely vanished but for
a single bead, which most likely was found in Ḫarrān and is now housed in a
private collection.69 On the basis of the inscription on the bead, it was attached
to the sword that was given to Sîn by Nabonidus.70

Schaudig 2001, 4.1

GÍR ḫi-šíḫ-ti dEN.ZU EN DINGIR šá ina MÁŠ.GI6 I.dNÀ–I MAN TIN.TIRki
i-ri-šú
Sword – the desired object of Sîn, lord of the gods – that he requested from
Nabonidus, king of Babylon, in a dream.71

Just as the installation of his daughter as the entu-priestess in Ur was tied to

earlier tradition, Nabonidus endeavoured to connect the fashioning of Sîn’s im-
age to the past by stressing the fact that the image was fashioned after a depic-
tion of Sîn on a cylinder seal that had belonged to the king Assurbanipal – an
episode that is described in Nabonidus’ Babylon Stele.72

68
For the rebuilding of Eḫulḫul by Nabonidus see the discussion on p. 396ff. below. It is
noted in Mayer 1998, 255 that this statue was not necessarily fashioned anew. According
to him, it is also possible that the statue was left intact during the plundering of Eḫulḫul
and carried off to Babylon, where it was stored for 54 years. After such a long period in
storage, the statue would have been in need of repair, but there was not necessarily any
need for a completely new statue.
69
See Oppenheim 1956, 192.
70
See Beaulieu 1989, 201–202 note 37. The exact form of this sword of Sîn can only be
guessed at, but it may have been similar to the sword that he is carrying in the depictions
of him at Maltai (Fig. 3, p. 24) and Til Barsip (Fig. 4, p. 24).
71
In Oppenheim 1956, 192–193 the dedication of this sword due to Nabonidus’ dream is
taken to be a revival of an older custom of making dedications to deities on the basis of
messages received in dreams. However, it appears more likely that the dream in question
is the same dream that delivered the divine request to rebuild the temple Eḫulḫul; the
fashioning of the divine statue (to which the sword most likely belonged; see Schaudig
2001, 545) was a part of bringing the moon god back to Ḫarrān.
72
This reference to Assurbanipal’s cylinder seal is discussed in Lee 1993, 131–136 and
Seidl 2000, 99. Lee observes that it cannot be known for certain whether Nabonidus ac-
tually had such a cylinder seal in his possession or not, but the similarity between the
two references – the discovery of the stele of Nebuchadnezzar I and the existence of As-
surbanipal’s cylinder seal – nevertheless leads us to doubt the truthfulness of his claims
and both of these instances may have been “pious frauds” to lend credibility to his ac-
tions. For “pious frauds” in the case of the stele of Nebuchadnezzar I see also Powell
1991, 20–30 and Schaudig 2003, 485–488. For the installation of En-niĝaldi-Nanna as
the entu-pristess of the moon god in Ur see the discussion on p. 360ff. below.
26 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

Schaudig 2001, 3.3a, X 32’–45’

na4
X 32’ KIŠIB na4aš-pú-u
X 33’ šu-qu-ru NA4 LUGAL-tú
X 34’ šá IAN.ŠÁR–DÙ–IBILA
X 35’ LUGAL KUR Aš-šur ṣa-lam d30
X 36’ a-na zi-ki-ir MU-šú
X 37’ ú-ṣa-ab-bu-ú-ma
X 38’ ib-nu-ú ṣe-ru-uš-šú
X 39’ ta-nit-ti d30
X 40’ ina na4KIŠIB šu-a-ti
X 41’ iš-ṭù-ur-ru-ú-ma
X 42’ ina GÚ d30 ú-kin-nu
X 43’ šá ina UD.MEŠ ul-lu-ti
X 44’–45’ ⌈kul⌉?-lu-mu bu-un-na-/an-né-e-šú
A cylinder seal of precious jasper, the stone of kingship, on which Assurbani-
pal, the king of the land Aššur, had conceived and formed the likeness of Sîn
for his fame, written praise of Sîn on that cylinder seal, and then fastened it
to the neck of Sîn, whose features were revealed in the distant days.

A confirmation that this new image of Sîn was fashioned in Assyrian, and not
Babylonian, style is found in the way it is used against Nabonidus in the Verse
Account, which endeavoured to present the former king in an unfavourable light.
One of the very first accusations against him in the text is the blasphemous char-
acter of his building activities at Ḫarrān and the reinstallation of the statue of Sîn
in the rebuilt temple. Although this passage is not completely preserved, the
main points of accusation can be identified: when Nabonidus refashioned the
statue of Sîn, he created a god that had a strange appearance – something that
had not been previously seen by the people of Babylonia.

Schaudig 2001, P1, I 20’–II 3’

I 20’ [x x x DIN]GIR.MEŠ ip-pu-uš la me-e-su
I 21’ [x x x]-na ib-ta-ni za-qí-qí
I 22’ [DINGIR šá pa-na]-ma ina KUR la i-mu-ru-uš mam-ma-an
I 23’ [x x x]-⌈ú⌉ KI.GAL-la ú-šar-me
I 24’ [x x x] dNANNA it-ta-bi zi-kir-šú
I 25’ [šá KÙ.SI22 u na4]ZA.GÌN a-pi-ir a-gu-šú
I 26’ [x x x] ši-kin-šú d30 AN.MI
I 27’ [i-tar-ra]-aṣv ŠUII-su ki-ma d⌈LUGAL⌉.ŠU.DU
I 28’ [x x x] ši is ⌈pe⌉-re-e-tu-uš KI.GAL-la
I 29’ [en-du ma-za-a]s-su a-bu-bu u ri-i-mu
I 30’ [x x x] a-gu-šú i-te-me ši-kin-šú
I 31’ [x x x] x-UD-šú ut-tak-ki-ir zi-mu-šú
 II.1. The Moon and the Moon God 27

I 32’ [x x x uš]-te-lip gat-tu-uš

I 33’ [x x x] x gal zi-kir-šú
I 34’ [x x x š]á-pal-šú
(gap)
II 2’ la ip-ti-qu dÉ-a ⌈mu⌉-⌈um⌉-m[u]
II 3’ ul i-di zi-kir-šú U4-ma-da-nu–A-da-pà
[... the go]ds, he commits unsacred (acts), [...] he created a phantom, [a god
that] no one in the land had seen [befo]re, [...] he installed on a pedestal. [...]
he called its name Nannāru, he wears a crown of [gold and] lapis lazuli, [...]
his appearance is (of) the eclipsed moon, [he strech]es his hand [out] like Lu-
galšudu. [...] his hair the pedestal, a flood dragon and a wild bull [are leaning
on] his [socl]e, [...] his crown, turned into his appearance, [...] he changed his
facial features. [...] he made his figure grow, [...] ... his name, [...] under him,
[...] (gap) that the creator Ea had not formed, U’anna-Adapa knows not his
name!

As has been demonstrated by Ursula Seidl, the features that are deemed sacrile-
gious in this passage of the Verse Account are, in fact, attested in depictions of
Assyrian deities, making them foreign to the Babylonians.73 The features of the
cult image here that most prominently convey the Assyrian style are the out-
stretched hand of the deity, the hair that is untied, and the statue’s animal pedes-
tal. These indeed are the main differences between Assyrian and Babylonian an-
thropomorphic depictions of the moon god, as can be seen by comparing the
Maltai rock relief and the relief from Til Barsip to, for example, the Neo-Baby-
lonian depiction of the anthropomorphic moon god standing inside the crescent
moon (Fig. 10, p. 52 below). In connection with the appearance of the statue that
is likened to the eclipsed moon, Seidl suggests that perhaps these darkened fea-
tures are meant to be the opposite of the divine radiance (puluḫtu) that Na-
bonidus uses to describe the moon god.74 The assertion that this “eclipsed” ap-
pearance is connected with the radiance and the light of the moon god is most
likely true, but perhaps it is not worth trying to find a specific term for this radi-
ance in the inscriptions of Nabonidus.75 More likely, the eclipsed appearance of

73
Seidl 2000, 98–109.
74
Seidl 2000, 100 with reference to the lines II 23–32 in the Ḫarrān Stele of Nabonidus
(see Schaudig 2001, 3.1 and Cassin 1968, 5).
75
The Akkadian noun puluḫtu does indeed have the meaning “awe-inspiring divine qual-
ity” (see CAD P, 505–509 and AHw, 879), which is connected to divine radiance.
Moreover, this divine radiance is seen as one of Sîn’s features in the inscriptions of Na-
bonidus, and also elsewhere. An example of this in the prayers to Sîn can be found in the
bilingual šu’ila-prayer 4 R2 9+//, 14: umun n[a-á]ĝ-dìm-me-er-zu an sù-⌈dam⌉ a-ab-ba
da-ma-al-la ní mu-un-gùr-ru-e / be-[lum] i-lut-ka ki-ma AN-e ru-qu-ti tam-⌈tim⌉ ra-pa-
áš-tú pu-luḫ-tam-ma ma-lat, “Lord, your divinity is like the distant heaven (and) the
28 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

the moon is included in the Verse Account because it contrasts with the most im-
portant quality of the moon god, therefore negating his essence and underlining
the sacrilegious character of Nabonidus’ newly fashioned statue.76

II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors

Sîn was not the only name of the Mesopotamian moon god in Neo-Assyrian and
Neo-Babylonian sources; he had several other designations, such as Nannāru
and Dilimbabbar/Namraṣīt, among others. These appellations are mainly lunar
in character. Therefore it is natural to find descriptions of the different lunar
phases among the names, epithets, and symbols of the moon god. Admittedly, it
is difficult to know exactly what connotations the ancient Assyrians and Babylo-
nians attached to a specific name or an epithet, but we can glean some informa-
tion about these notions especially in the explanatory texts that were left behind
by the ancient scholars. In some cases certain names and epithets can be clearly
connected to a specific day within the lunar cycle, which serves to identify the
lunar phase that is connoted through these appellations or descriptive epithets.
Keeping this in mind, the lunar names, epithets, and symbols of Sîn will be dis-
cussed in the following chapters.

II.2.1. Sîn
The moon god Sîn, who most likely was brought to southern Mesopotamia by
Semitic peoples, already appears in Mesopotamian sources in the 3rd millennium
BCE. The earliest certain attestations (Early Dynastic) for the spelling dEN.ZU
derive from Fāra and Tell Abū Ṣalābīḫ, and in the lexical lists from Ebla the
name is written syllabically.77 By the 2nd millennium BCE at the latest, the older
form Suen was contracted to the form Sîn.78 This is also the basis for the noun
sînu, “moon”, that is used to designate moon-shaped objects.79 Despite attempts
to understand what the divine name Suen/Sîn stands for, its meaning remains un-
clear: it can only be agreed that the name belongs to a deity of Semitic
background.80

wide sea filled with awesomeness” (Shibata, HES [forthcoming] and Sjöberg 1960, 167).
Still, there is little evidence to prove that this particular puluḫtu of Sîn was implied in the
Verse Account.
76
See the discussion concerning Sîn as the celestial luminary on p. 78ff. below.
77
For the earliest attestations of the divine name Suen see Roberts 1972, 48–50; Hall
1985, 37 and Krebernik 1995, 361–362.
78
The contracted form of the name Sîn is mainly attested in the 2nd millennium BCE
(Waetzoldt 1990, 73–74; Donbaz 1993, 4–5 and Krebernik 1995, 361), but there are in-
dications for a contraction already in the Ur III period (see Stol 1992, 263).
79
See the attestations in CAD S, 294.
80
See Hall 1985, 40–41. For the possible Semitic root of the name see Krebernik 1995,
362. As Krebernik notes, it is uncertain whether this name is connected to Mount Sinai
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 29

Although the two moon gods, the Semitic Sîn and the Sumerian Nanna, were
originally separate deities with their own cults and characteristics, they were
syncretised over the course of time, and the product of this syncretisation was
the Sumero-Babylonian moon god, who was identified by both of these names.81
This syncretistic history of the moon god is still visible in the 1st millennium
BCE in the ways that the divine name Sîn is written. The overwhelmingly most
attested way – therefore the “normal” way – is to use the numeric spelling d30.82
The logogram dEN.ZU (or dSuen) was also used, but less frequently than the
numeric spelling. The name of the Sumerian moon god Nanna was still present
in the logogram dNANNA, which could also be used to denote the moon god,
but in these cases it is not clear if the intended reading was Sîn, Nanna or nan-
nāru.83 An important source for the readings of logographic spellings of the
moon god’s name is BM 46559 (CT 29, pl. 46), a Neo-Babylonian god-list that
provides glosses for the pronunciation of all three of these names.84

BM 46559 (CT 29, pl. 46), 26–28

na-an-na.d
26 NANNA | d[30]
en-zu.d
27 EN.[ZU | MIN]
si-in.d
28 ⌈30⌉ [ | MIN]

Particularly significant in this passage is the gloss for the logographic writing
d
EN.ZU: according to this text, the correct value for this combination is indeed
Enzu, not Suen as it is attested elsewhere. This suggests that at least in this case
the scribe may have understood the logogram dEN.ZU for Sîn to be a similar
construction to, for example, the divine name Enlil.85 In addition to the gloss si-

as has been suggested e.g. in Combe 1908, 157–158 and Lewy 1945–1946, 441–443. W.
Sommerfeld has recently postulated the existence of a Sumerian moon god dEN.ZU in-
stead of Akkadian Suen, but his arguments remain highly speculative (Sommerfeld 2011,
292–296). Before him, K. Tallqvist was of the opinion that no other explanation for the
name can be given than that it derives from the Sumerian dEn-zu, “lord of knowledge”
(Tallqvist 1938b, 11: “tiedon herra”; Tallqvist 1947, 201: “vetandes herre”).
81
There are traces of this syncretism visible already in the Early Dynastic times, since the
hymn to the moon god of Akšak (IAS no. 253) from Tell Abū Ṣalābīḫ addresses him with
both the names Suen and Nanna (an edition of the text will be published by K. V. Zand).
For the separate characteristics of Nanna and Suen see Hall 1985, 879–881.
82
For an overview of the numbers connected to the Mesopotamian deities see Röllig
1957–1971, 499–500. The numeric writing for the name of the moon god was already at-
tested in the Old Babylonian period (Waetzoldt 1990, 73). Furthermore, the sign 30 has
the syllabic value sin (see e.g. MZL no. 711).
83
See the discussion on the logogram dNANNA for nannāru on p. 31ff.
84
Cited in Jacobsen 1957, 93 note 3 and Litke 1998, 116 note 2. The passage is also dis-
cussed in Hall 1985, 38.
85
For the reading Suen for the logogram EN.ZU see Waetzoldt 1990, 73–74. The gloss in
30 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

in for the numeric spelling d30 in BM 46559, other syllabic attestations of the
name Sîn also exist, underlining the syllabic value sin for the sign 30.86 Two
glosses in texts from Assyria87 attest to the vowel e instead of i – a variation that
is visible also in the syllabic spellings of some Neo-Assyrian personal names.
There are only a few attestations of the theophoric element Sîn written syllabic-
ally, but they comply with the glosses in lexical texts. First, there are two certain
cases of the syllabic spelling dSi-in for the name of the moon god.88 Second, the
syllabic spellings in Aramaic personal names reveal that the West Semitic form
of the name was Sī’ or Sē’.89 This West Semitic form is based on the Mesopot-
amian divine name Sîn, but it shows the loss of the final consonant n and its re-
placement with a glottal stop, as well as a shift from î to ē.90 In contrast to Akka-
dian personal names, West Semitic names with the moon god as the theophoric
element are, in fact, almost always syllabically written.91 Because of this, a clear

BM 46559 led T. Jacobsen to propose that the name Suen/Sîn was a result of a defective
writing for en-Suen, “Lord Suen”, and was realised as Enzu(n) (Jacobsen 1957, 93 note
3). M. G. Hall was seemingly in favour of this approach to the divine name (Hall 1985,
38–39), but as M. Krebernik noted, this writing should rather be seen as rebus writing
that became a logogram, and whose sign order EN.ZU can be explained by means of oth-
er Sumerian divine names similar to En-líl (Krebernik 1995, 362). This god-list passage
is also used by W. Sommerfeld as evidence in his speculations about the existence of a
Sumerian moon god dEN.ZU instead of Semitic Suen (see Sommerfeld 2011, 292–296).
Partly due to the existence of this gloss and its implications for scribal understanding the
name, I have chosen in this study to use the reading dEN.ZU instead of dZuen (MZL, no.
164) in Akkadian contexts. In the Sumerian context the reading dSuen will be used in ac-
cordance to the spellings that require a word final /n/; see e.g. Udug-ḫul 5, 118: zi dSuen-
na dumu-saĝ dEn-líl-lá-ke4 ḫé-pà, “Be adjured by Sîn, the first-born son of Enlil!” (see
Geller 2007, 123 and 211; Geller 2016, 199).
86
See the attestations listed in Krebernik 1995, 361–362. The attestation [d]Si-in in KBo I
no. 12, o.! 10 can be added to this list (see Ebeling 1954a, 213 and p. 490 below).
87
See KAV 51, 3: [d].se-en-nu30 | [MIN] (a manuscript for An = Anum from Assur). The
second gloss is found in a Middle Assyrian tablet that contains the incantation Cow of
Sîn and which belongs to a private collection (see Lambert 1969, 28–39). Although
deemed a scribal mistake in Lambert’s edition, the spelling gi-se-en.d30 in the line 51 of
this tablet should be seen as a glossed spelling (Krebernik 1995, 361). In Veldhuis 1991,
64 the element d30 is considered to be a gloss, but that is opposed by the spelling gi-i-d30
in the line 61 of the same text.
88
SAA 6 no. 342, 1’: I.dSi-in–DU–IGI (see also PNA 3/I, 1128–1129); SAA 6 no. 148, r.
2’: I.dSi-in–ka-⌈šir⌉? (see also PNA 3/I, 1135). An uncertain attestation – possibly for the
name Sîn-ēda – is found in TCL 9 no. 57, r. 16: ISi-in?–e?-da? (see PNA 3/I, 1132).
89
For this West Semitic form of the moon god’s name see Lipiński 1975, 63–64; Zadok
1977, 43; Lipiński 1994, 174–181; Krebernik 1995, 362 and Lipiński 2000, 621.
90
Zadok 1977, 254 and 261.
91
Logographic spelling (d)30 for the theophoric element Sîn/Sē’ in West Semitic personal
names is attested only for the names I30–BARAG, I30–ḫa-ri, and [I3]0–na-tan-nu (Zadok
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 31

distinction between the Aramaic moon god Šēr and Sîn/Sē’ can usually be made.
There are only couple of instances in which the logogram dNANNA may be
used to write the divine name Sîn instead of the name Nanna; usually these two
names are kept clearly apart. Examples for a clear distinction between these two
names for the moon god existing still in the 1st millennium BCE are found in
connection with Ur, the age-old cult city of the Sumero-Babylonian moon god.
Here, the governor Sîn-balāssu-iqbi calls the moon god both Nanna92 and Suen/
Sîn in his Sumerian inscriptions.93 Nanna is also the moon god’s name – the
Akkadian equivalent being Nannāru94 – in a bilingual šu’ila-prayer (4 R2 9+//)
that most likely is connected with the moon god’s cult in Ur.95 From this city
also comes the individual whose name is written dNANNA–ibni in a letter, ABL
974.96 There is no certainty whether this name should be read Nanna-ibni or Sîn-
ibni, but in any case the name seems to reflect the affiliation of the said person
to Ur as the cult city of Nanna/Sîn.97

II.2.2. Nannāru
In addition to the names Sîn and Nanna, the most important appellation and epi-
thet for the moon god in Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian sources is nannāru,
“luminary” – a description that focuses on the celestial luminosity of the moon.98
This is the name for the moon god in the Babylonian creation epic Enūma eliš,
as Marduk appoints him to illuminate the night sky99 and it is this epithet that
praises Sîn as a celestial light in prayers to him.100 The translations of the word

1977, 44). In PNA 3/I these names are found under Sē’-barakka, Sîn-ḫāri, and Sîn-natan-
nu (PNA 3/I, 1098; 1133; and 1139 respectively). The logogram d30 for the name of the
Aramaic moon god Šēr is attested in Neo-Babylonian documents from Nērab, in which
the personal name Šēr-idrī is written d30-er–id-ri-’ (Dhorme 1928b, 58–59 and Zadok
1977, 42). For an overview of the Aramaic moon god see Lipiński 1994, 189–190.
92
E.g. RIMB, B.6.32.2003, 1: dNanna lugal an-ki-a (see the citation on p. 345 below).
93
RIMB, B.6.32.2002, 1: dSuen an-na (see the citation on p. 346 below).
94
For this spelling see the discussion on p. 31ff. below.
95
See the edition in Sjöberg 1960, 166–179 and Shibata, HES (forthcoming).
96
ABL 974, 6: I.dNANNA–ib-ni. This attestation is booked in PNA 3/I, 1133 under Sîn-
ibni, where it is noted that this person is possibly identical to one of the other individuals
with the name Sîn-ibni attested for the area of Ur. Note that the logogram dNANNA is at-
tested also in the name of the individual dNANNA–mu-še-pi from Assur in VAT 10235
(KAR 211), r. IV 8’. Although this name is included in PNA under Sîn-mušēpi (PNA 3/I,
1136), the tablet in question is Middle Assyrian, not Neo-Assyrian (Heeßel 2010, 117).
For an edition of this diagnostic text see Heeßel 2010, 171–179.
97
This letter, ABL 974, 3–5, also contains a greeting formula naming Sîn (written d30).
98
For other epithets that describe the moon god as a celestial light see p. 78ff. below.
99
Enūma eliš V, 12: dNanna-ru uš-te-pa-a mu-šá iq-ti-pa, “He made Nannāru come forth
and then entrusted to him the night” (see Lambert 2013, 98–99 and p. 93 below).
100
See e.g. the incipit of “Sîn 1”: Sîn nannāru šūpû ašarēd ilānī, “O Sîn, the splendid
32 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

nannāru in the Akkadian dictionaries are “Himmelsleuchte” and “luminary”,101

which capture not only the basic meaning of the word102 but also the strong ce-
lestial connotation that it bears due to the moon god being a celestial luminary.
Still, Sîn is not the only god described as nannāru: the epithet is attested also for
Ištar, who is a celestial luminary, and for the fire god Gira, who illuminates with
fire.103 This shows that the epithet is fundamentally associated with luminosity
and brightness: the moon god as nannāru namru, “the bright luminary”, is cel-
ebrated in his ability to shine light in the night sky.104 This however is not the
only aspect that is implied by its use, as the word’s spellings and comments on
its constituent parts show. First, the way in which this appellation was under-
stood by Assyrian and Babylonian scholars fundamentally involved the name of
the Sumerian moon god Nanna.105 Perhaps the most common way – attested
passim in cuneiform sources from the 1st millennium BCE – to write this appel-
lative is to use the logogram dNanna together with the complementary -ru or -ri.
In some cases nannāru is even written using only the logogram dNANNA, but
because of the well-attested expressions it is clear that nannāru, not Nanna, is
meant. This spelling is found in a cylinder inscription of Sargon II,106 in Esar-
haddon’s Zinçirli Stele,107 and in a cylinder inscription of Sîn-šarru-iškun.108 It is
also found in an ikrib-prayer to Sîn.109 Moreover, in a bilingual šu’ila to Sîn, the

luminary, the foremost of the gods!” (see the edition on p. 452ff. below).
101
AHw, 731 and CAD N/1, 260, respectively.
102
Etymologically the noun nannāru is clearly connected to the verb nawāru/namāru, “to
be bright; to shine”, but the exact nominal formation remains disputed: nannāru has been
analysed to be either mapras/napras (GAG § 56b; interpretation marked to be uncertain)
or naprās-formation (Watanabe 1984, 109).
103
For an overview of the epithet nannāru and nannartu see Tallqvist 1938a, 141. See
also the attestations in CAD N/1, 260. This description for Gira is attested in Maqlû II,
19: ÉN dGíra bēlu [g]itmālu d[na]nnarāta nabi šumka, “Incantation: O Gira, perfect lord!
You are the light, your name is invoked!” (see Abusch 2016, 56 and 294; line II 20 in
Meier 1966, 72). Note that two of the manuscripts use the spelling dnanna-ra-ta and thus
associate Gira’s luminosity with the moon’s light in the level of the script.
104
For V. Hurowitz, the epithet nannāru namru, “bright luminary”, functions as an ex-
planation of the appellative nannāru (Hurowitz 2010, 91; the text referred to by him is
the Zinçirli Stele of Esarhaddon, RINAP 4 no. 98, 5).
105
As noted in CAD N/1, 261: “the etymology of the word is unknown; its form and
meaning may have arisen from or been influenced by Sum. Nanna as name of the moon
god on the one hand, and Akk. namāru, nūru on the other”. See also Schaudig 2001, 703
where the divine name Nannār(u) is explained as “etymologisierende Mischung von al-
tem Nanna und nannāru”.
106
Sg Zyl, 57: dNANNA AN-e KI-tim (see Fuchs 1994, 41 and p. 294 below).
107
RINAP 4 no. 98, 5: d30 dNANNA nam-ru mu-dam-mì-iq GISKIM.MEŠ-ia.
108
VA Ass 2316, 5: dNANNA AN-e d30 (Ms B, line 8 in Meinhold 2009, 450).
109
K. 2751+//, 33’ (see the edition below p. 483ff.). Here the manuscript K. 2751+ uses
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 33

Sumerian divine name Nanna receives the Akkadian equivalent Nannāru, under-
lining the notion that these two names are related.110 It is more common in bilin-
gual contexts, however, to equate nannāru with the Sumerian noun u4-sakar.111
Second, an insight into the way the scribes themselves understood the appella-
tion nannāru can be found in a Late Babylonian tablet that cites and comments
on the prologue of the astrological omen series EAE.

82-7-14, 4005, 15–20112

15 UD e-nu-ma | e-nu-ma | ul-tu šu-ta-mu-ú mál-ma-liš
16 TA i-nu | TA | ul-tu
17 MÁ.GUR8 | dNanna-ru | RU e-de-šú
18 ⌈U4⌉.SAKAR | ár-ḫa | ⌈SAKAR⌉ x x [x]
19 ⌈ár⌉-ḫa | d30 |[ ]
20 ⌈MÚ⌉.MÚ | ud-du-⌈šu⌉ |[ ]113
UD means enūma (“when”); enūma (“when”) means ultu (“when”); they cor-
respond to each other.
TA means īnu (“when”); TA also means ultu (“when”).
Barge means Nannāru; the sign RU means edēšu (“to become new”).
Crescent means arḫu (“month”); the sign SAKAR means [...].
The month means Sîn, which means [...].
MÚ.MÚ (“to grow”) means uddušu (“to renew”) [...].

As expected, the name of the Sumerian moon god Nanna is central to the inter-

the logogram dNANNA whereas the manuscript K. 3794+ has the peculiar form dŠEŠ-ru.
There are also other cases when the epithet nannāru is written only with the logogram
(d)ŠEŠ(-ru) perhaps due to a scribal error. This occurs in the stele of Bēl-Ḫarrān-bēlu-
uṣur (RIMA 3, A.0.105.2, 6), where Sîn is called dŠEŠ AN u KI. This of course stands for
the well-attested epithet nannār šamê u erṣeti, “luminary of heaven and earth”. Another
possible case can be found in the opening line of the šu’ila-prayer ”Sîn 1” in STT 56, 19.
There the epithet nannāru is rendered either through ŠEŠ or ŠEŠ-[ru], but spelling can-
not be fully reconstructed due to the damages in the line. However, the absence of the di-
vine determinative is clear (see the edition on p. 452ff. below).
110
See 4 R2 9+//, 1–9 with the invocation a-a dNanna/a-bu dNa-an-nar, “father Nanna/
father Nannār” (see Shibata, HES [forthcoming] and Sjöberg 1960, 166; the lines 1–4 are
also cited on p. 147 below)
111
See e.g. Udug-ḫul 16, 83–84 (see Geller 2007, 181 and 253 as well as Geller 2016,
522; also cited on p. 173 below).
112
Published originally in King 1902b, 124–127 and Pl. XLIX. See the editions in
Verderame 2002b, 36–37 and Jiménez 2014b (CCP 3.1.1.C). See also Frahm 2011, 136–
137, who notes that the apparent goal of the scribe was to create a connection between
the Sumerian and Akkadian passages.
113
The transliteration of this line follows the edition in Jiménez 2014b (CCP 3.1.1.C); see
also Frahm 2011, 92 note 460.
34 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

pretation, but the meaning of the element -ru is also taken into consideration.
The commentary first names má-gur8, “barge”, which is how the moon god is re-
ferred to in the Sumerian part of EAE’s prologue and, as in other contexts, this
designation is described as the equivalent of the appellation nannāru. After this,
Nannāru is further understood by the connection of the sign RU to the Akkadian
verb edēšu, “to be(come) new”.114 Therefore, the author of this particular com-
mentary understood the normal writing dNanna-ru as consisting of the parts
Nanna, who is the moon god, and the verb signifying the monthly renewal of the
celestial object. Although the logogram RU for edēšu appears to be attested only
in this text,115 it is clear that at least in this one instance the aspect of renewal
was seen as a fundamental quality of the epithet nannāru. Perhaps the same no-
tion is present also in the 16th tablet of Udug-ḫul, in which the king is described
as “bearing radiance on his head like the constantly renewing luminary”.116
The equation of the appellations “barge” (má-gur8) and Nannāru in the com-
mentary on the prologue of EAE reflects notions that are also known to us from
the list of moon god’s names in An = Anum III, 23–25.117 Here the three names
d
U4-sakar, dMá and dMá-gur8 are all equated with the name Nannāru rather than
with the name Sîn that was repeated in the preceding entries. The manuscript
KAV 51 (VAT 11513) even separates these lines visually from the previous
names in the “Sîn-list” by inserting a line after the name dUnkin-úru (An =
Anum III, 22), thereby indicating the beginning of a new section in the list.

KAV 51, 21–26118

21 ⌈d⌉Unkin-[an?]-úru!(URUxŠÀ) MIN(= Sîn)

22 [d]U4-sakar na-an-n[a-ru]119

114
The practise of explaining either an Akkadian or a Sumerian word through its constitu-
ent parts is an elementary part of Mesopotamian hermeneutics and reflects the existing
connotations for the different words or phrases (see Maul 2003a, 65–76 and Frahm 2011,
59–79).
115
See CAD E, 30 and AHw, 186.
116
Udug-ḫul 16, 84 (see Geller 2007, 181 and 253 as well as Geller 2016, 522; translation
here according to the citation on p. 173 below).
117
For an edition of this passage of An = Anum see Litke 1998, 119 and Feliu 2006, 237.
The connection between the appellations/epithets má-gur8 and nannāru was noted
already in Sjöberg 1960, 27. For the epithet má-gur8 for Sîn see p. 45ff. below.
118
The lines 1–21 in this text contain An = Anum III, 1–22, but the name dMen-dàra-an-
na in line III, 9 is omitted in this manuscript.
119
In Litke 1998, 119 the latter part of this line is read na-an-na. The restoration na-an-
n[a-ru] is, however, confirmed by the manuscript SpTU 3 no. 107+, 21: dNanna-rum (see
the score transliteration in Feliu 2006, 237). Because of this the use of the logogram
U4.SAKAR for Nanna as suggested in Krebernik 1995, 360 should be rejected .
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 35

23 [d].maMá MIN
24 [dMá]-gur8 MIN
25 [dDili]-ím-babbar120 d
Nam-[ra-ṣi-it]
26 [dNi]n-gal dam-bi [ ]

When this listing is considered from the viewpoint of the lunar phases, the four
lines containing the names dU4-sakar, dMá, dMá-gur8, and dDili-ím-babbar/Nam-
raṣīt seem to apply to the lunar phases in the first half of the lunar cycle: the
crescent moon is called by three different names in order of size (thin crescent to
gibbous) and, perhaps, the full moon, referred to as Dilimbabbar/Namraṣīt.121
From this point of view the appellation Nannāru for the moon god would
specifically denote the waxing, but not yet full, moon. In other words, the Akka-
dian noun nannāru appears to occupy the semantic field that corresponds to
three different Sumerian expressions for the waxing moon. It should be noted
that although the logogram U4.SAKAR also stands for the Akkadian word
uskāru, “crescent moon”, as an epithet of Sîn it should be rendered as nan-
nāru.122 Therefore, the prayer “Sîn 1” (Sîn nannāru šūpû) is cited as d30
U4.SAKAR šu-pu-ú in the tablet belonging to the ritual bīt rimki.123 Moreover,
the correspondence of the logogram U4.SAKAR to nannāru shows that the in-
cipit of the prayer “Sîn 6” should be read bēlu nannār kullati binīti, “lord, the
luminary of all creation”, not “crescent of all creation”.124
While the equation u4-sakar/nannāru is widely attested, other correspond-
ences can also be found in bilingual texts. One example is the way that the
Sumerian equivalent of the Akkadian nannāru ellu ša šamê, “the radiant
luminary of heaven” is “the radiant growing horn of heaven” (si mú kù an-na) in
the lamentation e-lum di-da-ra.125 It is clear that the notion expressed in Akkadi-
an by the word nannāru is, in Sumerian, connected to the growing of the lunar
“horns”, i.e. the waxing moon.126 This expression also has a close parallel in an
eršema to Sîn, in which the moon god is called “the radiant barge of the heaven”

120
The divine name Dilimbabbar has been previously read AŠimbabbar. For a discussion
on the plausible reading dili for the sign AŠ see p. 71ff. below.
121
For discussion concerning the connection of má-gur8 and dDilimbabbar/Namraṣīt to
particular lunar phases see p. 45ff. and p. 71ff. below.
122
See Borger 1970, 11, Watanabe 1984, 109, and Stol 1992, 246. For a discussion of the
crescent moon symbol of Sîn see p. 38ff. below.
123
BBR 26, III 53: ÉN d30 U4.SAKAR šu-pu-ú (see Læssøe 1955, 25). For a new edition
of the prayer “Sîn 1” see p. 452ff. below.
124
See the edition of K. 6018+// on p. 497ff. below.
125
Cohen 1988, 179–180 and 183; see also the citation on p. 148 below.
126
The connection of the sign SI to celestial light is clear in the lexical tradition through
the equivalents nūrum, namārum, napāḫum, and šamû for it in MSL 14, 341 (ll. 168–
171). See also the discussion in Horowitz 2011, 230.
36 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

(má-gur8 kù an-na)127 – a formulation that could also be rendered in Akkadian as

nannāru ellu ša šamê.128
In the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian sources nannāru is present either
alone as an appellation of Sîn, or as a part of a more complex epithet, such as
nannār šamê u erṣeti, “luminary of the heaven and the earth”. There appears to
be a distinction in the use of the divine determinative and the preferred spelling
in these cases: with the appellation Nannāru the spelling with the element
d
Nanna seems to be preferred, whereas in the case of the descriptive epithets –
such as the already mentioned nannār šamê u erṣeti – the tendency is to have
syllabic writings without the divine determinative.129 A notable exception to this
can be found in the manuscripts for the šu’ila-prayer “Sîn 3” from Ḫuzirīna
(Sultantepe), which use the normally logographic writing dNanna for the syllable
/nan/, thereby combining the logographic representation of the Sumerian moon
god Nanna with a syllabic spelling of the epithet nannāru.130 An illuminating ex-
ample of the use of nannāru as a name and an epithet in a single passage can be
found in the prism inscription of Assurbanipal that describes his campaign
against the Elamite king Teumman.

Assurbanipal Prism B, V 78–79131

V 78 ITI d30 na-an-nàr AN-e u KI-tim at-kil a-na EŠ.BAR
d
V 79 Nanna-ri nam-ri
(in) the month of Sîn, the luminary of heaven and earth, I trusted the decision
of bright Nannāru

Here the epithet nannār šamê u erṣeti, “luminary of heaven and earth”, is used
to describe the moon god Sîn, and in this instance nannāru is written syllabic-
ally. The following reference to the moon god, for whom the appellation Nan-
nāru is used, utilises the spelling with the logogram dNanna. A similar example
can also be found in the dedicatory inscription of Assurbanipal that was written
on the wooden carrying poles of Ningal/Nikkal in Ḫarrān: the epithet nannār

127
BM 13930 (CT 15, pls. 16–17)//, 1: má-gur8-kù-an-na še-er-ma-al ní-te-na, “radiant
barge of heaven, pre-eminent by his own right” (see the edition in Sjöberg 1960, 44 and
46; the line is also cited on p. 45 below).
128
This connection was first noted in Langdon 1919, 326 note 5, although no particular
attention to the relationship of the Akkadian word nannāru and its Sumerian equivalents
was given. See also the comment on the line in Sjöberg 1960, 47–48.
129
Syllabic spellings of Nannāru as the name of Sîn are not common, but they do exist,
e.g. K. 2813+, 18: [NUN] ⌈d⌉Na-an-na-⌈ru⌉, “[prince] Nannāru” (Bauer 1933, pl. 29 and
Novotny 2003, 240) and RINAP 3 no. 38, 33’: [... d]Na-an-na-ru.
130
STT 57+, 57; STT 59, 1: dnán-na-ru; STT 58, o.! 1: dnán-an-ru (see p. 464ff. below).
131
Borger 1996, 103 and 225 (now RINAP 5/I no. 3). The same line can be found in As-
surbanipal Prism C, VI 80–81 (RINAP 5/I no. 6).
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 37

ilānī, “luminary of the gods”, is written syllabically and the appellation Nannāru
incorporates the name of the Sumerian moon god.132
The descriptive epithets that incorporate nannāru underline the luminous
qualities of the moon god in respect to the cosmos or its inhabitants.133 Central to
this is Sîn’s function as a celestial luminary: he is portrayed as “the luminary of
heaven” (nannār šamê134 or nannāru ša šamê135), “the luminary of the great
heavens” (nannār šamê rabûti),136 “the luminary of the heavens and earth” (nan-
nār šamê u erṣeti)137 or “the luminary of all creation” (nannār kullati binīti).138
Note also that the god-list An = Anu ša amēli gives the definition “Sîn of the
heavens and earth” for Nanna, thus plausibly making a reference to the epithet
nannār šamê u erṣeti.139 In addition to being the light of the upper parts of the
cosmos, Sîn is also described as a luminary for the deities either in general or in
heaven: as already seen, he is called “the luminary of the gods” (nannār ilānī)140

132
Bu. 89-4-26, 209, 5: dNanna-ri; 7: na-an-⌈nar⌉ DINGIR.MEŠ (Novotny 2003, 234;
see also the citation of this passage on p. 301 below).
133
See already the overview of the moon god’s epithets in Tallqvist 1938a, 444.
134
nannār šamê is attested in various contexts in prayers to Sîn. Perhaps the most prom-
inent of these is the opening line of the prayer “Sîn 3”: Sîn nannār šamê ilu etellu (see
the edition on p. 464ff. below). In the syncretistic prayer to Marduk (“Marduk 24”), Sîn
as nannār šamê is associated with his ability to give signals to mankind (KAR 26, 19;
see Mayer 1999, 145–163 and KAL 2 no. 21. The line is also cited on p. 160 below). In a
cylinder inscription of Sîn-šarru-iškun this epithet is written dNANNA AN-e d30 (VA Ass
2316, 5 = Ms B, line 8 in Meinhold 2009, 450).
135
E.g. K. 2751+//, 57’ (see the edition below on p. 483ff.).
136
BAM 4 no. 323//, 100: U4.SAKAR AN-e GAL.MEŠ (Scurlock 2006, no. 91; see also
the citation on p. 108 below). In her edition, Scurlock translates U4.SAKAR literally as
crescent, but as already noted, as an epithet of Sîn it stands for nannāru.
137
nannār šamê u erṣeti is mainly used in the context of royal inscriptions or other royal
texts, such as the treaty of Assurbanipal with Babylonian allies (SAA 2 no. 9, r. 11’). In
the inscriptions of Šalmaneser III this occurs twice (RIMA 3, A.0.102.1, I 2 and
A.0.102.4, I 6). This epithet is also used in the inscriptions of Assurbanipal in the episode
describing his campaign against the Elamite king Teumman (Assurbanipal Prism B, V
78–79 and Assurbanipal Prism C, VI 80–81; see the citation on p. 36 above). In addition
to this, it appears that it was used in the opening line of Assurbanipal’s dedicatory in-
scription to Sîn of Ḫarrān, K. 8759+, 1 (see the citation on p. 142ff. below). However,
this epithet is also attested outside of the royal context. In the opening line of a prayer to
Sîn, in a ritual for undoing witchcraft, this epithet is used to underline his luminary as-
pect (IM 148516, 1; see the edition in Fadhil 2018, 197–198). In a bilingual šu’ila-prayer
addressed to Marduk and Nabû, the moon god Nanna/Sîn is present with his epithet u4-
sakar-an-ki-a/na-an-nar AN-e u KI-tim (see line 16 in Maul 1998, 164).
138
Incipit of “Sîn 6b”; see the edition of K. 6018+// on p. 497ff. below.
139
An = Anu ša amēli, 24: dNanna | d30 šá AN-e u KI-ti (see Litke 1998, 230). This pos-
sible reference enforces the association of this appellation with the name Nanna.
140
Bu. 89-4-26, 209, 7: na-an-⌈nar⌉ DINGIR.MEŠ (Novotny 2003, 234; see also the cita-
38 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

or “the luminary of the gods of heaven” (nannār ilānī šamê).141 These epithets
stress Sîn’s powers of illumination not only in relation to the heavens or the
earth, but also in relation to the other deities who live in the parts of the cosmos
that are invisible to people.

II.2.3. The Crescent

Although the crescent moon represents only a single lunar phase, it stood as the
symbol for the Mesopotamian moon god and the moon as a phenomenon.142 We
can only speculate why, specifically, the crescent moon was considered the
quintessential representation of the moon and the moon god, but it must be con-
nected with the importance of the first sighting of the moon after its periodic
absence from the night sky.143 The Sumerian word designating the new, crescent
moon is u4-sakar, and this word was loaned to Akkadian as uskāru.144 The logo-
gram U4.SAKAR can also have the Akkadian equivalent (w)arḫu due to the role
of the crescent moon as the indicator of the beginning of the new month.145
These Sumerian and Akkadian terms, u4-sakar and uskāru, can denote not only
the beginning but also the first half of the lunar cycle: this becomes clear from
Ur III period Sumerian sources in which the term u4-sakar is mainly used to des-
ignate the first day of the month, but on some occasions it refers to the full
moon.146 The term u4-sakar/uskāru is also used to describe objects or shapes that
are crescents or semicircles, underlining its connection to the first quarter of the
lunar cycle.147 The Sumerian u4-sakar is also used as the equivalent of the Akka-
dian appellation nannāru for the moon god, and this correspondence enforces

tion of this passage on p. 301 below).

141
BM 121037 (CT 51 no. 190), r. 3: dNanna-ar DINGIR.MEŠ AN-e (see Maul 1994,
458–460 as well as the citation on p. 177 below).
142
A symbol is often only a single part of a larger phenomenon, but despite this concen-
tration on a particular aspect it represents the many different areas of that phenomenon
(see Mieth 2001, 136). Therefore the crescent moon, which depicts only a single lunar
phase, can connote the whole lunar cycle and the deity that is manifested through it.
143
For a discussion of the lunar cycle see p. 90ff. below.
144
Also variant forms like askāru are attested. See AHw, 1438; CAD U–W, 278–279;
Lieberman 1977, 423 and Stol 1992, 245. The Akkadian equivalent of u4-sakar is attested
from Old Babylonian times onward. Note that the term “new moon” is used here and
also elsewhere in this study (apart from Fig. 2, p. 18 above) to designate the first visible
crescent moon, not the invisible moon during the conjunction of the sun and the moon as
in the modern astronomical term.
145
See AHw, 1466 and CAD A/2, 259–263.
146
Sallaberger 1993, 39–40.
147
See e.g. Friberg, Hunger & Al-Rawi 1990, 487–488 where the shape uskāru is a cres-
cent, and Robson 1999, 38–40 where the shape is a semicircle. For the crescent shape re-
ferred to as a characteristic, see e.g. the stone ašpû ša uskāri (kullumu), “ašpû that shows
a crescent moon” in Schuster-Brandis 2008, 402–403.
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 39

the notion that the epithet nannāru describes the waxing moon of the first half of
the lunar cycle.148 Moreover, it should be stressed that the Akkadian noun uskāru
is never used as an epithet of the moon god, but is rather the term that designates
the crescent moon as his symbol or emblem.149
The thin crescent moon acts as a manifestation of the moon god in a multi-
tude of contexts.150 It was used in monumental art and in iconography of cylin-
der seals as a decorative motif, but certainly also to mark the presence of the
moon god. As for monumental art and architecture, a detail speaking to the use
of Sîn’s crescent to decorate the buildings of Babylon in the time of Nebuchad-
nezzar II is conveyed in the account of Pierre Joseph de Beauchamp, one of the
early European travellers to visit the site in the late 18th century. In this account,
as related in an appendix to the travel memoir of Claudius Rich, de Beauchamp
is said to have made remarks on the custom of the locals to retrieve baked bricks
from the site for reuse in new buildings, and how these searches often yielded
other artefacts in addition to clay bricks. According to him, one of the masons
recalled how he had found the figures of a cow, the sun, and the moon on a wall
of a chamber, all made of glazed bricks.151 As to smaller scale objects, the lunar
crescent can be found adorning various forms of jewellery and amulets. In these
cases the crescent is often that of the waning moon, perhaps because its form is
easier to attach to jewellery.152 For example, a stone bead necklace with a cres-
cent moon pendant was found at Assur,153 and a stone mould for casting metal
pendants and amulets found at Nineveh speaks to the popularity of jewellery in
the form of a crescent moon.154 On earrings the image of the lunar crescent was
that of a waxing moon, as the numerous earrings found in the queens’ tombs in
Kalḫu show.155 The crescent moon may have been represented on jewellery
simply for decorative purposes, but in certain cases it served as an amulet with a

148
See the discussion on p. 31ff. above.
149
E.g. the reference to the crescent symbol of Sîn in the manuscript K. 63a+ of the mīs
pî ritual (see the discussion on p. 42ff. below).
150
For an overview see Seidl 1989, 97–98.
151
Rich 1839, 302: “He has frequently found earthen vessels, engraved marbles, and
about eight years ago a statue as large as life, which he threw amongst the rubbish. On
one wall of a chamber he found the figures of a cow, and of the sun and moon, formed of
varnished bricks. Sometimes idols of clay are found representing human figures. I found
one brick on which was a lion, and on others a half-moon in relief.” This passage is cited
in connection with de Beauchamp’s visit to the site of Babylon in Reade 2008, 27 and
Seymour 2014, 132.
152
Collon 1992, 21.
153
VA Ass 4698 (see the photograph in Mattila 1995, 60 [no. 100]).
154
WA 91904 (see the photograph in Curtis & Reade 1995, 175 [no. 178]). This stone
mould is presented along the other discovered casting moulds in Opitz 1933, 179–215.
155
See the catalogue in Hussein 2016, 59–216.
40 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

specific function. This is elucidated by a text describing a therapy against

AN.TA.ŠUB.BA-epilepsy.156 This procedure involves making an elaborate amu-
let out of two bronze crescent moons and three strings of stones.

BM 47509+, 7’–10’157
7’ DÙ.DÙ.BI ⌈U4⌉.SAKAR ZABAR za-ka-a DU-uš
8’ U4.SAKAR ṣe-eḫ-ri 2-ú ina lìb-bi DÙ-uš
9’ ÉN an-ni-tum ina muḫ-ḫi-šú SAR-ár
10’ ù NA4.MEŠ mim-ma lem-nu ina lìb-bi-šú ta-ka-ṣar
Its ritual: You make a crescent moon out of pure bronze, you make another
small crescent inside it. You inscribe this incantation on it and tie the stones
against any kind of evil to it.

These examples of the crescent as a form of jewellery or as a part of an amulet

for therapeutic purposes must be categorised separately from the dumāqu-pec-
toral of the Assyrian king, which exhibited the emblems of the most important
deities – including Sîn’s crescent – in the Neo-Assyrian pantheon and represen-
ted their support for the king.158
The crescent moon of Sîn had two main forms in Mesopotamian icono-
graphy. First, as already pointed out above, the simple crescent moon was one of
the most popular motifs in Mesopotamian seal iconography, often depicted in
the upper part of the seal as a filling motif along with other celestial symbols.159
In some cases in Neo-Assyrian and Aramaic art, an anthropomorphic deity is de-
picted standing inside the crescent, which in Assyrian and Babylonian art of the
1st millennium BCE was the most typical way of portraying the moon god in his
anthropomorphic form.160 The second variation of the crescent moon motif –
found both in Babylonian and Assyrian sources – is the round lunar disc with an
embedded crescent in its lower part, or a crescent moon that forms a disc
through its long cusps. An example of the crescent disc in the Assyrian context
can be found on the stele of Aššurnaṣirpal II from Kalḫu, which shows the king
together with the symbols of the main deities in the Assyrian pantheon, includ-
ing Sîn.161 In the representations of deities especially in connection with Na-
bonidus’ inscriptions, this crescent moon disc in often found in a triad consisting
of the three main astral symbols: the crescent disc, the sun disc of Šamaš, and

156
For the connection of the moon god to epilepsy see the discussion on p. 271ff. below.
157
Schuster-Brandis 2008, 267–268.
158
Magen 1986, 54–55; see also the discussion and the picture of Šalmaneser III’s statue
on p. 217 below.
159
Seidl 1989, 97–98 and Herbordt 1992, 100.
160
See the discussion concerning this motif on p. 51ff. below.
161
BM 118805 (Börker-Klähn 1982, no. 136); ND 1104 (Börker-Klähn 1982, no. 137).
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 41

the star disc of Ištar. Such is the carving on the stone bowl that was dedicated by
Nabonidus to Sîn of Ḫarrān162 and also on the Ḫarrān Stele of Nabonidus (Fig.
5).163 Another famous example of this triad in Babylonian art is the Sun God
Tablet of Nabû-apla-iddina, in which the symbols of Sîn, Šamaš, and Ištar are
presented along with captions that identify them by their names.164

Fig. 5: The relief on Ḫarrān Stele H2.B of Nabonidus

(Börker-Klähn 1982, no. 264)

The crescent moon also appeared mounted on a pole in a horizontal alignment,

thus forming the standard (Sum. šu-nir, Akk. šurinnu) of the moon god.165 This
standard appears to have been in use at least as early as the Uruk IV period, and
it was often found accompanying the anthropomorphic moon god in the icono-
graphy of cylinder seals from the Akkadian period onward.166 Functionally, the

162
A photograph of the bowl is found in Dole & Moran 1991, 268–273, and an edition of
the inscription is presented in Schaudig 2001, 4.2.
163
H2.A and H2.B (Gadd 1958, pl. 2 and Börker-Klähn 1982, nos. 263 and 264).
164
King 1912, no. 36 (pls. 98–102). This tablet has been studied in Woods 2004, 23–103,
and a new edition of the text is presented in Paulus 2014, 650–659 (NAI 3).
165
The use of the term šu-nir/šurinnu is examined in Pongratz-Leisten 1992, 299–318. It
has been suggested that the term šurinnu was applied only to the crescent standard of Sîn
by the Neo-Assyrian period, whereas the standards of the other deities were called
urigallu (Pongratz-Leisten 1992, 318). On the basis of the function of the urigallu as a
protective standard, this differentiation is most probably based on the function of the
standards, not by the divine beings they represented (for an overview of the urigallu see
Wiggermann 1992, 70–73).
166
For an overview of these earlier stages see Seidl 2011, 112, and for the depictions of
the moon god with the crescent standard see Collon 1995, 373.
42 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

šurinnu-standard is one of the manifestations of a deity and it is similar to an an-

thropomorphic cult image. This is already evident from the context of legal pro-
cedures from the Old Babylonian period when the šurinnus of Sîn and Šamaš
played an important role as their manifestations.167 In writing, the divine nature
of the standard is implied by the use of the determinative for divine beings, i.e.,
d
šurinnu. Moreover, non-anthropomorphic depictions of Mesopotamian deities
sometimes underwent rituals of induction similar to those performed on anthro-
pomorphic cult statues.168 In the case of the crescent standard of Sîn, two manu-
scripts of the mīs pî ritual refer to it as the object of cultic induction.169 The sec-
tion, in which the crescent moon is attested as the equivalent of the divine
image, involves the “opening of the mouth”, which enables the image to acquire
the function of the deity it represents.170 For the most part this manuscript runs
parallel to the other manuscripts; the major difference is that instead of an alam/
ṣalmu, “image; statue”, the object of the ritual is a u4-sakar/uskāru, “crescent”. A
difference – most likely due to differences in the materials and methods for pro-
ducing a standard in comparison to the more elaborate cult statue – can also be
found in the list of the divine craftsmen and materials associated with the pro-
duction of the crescent standards: only the divine gold smith Kusibanda and the
divine jeweller Ninzadim are mentioned.171 According to the reconstruction of
the mīs pî ritual, by the time the incantation u4 diĝir dím-ma alam sikil-la šu du7-
a, “when the god was created, the pure statue perfected”, or its variant u4 diĝir
dím-ma u4-sakar sikil-la šu du7-a, “when the god was created, the pure crescent
perfected”, was performed, the cultic image had already been brought out of the
temple workshop (bīt mummi) and separated from the workers who took part in
its crafting. Therefore it has gone through a ritual that imitates gestation and is
now reborn as a god.172
By the 1st millennium BCE, the crescent moon standard was specifically con-
nected with the Ḫarranian moon god and widely attested in the iconography of

167
Pongratz-Leisten 1992, 316.
168
See Berlejung 1998, 188–189 and 275–281; Walker & Dick 1999, 71 and Walker &
Dick 2001, 13.
169
K. 63a (4 R2 25b)+K. 3173 and K. 3367 (Mss F and G in the 3rd tablet of mīs pî in
Walker & Dick 2001, 128–153).
170
This is evident from the rubrics in the other manuscripts containing this prayer: ac-
cording to three texts this prayer of a “šu’ila-prayer for opening the mouth of a god” (ka-
inim-ma šu-íl-la diĝir-ra ka-duḫ-ù-da-kam; see the line 97 in Walker & Dick 2001, 144
and 151. For the function of the “opening of the mouth” see Berlejung 1998, 188–190
and Walker & Dick 2001, 13–15).
171
Berlejung 1998, 275.
172
So according to the lines 46ff. of the Babylonian ritual tablet BM 45749 for mīs pî
(Walker & Dick 1999, 72–83).
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 43

seals and reliefs from northern Mesopotamia.173 This Ḫarranian standard differs
from the other crescent standards by the two tassels that are attached to it.174 The
connection of the tasseled crescent standard with Ḫarrān is seen in the relief of
Bar-rākib, the ruler of Sam’al (Zinçirli),175 in which the tasseled crescent stand-
ard is prominently depicted and accompanied by an Aramaic inscription that
makes a reference to the “lord of Ḫarrān” (b‘l ḥrn), one of the appellations of the
Ḫarranian moon god. For this reason, the presence of the tasseled crescent stand-
ards accompanying the anthropomorphic moon god in relief found at Til Barsip
(Fig. 4, p. 24) suggest that this moon god, who is standing on top his temple, is
Sîn of Ḫarrān. The crescent standard of the Ḫarranian moon god is commonly
found as a non-anthropomorphic depiction of the moon god on stone stelae in
the area of Ḫarrān in modern Turkey and northern Syria.176 In most cases it is
presented alone (Fig. 7),177 but occasionally it is flanked by two men (Fig. 8)178 –
most likely a depiction of worship of the moon god and his authorisation of a
legal contract made between two parties.179A new relief can now be added to this
group of representations of the Ḫarranian moon god by the crescent standard: a
Neo-Assyrian rock relief located at Gisgis (Kesentaş) in the province of Diyar-
bakır has been recently published for the first time (Fig. 6).180 This relief depicts
the triad of the main celestial deities – Sîn, Šamaš, and Ištar – as the object of
veneration by the king. Of these three deities only Ištar is depicted in anthropo-
morphic form while both Sîn and Šamaš are made manifest by their standards.
Like cult images elsewhere in Neo-Assyrian art, the images in the Gisgis rock

173
See Herbordt 1992, 101; Keel 1994, 138–147; Theuer 2000, 330–351; and Ornan
2005b, 163–167.
174
Seidl 2011, 112. These tassels pertain to the role of Sîn of Ḫarrān in the context of
swearing oaths, see Seidl 2000, 93–94. The connection of the moon god to oaths is dis-
cussed on p. 249 below.
175
VA 2817 (see Orthmann 1971, 545 (Zincirli F/1); Keel 1994, 144 (no. 11); Seidl 2000,
94–96; and Theuer 2000, 358–360).
176
These stelae are included in the group of Assyrian stelae in Börker-Klähn 1982, 54
and 58, where they are referred to as cult stelae (Börker-Klähn 1982, nos. 166, 206 and
230). For three further stelae, see Kohlmeyer 1992, 91–100. For an overview with de-
tailed bibliographical information, see Keel 1994, 138–147.
177
There are six stelae that show only the crescent standard of Sîn (Keel 1994, nos. 1–6).
For the stele found in Açaği Yarimca see Gadd apud Lloyd & Brice 1951, 108–110 and
Pl. X. For the possibility that this stele contained an inscription of Sennacherib see also
the discussion on p. 400 below.
178
Only two stelae show the crescent standard flanked by human figures (Keel 1994, nos.
7–8).
179
The legal element is stressed in Kohlmeyer 1992, 98. For the moon god as the protect-
or of contracts, see the discussion on p. 250ff. below.
180
Köroğlu & Yumruk 2014, 2–8. The authors date this relief to the time between the
reigns of Šalmaneser III and Sargon II.
44 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

relief are mounted on animal shaped pedestals – an element that further under-
lines the function of the standards as divine manifestations.181
In addition to the depictions of Sîn’s crescent standard in Mesopotamian and
Syro-Anatolian art, there are also a few written references to it in the Neo-As-
syrian royal correspondence. In a letter to Sargon II, the chief treasurer Ṭāb-šār-
Aššur reports that two divine standards (dšurinnu) of Sîn of Ḫarrān are in good
condition.182 Another reference to the šurinnu-standard is made in a report con-
cerning gold and silver work for the temple of Sîn, sent to Assurbanipal.183 The
sender of this letter, Sîn-na’id, assures the king that contrary to the rumours of
its collapse, the divine standard is in perfect condition.184 Since the letter was
sent from Assur, it can be expected that this emblem was located somewhere in
the city. The “Courtyard of Standards” (tarbaṣ šurinnē) on the western side of
the Old Palace was a likely place, but unfortunately, no precise information is
available.185

Fig. 6: The crescent moon standard mounted on a hybrid creature

(Köroğlu & Yumruk 2014, Fig. 7)

181
Cf. e.g. the rock relief at Maltai (Boehmer 1975, 42–84). A detail of this relief, depict-
ing the moon god standing on a lion-dragon, can be seen in Fig. 3, p. 24 above.
182
SAA 1 no. 50, 1–8: “To the king, my lord: your servant Ṭāb-šār-Aššur. Good health to
the king, my lord! As to the emblem of the moon god of Ḫarrān of which the king my
lord wrote to me, there are two good ones which [...] for the watch of [...] of the king, my
lord [...].” (see also the discussion and the citation of the letter on p. 399 below).
183
SAA 13 no. 28 and no. 29. The sender, Sîn-na’id, was active as the mayor of Assur
(ḫazannu) around the middle of the 7th century BCE, i.e. during the reign of Assurbani-
pal. Simultaneously he acted as the chief goldsmith, the role that he has in this letter
(Radner 1999, 16–19).
184
SAA 13 no. 28, r. 10–12: ù ina UGU tak-ku-us-si ša dšu-ri-in-ni / ša LUGAL be-lí iq-
bu-u-ni ma-a a-sem-mi / ma-a ra-man-ša ta-ad-dib šul-mu a–dan-niš, “And concerning
the pole of the divine emblem about which the king, my lord, spoke, saying: ‘I have
heard that it collapsed of its own accord’ – it is (in fact) in excellent condition.”
185
As pointed out in Novotny 2003, 52 note 168.
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 45

Fig. 7: Açaği Yarimca Stele Fig. 8: Göktaçköyü Stele

(Börker-Klähn 1982, no. 206) (Keel 1994, no. 8)

II.2.4. The Boat and the Barge

The idea that the moon is a heavenly boat that travels across the night sky was
among the most important Mesopotamian lunar metaphors: the epithets má,
“boat”, and especially má-gur8, “barge”, were common for the Sumerian moon
god Nanna, and they also remained in use in relation to the moon god Sîn.186 A
prime example of this can be found in an eršema to the moon god that opens
with the line “radiant barge of heaven, pre-eminent by his own right” and in the
following lines describes the moon god sailing in the heavens.187 In addition to
the boat metaphor used in Sumerian literary texts, both “boat” and “barge” ap-
pear as Sîn’s names in the god-list An = Anum. In this list, he is first given the
name dMá-gu-la-an-na, “The Great Boat of Heaven”,188 a name that is conceptu-
ally connected to dMá-bàn-da-an-na, “The Small Boat of Heaven”, a name for

186
See Tallqvist 1938a, 445; Sjöberg 1960, 27; and Hall 1985, 675–678.
187
BM 13930 (CT 15, pls. 16–17)//, 1: má-gur8 kù an-na še-er-ma-al ní-te-na, “radiant
barge of heaven, pre-eminent by his own right”; 9: má-gur8 an-šà-ga diri-ga še-er-ma-al-
la-zu-dè, “as (you), barge, that is drifting in the midst of heaven, are prestigious” (see the
edition in Sjöberg 1960, 44–54). Note that the first line of this eršema is similar to the
epithet si mú kù an-na, “the radiant growing horn of heaven”, for the moon god in the la-
mentation e-lum di-da-ra (see Cohen 1988, 179–180 and 183 as well as the discussion on
p. 35 above; the relevant lines are also cited on p. 148 below).
188
An = Anum III, 14 (Litke 1998, 118 and Feliu 2006, 235).
46 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

the sun god Šamaš.189 On the basis of the moon god’s seniority over the sun god,
these names function as a reminder of their genealogical relationship.190 The two
further names in An = Anum are dMá, “Boat”, and dMá-gur8, “Barge”, found in
the section listing the equivalents for the moon god as Nannāru.191 In the god-list
An = Anu ša amēli, the appellation Má-gur8 for the moon god is explained as“
Sîn of the barges”.192
Although it is clear that the epithets má, “boat”, and má-gur8, “barge”, de-
scribe the moon god in his celestial manifestation, boats were also associated
with him in other ways, especially in Sumerian sources.193 Boats were used to
transport deities in processions and journeys of cultic festivals194, and in the case
of the moon god, a prominent example of such a journey is found in his visit to
Nippur, the city of his father Enlil.195 In this composition, the building of the
barge for Nanna-Suen’s journey plays an important role as a unifying force since
the materials needed for its construction are obtained from various geographical
regions. In addition, the evidence for the á-ki-ti festival of the moon god in Ur
during the Ur III period combines the metaphor of the moon as boat with the
processional boat, used by the moon god to travel to the temple Kar-zi-da in
Gaeš, outside the city.196 The processional boat of Sîn with the name ĝišmá-nu-ri
is attested in a list of boats belonging to different deities in the lexical list Ur5-
ra.197 Whether Sîn’s processional boat or a “lunar barge” was still housed in the
temple Ekišnugal in the 1st millennium BCE remains unclear since no record of
an akītu-festival or other kinds of processions of the moon god in Ur is pre-
served for this period. Still, a location for storing the processional boat within
the temple during the Neo-Babylonian period has been suggested. The excava-
tions by C. Leonard Woolley inside the ziqqurrat enclosure of Ekišnugal re-

189
An = Anum III, 106 (according to Litke 1998, 129; III, 100 in Feliu 2006, 239).
190
For the sun god Utu/Šamaš as the eldest son of the moon god p. 305ff. below.
191
An = Anum III, 24–25 (Litke 1998, 119 and Feliu 2006, 237). See also p. 34 above.
192
An = Anu ša amēli, 36: Má-gur8| MIN(=d30) | šá ma-kur-ri (Litke 1998, 231).
193
Hall 1985, 675–676: “When Nanna/Suen was identified with the moon, he was often
portrayed as ‘the heavenly barge’ as the references above indicate. When he was concep-
tualized in anthropomorphic terms, he was described as riding a boat like humans.”
194
For the use of boats as the vehicles for deities see especially Salonen 1939, 58–66,
Salonen 1957–1971, 463–464, Pongratz-Leisten 1994, 196–198, and Weszeli 2009, 161.
195
Nanna-Suen’s Journey to Nippur, edited by A. Ferrara (1973; see also the edition in
ETCSL t.1.5.1).
196
See Cohen 1993, 401–413 and Sallaberger 1993, 179–190. For the temple name and
an overview of the sources involving it, see also George 1993, no. 570.
197
MSL 5, 177 (l. IV 312). In Cohen 1993, 402 this name is taken to mean elep nūri,
“boat of light”, as a reference to the luminous celestial boat of the moon god. The refer-
ence to this boat name in Sallaberger 1993, 190 note 903 abstains from making such an
interpretation.
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 47

vealed a building that, according to Woolley, housed the moon god’s boat, and
for this reason Woolley named the building “Boat Shrine”.198 The possibility that
the sanctuary housed a representation of Sîn’s lunar boat cannot, however, be
confirmed due to the lack of both archaeological or textual evidence. The cere-
monial name É-má-gur8, “House of the Barge”, is known from a single attesta-
tion in the balaĝ-lamentation “It Touches the Earth Like a Storm” (u4-dam ki
àm-ús) to Enlil,199 but as Andrew George has noted, it is not entirely clear
whether this “House of the Barge” is an epithet for the temple Ekišnugal or a
physically distinct part of the temple complex.200 Because earlier lines of the
passage describe the temple Ekišnugal as a cattle pen, and on the basis of the use
of the appellation Má-gur8 for the moon god, it is very likely that it describes the
temple Ekišnugal as the moon god’s house.
Because of the association of both the “boat” (má) and “barge” (má-gur8)
with the appellation/epithet nannāru for Sîn that we discussed previously, it is
possible to identify both these terms as descriptions of the waxing moon.
Moreover, the use of the term má-gur8/makurru in other contexts suggests that
this word designated specific shapes of the waxing lunar disc: the lunar crescent,

198
The structure that Woolley called the “Boat Shrine” is located on the southeastern side
of the ziqqurrat, opposite a similar building that Woolley called the “Shrine of Nannar”
(Woolley 1925, 362–363 and Woolley 1939, 68). It appears that both this “Boat Shrine”
and “Shrine of Nannar” were added to the area during the Neo-Babylonian period since
stamped bricks of Nebuchadnezzar II and Nabonidus were found there. The actual pur-
pose of this building is not known, but because of the base built of fired bricks in the inn-
er chamber of the house, Woolley – following a suggestion made by L. Legrain – pro-
posed that this building may have housed the boat of Sîn: “[...] the long narrow base
occupying the whole of the sanctuary is not at all suitable for a statue, but would serve
excellently as a support for a model of the crescent-shaped barque in which Nannar
crossed the sky, and Neo-Babylonian texts mention such a barque as having been dedic-
ated at Ur.” (Woolley 1939, 68). Unfortunately, Woolley does not give any references to
these Neo-Babylonian texts mentioning such a barge, and it therefore remains unclear
which texts he meant. It is true that silver boat models are known both from the Royal
Cemetery of Ur and from documents dating to the Ur III and Old Babylonian periods,
but these models were votive gifts, not ceremonial vessels (for a further discussion on
the boat models, see de Graeve 1981, nos. 96–105 and Meyer 2001, 268–283; for the
votive gifts, see Oppenheim 1954, 8 note 8 and Weszeli 2009, 169). Taking this and the
lack of any physical evidence besides the narrow base inside this structure into account,
it seems unlikely that this building would be the “House of the Barge”, É-má-gur8 (see
Mallowan 1964, 65 note 10). Nevertheless, this house must have had some cultic import-
ance since its outer wall has the niche-pilaster structure typical of sacred buildings
(Heinrich 1982, 298–299).
199
u4-dam ki àm-ús, 195: Úriki-ma é-má-gur8-[(x)]-r[e], “in Ur, the house of the barge”
(Cohen 1988, 148–151).
200
George 1993, no. 711.
48 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

the half moon, and the gibbous moon.201 First, the references to a makurru-boat
make it clear that this was an object with very prominent “horns”, i.e. the stems
that rise at the stern and prow of the ship.202 This is evident from the use of mod-
el boats to expel evil in ritual contexts. For example, in the anti-witchcraft ritual
Maqlû, two figurines are placed “between the horns” of a makurru-boat in order
to expel the witch by letting the river carry her away.203 The physical appearance
of such model boats is confirmed by the models of boats with high-rising stems
found in excavations.204 That the crescent moon with its horns resembled a mak-
urru-boat is also indicated by an entry in the 5th tablet of EAE: in one of the frag-
ments of the text, a protasis refers to lunar horns that resemble a makurru-
boat.205 The use of the term in the context of celestial observation confirms that
the barge had a specific shape that could be used to describe the appearance of
the crescent moon. On the other hand, it is possible that a boat resembling a cor-
acle (quppu) – a round basket made waterproof with bitumen – was meant when
this term was applied to the moon. As shown by Irving Finkel, it seems possible
that such a round vessel was built by Atraḫasīs in order to survive the flood,206
and its connection to the makurru-barge is suggested by the references to such a
makurru in the myth.207 The form of a coracle is a very suitable metaphor for the
lunar disc: it is round when seen from above, but when it is seen from the side,
its shape is a half-circle similar to the half moon.208 In addition to the shapes of
the crescent and full moon, the third association of the lunar boat metaphor is
with the gibbous shape of the moon, i.e. a shape that is convex on both sides.
This is shown by Old Babylonian mathematical texts that speak of “the area of

201
The different perspectives that can produce different shapes (the boat seen from the
side as opposed to seen from above) are briefly noted in Krebernik 1995, 360.
202
In his elementary study of Mesopotamian ships and boats, A. Salonen noted that be-
cause of the way in which the shape of the boat is described e.g. in Maqlû, and also on
the basis of the model boats that have been found, the má-gur8 should not be identified
with the traditional round coracle (Salonen 1939, 13).
203
Maqlû III, 116–135 (Abusch 2016, 99–102 and 311–312; III, 118–139 in Meier 1937,
25–26). For an overview of the model boats’ use in rituals see Meyer 2001, 268–283.
204
See de Graeve 1981, nos. 96–105.
205
K. 7192 (ACh Supp. 2 Sin 6), 8’: DIŠ 30 SI.MEŠ-šú GIN7 gišMÁ.GUR8 LUGAL x
[...], “If the horns of the moon are like a makurru-boat, the king [...]” (Verderame 2002b,
131).
206
Finkel 2014, 119–144.
207
A vessel that is designated as ĝišmá-gur4-gur4 is mentioned in the Sumerian Flood Story
and a Middle Babylonian manuscript deriving from Nippur (here makurkurru) – possibly
a precursor of the coracle in the tradition of the Mesopotamian flood story (Finkel 2014,
119–121).
208
See e.g. the coracle laden with bricks depicted in a relief of Sennacherib (Finkel 2014,
137).
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 49

má-gur8” when they refer to an area that is formed by two overlapping circles.209
Moreover, the gibbous or full shape of makurru appears to have been the inten-
ded reference in a kudurru of Nazi-Maruttaš. Here the “crescent, trough (and)
makurru-boat of Sîn” are listed among the 17 divine emblems (šurinnu).210 It has
been argued that these are not physical emblems, but rather that they stand for
the three phases of the moon: crescent, gibbous, and full.211 This is a plausible
interpretation since although the crescent standard of Sîn and his processional
boat are attested as physical objects, no trough (buginnu) of the moon god can
be found in the available sources.212 In the 1st millennium BCE, the affinity
between má-gur8 and the gibbous moon is further exhibited in the bilingual com-
position Exaltation of Inanna. Here, in the lines describing how the powers of
Sîn are given to Ištar, his daughter, a reference is made to the “crown of splend-
our” (agê tašriḫti).

Exaltation of Inanna, 87–88213

47 saĝ-zi ka-silim-ma gú máma-qu-ru-gur8-ra-ke4 zag-ĝá-na ba-ni-in-ĝar
48 a-ge-e taš-ri-iḫ-tum šá ki-ma re-eš dNanna-ri ina qaq-qa-di-šá
uk-tin
(Sum.) The crown of splendour, the ‘neck’ of the barge, he placed on her side.
(Akk.) The crown of splendour that is like the head of Nannāru he has fixed
on her head.

209
See CAD M/1, 142; AHw, 591; and Stol 1992, 248. The area of a ĝišmá-gur8 as a geo-
metrical term is attested in the tablet BM 15285, which contains a variety of geometry
problems, with illustrations. In this tablet, the term is clearly used to describe a segment
that is convex on both sides. For a new edition of the tablet see Robson 1999, 208–217.
The calculation for the area of the “barge” is found in problem xl in Robson’s edition
(Robson 1999, 213). The same tablet contains geometrical problems related to the calcu-
lation of the area for u4-sakar, which in this case is a semi-circle (see Robson 1999, 212,
problem xxxi).
210
MDP 2 86, IV 10–11: us-qa-ru BU.GI.NA / ma-gur-ru ša dEN.ZU (see the new edition
in Paulus 2014, 325–334 [NM 2]). For a discussion of these symbols see especially Seidl
1989, 33–35; Slanski 2003, 128–130; and Slanski 2003–2004, 309–323.
211
See CAD B, 306–307; Leibovici 1962, 106 and Stol 1992, 248. Both Leibovici and
Stol interpret magurru as the full moon in this case. Note, however, that both buginnu
and magurru may have been understood as round objects. In the new edition of the text,
Susanne Paulus interprets all three of them as designations of the lunar crescent that is
depicted on the kudurru (Paulus 2014, 332–333).
212
Apart from this reference in the kudurru, in Akkadian sources the word buginnu is
primarily used to denote a vessel made of reeds or wood that was used to hold water or
dough (see CAD B, 306–307). The reference to the bugin of Nanna in Gudea Cyl A, XXI
18 mentioned in Stol 1992, 248 note 33 should not be seen as a predecessor for buginnu,
since it should probably be read as ambar (see Wilson 1996, 96).
213
See the edition in Hruška 1969, 485–486.
50 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

The juxtaposition of the “barge” – in the Akkadian line Nannāru – with the
“crown of splendour” leads us to think of the gibbous moon, since the “crown of
splendour” was specifically connected to the last days before the full moon.214 A
possible, though not necessary, association of the moon god as dMa-gur8 with a
specific lunar phase can also be found in the letter to the god Aššur, in which
Sargon II recounts his campaign against Urartu.215

TCL 3, 317–319216
317 ina qí-bi-ti ṣir-te ša dAG dAMAR.UTU ša i-na man-za-az
MUL.MEŠ ša šu-ut-bé-e gišTUKUL.MEŠ-ia iṣ-ba-tu ta-lu-ku
318 ù i-da-at dum-qí ša le-qe-e kiš-šu-ti dMá-gur8 EN a-ge-e a-na šul-
pu-ut kurGu-tiki ú-šá-ni-ḫa EN.NUN
At the exalted command of Nabû and Marduk, who in the stellar station had
taken the course for starting my campaign, and on account of the propitious
signs for seizing the power: Magur, lord of the crown, (made an eclipse that)
lasted (through) the watch (to announce) the destruction of Gutium.

This passage is the first time that an astrological motif is included in the Assyri-
an royal inscriptions217 and it describes a lunar eclipse that presumably occurred
during Sargon’s campaign.218 Although the word eclipse is not used here, the
connotation is clear: the expression maṣṣarta uštāniḫ is commonly used in astro-
logical omens to describe an eclipse that lasted through a watch.219 The Sumeri-
an name is most likely used here as a learned spelling of the appellation Nan-
nāru,220 and in addition, it plausibly refers to the lunar barge that is named in the
prologue of EAE.221 For this reason it is also possible that the reference to the

214
See the discussion on p. 65ff. below.
215
Observed in Stol 1992, 248–249.
216
See Mayer 1983, 100–101.
217
See Koch-Westenholz 1995, 153–154 and Pongratz-Leisten 1999, 39.
218
See Oppenheim 1960, 137–138; Koch-Westenholz 1995, 153–154; and Pongratz-
Leisten 1999, 39. In Koch-Westenholz 1995, 153 the tablet 16 of EAE is given as the
likely source for the eclipse omen that is referred to here. This tablet contains entries that
deal with lunar eclipses lasting through the watch, see e.g. EAE 16, § VII 12: DIŠ ina
iti
DU6 UD.14.KAM AN.MI GAR-ma EN.NUN uš-ta-ni-iḫ [...], “If an eclipse occurs on
the 14th of Tašrītu and lasts (through) the watch [...]” (Rochberg-Halton 1988, 99).
219
See CAD A/2, 104–105; Oppenheim 1960, 137 and Rochberg-Halton 1988, 45.
220
It should be noted that another epithet of Sîn in the highly literary/scholarly style of
the inscriptions of Sargon II is bin Daragal, “son of Daragal(= Enlil)” (see Fuchs 1994,
41 line 57 and p. 291 below).
221
See Verderame 2002b, 9 and the citation of the passage on p. 94 below. No other at-
testations of dMá-gur8 are known in the Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions, but an earlier
use of the appellation can be found in an inscription of the Middle Assyrian king Tiglath-
pileser I (RIMA 2, A.0.87.1, I 5–6: d30 er-šu EN a-ge-e / ša-qu-ú dMá-gur8. Grayson
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 51

lunar barge was not intended to pinpoint a particular phase of the moon (i.e. the
full moon), but rather to refer to the moon’s role as a sign-giver. If this interpret-
ation is correct, this designation underlines the variety of possible subtexts in the
use of the appellation/epithet “barge”.
In addition to the textual sources, a motif that has commonly been interpreted
as a depiction of the moon god’s nocturnal journey through the heavens in a lun-
ar boat can be found particularly in Neo-Assyrian, but also in Neo-Babylonian,
iconography.222 This motif, which seems to be rooted and widely spread through-
out northern Mesopotamia and Syria, depicts the anthropomorphic moon god
standing inside a crescent moon. It is, in fact, the most widely attested represent-
ation of the god in human form. The identification of this deity as the moon god
is clear not only from the crescent moon, in which he is standing, but also from
the additional crescent moon emblem that, in some cases, is attached to his he-
address. An example of this is found in an Neo-Babylonian seal (Fig. 10, p.
52).223

Fig. 9: Seal of Adad-nāṣir, eunuch of Mannu-kī-māt-Aššur (Keel 1994, no. 84)

translates “god Sîn, wise one, lord of the lunar disc, lofty divine crescent”, and the use of
this name in this inscription had already been pointed out in Thureau-Dangin 1923, 110
note 2). One can also speculate that this earlier attestation may have been associated with
celestial omens: the epithet eršu, “wise”, for Sîn appears to be conceptually connected to
omens (see p. 154ff. below) and the epithet “lord of the crown” refers to the moon as a
celestial phenomenon (see p. 60ff. below).
222
For discussions of this motif see Herbordt 1992, 101; Collon 1992, 27; Keel 1994,
172–173; Kühne 1997, 375–382; Theuer 2000, 345–347; Collon 2001, 118; Ornan
2005b, 68–69; Collon 2007, 66; and Ornan 2009, 139–140. The interpretation of this mo-
tif as a lunar boat is supported especially by O. Keel, H. Kühne and G. Theuer, whereas
D. Collon sees this motif as a counterpart of the winged sun disc with a torso of a deity
rising from it (see especially Collon 2001, 118 and Collon 2007, 66).
223
In Collon 1995, 376 no. 37 this seal (WA 89780) is said to be Neo-Assyrian, but in
Collon 1992, 27 and no. 25 and Collon 2001, no. 229 it is identified as Neo-Babylonian,
which is supported by the presence of the god Marduk, the other venerated deity.
52 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

Fig. 10: Detail of the Neo-Babylonian Fig. 11: A seal impression from Dūr-
seal WA 89780 (Collon 1995, no. 37) Katlimmu (Kühne 1997, Abb. 1)

Since the metaphor equating the moon with a boat is common, especially in
Sumerian literary texts, it is alluring to see the moon god and the lunar boat de-
picted together in this iconographic motif. In this respect, it is significant that, in
contrast to earlier periods,224 no certain examples of the moon god standing in-
side an actual boat are attested in Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian icono-
graphy. The only possible example of the moon god standing in an explicitly
non-lunar boat is on the stele of Nabonidus’ mother Adda-guppi.225 The exist-
ence of images depicting the moon god standing in his boat from the 2nd millen-
nium BCE suggests that the motif of him standing inside the lunar crescent – at-
tested widely in Neo-Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, and especially Aramaic
seals226 – is a continuation of the same theme. The crescent “boat” with the
moon god standing inside it can be depicted alone, as an object of worship, or as
occupying the upper part of the seal as a celestial object. In some cases, such as

224
D. Collon has argued that the oldest examples of the depiction of the lunar boat derive
from Early Dynastic and Akkadian iconography, in which an anthropomorphic boat is a
common motif (Collon 1995, 372 and Collon 1997, 11–12). The first clear example of
the moon god – identified through the crescent moons attached to his headdress, axe, and
standard – depicted as standing inside a boat can be found on a “Cappadocian” cylinder
seal dating to the 19th century BCE (Collon 1992, 23 [no. 7]). Another example is found
on Middle Assyrian style seal found at Samsat, in which an anthropomorphic deity hold-
ing a crescent moon emblem in his hand is standing on a pedestal inside a boat (Özgüç
1987, 436–438 and Fig. 13; Collon 1992, 25 and 36 [no. 12]).
225
This was suggested already by C. J. Gadd in his edition of the stele (Gadd 1958, 37
note 1) and further supported in Blocher 2001, 45–50. If this is true, this depiction would
combine the earlier iconography of a deity standing in a boat with Neo-Assyrian depic-
tions of cult statues standing on animal-shaped pedestals.
226
Neo-Assyrian seals with this motif are found at Kalḫu, Nineveh, Assur, Carchemish
(see Herbordt 1992, 101), and Dūr-Katlimmu (see Kühne 1997, 375–382). For Aramaic
seals see Bordreuil 1986, 75–107 and Keel 1994, 172.
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 53

in sealings found in Dūr-Katlimmu (Fig. 11), the lunar boat is shown hovering
above vegetation, which most likely is a reference to the relationship of the
moon god to vegetation and fertility.227 Despite the apparent affinity of the cres-
cent moon as a boat to this motif, another interpretation has been suggested in
the recent years. Dominique Collon has argued that the motif should be seen as
an equivalent to the depictions of the sun god emerging from the winged sun
disc.228 This argument is based on a comparison between the motif depicting the
moon god inside the crescent, the motif of the sun god in his winged sun disc,
and the depictions of deities standing in a boat. Important details shown by this
comparison are that the deities standing in a boat are depicted standing on a ped-
estal with their feet visible and that the stems of the boat are curved outward.229
Moreover, the anthropomorphic sun god emerging from the winged sun disc is
often depicted side by side with the anthropomorphic moon god standing inside
his lunar crescent, as is exemplified by the seal of Adad-nāṣir, the eunuch of
Mannu-kī-māt-Aššur, the governor of Guzāna (Fig. 9, p. 51).230 These factors led
Collon to consider the two motifs parallel to each other. The shared feature in
these depictions of Sîn and Šamaš is clear: they both combine the celestial phe-
nomenon – i.e. the form in which the moon god and the sun god make them-
selves manifest in the physical world – with the anthropomorphic deity. The
tendency to depict the moon god with an image that combines these two forms
can perhaps be attributed to the same Syro-Anatolian influence that appears to
be behind his other anthropomorphic depictions in northern Mesopotamia and
Syria.231 Bearing this in mind, it is best to conclude that the motif of the moon
god standing in the crescent moon can be interpreted in two different ways that
are not necessarily mutually exclusive. It is plausible that the metaphoric de-
scription of the moon as a boat was strongly associated with these images of Sîn
standing inside the crescent moon, but at the same time they can be seen to par-
allel the way the sun god was depicted in his sun disc.

227
For the moon god’s connection to vegetation and fertility see p. 229ff. below.
228
For the juxtaposition of the winged sun disc with an anthropomorphic sun god and the
crescent moon with the anthropomorphic moon god see Collon 2001, 118 and Collon
2007, 66. An overview of the winged disc symbol in Near Eastern art can be found in
Ornan 2005a, 207–241.
229
Similar to the depiction of the moon god on the aforementioned Middle Assyrian seal
found at Samsat (Özgüç 1987, 436–438 and Fig. 13; Collon 1992, 25 and 36 [no. 12]). In
comparison see the cylinder seal of Sadibbu, in which the god Adad is depicted as stand-
ing inside a boat (Buchanan 1966, 114 [no. 632] and Kühne & Radner 2008, 39–41
[Abb. 15]).
230
For a photograph of, and more bibliographical information about, this seal VA 511 see
Ornan 2009, 138 (Fig. 31).
231
See Ornan 2009, 139 and p. 24 above.
54 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

II.2.5. The Fruit

Along with the boat and the barge, the appellation/epithet “fruit” (Sum. gurun
and Akk. inbu) also belongs with the descriptions of the waxing moon in Assyria
and Babylonia.232 The trope of the moon as a fruit is not as widely attested as
that of a boat, but it holds a very prominent position in the Neo-Assyrian hemer-
ological sources: this is the appellation that is used for the moon in the royal
hemerelogy Inbu bēl arḫi, “Fruit, Lord of the Month”, which is known from a
single copy from Nineveh.233 The beginning of the first tablet has not been pre-
served, but the title of the series is known from the colophons of the manu-
scripts234 and other sources naming the text.235 The title “Fruit, Lord of the
Month” and the content of this series has been the main source for the interpreta-
tion of the epithet inbu, “fruit”, as the new lunar crescent that announces the be-
ginning of a new month. However, in the context of Inbu bēl arḫi (as well as in
other sources), this epithet is associated with two different lunar phases: the
crescent moon and the gibbous moon.
The epithet inbu (Sum. gurun) is almost exclusively restricted to Akkadian
sources of the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods. It does not appear to
be attested in Sumerian sources of earlier periods,236 and the only attestation of a
Sumerian use derives from a bilingual šu’ila-prayer to Sîn, 4 R2 9+//. Simultan-
eously, this attestation is the only one found in prayers or hymns addressed to
the moon god.

4 R2 9+//, 11237
gi-rin ní-ba mu-un-dím-ma é-mar è-a i-⌈bí⌉ ⌈bar⌉ ⌈ḫé⌉-⌈du7⌉ la-la-bi nu-gi4-gi4
en-bu šá ina ra-ma-ni-šú ib-ba-nu-u ši-ḫa gat-ta šá ana nap-lu-⌈si⌉ ⌈as⌉-
⌈mu⌉ ⌈la⌉-⌈la⌉-šú la ìš-še-bu-u
(Sum.) Fruit that was created by itself, full-grown form that is suitable to
watch, whose beauty will not be rejected.
(Akk.) Fruit that was created by itself, full-grown form that is suitable to
watch, with whose beauty no one can be sated.

232
See Tallqvist 1938a, 445 and Sjöberg 1960, 174.
233
For attestations of inbu see CAD I/J, 146. The series Inbu bēl arḫi is now published in
Livingstone 2013, 199–248, but see also the overview in Landsberger 1915, 101–105.
Significant improvements to Livingstone’s edition are made in Marti 2014, 181–196.
234
E.g. the 8th tablet of the series (intercalary Elūlu), K. 4231, IV 13: DUB.8.KÁM
GURUN EN ar-ḫi-i[m] (Livingstone 2013, 217; Marti 2014, 186. See also the photo-
graph of the tablet in CDLI P395455).
235
SAA 10 no. 221, r. 7: ina ŠÀ GURUN EN ar-ḫi šá-ṭir, “it is written in Fruit, Lord of
the Month”.
236
gurun is absent in the list of epithets for the Sumerian moon god Nanna/Suen in Hall
1985, 622.
237
Shibata, HES (forthcoming); Sjöberg 1960, 167 and 170.
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 55

This line has undoubtedly been one of the main reasons for seeing “fruit” as a
poetic expression for the moon that grows to its full shape – a concept that was
already recognised in the early days of Assyriology.238 Indeed, the power of re-
newal and growth, which is one of the most central traits of the moon god, is the
carrying force in this line; as the “fruit that was created by itself”, the moon is a
part of an endless cycle of disappearance and rebirth. The fact that the moon god
is said to have been created by himself reflects the regenerative power of Sîn,
the divine power behind the re-emergence of the moon at the beginning of the
month.239 The reference to the full grown form here undoubtedly pertains to the
gibbous or full moon as the “fruit”, adorning the night sky in its swollen figure.
These aspects of creation and full-grown form are also reflected in other
sources that speak of the moon as “fruit”. This is true not only in the context of
the hemerology Inbu bēl arḫi but also in the few other sources that can be linked
to a specific lunar phase. When these attestations are closely examined, it
becomes clear that the epithet inbu is exclusively used for the moon god when
the moon is a new crescent and when it is gibbous. Despite the fragmentary
nature of Inbu bēl arḫi, it is evident that in this text the appellation inbu for Sîn
is systematically used as the name of the moon god on both the first and the el-
eventh days of the month.240 On the first day of the month, the “Fruit” is the re-
cipient of royal offerings, as is exemplified by the entry for the first day of
month Araḫsamnu.241

K. 3269, I 2–3242
I2 [e-n]u-ma ina ITI 30 ut-tam-ru SIPA UN.MEŠ ra-ba-a-[ti]
I3 [NIDBA]-⌈šú⌉ MAŠ.DÀ KÙ-ta ana GURUN
[Wh]en the moon is lit up at the beginning of the month, the shepherd of the
numero[us] people (sets) his [bread offering] (and) a pure gazelle for the
Fruit.

On the eleventh day of the month, the moon is again referred to by the name

238
Peter Jensen refers to this line in his discussion of the moon (Jensen 1890, 103–104).
Stephen Langdon even went so far as to identify the “Fruit” as a grape in his edition of 4
R2 9+, but did not offer any references to support his suggestion (Langdon 1927, 7 note
3). This aspect of the moon as a fruit growing until it reaches its full shape is also noted
in Tallqvist 1938b, 56.
239
See Lambert 1987a, 29.
240
The consistency in the structure also applies to the other days associated with Sîn, as
can be seen in the overview of the hemerological sources on p. 98ff. below.
241
Similar entries are also preserved for the intercalary Nisannu (Livingstone 2013, 202),
intercalary Elūlu (Livingstone 2013, 212; Marti 2014, 185), and Šabāṭu (Marti 2014,
189).
242
See Livingstone 2013, 217 and Marti 2014, 186.
56 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

“Fruit”, and on this occasion the appellation is connected to the “crown of

splendour” that the moon wears in the days preceding the full moon.243 The most
complete example of this is found in the entry for the eleventh day of the inter-
calary Elūlu.244

K. 4231, II 2–3245
II 2 e-nu-ma ITI AGA taš-ri-iḫ-ti na-šu-u
II 3 GURUN ḫa-du-u LUGAL ina GI6 NIDBA-šú ana d30 ú-kan
II 4 ni-qé-e BAL-qí niš ŠU-šú KI DINGIR ma-gir
When the moon wears a crown of splendour (and) the Fruit rejoices, at night
the king sets his bread offering to Sîn. He makes an (animal) offering. The
raising of his hands will be agreeable to the god.

The appellation “Fruit” is also prominent in text K. 3597// which appears to be

related to Inbu bēl arḫi.246 Although the exact nature of this text remains unclear
due to its fragmentary nature, it contains lines that are very closely connected to
this royal hemerology. Its general style is the same in divinatory texts with a
protasis and an apodosis clearly presented. The first reference to the moon god
as “Fruit” is found in the line “at the (beginning of the) month the Fruit will re-
duce the night”.247 As Andrew George and Farouk Al-Rawi have noted, this is an
allusion to the first appearance of the moon at the beginning of the month, when
the lunar crescent can be seen for a short time above the western horizon.248 This
is in accord with calling the moon “Fruit” in the entries for the first day of the
lunar month in Inbu bēl arḫi, strongly suggesting that this royal hemerology
forms the context for the “omen” text K. 3597//. Moreover, the offering of a
gazelle to the “Fruit” in K. 3597// clearly reflects the gazelle offering on the first

243
For a discussion on the “crown of splendour” see p. 65ff. below.
244
The same instruction is preserved also for the intercalary Nisannu (Livingstone 2013,
204), Simānu (Livingstone 2013, 207), Šabāṭu (Livingstone 2013, 227), and the intercal-
ary Addaru (Livingstone 2013, 230).
245
See Livingstone 2013, 214.
246
The copy of K. 3597 was published by C. Virolleaud among the fragments of the
series Inbu bēl arḫi (Virolleaud 1906b, 382–383) and it has remained otherwise unedited.
In Bezold’s catalogue of the Kuyunjik collection, this tablet is referred to as “part of an
astrological text”, but its close connection to the hemerological series had already been
noted by Th. Pinches already prior to its publication by Virolleaud (Pinches 1904, 162).
Regardless of this connection, Landsberger and Livingstone did not comment on the
fragment in their treatments of Inbu bēl arḫi (Landsberger 1915, 101–103 and Liv-
ingstone 2013, 199–201). Fragment K. 5645 (CDLI P395114), which was also published
by Virolleaud, provides a duplicate to K. 3597 and likewise remains unedited.
247
K. 3597//, 3’: ina ITI GURUN GI6 i-na-áš-šar.
248
Al-Rawi & George 1991–1992, 63 note 41.
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 57

day of the month in Inbu bēl arḫi.249 The fact that “Fruit” should be understood
as the name of the moon god in K. 3597// is clear by the way the text presents
the “Fruit” and Šamaš as a pair of deities in the entry “The Fruit and Šamaš will
be made angry in his (or: its?) month”.250 Again, this stands in connection with
Inbu bēl arḫi, in which the moon god is consistently named “Fruit” in the entries
for the 1st and 11th days.
Outside of the context of Inbu bēl arḫi, there are only a few attestations of
inbu, “fruit”, as an epithet of Sîn. One such occasion is in the explanatory text i-
NAM-ĝiš-ḫur-an-ki-a, which is primarily known from manuscripts written by
the Assyrian scholar Nabû-zuqup-kēnu. In a tablet containing the second “divi-
sion” (pirsu) of the text, K. 2164+, the epithet inbu bēl arḫi of Sîn – possibly a
reference to this royal hemerology – is used in the explanation for the seventh
day of the month.

K. 2164+, 11–13251
11 UD.⌈7⌉.[KAM AGA ma-á]š-⌈la⌉ ⌈BAR⌉ BÀ BÀ za-a-zu BÀ pa-r[a-
su]
12 BÀ [ba-an-t]u BÀ mi-šil BÀ 30 mi-šil míš-[li]
13 30 [A.RÁ 0;30] 15 15 A.RÁ 4 60 60 dA-num im-bi GURUN E[N
ITI]252
th
The 7 [day: a ha]lf [crown]. BAR(half): BÀ(30). BÀ = zâzu (“to divide”);
BÀ = par[āsu] (“to cut”); BÀ = [bāmt]u (“half”); BÀ = mišil (“half”).
Half(BÀ) of 30 = half of ha[lf]. 30 [× 0;30] = 15; 15 × 4 = 60. 60 = Anu, he
called the Fruit, L[ord of the Month].253

The appellation “fruit” for Sîn can also be found in the catch-line of the colo-
phon in fragment K. 2670 which belongs to the tablet that contained the third di-

249
K. 3597//, 6’: ina u4-me-šu ṣa-bi-tu KÙ-tu ana GURUN.
250
K. 3597//, 5’: GURUN u dUTU ina ITI-šú zu-un-nu-u. According to CAD Z, 86 and
AHw, 1519 this is the only attestation for a D-stem form of zenû, “to be angry”. For the
use of ITI-šú in the context of lunar observations see CAD A/2, 262.
251
See Livingstone 1986, 22–23 and Lambert 2013, 188. A photograph is available in
CDLI P394227.
252
The restoration b[ēl arḫi] is suggested by W. G. Lambert, but not included in his trans-
literation of these lines (Lambert 2013, 188). Collation of the tablet from a photograph
reveals sufficient space for the signs EN and ITI, and also traces of the horizontal wedge
of EN. A restoration E[N EŠ.BAR ITI] (cf. K. 170+, 9) is unlikely, because there is not
enough space for three signs in the part that is broken off.
253
Lambert understood the end of this line differently from Livingstone, taking im-bi as a
phonetic spelling of the epithet inbu: “60 = Anu; imbi = GURUN” (Lambert 2013, 188).
My understanding of the line corresponds with the translation in Livingstone 1986, 23.
58 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

vision (pirsu) of i-NAM-ĝiš-ḫur-an-ki-a.254 With the help of this catch-line, the

first half of the opening line in K. 170+ has been restored: “[‘Fruit’ is Sî]n be-
cause Anu called his name”.255 Later in the same text, the moon god being
“called” (imbû) by Anu – in itself a pun on the noun inbu, “fruit”256 – is associ-
ated with decisions of the month by means of the line “[... Anu] called (his
name), Lord of the Month’s Decisions”.257 Therefore, the moon god as “Fruit” is
connected with the beginning of the month, that is, the point in time associated
both with the sky god Anu and with divine decisions that are revealed by the
moon’s return to the heaven after the days of its invisibility.258
The remaining clear attestations of the use of inbu as an appellation for Sîn
are found in the inscriptions of Assurbanipal and Nabonidus. In both cases it
designates the fully-grown moon since it is used to describe a lunar eclipse. In
an inscription of Assurbanipal, the eclipse, through which the moon god as
“Fruit” reveals his divine decision, bodes the destruction of the Elam and its
king Teumman.

Assurbanipal Prism B, V 3–10259

I
V3 Te-um-man le-mut-tu
V4 iš-te-né-’a-a d30 iš-te-né-’a
V5 GISKIM.MEŠ MUNUS.ḪUL ina itiŠU AN.MI šat ur-ri a-di
ZÁLAG
V6 uš-ta-ni-iḫ-ma dUTU IGI-šú-ma ki-ma šu-a-tu-ma
V7 kal u4-me uš-ta-ni-iḫ a-na qí-it BALA.MEŠ
I
V8 Te-um-man LUGAL KUR ELAM.MAki ZÁḪ KUR-šú
V9 ú-kal-lim-an-ni GURUN EŠ.BAR-šú ša la in-nen-nu-u
Teumman strived after evil, (but) Sîn strived after evil signs. In the month
Du’ūzu the eclipse endured from early morning to daybreak: Šamaš saw him
and like him endured the whole day. For ending the reign of Teumman, king
of Elam, (and for) the destruction of his land, the Fruit showed me his deci-
sion that cannot be changed.

254
K. 2670, 3’: DIŠ GURUN ⌈d⌉⌈30⌉ áš-šú [...], “Fruit is Sîn because [....]” (see Liv-
ingstone 1986, 28–29; a photograph is available online in CDLI P394591).
255
K. 170+, 1: [DIŠ GURUN dEN.Z]U MU dA-num im-bu-ú MU.[NI]; see also the cita-
tion of K. 170+, 1–5 on p. 139 below.
256
See Livingstone 1986, 41 and Beaulieu 2007, 150.
257
K. 170+, 9: [... dA-num i]m-bu-ú EN ⌈EŠ⌉.⌈BAR⌉ ITI | 30 | d30 (see Livingstone 1986,
30–31; a photograph of the tablet is available in CDLI P365806).
258
The last day of the month is associated with Anu in the Mesopotamian hemerological
tradition (see the overview in Livingstone 2013, 253).
259
See Borger 1996, 98 and 224. The same passage can also be found in Assurbanipal
Prism C, VII 115–121 (RINAP 5/I no. 6).
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 59

The En-niĝaldi-Nanna Cylinder of Nabonidus reports a similar lunar eclipse, but

the message conveyed by it is different: Sîn wants a high priestess.

Schaudig 2001, 2.7, I 6–10

d
I6 Nanna-ri EN a-gi-i na-áš ṣa-ad-du a-na da-ad-mi
I7 ú-ad-di it-ta-šu aš-šum e-re-eš NIN.DINGIR.RA
I8 i-na itiKIN.d+INANNA UD.13.KAM ITI ši-pi-ir diš-tar.MEŠ
d
I9 in-bi in-na-di-ir-ma i-na na-a’-du-ri-šu ir-bi
d
I 10 EN.ZU NIN.DINGIR.RA i-ri-iš ki-a-am it-ta-šu ù pu-ru-us-su-šú
Nannāru, lord of the crown, the bearer of signals for the inhabited world, re-
vealed his sign because of his desire to have a high priestess. On the 13th of
Elūlu, the month of the “work of the goddesses”, the (divine) Fruit darkened
and set while being darkened. “Sîn desires a high priestess”, so (is) his sign
and his decision.

Neither of these references to the eclipsing moon as the “Fruit” is based on as-
trological literature, in which inbu is not attested as an epithet or appellation for
Sîn.260 It is more likely that its use reflects the literary character of Assurbanip-
al’s and Nabonidus’ inscriptions. The singular attestation in the fragment DT
161, which contains a reference to the moon as a “Fruit” in connection with its
appearance (tāmartu) is also more literary in character.261 The preceding lines in
this fragment indicate that the text refers to Enlil’s anger, but not much more can
be said of its overall content.
Because the appellation “Fruit” has been used in this way in the inscriptions
of Assurbanipal and Nabonidus, there has been tendency to see it primarily as a
designation for the full moon.262 However, as already shown, the use of the name
“Fruit” for the moon god in the royal hemerology Inbu bēl arḫi demonstrates
that it could be used to designate both the crescent moon on the first day of the
month and the gibbous moon in the days preceding the full moon. Perhaps the
underlying principle connecting these two opposite stages is the one expressed
in the aforementioned bilingual šu’ila-prayer to the moon god: the moon creates
itself anew every month and then grows like a fruit until it reaches its full, ripe
form.

260
In the context of astrological omens the word “fruit” refers to actual fruit, not to the
moon god, see e.g. Verderame 2002b, 80 (EAE 3, text b, 13’) and SAA 8 no. 513.
261
DT 161, 10: in-bu ina ta-mar-ti-šú x [...] / [(x) x] x ra an-ta-lu lu/ku [...] (CDLI
P424515; see also the citation of line 10 in CAD T, 112).
262
Stol 1992, 249: “The Fruit, always named ‘Lord of the month’, is typical for the full
moon and the days preceding it [...]”. Tallqvist 1947, 95: “Speciellt är det naturligtvis
fullmånen som kallas frukt; därför omtalas en gång en månförmörkelse med uttrycket
»frukten förmörkades«.” (“It is of course especially the full moon that is called fruit;
therefore a lunar eclipse is once expressed with the expression »the fruit darkened«.”)
60 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

II.2.6. Lord of the Crown

The crown is one of the most important lunar metaphors both in Sumerian and
Akkadian sources. It describes the moon as a celestial phenomenon (“crown of
heaven”), and by extension it conveys notions concerning the moon god’s ability
to endow the king with the crown (among other royal insignia).263 In Akkadian
sources the lunar crown is always agû, but in Sumerian contexts, two different
nouns (men; aga) are used.264 The form of the lunar crown cannot be identified
on the basis of these terms since aga/agû, at least, was used as a general term to
denote divine or royal headgear of various shapes, from a round diadem to a
high horned cap, depending on the temporal and geographical context.265
In the god-list An = Anum the crown has a prominent position as a constitu-
ent element in four names of the moon god. All of these names have a solid ce-
lestial connotation, and they refer to the moon that is visible in the night sky,
spreading light in the darkness.

An = Anum III, 8–11266

d
III 8 Men-šu-du7 MIN(=d30)
d
III 9 Men-dàra-an-na MIN
d
III 10 Men-dàra-diĝir-ra MIN
III 11 dMen-zalag-búr MIN
The Perfect Crown = ditto (i.e. Sîn)
Crown, Ibex of Heaven = ditto267
Crown, Ibex of the Gods = ditto
Crown that Emanates Light = ditto268

263
For the moon god in connection with kingship see the discussion on p. 196ff. below.
264
For the use of men and aga as epithets of Nanna see Hall 1985, 628–631 where it is
suggested, on the basis of the line “he raised on (the temple) a crown (which was) like a
new crescent moon” (Gudea Cyl A, XXIV 10: u4-sakar gibil-gin7 men bí-íl), that the
word men for crown connotes the shape of a crescent moon that resembles the horned
crowns known from Mesopotamian iconography (Hall 1985, 628). However, it has
already been noted in Stol 1992, 249 that this association of the noun men with the cres-
cent moon is uncertain.
265
Waetzoldt 1980–1983, 203. It should also be noted that the physical appearance of this
“crown” differs greatly from the Western concept of a crown, and therefore some Assyri-
ologists tend to avoid using this translation. Nevertheless, despite its possibly misleading
connotation, I have chosen to use the translation “crown” because of its meaning
specifically as a royal headdress. An overview of the physical appearance of the various
headdresses in Mesopotamia can be found in Boehmer 1980–1983, 203–210.
266
See Litke 1998, 117 and Feliu 2006, 233–234.
267
Cf. An = Anu ša amēli, 32: [dMen]-⌈dàra⌉-an | MIN | šá ik-ri-be, “[Men]daran is ditto
of prayers” (see Litke 1998, 231 and Feliu 2006, 234 note 30).
268
For the meaning of the verb búr as an equivalent of the Akkadian šuparruru see
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 61

It is perhaps possible that the full moon is meant by the name dMen-šu-du7, be-
cause the verb šu—du7 (Akk. šuklulu) denotes the act of bringing something to
an end or the perfecting an object’s appearance.269 In this sense, the “Perfect
Crown” is a suitable name to describe the lunar disc that has reached its full
form. The names dMen-dàra-an-na and dMen-dàra-dingir-ra are problematic be-
cause there are three different possibilities for interpreting the element dàra.270 In
general, this Sumerian word means the ibex (Akk. turāḫu). Therefore, the names
d
Men-dàra-an-na and dMen-dàra-dingir-ra contain a reference to the moon god in
connection with this horned wild animal: similarly to the horns of the bull, the
horns of the ibex may have been associated with the lunar crescent.271 However,
other translations are also possible since in addition to turāḫu, the Sumerian
noun dàra has at least two other Akkadian equivalents. First, in the lamentation
“Flood which Drowns the Harvest” (a-gal-gal buru14 su-su), there is an attesta-
tion for the equation of dàra with the Akkadian adjective šaqû, “high”.272 This
association appears to have been the grounds for translating these two names as
“The sublime crown of heaven” and “The august crown of the gods”, respect-
ively.273 Second, it is possible that the word “king” is denoted here since dàra is
equated with both šarru and malku in lexical lists.274 Because of these possibilit-
ies, and because no commentary on these names is known, there can be no cer-
tainty about how they were perceived by Mesopotamian scholars. Perhaps all
these different interpretations were at play, because the associations with the
wild animals of the steppe, as well as with the sublime character of the moon as
the celestial illuminator, and with the concept of kingship all fit the theological
aspects of the moon god.
In the astrological-astronomical literature, the use of a crown (Sum. aga,
Akk. agû) to describe the moon is very well-attested.275 According to Lorenzo
Verderame, the two main arguments in the discussion concerning the exact

Sjöberg 1960, 105–106 and Sjöberg 1973, 46. This verb is used in connection with
moonlight and the moon’s halo (see the attestations of šuparruru in CAD Š/3, 317–318).
269
See CAD Š/3, 221–226.
270
These different possibilities have been laid out in Feliu 2006, 234 note 30.
271
For a discussion of the connection between the moon god and wild animals see p.
247ff. below.
272
a-gal-gal buru14 su-su, a+121: á dàra gašan-ḫur-saĝ-ĝá ša-(mu-un-u5) / i-dan šá-qa-a-tú
be-let DINGIR.MEŠ MIN (see Cohen 1988, 508).
273
See Tallqvist 1938a, 443 and Krebernik 1995, 363. Krebernik deems that the name
Men-dara-dingir-ra must be a scribal mistake for Men-dara-an-na. Tallqvist instead sees
these names as a reference to the full moon (Tallqvist 1947, 87).
274
See CAD Š/2, 77 and CAD M/1, 166.
275
The latest discussion concerning agû can be found in Verderame 2002b, 60–62 where
extensive bibliographical information is given; see also Weidner 1911, 23–52 and Stol
1992, 249–250.
62 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

meaning of this crown have been that agû simply refers to the form of the moon,
especially to the full moon, or that it describes light phenomena, especially
earthshine, which is the grey part of the lunar disc that can be seen together with
the crescent moon.276 The latter argument has been especially influential. It is
true that many of the depictions of the lunar crescent appear to display this phe-
nomenon since they show the round disc with a crescent moon in the lower
part.277 However, it is unlikely that this definition applies to the crown when it is
used as an epithet for Sîn outside the sphere of celestial observation: the phe-
nomena that are described by the term “crown” in astrological literature do not
appear to be attached to the way in which the moon god is portrayed as the “lord
of the crown”. This is suggested by the different forms, colours, and even num-
ber of crowns of the moon that are found in the protases of EAE.278 The Babylo-
nian creation epic Enūma eliš displays a different understanding of the lunar
crown in the passage that describes the creation of the moon and the lunar cycle
by Marduk, and this suggests that the epithet “lord of the crown” should be un-
derstood separately from the astrological-astronomical terms.279 In the context of
the Enūma eliš, the lunar crown is better understood as the lunar disc, more
specifically its illuminated part that takes different forms during the different
lunar phases. Therefore, the crown that can be of different sizes is used to desig-
nate the moon as it appears in the sky. This explains the half crown of the sev-
enth day of the month, and also the specific term agê tašriḫti, “crown of splend-
our”, for the gibbous moon.280 We also encounter this meaning of the “crown” as
the illuminated lunar disc in one of the tablets belonging to the explanatory text
i-NAM-ĝiš-ḫur-an-ki-a, K. 170+.281 In this text, the crown appears in the section
that mainly uses mathematical equations to explain the different associations of
the first fifteen days of the lunar cycle.282 The passage states that “to wear a
crown on the 15th day” is equal to the form of a circle – a reference to the round,
fully illuminated lunar disc. Significantly, a newly published Old Babylonian

276
Verderame 2002b, 60. This two-fold division combines the three possibilities offered
by Ernst Weidner for interpretation of the word agû: according to him, the crown can
refer either to earthshine, the full moon, or atmospheric phenomena, such as a circle of
light and clouds (Weidner 1911, 24–49).
277
Weidner refers to the crescent discs found on Babylonian kudurru-reliefs (Weidner
1911, 25) and elsewhere in Mesopotamian art. The same association is also made in Stol
1992, 249 note 48. For an overview of the crescent moon disc see p. 40ff. above.
278
See the overview of the entries concerning the crown in Verderame 2002b, 62–79.
279
Stol 1992, 250 and Maul 2013a, 258 note 64.
280
See the discussion on p. 65ff. below.
281
Livingstone 1986, 30–31 and Lambert 2013, 189–190. The passage is cited on p. 139
below.
282
See further discussion on this text and the association of Sîn with the gods Anu, Ea,
and Enlil on p. 136ff. below.
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 63

praise of the moon god reveals that the notion of the lunar disc as the moon
god’s crown is rooted already in the Sumerian literary tradition: it celebrates the
moon god by naming his crowns for the first 15 days of the lunar cycle, i.e. the
phases of the waxing lunar disc from thin crescent to full moon.283 Therefore, in
view of these attestations, it is best not to connect the crown of the moon with a
particular lunar phase, such as the crescent moon during the first days of the
month, but to see it as a general description of the illuminated lunar disc in its
various stages.
The waxing and waning of the illuminated lunar disc were controlled by the
moon god Sîn, who is widely known as “Lord of the Crown” (bēl agê) in Assyr-
ia and Babylonia. It is worth noting that this epithet, or a corresponding one, ap-
pears to be absent in the earlier monolingual Sumerian literary sources or royal
inscriptions, although the “crown” often appears in connection with Nanna/
Sîn.284 This suggests that this particular epithet is a relatively late innovation
among epithets for the Mesopotamian moon god. Only one attestation of “Lord
of the Crown” in a bilingual context is known, namely in a bilingual šu’ila-pray-
er to the moon god, in which he is called “the lord of the splendid crown”.285 A
possible origin in the Old Babylonian period should not be excluded, since the
moon god as “King of the Crown” is found in Old Babylonian extispicy pray-
ers.286 During the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods the epithet bēl agê
is only sporadically attested in prayers to Sîn,287 but it is often employed in royal
inscriptions.288 This underlines the significance of the moon god as “lord of the

283
YBC 4650, 26’–42’ (see the edition in Cohen 2017, 49–61). As an example, the line
concerning the name of the moon god’s crown of the 12th day is: “Lord, ‘pure light that
stands in its position in heaven’ is your crown on the 12th day” (YBC 4650, 39’: ⌈en⌉ ĝiš-
nu11 dadag ĝišgal-bi an-na gub-ba men-zu u4-12-kam-ma).
284
The survey of the epithets relating to the crown in Hall 1985, 628–631 does not in-
clude any Sumerian equivalent for bēl agê. For the Akkadian attestations see CAD A/1,
154–155.
285
4 R2 9+//, 7: umun men dallax-na/be-lum a-ge-e šu-pu-ú (see Shibata, HES [forthcom-
ing] and Sjöberg 1960, 166–179). Note also the reference to the “lord of the crown of
splendour” in the Late Babylonian prayer to the sky god Anu (AO 6461, 5–6; see the
citation on p. 68 below).
286
YOS 11 no. 22, 60 and YOS 11 no. 23, 13: dEN.ZU šar-ri a-ge-em (see the discussion
on extispicy and the moon god on p. 181ff. below). The use of this epithet in the context
of extispicy is still reflected in the 1st millennium BCE (see Sm. 802, 8’ on p. 187 below
and K. 2571+//, 61’ on p. 483ff. below).
287
In addition to the ikrib-prayer already mentioned (K. 2571+//, 61’), Sîn as the lord of
the crown (d30 EN a-ge-e) is paired with Šamaš, lord of the truth, in KAR 22, r. 4 (see
Ebeling 1931b, no. 20 and Scurlock 2006, no. 131).
288
See p. 199 below. Note also the single attestation for the moon god as the lord of the
crown in the letter that demands that something is explained to the king (SAA 10 no.
64 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

crown” in his role as the king’s patron, able to endow him with the crown.289
Still, the role of Sîn in controlling the lunar disc should not be forgotten in the
royal context, since his authority over the appearance and the shape of the moon
was, by definition, connected to astrology, a branch of divination that concerned
the king and his land.290 Therefore, this epithet can be interpreted to have had
these two connotations when employed in a royal context: the moon god as the
controller of the lunar disc and the moon god as the giver of royal insignia.291
The moon god Sîn as “lord of the crown” should not be confused with the di-
vine crown of the god Aššur that has the name “(Lord) Crown” (dBēlu-agû or
d
Agû).292 This divine crown is known to have been a participant in the royal
rituals that took place in the months Šabāṭu and Addaru,293 and to have resided in
Aššur’s temple.294 The horned crown of Aššur is also depicted in Assyrian reliefs
among other symbols of the great gods.295 The name Bēlu-agû is independent of
the epithet bēl agê of Sîn,296 although an association between these appellations
seems inescapable. An interesting attestation of the divine name Bēlu-agû out-
side the cultic context of Assur is found in a letter sent to the Assyrian king by a
certain Bēl-iddina, SAA 13 no. 187.297

SAA 13 no. 187, 6–12

6 Aš-šur dNin-gal dEN–AGA
7 ra-im-ú-ti [šá] šu-me
8 šá LUGAL EN-ia SILIM-mu šá LUGAL
9 EN-ia a-na da-ri-iš
10 liš-’u-lu : ṭu-ub ŠÀ-bi

286, r. 5’–6’: [x x x]-šú-nu a-na LUGAL be-lí-ia li-ip-šuv-ru / [d30] ⌈EN⌉ a-ge-e lib-bu-
šu lu ⌈ú⌉ [x x x], “They should explain their [...] to the king, my lord! [By Sîn], lord of
the crown, its meaning should be [...]!”) For a commentary on this letter see Parpola
1983, no. 128.
289
For the affiliation of the moon god to kingship see the discussion on p. 196ff. below.
290
See the discussion on p. 150ff. below.
291
As noted in Reiner 1985, 21.
292
See the discussion of this divine name in Frankena 1954, 77–78 and Menzel 1981,
57*–58*. The crown as a symbol of Aššur is also discussed in Mayer 1995, 62–63.
293
See the overview of the attestations in Menzel 1981, 57*.
294
Bēl-agê is listed directly after Aššur in Götteradressbuch, 1–2: [d]Aš-š[ur] dEN–AGA /
d
⌈ ⌉Aš-šur ša sa-su-ti (Meinhold 2009, 430).
295
See Seidl 1957–1971, 486. The crown as a symbol of the god Aššur can be found e.g.
in the stele of Sargon II found in Larnaka (VA 968; see Börker-Klähn 1982, no. 175).
296
Menzel 1981, 56*.
297
In Groß 2014, 150 the divine name dEN–AGA in this letter is taken to stand for the
deified epithet of Sîn, i.e. dBēl agê. This is, however, very unlikely in the light of the
name Lord-Crown for Assur.
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 65

11 ṭu-ub UZU.MEŠ a-na LUGAL

12 EN-ia lid-di-nu
d
13 30 an-ni-ú dNin-gal
14 ⌈d⌉Nusku ša LUGAL be-lí-<<ía>>
15 [e]-ni-šu-nu e-mur-u-ni
16 ⌈ù⌉ ip-la-ḫu-šu-⌈nu⌉-[ni]
17 [a-na] LUGAL [EN-ia x x x]
May Aššur, Ningal, and Lord-Crown, who love the name of the king, my
lord, ask forever after the well-being of the king, my lord! May they give to
the king, my lord, happiness, and physical well-being! May this Sîn, Ningal
and Nusku, to whom the king, my lord, has been obedient, and whom he has
revered, [.... to] the king, my lord.

If line 6 indeed names the triad Aššur, Ningal/Nikkal, and Lord-Crown,298 this
letter offers a rather unusual triad of deities to ensure the well-being of the king.
This leads to the question why would Sîn’s spouse be connected to Aššur and his
crown in this formula? Moreover, if the sender Bēl-iddina was indeed based in
Ḫarrān as has been assumed on the basis of the letter’s content,299 why would he
make a reference to the god Aššur and his crown, which were inherently connec-
ted to the cult in the city of Assur? One possible explanation for this peculiar tri-
ad is the equation of the moon god as “lord of the crown” with Aššur’s “Lord-
Crown” due to the similarity of the epithet and the name. Therefore, this singu-
lar attestation may act as further evidence of the association of Sîn and Aššur
during the Sargonid dynasty, perhaps implying that the lunar disc was equal to
Aššur’s crown.300 Still, the lack of any tangible evidence for such an association
apart from this single fragmentary attestation leaves the matter unresolved for
the time being.

II.2.7. Crown of Splendour

The lunar disc as the celestial crown is given a special designation on the days
when the moon is gibbous or full: agê tašrihti, “crown of splendour”.301 Refer-
ences to Sîn’s crown of splendour are mostly preserved in explanatory texts by
Neo-Assyrian scholars and in the royal hemerology Inbu bēl arḫi, “Fruit, Lord

298
The copy of letter SAA 13 no. 187 (K. 477) in ABL 514 clearly shows the signs dNin-
gal. A photograph of the tablet (CDLI P334354) reveals that it has suffered some damage
and the reading is not absolutely certain, but still more likely than dNIN.LÍL.
299
See PNA 1/II, 312 (no. 17). The last section of the letter (ll. r. 10’–17’) pertains to
praising Sîn and the offerings made to him.
300
See the discussion on p. 395 below.
301
The noun tašriḫtu is the nomen actionis for the verb šurruḫu, “to glorify; to make
magnificient” (for the attestations of its use see CAD T, 295–296).
66 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

of the Month”.302 These sources agree that the moon is covered with or wearing
the “crown of splendour” (agê tašriḫti) during the days directly preceding the
full moon. When this description of the moon’s appearance is compared to the
simple crown, it is clear that the “crown of splendour” is meant to convey the
image of the almost fully illuminated lunar disc of the gibbous moon.303
The association of agê tašriḫti with the second quarter of the lunar cycle
(days 11 to 15) is well-attested in Neo-Assyrian scholarly texts.304 One of these
is the fragment K. 2074 which states that during the last days before, and for the
duration of, the full moon (from the 11th day of the month to the 15th), the moon
wears the crown of splendour. In addition, Sîn is associated with the god Enlil
during this phase.305 The fact that this notion was widely spread among Assyrian
scholarly circles finds support in a letter from Balasî to the Assyrian king, in
which he describes the 13th day of the lunar month, a suitable day for a dream
ritual,306 by referring to the “crown of splendour” of the moon.

SAA 10 no. 59, 12–15

12 UD.13.KÁM d[30]
13 a-ge-e
14 ta-áš-ri-iḫ-⌈ti⌉
15 a-pi-[ir]
On the 13th day the [moon] will be cover[ed] with the crown of splendour.

This description is connected to the royal hemerology Inbu bēl arḫi in which the
11th and 13th days of the lunar month are systematically defined by the moon that
is wearing the crown of splendour. As has already been shown in connection

302
See the list of attestations in Verderame 2002b, 60–61 note 169, which contains most
of the references given here. The texts K. 2514 and K. 4068 mentioned by Verderame
have since been published in Livingstone 2013, 199–248.
303
In Stol 1992, 250 the use of the description “crown of splendour” is seen as a way of
distinguishing the earthshine “crown” of the moon from the white “crown” of the gib-
bous moon: “The crown returns in the nomenclature for the moon from the eleventh
through the fifteenth days of the lunar cycle [...] The Babylonians wished to distinguish
this crown from ‘earth-shine’ and added the qualification ‘of splendour’: the crown had
changed from ash-grey into splendid white.” However, if the lunar crown is understood
as the illuminated part of the lunar disc – as argued in the previous chapter –, such a dis-
tinction rather involves the size of the illuminated portion.
304
The references to the individual days of the lunar month in relation to Sîn are dis-
cussed also on p. 98ff. below.
305
K. 2074, II 7’–8’: TA UD.11.KÁM EN UD.15.KÁM / 5 u4-mi AGA taš-ri-iḫ-ti ip-pir-
ma d+En-líl, “from the eleventh day to the fifteenth day, five days, it wears the crown of
splendour, it is Enlil” (see Lambert 2013, 186–187 and the citation on p. 138 below).
306
For the role of the moon god in dreams and dream rituals see p. 189ff. below.
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 67

with the appellation “Fruit” for Sîn, on the 11th day of the month the appearance
of the moon was described by the phrase “when the moon wears a crown of
splendour and the Fruit rejoices”.307 A similar description – exemplified here by
the entry for the 13th day of intercalary Elūlu308 – is found in the entry for the 13th
day, the day of the moon god according to Mesopotamian hemerological
tradition.309

K. 4231, II 8–12310
II 8 DIŠ UD.13.KÁM šá 30 DINGIR.MAḪ UD Š[E]
d
II 9 30 AGA taš-riḫ-ti ana KUR na-šu-⌈u⌉
II 10 UD šú-a-tum ki-niš LUGAL NIDBA-š[ú]
II 11 ana dUTU Be-let-KUR.KUR ana 30 DINGIR.MAḪ ú-k[an]
II 12 ni-qé-e BAL-qí niš ŠU-šú KI DINGIR I[GI]
The 13th day, the one of Sîn (and) Bēlet-ilī. A favou[rable] day. Sîn is display-
ing the crown of splendour to the land.311 On that day the king faithfully
se[ts] h[is] bread offering for Šamaš (and) Bēlet-mātāti, Sîn (and) Bēlet-ilī;
he makes an (animal) offering. The raising of his hands will be accep[table]
to the god.

After the Neo-Assyrian period the crown of splendour continued to be used in

religious language, but not only in connection with Sîn. As already noted in the
discussion concerning the appellation má-gur8, “barge”, for the moon god,
“crown of splendour” (agê tašriḫti), “barge” (ma-gur8), and nannāru, “lumina-

307
See the citation of K. 4231, II 2–3 on p. 56 above.
308
Similar entries are preserved for intercalary Nisannu (Livingstone 2013, 204) and
Araḫsamnu (Livingstone 2013, 219).
309
See the overview of the 13th day as “Sîn’s day” on p. 105ff. below.
310
See Livingstone 2013, 214. A photograph of the tablet is available in CDLI P395455.
311
The translation for this passage in Livingstone’s edition of the text is “The 13th day,
that of Sîn and Bēlet-ilī: A favorable day. Sîn carries his glistening tiara to the under-
world.” (Livingstone 2013, 214). How Livingstone arrived at this translation remains un-
clear. For comparison see e.g. the citation of the entry for the 13th day of intercalary
Elūlu in Parpola 1983, 57: “the 13th day, of the Moon and Bēlet-ilī, (is) a favourable day;
the Moon displays the crown of splendour to the country” (4 R 32, II 8–9). If the transla-
tion and interpretation in Livingstone’s edition is followed, the meaning of this passage
would change considerably: contrary to the entry for the 11th day, this time the “crown of
splendour” would not be used as a description of the rising moon, but rather for the sett-
ing moon. There is, however, no reason to take the Akkadian mātu, meant by the logo-
gram KUR, as a designation of the underworld: the normal semantic range of mātu en-
compasses different notions ranging from country as a political space to open flat land
(see CAD M/1, 414–421). The reference to this passage in Langdon 1935, 76 is only
“Sin bears a full crown”.
68 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

ry”, are juxtaposed as descriptions of the astral deity Inanna/Ištar in the Exalta-
tion of Inanna.312 This descriptive epithet is also used in a Late Babylonian pray-
er that was recited to the sky god Anu on the 10th day of Nisannu.

AO 6461, 5–6313
5 en aga ka-silim-ma u6-bi-di la-la sa5-a
6 be-lu a-gu-ú taš-ri-iḫ-tum ša a-na tab-rat la-la-a ma-lu-ú
lord, crown of splendour that is full of beauty for amazement

In this attestation, it is important that the day on which the prayer is recited
(10th) directly precedes the days on which the moon is said to wear the crown of
splendour in Neo-Assyrian sources (11th to 15th). This suggests that lunar im-
agery remained similar over the course of centuries, and that lunar metaphors
were eventually attached to the sky god Anu in the theological development of
the Late Babylonian period.314

II.2.8. Ellammê
A further literary appellation for Sîn in Assyria and Babylonia is ellammê, “radi-
ant in me-powers” or “pure in me-powers”.315 Although this name is not found in
the god-list An = Anum, it is attested as a name for the moon god in a god-list
fragment deriving from Nineveh.316 In this list, the name Ellammê is preceded
by names that define Sîn as the establisher of the month (dŠākin-arḫi and
d
Mukīn-arḫi),317 and immediately followed by the name dZálag-ga which is con-
nected to the celestial luminosity of the moon.318 This context points to a celesti-
al connotation that ellammê as both a name and epithet most likely possessed
and, in the light of the other attestations, can confidently be interpreted as a des-
ignation for the gibbous and the full moon.
Probably the most prominent attestation of ellammê as an appellation of Sîn
is found in a birth incantation that was intended to help a woman having diffi-

312
Exaltation of Inanna, 87–88 (Hruška 1969, 485–486). See also p. 49 above.
313
See Thureau-Dangin 1921, 108–110 and Linssen 2004, 197–199.
314
See also the discussion on p. 136ff. below.
315
See the entries in CAD E, 100 and AHw, 203 as well as the list of names for the moon
god in Krebernik 1995, 363. Both of the dictionary entries mention the text 3 R 55 no. 3
(K. 2074) to contain the line dNanna = d30 šá e-lam-[me-e] which is based on the inac-
curate copy of the text and should be discarded: the line actually reads dNanna = d30 šá
AN-e u K[I] (see the citation of K. 2074 on p. 138 below). Ellamê is translated as “pure-
of-water” in Stol 1992, 257–258, but this translation should be discarded. For the transla-
tion “radiant” for ellu, see the discussion on p. 88ff. below.
316
K. 4559 (CT 25, pl. 42), 3’: dEl-la-mé-e.
317
See the discussion on p. 91ff. below.
318
See the discussion on p. 78ff. below.
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 69

culties in childbirth.319 It is a mythological passage that relates to how the sun

god Šamaš and the moon god, named Ellammê, see a cow that is giving birth,
and they shed tears because of the difficulties she is experiencing.

VS 17 no. 34, 4–7320

4 i-mu-ur-ši-i-ma dUTU i-ba-ak-ki
5 i-mu-ur-ši-i-ma el-lam-me-e i-il-la-ka
6 di-i-ma-a-šu
7 am-mi-nim-mi dUTU i-ba-ak-ki
8 [e]l-lam-me-e i-il-la-ka di-ma-šu
Šamaš saw her and cried, Ellammê saw her and his tears ran. “Why does Ša-
maš cry, why do the tears of [E]llammê run?”

The meaning of these lines is elaborated in a Late Babylonian commentary that

explains the content of the said birth incantation, and, fortunately, the appella-
tion ellammê is among the expressions that receive an analysis.321

11N-T3, 17–19322
17 el-la-me-e : AGA taš-ri-iḫ-ti
18 lìb-bu-u é-lam4-ma : É er-bi šá-niš si é-gar8-bi til-la : el-lam-mu-u
19 šá nu-ú-ru la-ni-šu ú-qat-ta-a : si : nu-ú-rum : é-gar8 : la-a-nu
20 bi : šu-u : til : qa-tu-u áš-šú d30 šá AN.TA.LÙ gam-mar-ti i-šak-kan
ellammê = “crown of splendour”; the abdomen is é-lam4-ma = House of
Four. Second, si é-gar8-bi til-la = ellammû (which means) his brings the light
of his appearance to an end: si = nūru (“light”); egar = lānu (“form”); bi = šū
(“his”); til = qatû (“to come to an end”); concerning Sîn who brings about a
total eclipse.

The first explanation in this passage equates ellammê with agê tašriḫti, “crown

319
See the reconstruction in Veldhuis 1989, 240–248. For Cow of Sîn see Veldhuis 1991,
7–15. In Koch-Westenholz 2001, 81 this attestation for ellammê is taken to be an appel-
lation for Šamaš instead of Sîn, but this view should be discarded.
320
Van Dijk 1972, 343–345. This manuscript is Old Babylonian, but these lines can also
be reconstructed in the later compendium BAM 3 no. 248//, I 40–41 (see Civil 1974, 334
as well as Veldhuis 1989, 243 and 255).
321
For an overview of this commentary see Frahm 2011, 231. The text was first edited in
Civil 1974, 331–336; see now also the edition in Jiménez 2014c (CCP 4.2.A.a). The
same passage is also found in UET 6/3 no. 897, 2’–5’ (Gabbay 2015b [CCP 4.2.A.b]).
The hermeneutic principles of the text are discussed also in Cavigneaux 1987, 252–255
and its connection to lunar eclipses is briefly discussed in Stol 1992, 257–258.
322
See Civil 1974, 332 (transliteration and commentary) and Cavigneaux 1987, 254.
These lines are also discussed in Veldhuis 1989, 246 and in Gabbay 2016, 157–158.
70 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

of splendour”, and therefore indicates a connection between this appellation and

the gibbous or full moon.323 Further elucidation of the etymology (é-lam4-ma)
appears to concern the belly of the pregnant woman, which also plausibly is re-
lated to the swollen form of the almost full moon. The second explanation of el-
lammê finds a reference to a lunar eclipse in this name. An equation of the ec-
lipsed moon and ellammê is also found in the astrological commentary Šumma
Sîn ina tāmartīšu, in the protasis “If the moon, ellammê, cries over Ekur” which
is given the explanation that a lunar eclipse takes place on the 15th day of
Kislīmu.324 In the notes to the medical commentary 11N-T3, Miguel Civil sug-
gests the translation “full moon” for the compound “30 el-lam-me-e”,325 which
is, of course, correct in the sense that ellammê denotes the gibbous or full moon.
Such a translation, however, lacks the connotations of radiance/purity that the
literal translation of this appellation possesses. The quality of the moon and the
moon god as “radiant” or “pure”, ellu, connotes not only the bright appearance
of the moon when it reaches its full luminosity but also the underlined the holi-
ness and divine powers of the moon god during this phase.326
Attestations of ellammê outside the sphere of gynaecological therapies and
lunar omens are scarce and appear to be concentrated in the therapeutic texts
concerning witchcraft. In the third tablet of the anti-witchcraft ritual Maqlû, the
moon god is responsible for the destruction of the image of the witch, and his
name is followed by the epithet ellammê.

Maqlû III, 98327

d
30 el-lam-mé-e li-qat-ta-a pa-gar-ki
May Sîn, ellammê, destroy your body!328

Another reference to ellammê in a similar context is a passage in an ušburuda-

ritual.

323
See the discussion on p. 65ff. above.
324
K. 993, 1 and K. 2181 (ACh Supp. 2 Sin 18), 21: DIŠ 30 el-lam-me-e ana É-kur i-bak-
ki (cited in CAD E, 100 and in Koch-Westenholz 2001, 81). For the metaphor of the cry-
ing moon god in describing a lunar eclipse see the discussion on p. 170 below.
325
Civil 1974, 334.
326
For the semantic field of the adjective ellu see the discussion on p. 88ff. below.
327
See Abusch 2016, 95 and 310 (line III, 100 in Meier 1937, 25).
328
In the edition of the text by Knut Tallqvist, this epithet is taken as an adverb and trans-
lated “an der vorderseite” (Tallqvist 1895, 58–59), and in the edition by Gerhard Meier it
is translated as “der Zwillings(gestaltige)” (Meier 1937, 25). This concept of the moon
god with the name ellammê as the twin of Nergal or Šamaš is also portrayed in the trans-
lations “Jumeaux” (Combe 1908, 38) and “Zwillinge” (Tallqvist 1938a, 443; Tallqvist
1947, 10) for this epithet.
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 71

K. 8162+K. 10357, 16’–17’329

16’ ⌈i⌉-mu-ur-ši-ma d+EN.ZU (subscript: d+En-líl) i-re-di-ši
17’ [é]l-la-me-e il-la-ka ar-ki-šá
Sîn (subscript: Enlil) beheld her and was pursuing her, ellammê was going af-
ter her.

That this incantation was performed during the full moon – a feature common to
anti-witchcraft rituals that were performed before the moon330 – is suggested not
only by the epithet ellammê for Sîn but also by the signs d+En-líl that are written
below d+EN.ZU in the tablet. In the edition of this text this subscript has been
understood a mere variant,331 but considering the well-attested association
between the moon god and the god Enlil during the full moon, it is very plaus-
ible that this should be seen as a note referring to this theological equation of Sîn
and Enlil.332

II.2.9. Dilimbabbar/Namraṣīt
The last of the moon god’s names to be discussed here is Dilimbabbar (com-
monly read AŠimbabbar), which had the Akkadian counterpart Namraṣīt. Along
with the names Nanna and Suen/Sîn, Dilimbabbar was the third principal name
of the Sumero-Babylonian moon god throughout the millennia, from Pre-Sar-
gonic period to the Late Babylonian times. It remains unclear if the Sumerian
name Dilimbabbar had previously belonged to a distinct deity with his own cult,
or if this name always has merely been a further appellation for the Sumerian
moon god Nanna and later for the Semitic Sîn.333 It is certain that in the Sumeri-
an literary sources as well as in the Old Babylonian precursor to the god-list An
= Anum, Dilimbabbar was used as the third name for the moon god.334 The situ-
ation is similar in the sources deriving from the 1st millennium BCE: Dilimbab-
bar/Namraṣīt is used as one of the names of the moon god Sîn.335

329
See Abusch & Schwemer 2011, 182 and 194 as well as Schwemer 2007a, 109.
330
See the discussion on p. 106ff. below.
331
Abusch & Schwemer 2011, 182 note 57.
332
See the discussion concerning this association on p. 136ff. below.
333
It is possible, that the textual sources from Tell Abū Ṣalābīḫ (god-lists, zà-mì hymn)
reflect a distinct deity, but there is not enough evidence to draw any conclusions (Hall
1985, 42).
334
See the discussion concerning the names of the moon god in Stol 1992, 245. These
names are found in the Old Babylonian forerunner of An = Anum, TCL 15 no. 10, 148–
150. For the use of these three names (Nanna, Suen, Dilimbabbar) in combination, which
occurs often in Sumerian literature, see e.g. Nanna-Suen’s Journey to Nippur (Sjöberg
1960, 148–165 and Ferrara 1973, 44).
335
This name appears to occur more often in the Sumerian compositions than in Akkadi-
an compositions, see e.g. the attestations in the edition of Mesopotamian lamentations by
72 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

Although Maurice Lambert once claimed that the name Dilimbabbar (or, in
his words Ašimbabbar), “the lonely white runner”, is the only name of the
Sumerian moon god that can be interpreted and understood, the matter has been
proven to be, or at least appears to be, more intricate than that.336 There has been
uncertainty about the correct reading of the element AŠ in this name in the past,
and, therefore, it usually has been transliterated AŠ-ím-babbar.337 The possibility
of reading the sign AŠ as dili had already been noted by Mark G. Hall in his
study of the Sumerian moon god,338 but this reading could not be confirmed until
new syllabic spellings of the name were found.339 These syllabic spellings to-
gether suggest that the name indeed should be read Dilimbabbar.340 This reading
of the name leads into a discussion of its meaning: in addition to the traditional
translation “the lonely white runner”, another possibility, “White Bowl”, was
suggested by Mark E. Cohen.341 Although the latter suggestion has found sup-
port,342 it is implausible that such a punny spelling was consistently used to write

M. Cohen (1988). The attestation of this divine name in Gilgameš (suggested in the
reconstructed line VIII, 140 in George 2003, 660–661) appears unlikely in the light of
the new join K. 19751, according to which the goddess Bēlet-ilī (DINGIR.MAḪ) is
named in this line (Jiménez 2014a, 101–102).
336
Lambert 1962, 78–74: “De tous ces noms, ce dernier [i.e. Ašimbabbar] est le seul à
bien s’expliquer; il se compose des idéogrammes UNIQUE, COURIR et BLANC et
désigne de la façon la plus élégante qui soit ce «coureur blanc solitaire» qu’est notre
satellite tout seul dans la nuit noir.”
337
Note also the variant spellings AŠ-im4-babbar and AŠ-im5-babbar.
338
The main reason given by Hall is the new collation of the tablet BM 96706, 15 (CT
36, pl. 26, 15). Previously D. J. Wiseman had given Å. Sjöberg a confirmation that the
sign on the tablet is ÁŠ as it is copied in CT 36, pl. 26 (Sjöberg 1960, 149 note 2). How-
ever, a new collation of the tablet by W. G. Lambert proved that also on this occasion the
sign is AŠ, not ÁŠ (Hall 1985, 42–43).
339
CT 58 no. 44, 4: di-li-bábbar; S 7/1600, 8: di-il-im-ba?-pa-ra (Cavigneaux & Al-Rawi
1994, 73–74); Meturan A, 35: dil-lim-bábbar-ra (Cavigneaux & Al-Rawi 1995, 197) and
Meturan B, 18’: dili-bábbar-ra (Cavigneaux & Al-Rawi 1995, 206). See also the discus-
sion on the reading dDili-ím-babbar in Cavigneaux & Al-Rawi 1994, 76; Cavigneaux &
Al-Rawi 1995, 206; Krebernik 1995, 362–362; Cohen 1996, 11 note 20; Alster 2004, 1–
3; and Feliu 2006, 237 note 47.
340
To my knowledge, the only indication for the reading Ašimbabbar is found in the
cryptographic spelling of the name Ibbi-Sîn in a collection of omens, Rm. 155//, 1
(IBABBAR-a-še-em-íb-bi [Schaudig 2019, 402]; previously understood as a spelling of
the name Warad-Sîn, I⌈KAR⌉-a-še-em-éb-bé [Finkel apud Guinan 2002, 40 note 1]).
341
Cohen’s suggestion is based on the understanding of the sign sequence dili-ím as a
glossed spelling for the noun dílim, “spoon; shallow bowl” (Akk. itquru). Furthermore,
Cohen believes the spelling that uses the sign dili instead of dílim(LIŠ) to be a pun
reflecting the meaning “unique” (Cohen 1996, 11 note 20).
342
See the support for Cohen’s suggestion in Alster 2004, 2–3 as well as the recent contri-
bution in Steinkeller 2016, 615–625, arguing that dil-im4 is a syllabic spelling of the
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 73

the name Dilimbabbar through the millennia. Representative examples for the
spellings that were used to write this name during the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-
Babylonian periods can be found in the Ḫarrān inscriptions of Assurbanipal:
these attestations show that the name was normally written by using either the
sign ím(KAŠ4) – the equivalent of the Akkadian verb šanû, “to run” – or the
phonetic variant im5(SUḪUŠ) as the second element.343 Therefore, there is little
reason to doubt Maurice Lambert’s translation “the lonely white runner” for this
name.344 Still, among the attestations for the name Dilimbabbar/Namraṣīt, a
single variant spelling, found in a manuscript of the šu’ila-prayer “Šamaš 1” (K.
5780+), suggests that there may have been more to the name than can be seen in
the material currently available to us. In this prayer, the opening line refers to
the moon god, who is the father of Šamaš, by the name Dilimbabbar/Nam-
raṣīt.345 One of the manuscripts of this prayer from Nineveh, however, contains a
variant: instead of dDILI.ÍM.BABBAR, attested in other manuscripts, the name
is written AŠ.AN.AMAR.UD.346 Although at first sight this variant appears to
contain a reference to the god Marduk (dAMAR.UTU), the signs AŠ and UD,
corresponding to DILI and BABBAR, suggest that this indeed is a variant for

noun dilim(d)/tilimtu, “bowl”. In both cases one of the main arguments for this inter-
pretation is the passage SLTNi 128, IV 4–5: 14 dílim má-gur8 kù-ga [1]5 dNanna
lugal-zu / an-na ši-gub-bu, “14(th day?), bowl/spoon of the pure barge; 15(th day?),
your lord Nanna positions himself in the sky” (see the edition in Alster 2005, 266–
273). As suggested, these lines indeed must refer to the shape of the gibbous or the
full moon (for “barge” as the gibbous moon see the discussion on p. 45ff. above),
and they may stand in connection with the element /dilim/ in the Sumerian name
Dilimbabbar. Still, there are no Neo-Assyrian or Neo-Babylonian sources referring
to the moon as a bowl, which makes it implausible that such a metaphor was central
in the 1st millennium BCE.
343
See e.g. K. 2813+, r. 7: dDILI.ÍM.BABBAR (Bauer 1933, pl. 48; Novotny 2003, 241);
K. 8759+, 9: ⌈d⌉DILI.IM5.BABBAR (see the citation on p. 142 below). For šanû, see the
attestation in CAD Š/1, 409. The reason for using the sign SUḪUŠ to write the element
/im/ is most likely based on the similarities between the signs KAŠ4 and SUḪUŠ. The
use of SUḪUŠ (instead of the usual im4 or ím) to write the element /im/ in this name in
an Old Babylonian royal inscription (Nūr-Adad) is taken to be a scribal mistake in
Steinkeller 2016, 616. However, as the attestations show, by the 1st millennium BCE, this
had become one of the normal spellings for this name.
344
In relation to this translation, a motif that has been interpreted as a running figure sup-
porting the crescent moon is attested on a Neo-Assyrian cylinder seal (Lambert 1979, no.
67 [N 2431]). If this interpretation is maintained, it could be a depiction of the moon god
as a runner. Still, the figure may just as well be kneeling while supporting the crescent
moon above his head.
345
See Mayer 1976, 504. For the father-son relationship of Sîn and Šamaš see the discus-
sion on p. 305ff. below.
346
K. 5780+ (BMS 10), 7’: [É]N šur-bu-ú gít-ma-lu a-pil AŠ.AN.AMAR.UTU.
74 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

Dilimbabbar/Namraṣīt. A key to the element AŠ.AN.AMAR may be found in

Babylonia, where Sîn-balāssu-iqbi, the governor of Ur, gives the name É-AŠ-
AN-AMAR to the “abode” (ki-tuš) of Enlil, most likely located in Ningal’s
temple.347 The precise meaning of this sanctuary name remains unclear, although
Hanspeter Schaudig has suggested É-aš-damar, “The First(-class) House of the
Divine Calf”, and É-aš-dmár, “The (like) ašmarû (shining) House”.348 Since
these two names, AŠ.AN.AMAR.UD and É-AŠ-AN-AMAR, appear to be at
least partly parallel to each other, and since AŠ.AN.AMAR.UD clearly stands
for Dilimbabbar, new readings for them both can be tentatively suggested: per-
haps the divine name in K. 5780+, 7’ should be read Dili-damar-babbar, “Unique
White Divine Calf”, and the name of Enlil’s sanctuary in Ur plausibly is É-dili-
d
amar, “House of the Unique Divine Calf”.349
In contrast to the discussion concerning the meaning of the Sumerian name
Dilimbabbar, its Akkadian counterpart, Namraṣīt (“Bright at Rising”), poses no
problems of interpretation.350 In the god-list An = Anum, Dilimbabbar is equated
with Namraṣīt,351 and in the list An = Anu ša amēli, Dilimbabbar receives the
paraphrase “whose rising is bright” (ša ṣīssu namrat).352 The equation of the
Sumerian name Dilimbabbar to the Akkadian Namraṣīt is also underlined by bi-
lingual compositions. For example, in an incantation belonging to the fifth tablet
of Udug-ḫul, the epithet bēlu Namraṣīt, “lord Namraṣīt”, is given as the Akkadi-
an equivalent to Sumerian en dDilimbabbar, “lord Dilimbabbar”. The passage in
question pairs the moon god with the god Ḫendursaĝa/Išum, which highlights
his role as an illuminator of the night in this context.353

347
RIMB, B.6.32.2013, 6. See also the discussion on p. 353ff. below.
348
Schaudig 2002, 630–631.
349
The element dili-damar possibly represents the scribe’s understanding of the element
/dilim/ in the name Dilimbabbar. Calf (amar) is a well-attested epithet for Nanna in
Sumerian literature (see Sjöberg 1960, 24 and Hall 1985, 632–634).
350
The fact that the name Namraṣīt is a reference to the daily moonrise is stressed in Hall
1985, 536: “Though it has often been assumed from this equivalency that the epithet aš-
im2-babbar refers to the new moon, the Akkadian namra(m) ṣīt does not necessarily im-
ply the first appearance of the moon at the start of each month. It refers to the daily rising
of the moon in any of its phases and describes the brilliance of the moon just after it rises
above the horizon. Therefore, if Akkadian namra(m) ṣīt provides any insight into the
meaning of the cryptic Sumerian, aš-im2-babbar, it is only to indicate that daš-im2-babbar
refers to the moon in its position just above the horizon, which of course is a nightly
phenomenon.”
351
An = Anum III, 26 (Litke 1998, 119; Feliu 2006, 237); see also p. 34 above.
352
Anu = Anu ša amēli, 38: Dili-babbar-ra | MIN(=d30) | ṣi-su nam-rat (see Litke 1998,
231). It is worth noting that like in An = Anum III, 23–25, Dilimbabbar immediately fol-
lows the names (d)Má-gur8 and (d)U4-sakar also in this list.
353
For the nocturnal role of Ḫendursaĝa and Išum see George 2015, 1–8.
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 75

Udug-ḫul 5, 162354
zi d+Suen-na en dDili-ím-babbar-ra-ke4 ḫé-pàd
ni-iš d30 EN Nam-ra-ṣi-it lu ta-ma-ta5
(Sum.) May you be adjured by Sîn, lord Dilimbabbar!
(Akk.) May you be adjured by Sîn, lord Namraṣīt!

Furthermore, “Lord Dilimbabbar/Namraṣīt” proves to be a common epithet of

the moon god in bilingual contexts. To name a further example, this epithet is
employed to depict the moon god as the husband of the goddess Ningal in a bi-
lingual hymn to her.

K. 4940+K. 5118+K. 6020, 3355

[...] dam d+Suen-na lugal dDili-ím-⌈babbar⌉-e me-en
[... d+]EN.ZU be-lum dNam-ra-ṣi-it at-ti-ma
(Sum.)You are [...] the wife of Sîn, lord Dilimbabbar!
(Akk.) You are [...] the wife of Sîn, lord Namraṣīt!

The fixed character of this epithet becomes evident in a variant that is found in a
manuscript for a bilingual prayer to the sun god Utu/Šamaš: here the epithet
“lord Dilimbabbar” appears to have been understood as a divine name in itself
since the scribe had written it den-dili-ím-babbar-ra.356
Celestial luminosity forms an essential element of both the names Dilimbab-
bar and Namraṣīt.357 The colour white (babbar) in the name Dilimbabbar con-
notes the white light of the moon, and the name Namraṣīt is entirely built around
the notion of the emergence of the moon in the night sky with its bright light.
This notion of luminosity is further underlined by epithets that are attached to
the moon god as Dilimbabbar/Namraṣīt. Thus, in Assurbanipal’s inscription for
the anzû-birds of Eḫulḫul in Ḫarrān, the epithets nūr elâti, “light of the upper
world”, and mušaḫli ekleti, “illuminator of darkness”, are used as descriptions of
the moon god who goes by this name.

K. 8759+, 9358
⌈d⌉DILI.IM5.BÁBBAR ZÁLAG ⌈AN⌉.TA.MEŠ [mu-š]áḫ-li ek-[le-ti ...]
Namraṣīt, the light of the upper world, [the ill]uminator of dar[kness ...]

354
Udug-ḫul 5, 162 (see Geller 2007, 125 and 213 as well as Geller 2016, 210, where
Namraṣīt is not taken as a name of Sîn, but rather an epithet “lord of luminescence”).
355
The fragment K. 5118 was published in Meek 1913, no. 23, but the joins that were
made by R. Borger and W. G. Lambert remain unpublished. A photograph of the tablet is
available online (CDLI P395798).
356
4 R 13 no. 2+; see line 5 in Cooper 1972, 70; see also p. 307 below.
357
For further discussion concerning the moon god’s luminosity, see p. 78ff. below.
358
Pongratz-Leisten 1995, 551; Novotny 2003, 231. See also p. 142 below.
76 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

In fragment LKU 43, an Akkadian account of the destruction of Ur and the

abandonment of the cult places in the city, the moon god as Namraṣīt is de-
scribed as the light for the celestial Igigū-gods (nūr Igigī).

LKU 43, 9–11359

9 [dN]am-ra-ṣi-it nu-ur dÍ-gì-gì ma-lik DINGIR.MEŠ G[AL.MEŠ]
10 [d]Nin-men-na dNin-gal ḫi-rat na-ra-[mi-ša]360
11 [k]i-iṣ-ṣi i-zi-bu ut-tak-ki-ru si-m[a-ak-ki]361
Namraṣīt, light of the Igigu gods, adviser of the g[reat] gods, (and)
Ninmena,362 Ningal, the spouse of her beloved one, abandoned the cellas, the
shrines were changed.

Despite these attestations and the depictions of Dilimbabbar as a luminary in the

earlier Sumerian sources,363 using this name for the moon god in Akkadian pray-
ers puts the focus on his power over divine decision-making – a power that is
also alluded to by the epithet mālik ilānī rabûti, “adviser of the great gods” in
LKU 43. The most prominent example of praising this aspect of Dilimbabbar/
Namraṣīt is found in the šu’ila-prayer “Sîn 1” which refers to the sovereignty of
the moon god in these matters by the line “O Namraṣīt, power without a rival,
whose intent no one can comprehend!”.364 A similar association can be found in
an ikrib-prayer to Sîn: here, in the opening lines of the prayer, the moon god is
named both Dilimbabbar/Namraṣīt and Anu, and the authority of his command
is stressed.365

K. 2751+//, 57’–59’366
[O Sîn, the lu]minary of the heavens, [N]amraṣīt, lord of the crown,
splendid god, the forerunner, great Anu, whose command cannot be [t]rans-
gressed!

359
See the edition in Falkenstein 1931, 14–15.
360
Read ḫi-rat na-ra-[am-ti-šu] in Falkenstein 1931, 15. See, however, the similar formu-
lation in Bu. 89-4-26, 209, 9: ṣa-bi-ta-at ab-bu-ti a-na na-an-⌈nar⌉ DINGIR.MEŠ na-ra-
mì-i-šá d[30] (Novotny 2003, 234 and p. 301 below).
361
Read si-m[a-te-šu-un] in Falkenstein 1931, 15, but the combination of kiṣṣu and si-
makku – shrines inside a temple – is well-attested (see CAD K, 444 and CAD S, 268).
362
For the use of this name for the goddess Ningal see the discussion on p. 304ff. below.
363
UET 6/1 no. 68//, 7–8: dDili-ím-babbar kur-sùḫ-sùḫ-ḫa-ta è-a-ni / an-bar7-ra dUtu-gin7
bí-in-gub, “When Dilimbabbar came out of the darkened mountains, he stood like Utu
(stands) at noon” (Hall 1986, 155–157).
364
“Sîn 1”, 17: Namraṣīt emūq lā šanān ša lā ilammadu milikšu mamman (see p. 452ff.
below).
365
For the association of Sîn with Anu see the discussion on p. 136ff. below.
366
See the edition on p. 483ff. below.
 II.2. Lunar Names, Epithets, and Metaphors 77

According to its rubric, this prayer was performed on the 15th day of the month,
i.e. during the full moon.367 When this is taken into consideration, a connection
between the name Dilimbabbar/Namraṣīt and the full moon phase becomes un-
avoidable, although it is a view that opposes the one put forward by Thorkild
Jacobsen in his portrait of the Sumerian pantheon. For Jacobsen, the moon god’s
name Aš-im4-babbar (i.e. Dilimbabbar) represents the “new light”.368 In addition
to the aforementioned ikrib-prayer, there are also a couple of other attestations
that support the notion that Dilimbabbar/Namraṣīt refers to the full moon. An af-
finity of the name Namraṣīt with both the full moon and divine decision-making
is apparent in the En-niĝaldi-Nanna Cylinder of Nabonidus: the moon god as
Namraṣīt made his desire to have an entu-priestess manifest in an eclipse.369

Schaudig 2001, 2.7, I 1–3

I1 ì-nu dNanna-ri i-ri-šu NIN.DINGIR.RA
I2 DUMU ru-bé-e gi-is-ki-im-ma-šu ú-kal-li-im ad-na-a-tì
d
I3 Nam-ra-ṣi-it ú-ša-pi pu-ru-us-sa-šu ki-i-nu
When Nannāru desired an entu-priestess, the son of the prince showed his
sign to the whole world, Namraṣit made his true decision manifest.

An understanding of the name Dilimbabbar as a reference to the full moon may

also have been the underlying idea behind the grouping of names dU4-sakar, dMá
and dMá-gur8 (equivalents of Nannāru and appellations for the waxing moon)
and dDili-ím-babbar in the god-list An = Anum: the list appears to present the
stages of the waxing moon starting with the thin crescent that grows into a boat
(larger crescent) and a barge (gibbous moon), and culminating in the full moon
(Dilimbabbar).370 However, this interpretation remains speculative since no ex-
plicit commentary on these names is available to us.
In the light of these sources, it is justified to stress the affinity between the
name Dilimbabbar/Namraṣīt and the notions of celestial luminosity and divine
decision-making as well as, in some cases, to the middle of the lunar cycle. In
the light of this source, it is plausible that the moon god as Dilimbabbar/Nam-
raṣīt was especially connected to the middle point of the lunar cycle. This was
the point of time when Sîn and Šamaš met in order to make decisions and decree

367
K. 2751+//, 78’: [ik-rib d30?] UD.15.KÁM (see p. 483ff. below). For the significance
of the full moon see p. 106ff. below.
368
Jacobsen 1976, 121. Jacobsen does not elucidate his use of the term “new light”, but it
should be understood as a reference to the re-emergence of the moon after the days of
darkness. Furthermore, Jacobsen connects the name Nanna to the full moon and the
name Suen to the crescent moon. The fact that the name Dilimbabbar is not necessarily
associated only with the new crescent moon has already been stressed in Hall 1985, 536.
369
For the installation of En-niĝaldi-Nanna in Ur see also p. 360ff. below.
370
See also p. 34 above.
78 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

verdicts concerning mankind and the world.371 Moreover, by this point the moon
has reached its full luminous power and during its nocturnal journey from the
east to west, it moves through the whole sky like a lonely white runner.

II.3. The Moon God as a Celestial Light

The celestial, luminous aspect of the moon god is well represented in the names
and epithets that are used to describe him in the various sources available.372 In
the god-list An = Anum, one of the first appellations given to Sîn is dĜiš-nu11-
gal, “The Great Light”.373 Like the name dMá-gu-la-an-na, this name contains a
reference to the father-son relationship between the moon and the sun: in com-
parison to his father Sîn, the sun god Šamaš is referred to merely by the name
d
Ĝiš-nu11, “The Light”, in An = Anum.374 In addition to the name dĜiš-nu11-gal,
the moon god is characterised as the “great light of the heaven and the earth”
(ĝiš-nu11-gal an-ki-a) in the Sumerian prayer that was a part of a treatment
against a ghost-induced illness.375

BAM 4 no. 323//, 105376

ÉN dNanna ĝiš-nu11-gal an-ki-ke4 tu-ra nu-du10-ga zu-ĝu10-ta ba-z[i]
Incantation: Nanna, great light of heaven and earth, the unpleasant sickness
has been re[moved] from my body!

Other attested names that directly denote the luminosity of the moon god are
d
Zálag and dZálag-ga, “The Bright (One)”: the former being found in the list An
= Anu ša amēli and the latter in a god-list fragment from Kuyunjik.377
Sîn’s appellation “great light” is also found in the name of his temple in Ur,

371
See the discussion on p. 150ff. below.
372
See the overview in Tallqvist 1938a, 444–445.
373
An = Anum III, 4 (Litke 1998, 117 and Feliu 2006, 233). This name appears also in the
god-list fragments K. 2074 (see p. 138 below) and K. 2115 (CT 25, pl. 28). See also the
Old Babylonian manuscript of the lexical work Diri, in which ĝiš-nu-gal is equated with
d
EN.ZU (MSL 15, Diri Nippur 195: ĝiš-nu-gal | ĜIŠ.ŠIR.GAL | dEN.ZU). As a general
noun, na4giš-nu11-gal (Akk. gišnugallu) designated various white stones, such as marble,
limestone and magnesite (Schuster-Brandis 2008, 412–413). It can be assumed that the
white colour of these stones was associated with the luminosity of the moon.
374
An = Anum III, 102 (Litke 1998, 128; in Feliu 2006, 238 line III, 96). For the name
d
Má-gu-la-an-na see p. 45 above. Note that Ĝiš-nu11 is also used as the equivalent of Sîn
in the bilingual litany PBS 1/2 no. 115, I 11 (see the citation on p. 96 below).
375
This treatment specifically takes place in the morning on the 15th day of the month ,
before the moon and the sun (see the discussion on p. 107ff. below).
376
See the edition of the text in Scurlock 2006, no. 91.
377
An = Anu ša amēli, 29: ⌈d⌉Zálag | MIN (= d30) | šá na-ma-ri, “Zalag is Sîn of being
bright” (see Litke 1998, 230). In the fragment K. 4559 (CT 25, pl. 42), 4’ from Nineveh,
the name dZálag-ga is listed after the name dEl-la-me-e (for Ellammê see p. 68ff. above).
 II.3. The Moon God as a Celestial Light 79

Ekišnugal, “House of the Great Light”.378 This temple is praised as a source of

light in The Temple Hymns with the line “beaming moonlight, which comes
forth in the land; daylight, which fills all lands”.379 In the sources dating to the 1st
millennium BCE, two variant spellings of this name are normally used: É-kiš-
nu-ĝál and É-ĝiš-nu11-gal.380 Any possible reasons for choosing either one of
them are however very difficult, if not impossible, to detect. There are sources
that present analyses of temple names, involving a principle known from other
Mesopotamian explanatory texts: the name is split into parts which are then
combined with corresponding words, allowing a variety of interpretations of a
single name. A Babylonian tablet that lists the Sumerian names of the temples in
Babylon381 includes both spellings of the name Ekišnugal and gives two com-
pletely different explanations for the two forms of the same temple name.

BM 34850, 5’–6’382
5’ [É-ĝi]š-nu11-gal É nu-úr AN-e ra-b[u-ti]
6’ [É-ki]š-nu-ĝál É na-ṣir kiš-šat UN.MEŠ
[Egi]šnugal, House (of) the light of the gre[at] heavens.
[Eki]šnugal, House which protects all the people.

The explanation for the form É-ĝiš-nu11-gal, “House (of) the light of great heav-
ens”, is evident on the basis of the Sumerian word ĝiš-nu11-gal, “great light”.
This noun is however parsed into even smaller units which yield the equations
ĝiš = nūru, “light”, and nu11 = šamû, “heaven”. The second explanation involves
completely different associations, describing the temple Ekišnugal as “protector
of all the people” (nāṣir kiššat nišī). As Andrew George has noted, in this case
the element kiš is equated with kiššatu, “totality”, nu with nišū, “people”, and
the verb ĝál with naṣāru, “to protect”.383 These two aspects of the same temple
name, indicated by two different spellings, are not only found in this explanatory

378
See George 1993, no. 653. For the cult of the moon god in Ur see p. 331ff. below.
379
The Temple Hymns, 110–111: é-kiš-nu-gál i[tix-s]aḫx-saḫx kalam-ma è-a / u4-sa9-dagal
kur-kur-re si-a (Sjöberg & Bergmann 1969, no. 8; see also ETCSL c.4.80.1).
380
The variant É-ĝiš-nu11-gal represents an UD.GAL.NUN-orthography in which the sign
ŠIR is read nu11. For the correct reading of the name see Sjöberg 1960, 125, and for fur-
ther bibliographical information see George 1992, 319–320. It is noted in Lambert 1981,
83 that the sign NU instead of nu11(ŠIR) was used to spell the temple name in the older
tradition. It took several decades before the correct reading of the name É-ĝiš-nu11-gal
was established, which is why the early publications speak of the temple Ekišširgal: see
e.g. the article Ekišširgal in RlA 2 (Ebeling 1938b, 322). For practical reasons, the stand-
ard name Ekišnugal is used in this study to generally refer to this temple.
381
For the temple and the sanctuaries of the moon god in Babylon see p. 378ff. below.
382
George 1992, 78–79 (no. 3).
383
George 1992, 384.
80 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

list, but also in a syncretistic hymn to Ištar that is preserved in a manuscript

from Assur. Here, in the section in which she is described as the goddess Ningal,
a reference to the role of Ištar as the protectress of all the people and also as the
light of the great heavens is made.

KAR 109+343, 6–8384

6 [ina Ú]riki dNin-gal a-ḫat DINGIR.MEŠ GAL.MEŠ
7 [d]Nin-gi-kù-ga be-let gim-ri KÙ-tu mu-ub-bi-bat KI-t[im]
8 [ina] É-kiš-nu-ĝál na-ṣi-rat kiš-šat UN.MEŠ nu-úr AN-e GAL.MEŠ
[In U]r she is Ningal, sister of the great gods, Ningikuga,385 pure lady of the
whole world, the one who purifies the earth.
[In] Ekišnugal she is the protector of all the people, the light of the great
heavens.

Both of these sources, the commentary on the temple names in Babylon and the
hymn to Ištar found in Assur, attest to the extensive diffusion of theological
reflections on the temple name Ekišnugal both in Assyria and Babylonia. They
are, however, not the only ones to provide knowledge about the hidden mean-
ings of this temple name – a reminder of the plurality of Mesopotamian theolo-
gies. In the composition Nippur Compendium, names of the temples at Nippur
are explained, Ekišnugal among them.386 In this case, the author of the text has
taken the liberty of spelling the name in very atypical ways, which has also al-
lowed him to create new etymological analyses.

Nippur Compendium, § 6 ii 11’–13’387

II 11’ É-kiš-nu-ĝálĝiš-nu-ĝál É šá kak-ku-šú la im-maḫ-ḫa-ru
d
II 12’ É-kéš- Nun-gal É mar-kás dI-gì-gì
II 13’ É-ká-èš-nun-gal É šá ana ap-si-i pe-tu-ú KÁ-šú
E-kišnu-gal, House whose weapons cannot be withstood.
E-keš-Nungal, House of the bond of the Igigū-gods.
E-ka-ešnun-gal, House whose gate opens on to Apsû.

In the first explanation here, the spelling É-kiš-nu-ĝál is interpreted to consist of

the parts kiš/ĝiš for kakku, “weapon”, and ĝál for the verb maḫāru, “to receive;

384
The existence of this intertextuality is noted in George 1992, 384, where the variant É-
ĝiš-nu11-gal from an unpublished manuscript is also mentioned (without reference to the
museum number of the text). For an edition of the text KAR 109 see Ebeling 1918, 49–
52; see also Groneberg 1987, 174–175 and Westenholz 2013, 109.
385
For the name Ningikuga for both Ningal and her mother see p. 297 below.
386
For the cult of Sîn in Nippur see the discussion on p. 368ff. below.
387
George 1992, 150–151 (no. 18).
 II.3. The Moon God as a Celestial Light 81

to oppose”. In this sense, the given meaning of the temple name greatly differs
from “House of the Great Light”. In the second interpretation the use of the sign
kéš as a phonetic variant allows the connection to the verb rakāsu, “to bind”,
and thus the noun markasu, “bond”, can be seen as a component of the name. In
a similar fashion, in the third case the unusual selection of signs ká, “gate”, èš-
nun, “house of the prince” (the prince is Ea, and therefore his house is the Apsû),
and gal (instead of ĝál) for petû, “to open”, allows the given Akkadian para-
phrasis.388 Whether these interpretations, which differ greatly from the ones con-
cerning the temple Ekišnugal in Babylon, reflect differing local notions concern-
ing the moon god and his temple in Nippur remains unclear.
The notion of the moon god being the light of both the upper and the lower
parts of the cosmos, as well as that of the humankind, is present already in his
name and epithet Nannāru, “luminary”.389 This aspect of Sîn’s nature is further
displayed in the epithets employing the Akkadian noun nūru, “light”, when de-
scribing of him. He is addressed as nūr šamê u erṣeti, “light of the heaven and
the earth”, in an anti-witchcraft ritual performed during the full moon.390 In the
dedicatory inscription of Assurbanipal for Eḫulḫul, he is called nūr elâti, “the
light of the upper world”.391 Likewise, in the dedicatory inscription of Assurban-
ipal for Eĝipar of Ningal/Nikkal, the moon god is described as nūr šamê nesûti,
“the light of the distant heavens”.392 The epithet nūr Igigī, “light of the Igigū-
gods” is also connected to these descriptions of the moon god as the light of
heaven, and it bears a resemblance to the description of the moon god as nannār
ilānī, “luminary of the gods”.393 The way in which Sîn is made prominent within
the group of deities serves to underline his status in comparison to other lu-
minous deities, such as Šamaš and Ištar who also belonged to the Igigū-gods.394
It is not only the celestial deities who enjoy the moon’s light since Sîn, together
with Šamaš, brings light also to the Anunnakū-gods living in the Netherworld,

388
See the commentary in George 1992, 446.
389
See the discussion on p. 31ff. above.
390
Si. 34(+)//, 15: [d3]0 ⌈ZÁLAG⌉ ⌈AN⌉-⌈e⌉ ⌈u⌉ ⌈KI⌉-[tim m]u-nam-mir uk-lu (see Schwe-
mer 2010, 487).
391
K. 8759+, 9: ⌈d⌉DILI.IM5.BABBAR ZÁLAG ⌈AN⌉.TA.MEŠ [mu-š]áḫ-li ek-[le-ti ...],
“Namraṣīt, light of the upper world, [the ill]uminator of dar[kness ...]” (Pongratz-Leisten
1995, 551; Novotny 2003, 231. See also the citation of this passage on p. 142 below).
392
Bu. 89-4-26, 209, 5: ⌈ḫi⌉-[rat] dNanna-ri EN a-šá-re-di šu-pu-u ZÁLAG AN-e né-su-
u-t[i] (Novotny 2003, 234; see also the citation of this passage on p. 301 below).
393
“Sîn 3”, 3 (see the edition on p. 464ff. below). This epithet is attested also in the Neo-
Babylonian fragment of a literary text describing the destruction of Ur (LKU 43, 9:
[dN]am-ra-ṣi-it nu-ur dÍ-gì-gì; see the citation of the relevant lines on p. 76 above). For
nannār ilī see Bu. 89-4-26, 209, 7 on p. 301 below.
394
For overviews of the deity groups Anunnakū and Igigū see Kienast 1965, 141–158 and
Kienast 1976–1980, 40–44.
82 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

as expressed in the prayer “Sîn & Šamaš 1”.395 As opposed to the upper or the
lowest parts of the cosmos, Sîn is also portrayed as the “light of mankind” (nūr
tenēšēti)396 or the “light of the land” (nūr māti).397 The importance of moonlight
to the people, comparable to the importance of lunar omens to the king, is plaus-
ibly reflected in the expression nūrīšu ša nišī, “his light is of the people”, in one
of the ikrib-prayers to Sîn.398 Still, despite the significance of the moon as the
light in the darkness, Sîn’s luminary aspect is reflected on a relatively small
scale in Neo-Assyrian or Neo-Babylonian personal names. Whereas in earlier
times moonlight could be a part of a complex personal name, in the Neo-Assyri-
an and Neo-Babylonian sources the theophoric names with the element nūru are
elliptic in character.399 In the available sources, such names as Nūr-Sîn (“Light
of Sîn”)400 and Sîn-nūrī (“Sîn is my light”)401 – with the western counterparts
Sē’-nūrī and Šēr-nūri402 – are attested. Additionally, the name Sîn-nammir, “O
Sîn, illuminate!”, is attested for an individual from Ma’allanate.403
In Babylonia and Assyria, there were several expressions that denoted the
rising of the moon or other celestial bodies. From the viewpoint of human ex-
perience, especially of the observations that form the foundation for astrology,
the moon becomes visible in the sky. The common term referring to the appear-
ance of the moon in the sky is tāmartu, which can be translated as “observa-
tion”, “appearance” or “visibility” of the moon.404 This term is derived from the
verb amāru, “to see”, which in the passive form is used to denote the observa-
tion of the moon.405 In contrast to the astrological context that focused on the ob-
servations made by humans, divine activity is described in the prayers that

395
CBS 1516, r. 11: dA-nun-na-ki ka-li-šú-nu tu-nam-ma-ra ki-⌈ma⌉ u4-m[e], “you illu-
minate the Anunnakū-gods like the daylight” (see the edition on p. 520ff. below).
396
Schaudig 2001, 2.7, II 29: dEN.ZU DINGIR el-lu EN a-gi-i nu-úr te-né-še-e-ti, “Sîn,
pure god, lord of the crown, the light of the mankind”.
397
“Sîn 2”, 4: nu-úr ma-a-[ti ...], “light of the lan[d ...] (see the edition on p. 462 below).
398
K. 2751+//, 29’ (see the edition on p. 483ff. below).
399
Cf. e.g. the Middle Babylonian name Ana-nūr-Sîn-līṣi, “May he come out to the
moonlight!” (Stamm 1939, 151). The noun nūru as a part of the elliptic names is outlined
in Stamm 1939, 275.
400
This name is attested both as an ancestral name of the Nūr-Sîn family (see Jursa 2005,
144–145) and as a normal personal name. For the attestations see Tallqvist 1905, 169.
401
For a Neo-Babylonian attestation of this name see Tallqvist 1905, 182 ( I.d30–
ZÁLAG). In the Neo-Assyrian sources this name is attested in the letter CT 54 no. 93, 6:
[I.d]30–nu-ri-i (see PNA 3/I, 1139).
402
See PNA 3/I, 1103–1105.
403
PNA 3/I, 1139 (written I.d30–nam-mir and I.d30–na-mir). According to the Assyrian
King List, one of the early kings of Assyria also had this name (see also p. 226 below).
404
See CAD T, 112–113.
405
See e.g. the use of this verb passim in the Neo-Assyrian astrological reports edited in
SAA 8. See also CAD A/2, 25–26.
 II.3. The Moon God as a Celestial Light 83

praise Sîn as a celestial light. In this context, one of the verbs that are used is
napāḫu, which has the basic meaning “to blow”.406 The logic behind the use of
this verb is embedded in the notion that the sun, the moon, the stars, and the
planets are lit up like fire as they ascend from below the horizon.407 This is the
verb that is found in the incipit for the prayer “Sîn 7”, which was to be recited
before the moon as it becomes visible.408 Accordingly, a noun for the moonrise
was nipḫu.409 The significance of this moment is demonstrated by the fact that a
specific name for Sîn – dBU.NIR, which is also found in An = Anum – is associ-
ated with it in the god-list An = Anu ša amēli.410 In the Eḫulḫul Cylinder of Na-
bonidus, the moonrise (nipḫu) and moonset (rību) are associated with divination
through their nature as moments in time when Sîn should make the portents con-
cerning the king good.411 In addition to the notion of being lit up like embers, an
important metaphor for the rising of the moon and the sun was the opening of
the doors of heaven (dalāt šamê).412 The doors of heaven, which separated the
different areas of heaven, acted as an entry and an exit to the inner parts of heav-
en, where Sîn and Šamaš had their abodes. According to the Enūma eliš, the
gates, together with their bolts, were put in place on both sides of the horizon by
Marduk as he created the order in heavens.413 The attestations of this metaphor
are predominantly connected to the sun god who opens the doors of heaven in
the morning.414 Still, it is clear from the description of Sîn and Šamaš in the Ex-
altation of Inanna that both of them had the ability to open the doors of heav-
en.415 Moreover, the use of the term “moon’s gate” in the astrological report

406
See AHw, 732 and CAD N/1, 263–268.
407
The rising sun as an equivalent of embers that are ignited in the morning by blowing
air to them is briefly discussed in Heimpel 1986, 142.
408
K. 6018+//, x+27’: [ÉN ta-t]ap-ḫa d30 ABGAL DINGIR.MEŠ DÙ.A.BI, “[Incanta-
tion: You have ri]sen, Sîn, sage of all the gods!” (see p. 497ff. below).
409
See the attestations in CAD N/2, 242.
410
An = Anum III, 5: dBU.NIR | MIN(= d30) (Litke 1998, 117 and Feliu 2006, 233); An =
Anu ša amēli, 33: [dBU].⌈NIR⌉ | MIN | šá ni-ip-ḫi (Litke 1998, 231). Unfortunately the
meaning of this name remains unclear (see Krebernik 1995, 363).
411
Schaudig 2001, 2.12, II 33–36 (Ex. 1); see also the citation on p. 162 below.
412
See Rochberg-Halton 1983, 214; Heimpel 1986, 132–140; Fincke 2009, 519–558; and
Horowitz 2011, 266–267. According K. Tallqvist, the idea of the moon as the opener of
heaven’s gates involved the notion that the two halves of the moon were doors: depend-
ing on the lunar phase, the one half would be closed and the other open (Tallqvist 1938b,
100; Tallqvist 1947, 235–236). This interpretation, however, does not agree with Babylo-
nian and Assyrian sources.
413
Enūma eliš V, 9–10 (Lambert 2013, 98–99).
414
See Heimpel 1986, 133–134 and Polonsky 2002, 216–219. It is noted in Polonsky
2002, 219 that the doors of the Mesopotamian temples were opened in the morning as an
action that mirrored the opening of the heaven’s doors by the sun god during sunrise.
415
Exaltation of Inanna, 55–56 (Hruška 1969, 484; see also the citation on p. 95 below).
84 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

SAA 8 no. 119 corroborates the aforementioned attestations: here “moon’s gate”
is explained as the emergence of the moon in the sky.416 It is also possible that
this notion was present in the iconography of the Mesopotamian seals in the mo-
tif of two trees flanking the crescent moon.417 The metaphor of celestial doors
comes to life in the prayers addressed to Sîn praising his luminous emergence in
the sky: like Šamaš, who rose in the morning through the gates of heaven and
provided light to the world, Sîn rose in the evening to illuminate the night for
mankind. This action finds a description in a bilingual šu’ila-prayer to him.

4 R2 9+//, 20418
[an-ú]r-ta an-pa-šè zálag-ga mu-un-su8-su8 ĝišig an-na d[a-ma]-al-⌈la⌉ ĝiš-
[n]u11 ù[ĝ šár-ra m]ar-r[a]
[nu?-ru? š]á iš-tu i-šid AN-e ana e-lat [A]N-⌈e⌉ [x x x x (x)] x pe-tu-u da-
lat AN-⌈e⌉ šá-kin n[u-ri ana kiš-š]at UN.M[EŠ]
(Sum.) He steps forward from the [bas]e [of heaven] to the zenith, op[ening
wid]e the door of heaven (and) providing the [whole] man[kind] with li[g]ht.
(Akk.) [Light? th]at [steps forward?] from the base of heaven to the zeni[th
(...)], the opener of the door of heaven (and) the provider of li[ght for the
who]le mankind.

The moonrise is vividly expressed by the ikrib-prayer that was performed at the
time of the full moon. In this case, both notions presented above are simultan-
eously evoked: the moon lights up (napāḫu) and opens wide (šupalkû) heaven’s
doors.419

K. 2751+//, 60’–62’420
O Sîn, as you light up, as you open wide the doors of heaven, the people are
rejoicing over your glow; all the black-headed people are cheering because
of you, the people, the mankind, are praying to you!

416
SAA 8 no. 119, 5–9: DIŠ dIŠKUR ina KÁ.GAL 30 GÙ-šú ŠUB-di / ŠUB-tim ERIM
NIM.MAki ina gišTUKUL GÁL-ši / NÍG.ŠU KUR-šú ana KUR šá-ni-ti-im-ma NIGIN-
ḫar / an-ni-ú šá ki-i 30 in-na-mar-u-ni / dIŠKUR GÙ-šú i-na-du-u-ni, “If Adad thunders
at the gate of the moon, there will be a fall of the army of Elam in battle; the possessions
of its land will be collected into another land. This (means) that Adad thunders when the
moon is seen.”
417
See Theuer 2000, 350, where this is seen analogue to Akkadian cylinder seals that de-
pict the rising sun flanked by trees.
418
See Shibata, HES (forthcoming) and Sjöberg 1960, 166–179.
419
For the attestations of the verb šupalkû see CAD N/1, 270–271.
420
The same motif with a slightly different wording can be found also K. 2751+//, 45’–
48’ (see the edition on p. 483ff. below). A similar passage is also found in the anti-witch-
craft ritual preserved in IM 148516, 6–10 (Fadhil 2018, 197–198).
 II.3. The Moon God as a Celestial Light 85

The radiant emergence of the moon as a moment of joy that reached cosmic pro-
portions is also described in the ikrib-prayers to Sîn.

K. 2751+//, 34’–36’421
O Sîn, you come out in radiant carnelian and lapis lazuli! At the sight of Sîn
the st[ars] are elated, the night rejoices!

A reference to humanity’s joy at the rising of the moon and the sun can also be
found in a passage included in one of the cylinder inscriptions of the Neo-Baby-
lonian king Neriglissar.

Da Riva 2013, C22, II 27–30

II 27 li-na-am-ri ta-mar-ti-šu
II 28 ki-ma d30 a-na ⌈ni⌉-⌈ip⌉-⌈ḫi⌉
II 29 ki-ma dUTU a-na nu-[wu]-⌈rí⌉-[im]
II 30 ṣa-al-ma-at qá-qá-dam li-iḫ-[du-ù]
May his appearance shine! Like Sîn at the rising, like Šamaš at
illu[mi]na[ting] may the people rejoice (over it)!

The concept of moonlight as a means of communication between Sîn and hu-

mankind, especially the king, is useful in understanding its significance.422 The
luminosity of the moon and its appearance in the sky sent signals about the di-
vine will to people, who diligently observed and interpreted the signs that com-
municated either divine favour or disfavour.423 Moreover, the darkening of the
moon due to a demonic attack against him rendered the moon god unable to
communicate his will: his brightness became blurred, and he fell silent.424 There-
fore, in respect to divination, the luminosity of the moon possesses a signific-
ance similar to the regularity of its cycle. Because the darkening of the moon,
caused either by Sîn’s own displeasure or an external attack, was a negation of
the moon god’s central aspect, his luminosity, it is not surprising to find the most
elaborate praise of Sîn’s illuminative powers in the prayer “Sîn 1”, which is at-
tested in connection with lunar eclipses. In its first ten lines, this prayer extols
the moon god as the unsurpassable celestial luminary, whose light is likened to
fire and to the sun.

421
See also K. 2751+//, 13’–15’ in the edition on p. 483ff. below.
422
As discussed in Cassin 1968, 41–42.
423
For the signs conveyed by the moon see the discussion on p. 156ff. below.
424
Udug-ḫul 16, 39 (Geller 2007, 179 and 252; Geller 2016, 509). For the concepts at-
tached to lunar eclipses see the discussion on p. 167ff. below.
86 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

“Sîn 1”, 1–10425

O Sîn, the splendid luminary, the foremost of the gods! O Sîn, the constantly
self-renewing one, the one who illuminates the darkness, the one who pro-
vides light for the teeming mankind: (down) to the black-headed people is
your radiance released! Bright is your glow in the r[adiant?] heavens, glori-
ous is your torch(var.: light), like Gira […]! Your awesome radiance fills the
wi[de] earth, the people become filled with pride (and) they vie with each
other to see you! O Anu of heaven, whose plan no one can comprehend, your
light is supreme like Šamaš, [your] first-born son!

Sîn’s activity as the illuminator of darkness (munammir ukli), is represented not

only here,426 but also in the anti-witchcraft ritual that was performed during the
full moon.427 Likewise, the short prayer to Sîn in a ritual against epilepsy in-
cludes the line “Sîn, you are the illuminator of the darkness!”428 This epithet has
also been found in a royal context as it was used as an epithet of the moon god
in the donation of a village to the moon god of Elumu by Assurbanipal.429 A
closely related epithet is munammir šamê u erṣeti, “illuminator of the heaven
and the earth”, which is found in two texts from Assur.430 In the syncretistic list,
which describes other deities in relation to Marduk, the moon god is said to be
Marduk as munammir mūši, “illuminator of the night”.431 Because the other deit-
ies in this list are presented with their respective principal qualities (e.g. the
weather god Adad is Marduk of rain), this attestation indicates Sîn’s essential
character as a nocturnal luminary. Another similar participle, mušaḫli ekleti, “il-
luminator of the darkness”, is used to describe the moon god, named Dilimbab-
bar/Namraṣīt, in the Eḫulḫul inscription of Assurbanipal.432 In addition to being
an illuminator, Sîn is a “provider of light/brightness”, šākin nūri(?) or šākin

425
See the edition on p. 452ff. below.
426
“Sîn 1”, 2 (see the edition on p. 452ff. below).
427
Si. 34(+)//, 15: [d3]0 ⌈ZÁLAG⌉ ⌈AN⌉-⌈e⌉ ⌈u⌉ ⌈KI⌉-]tim m]u-nam-mir uk-lu (see Schwe-
mer 2010, 487).
428
BM 47509+, r. 19: [d]30 mu-nam-mir ek-li at-ta (see Schuster-Brandis 2008, 268).
429
SAA 12 no. 90, r. 11: d30 EN GAL-u mu-nam-⌈mir⌉ uk-[li], “Sîn, the great lord, illu-
minator of the darkness”. For the moon god of Elumu see p. 415ff. below.
430
“Sîn 11”, 15: d30 mu-na-mir AN-e u KI.TIM.MEŠ (see the edition on p. 477ff. below);
KAL 4 no. 40, r.? 16: [... mu-na]m-mir AN-e u K[I-tim].
431
BM 47406 (CT 24, pl. 50), 8: dEN.ZU dAMAR.UTU mu-nam-mir mu-ši. This text is
transliterated in Parpola 1995a, 398–401. See also Uehlinger 2008, 65–67, where it is
noted that these deities are not aspects of Marduk as such, but Marduk is the ultimate di-
vine power who makes himself manifest through the actions of these various deities.
432
K. 8759+, 9: ⌈d⌉DILI.IM5.BABBAR ZÁLAG ⌈AN⌉.TA.MEŠ [mu-š]áḫ-li ek-[le-ti ...],
“Namraṣīt, light of the upper world, [the ill]uminator of dar[kness ...] (Pongratz-Leisten
1995, 551 and Novotny 2003, 231; see also the editon on p. 142ff. below).
 II.3. The Moon God as a Celestial Light 87

namirti, as the attestations in the prayers 4 R2 9+//433 and “Sîn 1” show.434

In addition to his ability to provide light to the cosmos, the character of Sîn is
described by various terms pertaining to luminosity, brilliance or radiance. In
“Sîn 1”, as we have already seen, the release of the moon god’s radiance
(šarūru) to the people is praised.435 As a term, šarūru designates not only the
glow and brilliance of celestial bodies, but also the divine radiance of gods and
their temples.436 In fact, the radiance of the moon serves as the epitome of šarūru
in analogies concerning the radiance of either manifestations of deities or other
divine objects.437 Likewise, the term namrīrū, “awe-inspiring radiance”, used in
descriptions of deities and numinous objects,438 is in “Sîn 1” utilised as a syn-
onym for the moonlight which fills the lands.439 This noun is often attested in
Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions as an element in Sîn’s epithets bēl namrīrī,
“lord of awesome radiance”;440 litbuš namrīrī, “clad in awesome radiance”;441
and šaqû namrīrī, “sublime in awesome radiance”.442 Another form of divine ra-
diance attached to Sîn is found in the epithet bēl melammē, “lord of awe-inspir-
ing radiance”, which is attested in a “love spell” from Assur.443 In the prayer
“Sîn 2”, the epithet rašbu, “awe-inspiring; fearsome”, is undoubtedly used as a
description of the moon god’s awesome divine splendour.444 In respect to lumin-
osity, the adjectives namru, “bright”,445 and šūpû, “splendid”,446 are important for

433
4 R2 9+//, 20 (see the citation on p. 84 above).
434
“Sîn 1”, 3 (see the edition on p. 452ff. below).
435
“Sîn 1”, 4 (see the edition on p. 452ff. below).
436
See CAD Š/2, 140–143 as well as the remarks made in Winter 1994, 127–128.
437
One eršema to Marduk (umun-ĝu10 za-e, 13–15) beseeches him not to obscure his ap-
pearance/radiance as the moon does: “Like the Sun, do not enter the clouds! Like the
Moon, do not be obscured at your appearance (Akk.: do not obscure the radiance of your
rising)! Honoured one, like the Moon, (do not be obscured) at your appearance!” (Gab-
bay 2015a, 90). The radiance of a consecrated bull is hoped to grow like the moon
(dNanna/dNannāri) in a Late Babylonian ritual related to the covering of the lilissu-drum
(W.20030/1, 35–36; see the edition in Mayer 1978, 432–434).
438
See CAD N/1, 237–238 and Cassin 1968, 2–3.
439
“Sîn 1”, 7 (see the edition on p. 452ff. below).
440
RIMA 2, A.0.100.1, 5 and RIMA 3, A.0.102.10, 7: d30 MAN a-ge-e EN nam-ri-ri.
441
RIMA 3, A.0.105.2, 6: d30 dŠEŠ.<KI> AN u KI na-ši SI.MEŠ MAḪ.MEŠ šá lit-bu-šú
nam-ri-ri.
442
RIMA 2, A.0.101.17, I 4–5 and RIMA 2, A.0.101.20, 5: d30 er-šu EN a-ge-e ⌈LAL⌉-ú /
nam-ri-ri; RIMA 3, A.0.102.6, 6: d30 MAN a-ge-e ša-qu-ú nam-ri-ri; RIMA 3,
A.0.102.14, 6: ⌈d⌉[Sîn eršu] LUGAL a-ge-e šá-qu-ú nam-ri-ri.
443
KAR 69, 22: d30 EN mé-lam-me-e (Biggs 1967, 76).
444
“Sîn 2”, 6: raš-bu d30 (see the edition on p. 462ff. below).
445
See CAD N/1, 239–244.
446
See CAD Š/3, 328–329. This adjective, derived from the verb (w)apû, “to become vis-
ible”, is particularly used to describe celestial bodies.
88 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

the portrayals of the moon god. He is praised as ilu namru, “bright god”, in the
prayer “Sîn 2”,447 and more frequently as nannāru namru, “bright luminary”, for
which attestations are found in the inscriptions of Tiglath-pileser III,448 Esarhad-
don,449 and Assurbanipal.450 The epithet nannāru šūpû, “splendid luminary”, is
prominently displayed in the incipit of the prayer “Sîn 1”,451 but a remarkable
concentration of uses of the adjective šūpû is also found in the ikrib-prayers to
Sîn.452 In this context, Sîn is called ilu šūpû, “splendid god”,453 šūpû, “splendid
one”,454 rubû šūpû, “splendid prince”,455 and perhaps šūpû ša Ekur, “splendid
one of Ekur”456 – the last epithet is also found in the prayer “Sîn 1”.457
In the same group as epithets focusing on Sîn’s luminosity are those that de-
scribe him with the adjective ellu (Sum. kù). In general, ellu is translated as
“pure” or “holy”, which are semantically related concepts in Akkadian and
Sumerian.458 However, without discarding the notion of “purity” or “holiness”,
the translation “radiant” is better suited for this adjective in connection with the
moon as a radiant celestial object.459 As recent evaluations of the semantic scope
of the term “pure” in Akkadian have shown, the underlying concept of radiance,
which in some cases can take a numinous aspect,460 is very applicable to the de-
scription of the moon as a celestial light. In its simplest form, Sîn is called ilu

447
“Sîn 2”, 3: DINGIR nam-ru (see the edition on p. 462 below). Note also the aforemen-
tioned name dZálag(-ga) for Sîn (see p. 78 above).
448
RINAP 1 no. 35, I 8 & RINAP 1 no. 37, 5: [d30] na-an-na-ru nam-ru na-din gišGIDRU
a-ge-e mu-kin be-lu-ti.
449
RINAP 4 no. 98, 5: d30 dNANNA nam-ru mu-dam-mì-iq GISKIM.MEŠ-ia.
450
Assurbanipal Prism B, V 78–79 and Assurbanipal Prism C, VI 80–81 (Borger 1996,
103 and 225 [RINAP 5/I nos. 3 and 6]; see also the citation on p. 36 above).
451
“Sîn 1”, 1 (see the edition on p. 452ff. below).
452
See the edition of K. 2751+// on p. 483ff. below.
453
K. 2751+//, 58’.
454
K. 2751+//, 4’ and 28’.
455
K. 2751+//, 7’ and 30’.
456
K. 2751+//, 24’.
457
“Sîn 1”, 14 (see the edition on p. 452ff. below). For the genealogical relationship
between Sîn and Enlil expressed through this epithet see p. 291ff. below.
458
The aspects of cleanliness and holiness in the Mesopotamian terms ellu (Sum. kù) and
ebbu (Sum. dadag) have been discussed in van der Toorn 1985, 27–29, Wilson 1994, 67–
83, and Sallaberger 2007, 295. For two more recent contributions see Pongratz-Leisten
2009, 409–427 and Feder 2014, 87–113.
459
As in Tallqvist 1938a, 444, where ellu is found in the category “hell, strahlend”. In
CAD E, 104 such uses for ellu are listed under the category for “shining purity”.
460
The basic meaning “radiant”, which can be adopted to signify purity or holiness in
particular contexts, has been suggested in Feder 2014, 106–111. The connection to the
radiance of stones, glazed bricks, and the sky should especially be noted in this respect
(see the discussion in Feder 2014, 95–96).
 II.3. The Moon God as a Celestial Light 89

ellu, “radiant god”– this is an epithet that is attested in the inscriptions of Sargon
II,461 Sennacherib,462 Esarhaddon,463 Assurbanipal,464 and Nabonidus.465 The as-
pect of celestial radiance attached to the adjective ellu is suggested by the epi-
thet nannāru ellu ša šamê, “radiant luminary of heaven”, which is found in the
lamentation “The Honoured One Who Wanders About” (e-lum di-da-ra).466 In
this case, the Sumerian equivalent of this Akkadian epithet is “radiant growing
horn of heaven” (si mú kù an-na), denoting the waxing crescent moon.467 Sîn is
also paired in this respect with the sun god Šamaš: together these two gods are
called ilānū ellūtu, “radiant gods”, by Assurnaṣirpal II.468 One of the ikrib-pray-
ers to Sîn refers to him as “radiant, bright god” (ilu ellu namru) in its incipit, and
continues to use the adjective ellu to describe him in its later lines.469 This partic-
ular prayer is especially significant for evaluating the applicability of the transla-
tion “radiant” for ellu in this context since it describes the moonrise with vivid
figurative language. Most importantly, the moon that has become visible in the
night sky is portrayed as coming out like “radiant carnelian and lapis lazuli”.
This, in turn, forms a connection with the use of ellu as a term for radiance in
descriptions of precious stones and the moon. Two further epithets of Sîn that
are formed with the adjective ellu are attested. In the context of prayers, the in-
cipit of “Sîn 11” is ilu ellu ša ša[mê] ellū[ti], “[Sî]n, radiant god of the radiant
hea[vens]”.470 In a similar vein, a Neo-Assyrian oracle query concerning a lunar
eclipse includes the epithet nannār šamê ellūti, “luminary of the radiant heav-
ens”, for Sîn.471
The luminous quality of the moon can also be found in the figurative lan-
guage in which the noun nannāru is used to describe radiating light. An example
of such a metaphor can be found in an inscription of Sargon II that recounts the
construction of temples and palaces in Dūr-Šarrukīn.472

461
OIP 38, 130 no. 3, 1–2: dEN.ZU DINGIR KÙ KU5-is EŠ.BAR mu-šak-lim / ṣa-ad-di
a-na I20–GIN (Fuchs 1994, 280; see also the citation of this inscription on p. 428 below).
462
RINAP 3 no. 36, 4: e-deš-šu-ú DINGIR KÙ ša GISKIM-šú la il-lam-⌈ma⌉-[du ...] (see
also the citation on p. 160 below).
463
RINAP 4 no. 48, 5: d30 e-deš-šú-u DINGIR KÙ KU5-is EŠ.BAR mu-šak-lim ṣa-ad-di.
464 4
L , I 13: [d3]0 ⌈DINGIR el-lu⌉ áš-šú e-peš LUGAL-ti-ia uš-tak-li-ma munusSIG5 it-⌈tum⌉
(Novotny 2014, 77 and 96).
465
Schaudig 2001, 2.7, II 29: dEN.ZU DINGIR el-lu EN a-gi-i nu-úr te-né-še-e-ti.
466
e-lum di-da-ra, b+86 (Cohen 1988, 179–180 and 183; also cited on p. 148 below).
467
For this connotation of the appellation nannāru see the discussion on p. 31ff. above.
468
RIMA 2, A.0.101.1, III 90: d30 u dUTU DINGIR.MEŠ KÙ.MEŠ.
469
K. 2751+//, 23’; also the ll. 47’ and 57’ (see the edition on p. 483ff. below).
470
“Sîn 11”, 1: [ÉN d3]0 DINGIR ⌈KÙ⌉ šá ⌈šá⌉-[me e] KÙ.ME[Š] (see p. 477ff. below).
471
K. 2884, 12: d30 na-an-nar AN-e KÙ.MEŠ (Lambert 2007, 44–47; see also the cita-
tion on p. 168 below).
472
The only other attestation listed in CAD N/1, 260 is found in SBH no. VIII, II 16 (see
90 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

AO 21371, 25–29473
25 ú-ma-am KUR-i u ti-amti ina a-ban
26 KUR-i zaq-ri ina nik-lat dNin-[zadim]
27 ú-[še]-piš-ma i-na qé-{re-bé}-ši-na
28 [KUR.MEŠ]-{niš} ú-šar-šid-ma né-reb-ši-na
d
29 Nanna-re-eš ú-šaḫ-l[i]
I had animals of the mountains and the sea made out of massive mountain
stones through the skill of Nin[zadim], installed (them) firmly like [moun-
tains] to them (i.e. the palaces) and made their entrances resplendent like the
(divine) luminary.

Here the noun nannāru is used with the adverbial ending -iš in order to form a
description of the light emanating from the stone colossi that were erected at the
entrances of palaces.474 Furthermore, at the scribal level, a direct reference to the
moon god was made by the to use the logogram dNanna instead of a syllabic
spelling.475 This suggests that, like the sun god Šamaš who has this role in Neo-
Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian inscriptions in general, the moon god on this oc-
casion was seen as an archetype of divine radiance.476

II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time
There can be no study of the moon god without a discussion of the concept of
time. The moon was an essential indicator of time in pre-modern societies, and
he played this role also in Mesopotamia: the lunar cycle defined the boundaries
of a month as a temporal unit. In the following chapters, Sîn’s relationship to the
prevailing concepts of time in Assyria and Babylonia will first be discussed. As
will be seen, in this respect, Sîn’s agency existed in connection with that of
Šamaš, the sun god. Together, these two deities were the principal indicators of
time, ruling the diurnal cycle, the months, and the year, as their epithets show.

Matsushima 1987, 159). On that occasion a lunar metaphor is employed to describe the
god Nabû as shining forth from Ezida. The use of lunar metaphors in connection with
Nabû during the Late Babylonian period is briefly discussed on p. 149 below.
473
Fuchs 1994, 49–50 and 298–299.
474
For the radiance as a quality of Mesopotamian buildings see Winter 1994, 123–132
and Pongratz-Leisten 2009, 409–427.
475
See the discussion on p. 31ff. above.
476
See e.g. the description of Eḫulḫul’s building work in Schaudig 2001, 2.12, II 11 (Ex.
11): KÙ.BABBAR ù KÙ.SI22 É.GAR.MEŠ-šu ú-šal-biš-ma ú-šá-an-bi-iṭ dUTU-ši-niš, “I
decorated its walls with silver and gold and let it shine like the sun”. See also Winter
1994, 124 and Pongratz-Leisten 2009, 425. Note that the verb that is used in this context
(ušaḫli, “he made resplendent”) is the same as the one used in the epithet mušaḫli ekleti
for Sîn (see p. 86 above). For other attestations of the verb ḫelû, “to shine”, especially in
connection with the sun god Šamaš see CAD Ḫ, 169.
 II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 91

Second, the lunar month will be outlined from the viewpoint of activities related
to Sîn that are attested to have taken place on particular days of the month (e.g.
rituals before Sîn and offerings to him). When possible, the relationship of these
activities to a specific point in the lunar cycle will be discussed. As will be
shown, the events related to Sîn are associated with the main points in the lunar
cycle that, according to the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian sources, had in-
tervals of approximately seven days: beginning with the reappearance of the
moon in the sky on the first day of the month to the time of the waxing half
moon, the full moon, the time of the waning half moon, and lastly to the days of
the moon’s invisibility.

II.4.1. The Moon God and Time

Observations of the moon as the celestial manifestation of the moon god formed
one of the foundations for the Mesopotamian systems of time-keeping and
calendars; because of its regular cycle and clearly visible variations, the moon is
an ideal indicator of time.477 As shown by the mythological accounts concerning
the moon’s role in the cosmos as a time indicator,478 and by the epithets used to
describe Sîn in this respect,479 the moon was responsible for determining the
perimeters of the major temporal units: days, months, and years. Naturally, the
moon was not the only celestial object under observation, but the system of lun-
ar months was embedded within a larger scheme that also relied on the move-

477
In the terms introduced by M. Nilsson, the Mesopotamian calendar system based on
lunar observations falls into the category of time indication rather than time reckoning
(Nilsson 1920, 9–10). The concept of time indication includes the observation of events
that mark the passing of time – the first appearance of the moon at the beginning of the
lunar cycle, full moon, migration of birds according to the seasons, regnal years of a
ruler, etc. – but do not form an actual continuous system of counting time units. A system
of time indication does not, however, exclude the existence of a system of time reckon-
ing since time indication and time reckoning involve different levels of social interaction.
As presented in Iwaniszewski 2012, 312–313 in connection with lunar calendars of pre-
Hispanic America, the time indicatory events always have relevance for the society it-
self: they are events that are important for the people who make the observations. This
social context is emphasised by Iwaniszewski, who maintains that in many non-modern
societies, lunar or celestial observations were not primarily made because they provided
a tool for the intellectual search for a time reckoning system, but because the observa-
tions were socially important in connection with economic, political and ritual activities,
and in relation to meteorological and earthly events. This can also be seen in ancient
Mesopotamia, where the observation of lunar phases was tightly bound to different
spheres of social interaction: it was not only the prerequisite for the calendrical system
that was significant both in cultic and economic contexts, but it also formed the basis for
celestial divination.
478
See p. 93ff. below.
479
See p. 96ff. below.
92 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

ments of the sun, the planets, the individual stars, and the constellations.480 This
was a system in which the moon and the stars were the main indicators of tem-
poral divisions between individual days of the month and the individual months
of the year. The sun, although it naturally designated the sunlit part of the diurn-
al cycle, had a much smaller role in designating units of time.481
The Mesopotamian day began in the evening after sunset, and in a similar
fashion the month began when the lunar crescent reappeared in the sky after its
period of invisibility. This resulted in a month of either 29 or 30 days. If the
crescent moon was visible in the evening, i.e. the beginning, of the 30th day, the
day would be “turned back” (turru) and that day would become the 1st day of the
next month. In this case, the month would have 29 days instead of 30. If the
crescent moon was not visible at the beginning of the 30th day, that day would be
“confirmed” and become the 30th day of the month.482 Because the lunar cycle
never exceeds 30 days, the month ended automatically after the 30th day. A
length of 30 days was considered to be the ideal or normal span for a month, as
is stated in the astrological report SAA 8 no. 87,483 and it was the schematic
length of a month in economic documents. More importantly from the perspect-
ive of this study, this ideal lunar month is portrayed in the numeric writing of the
moon god’s name, d30.484 The observation of the moon on the 1st day of the new
month was deeply rooted in Mesopotamian astrology since this was the time
when divine decisions made during the conjunction of the moon and the sun
were made manifest.485 The full moon, schematically visible on the 15th day of
the month, was the other significant point in the lunar cycle, diligently observed
and reported.486 Again, these observations had practical purposes in determining
the mid-point of the month, but they also had other associations: during their op-
position on the 15th day, Sîn and Šamaš decreed verdicts and made decisions
concerning the land and the humankind. The role of the moon in relation to the

480
See especially the overviews in Verderame 2006–2008, 121–134; Steele 2007, 133–
148; Steele 2011, 470–485, and Steele 2012, 373–387. The significance of the ideal year
in relation to celestial divination is discussed in Maul 2013a, 254–260.
481
Horowitz 2012, 9. See also Verderame 2006–2008, 128–129 noting that the roles of
both the moon and the sun have to be taken into consideration in this respect.
482
The use of this terminology is discussed in Beaulieu 1993c, 67–69. See also Parpola
1983, 88.
483
SAA 8 no. 87, 5–6: [mi-na-at] ITI / [UD.30.KÁM] ú-šal-lam-ma, “[The (normal)
length] of the month (means) that it will complete [the 30th day].” Reports informing the
king that the month has reached this ideal length reveal that this was a very propitious
sign (passim in SAA 8).
484
See also the discussion on p. 28ff. above.
485
See p. 150ff. below.
486
See the further discussion concerning the 15th day on p. 106ff. below. The observations
of the full moon are attested passim in the astrological reports in SAA 8.
 II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 93

year as a temporal unit can be seen in its ideal conjunction with the constellation
Zappu (Pleiades) on the 1st of Nisannu.487
The mythological background for the movements of the moon can be found
in two 1st millennium BCE sources. The most extensive description of the lunar
cycle as it was perceived by the Babylonians is embedded in the creation epic
Enūma eliš, in the passage that describes how the god Marduk created the cos-
mos after his battle against Tiamat.488

Enūma eliš V, 12–22489

d
12 Nanna-ru uš-te-pa-a mu-šá iq-ti-pa
13 ú-ad-di-šum-ma šu-uk-nat mu-ši a-na ud-du-ú u4-mi
14 ar-ḫi-šam la na-par-ka-a ina AGA ú-ṣir
15 i-na reš ITI-ma na-pa-ḫi e-[l]i ma-a-ti
16 qar-ni na-ba-a-ta a-na ud-du-ú za-ka-ri u4-mu490
17 i-na UD.7.KÁM a-ga-a [maš]-la
18 [š]a-pat-tu lu-ú šu-tam-ḫu-rat mi-ši[l ar-ḫi]-šam
19 i-[n]u-ma dUTU i-na i-šid AN-e ina-[aṭ-ṭa-l]u-ka
20 ina [s]i-[i]m-ti šu-tak-ṣi-ba-am-ma bi-ni ar-ka-niš
21 [bu-ub-bu-l]um a-na ḫar-ra-an dUTU šu-taq-rib-ma
22 šá [x (x) UD.3]0.KÁM lu šu-tam-ḫu-rat dUTU lu šá-na-at
He made Nannāru come forth and then entrusted to him the night,
he assigned to him the jewel of the night491 to distinguish the days.
Monthly, without ceasing, he made him sublime with a crown, (saying):
“At the beginning of the month, as (you) light up ab[o]ve the land,
you will shine with horns to mark the calling of the days.
On the seventh day, the crown will be [ha]lf.
On the fifteenth day, in the midd[le of] each [month], may you stand in
opposition.
W[h]en Šamaš s[ee]s you on the horizon,
diminish in the p[ro]per stages and grow backwards.
[On the day of disappeara]nce, draw near to the path of Šamaš and

487
MUL.APIN II, Gap A 8: [DIŠ ina itiBÁRA UD.1.K]AM MUL.MUL u d30 šit-qu-lu
MU BI GI.NA-ta, “[If on the 1s]t [day of Nisannu] Zappu and Sîn are in conjunction,
this year is normal” (see Hunger & Pingree 1989, 89).
488
This order that was set in place by Marduk was further discussed in scholarly works
like i-NAM-ĝiš-ḫur-an-ki-a (see Lambert 2013, 186–192).
489
See the editions in Kämmerer & Metzler 2012, 230–232 and Lambert 2013, 98–99 as
well as the translation in Maul 2013a, 257–258.
490
Previously reconstructed as qar-ni na-ba-a-ta ana ud-du-ú [6 u4]-mi (see Kämmerer &
Metzler 2012, 230).
491
šuknat mūši, “jewel of the night”, is the Akkadian translation of the Sumerian name
d
Gi16-sa-an-na found in An = Anum III, 12 (see Litke 1998, 117).
94 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

[... on the 3]0th day may you stand in conjunction and be equal to Šamaš.

In this short passage the main phases of the lunar cycle according to the Meso-
potamian thinking – and thus the primary forms of the moon and the moon
god – are represented. At its first appearance at the beginning of the cycle, the
crescent moon defines the beginning of the lunar month. After the waxing phase,
it reaches the point when the full moon can be seen in opposition to the sun,
after which the waning phase begins. At the end of the cycle the moon disap-
pears completely, because it stands in conjunction with the sun. The endless re-
newal of the moon from month to month, the movement of the moon through
the different regions of the heavens, as well as the relationship between Sîn and
Šamaš, two deities who complement each other, is portrayed here. As Eleanor
Robson has observed, the lunar cycle was also represented in the performance of
the New Year festival in which the Enūma eliš was recited. The main themes of
the epic – creation, destruction, and renewal – are precisely the main qualities of
the moon as a heavenly object: it is born each month, and after it reaches its cul-
mination during the full moon it declines and perishes, only to become visible
again after its days of invisibility.492
Similar reflections concerning the significance of the moon and the sun are
found in the opening passage of the astrological series EAE. The two versions
present, the Sumerian and the Akkadian, deal with the issue of determining time
but they give importance to different deities. In the Sumerian passage, it is the
moon god Sîn whose barge (má-gur8) is established in the heavens, and the ap-
pearance of the crescent moon in heaven followed by its waxing phase is juxta-
posed with the signs of the heaven and earth.493

EAE 1, §0a494
ud An dEn-líl dEn-ki diĝir-gal-gal-e-ne ĝalga-ne-ne gi-na-ta me gal-gal an-ki-
a má-gur8 dSuen-na mu-un-gi-ne-eš u4-sakar mú-mú-da iti ù-tu-ud-da ù
giskim an-ki-a mu-un-gi-ne-eš má-gur8 an-na ní pa-è ak-a-dè495 šà-an-na igi-
bar-ra-ta è
When An, Enlil (and) Enki, the great gods, established with their firm coun-
sel the great me-powers of the heaven and the earth (and) the barge of Sîn,
they established the crescent moon to grow, to give birth to the month, and to

492
Robson 2004, 82.
493
For the moon as a boat see the discussion on p. 45. The commentary to these lines
(82-7-14, 4005) is cited on p. 33 in connection the appellation Nannāru for Sîn.
494
See the editions of this passage in Koch-Westenholz 1995, 77; Verderame 2002b, 9
and 13; Lambert 2013, 176; and Jiménez 2014b (CCP 3.1.1.C).
495
The reading ní for IM here is introduced in Jiménez 2014b, line 6 (with further attesta-
tions of the formulation ní pa ... è ak).
 II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 95

be the omen-bearer of heaven and earth.The barge of heaven, to make him-

self visible (and) to be seen, emerged in the middle of the sky .

The second, Akkadian section does not mention Sîn at all: the focus is on the
sun god Šamaš, who emerges from the gates of heaven.496

EAE 1, §0b497
ša-ni-iš e-nu-ma dA-num dEn-líl dÉ-a DINGIR.MEŠ GAL.MEŠ ina mil-ki-šú-
nu ki-i-nu GIŠ.ḪUR.MEŠ AN-e u KI-tim iš-ku-nu ana ŠU DINGIR.MEŠ
GAL.MEŠ ú-kin-nu u4-mu ba-na-a ITI ud-du-šu ša ta-mar-ti a-me-lut-tum
d
UTU ina ŠÀ KÁ È-šú i-mu-ru qé-reb AN-e u KI-tim ki-niš uš-ta-mu-ú498
Secondly: When Anu, Enlil (and) Ea, the great gods, set up the plans of heav-
en and earth with their firm counsel (and) assigned (them) to the great gods:
the day to grow, the month to renew, (the things) for the humankind to ob-
serve(?), they saw Šamaš as he emerged from the gate, (and) they faithfully
took counsel in heaven and earth.

That the Sumerian passage focuses on the moon god and the Akkadian on the
sun god underlines the notion that was already present in the account concerning
the creation of the moon in the Enūma eliš, namely the collaboration between
Sîn and Šamaš.499 The complementary roles of these two deities are best seen in
the two halves of the diurnal cycle: night and day. As expressed in the Exaltation
of Inanna, the gods Anu, Enlil, and Ea divided the night and the day equally
between Sîn and Šamaš.500

Exaltation of Inanna, 49–56501

49 saĝ-tab an dEn-líl dEn-ki-ke4 níĝ-ḫal-ḫal ba-an-<ba>-eš-a-ta
50 šur-ru-ú dA-nu dEn-líl u dÉ-a ú-za-’i-i-zu zi-za-a-tim
51 [diĝir-mìn]-na-bi en-nu-un an-ki-a ĝišig-an-na ĝál-la-ar

496
For the gates of heaven as a passage for Sîn and Šamaš see p. 82ff. above.
497
See the editions of this passage in Koch-Westenholz 1995, 77; Verderame 2002b, 9
and 13; Lambert 2013, 176; and Jiménez 2014b (CCP 3.1.1.C).
498
The suggested verbal form uš-ta-pu-ú (corresponding to the verb in the Sumerian pas-
sage; see Koch-Westenholz 1995, 77 and Verderame 2002b, 9) is not possible because
the signs in the tablet clearly are uš-ta-mu-ú (see the photographs in Jiménez 2014b
[CCP 3.1.1.C]).
499
As discussed in Verderame 2006–2008, 126–128.
500
It should, however, be noted that depending on the phase of the lunar cycle the moon
can also be visible during the sunlit hours of the day (see the overview of lunar phases on
p. 18). Therefore the manifestation of the moon god in the sky is not restricted solely to
the nighttime.
501
See the edition in Hruška 1969, 484.
96 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

52 ana DINGIR.MEŠ ki-lal-la-an ma-aṣ-ṣa-ar AN-e u KI-tim pe-tu-ú

da-lat dA-nu
d
53 Nanna dUtu-ra giĝi6 u4-da šu-ta-ta an-ni-ši-íb-si
54 ana d30 u dUTU u4-mu u mu-ši ma-al-ma-liš ba-šim-ma
55 an-úr-ta an-pa-šú-šè á-dù-a-bi im-ta-an-zu-zu-ne
56 iš-tu i-šid AN-e ana e-lat AN-e a-da-šú-nu ú-ta-ad-du-nu
(At) the beginning, after An, Enlil (and) Enki divided the shares (Akk.: (At)
the beginning Anu, Enlil, and Ea divided the shares), for the both gods, the watch-
ers of the heaven and the earth, the openers of the doors of heaven, the night
and the day were created equally for Sîn and Šamaš, and their tasks from the
horizon to the zenith were assigned (to them).

The notion that night was under the authority of Sîn and the daytime hours be-
longed to Šamaš is also portrayed in the expression Sîn ša mūši Šamaš ša kal
ūmi, “Sîn of the night, Šamaš of every day”, which is used to beseech Sîn and
Šamaš on multiple occasions.502 Similarly, a bilingual litany containing adjura-
tions by different cosmic forces – e.g. stars, sunset and sunrise, light and dark-
ness – defines Sîn and Šamaš by their authority concerning the day and the
night. This is done in connection with the concept of time, revealed by the adjur-
ation by day, month and year in the following line.

PBS 1/2 no. 115, I 11–12503

I 11 ⌈zi⌉ ⌈d⌉⌈Utu⌉ ⌈ud⌉-⌈da⌉ dĜiš-nu11 ĝi6-da ḫé(-pà)
niš dUTU šá u4-mu d30 šá mu-šu
I 12 zi ud sakar-ud504 mu-a ḫé(-pà)
niš u4-mu ár-ḫu u šat-ti
Be (adjured) by Utu/Šamaš of the day, Sîn of the night!
Be (adjured) by the day, the month (and) the year!

One of the tasks of Sîn and Šamaš was to define the boundaries of temporal
units, beginning with the day and extending to the yearly cycle. The Akkadian
prayer “Sîn & Šamaš 1” praises them as deities who “daily inspect the measure

502
See the prayer “Sîn & Šamaš 1” in CBS 1516, r. 4 (edition on p. 520ff. below). This
same expression can also be found in K. 1939+, r. 2–3: d+EN.ZU u dUTU DINGIR.MEŠ
[x x x] / d+EN.ZU ša mu-ši d[UTU ša kal ūmi] (unpubl.). See also the citation of BM
38272, 3 in CAD U–W, 142 with this formulation.
503
Edited in Ebeling 1953b, 379–380. See also the citations in CAD A/2, 259 and CAD
M/2, 292.
504
This sign is copied as GA in PBS 1/2, no. 115, but the accuracy of the copy was
already in doubt in Ebeling 1953b, 379. The collation of the signs given in Lambert apud
Müller-Kessler 2002, 189 is confirmed by the photograph of the tablet (CDLI P268872).
 II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 97

of the day, the month and the year”.505 However, Sîn alone is also praised as the
god who determines the boundaries of these temporal units.506 This is shown by
the epithet mu’addû ūmi arḫi u šatti, “one who determines the day, the month
and the year”, in Assurbanipal’s inscription for Eḫulḫul.507 Moreover, two names
for Sîn in the god-list fragment K. 4559 directly attribute control over time to
him: dŠākin-arḫi, “He who establishes the month”, and dMukīn-arḫi, “He who
fixes the month”.508 In addition to the notion of control over time, another
concept is present in a prayer to Sîn preserved in Assur: here he is presented as
the creator of the three temporal units: the day, the month, and the year.509
Moreover, Sîn is the lord of the month according to his epithet bēl arḫi, which is
attested alone510 and also as a part of the title of the royal hemerology Inbu bēl
arḫi.511 Significant in this respect is also his epithet “lord of the month’s deci-
sions” (bēl purussê arḫi), which combines his power over divine decision-mak-
ing with the month as temporal unit.512 Sîn and Šamaš’ control of time is also
thematised in the procedure intended to prevent births from taking place during
the month Nisannu.513 In this procedure, an appeal to allow the pregnancy reach
the desired term is made to both Sîn and Šamaš, thus building an association
between these two deities and the passage of time.
The collaboration of Sîn and Šamaš in respect to time is also reflected in the
way they are praised in “Sîn & Šamaš 1” in connection with establishing the
daily provisions for both the Igigū and Anunnakū gods.514

505
CBS 1516, r. 6: mìn-da-at u4-mi ITI u MU IGI.BAR-s[a u4-mi]-šam (see the edition on
p. 520ff. below).
506
See Tallqvist 1938a, 446.
507
K. 8759+, 3: [m]u-ad-du-ú u4-me ITI u [šatti ...] (Pongratz-Leisten 1995, 551; Novot-
ny 2003, 231. See also the citation of this passage on p. 142 below).
508
K. 4559 (CT 25, pl. 42), 1’–2’: ⌈d⌉Šá-kin-ar-ḫi | MIN / dMu-kin-ar-ḫi | MIN. These
names are followed by the appellation Ellammê (see p. 68ff. above; see also Krebernik
1995, 363).
509
KAL 4 no. 40, r.? 12’: [... b]a?-nu-u u4-mu ITI u [šatti], “[... cr]eator of the day, the
month and [the year]”.
510
Šurpu IV, 92: li-iz-zi-is d30 EN ITI li-pa-áš-šir ma-ma-ti-šú, “May Sîn, lord of the
month, stand by, may he undo his oaths!” (Reiner 1958, 28).
511
This title is preserved e.g. in the colophon of K. 4231, the eight tablet of Inbu bēl arḫi
(see Livingstone 2013, 217 and Marti 2014, 186). For the appellation inbu, “fruit”, for
Sîn see the discussion on p. 54ff. above. See also the brief remarks on inbu bēl arḫi as an
epithet of Sîn in Jiménez 2016, 202–204 note 27.
512
See p. 152 below.
513
VAT 8004// (see the edition on p. 507ff. below).
514
Note also the reference to Sîn as the establisher of daily offerings in 4 R2 9+//, 16: nid-
ba mu-⌈un-gi-eš-àm⌉ / mu-kin nin-⌈da⌉-bé-e (see Shibata, HES, forthcoming and Sjöberg
1960, 167 and 170).
98 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

CBS 1516, r. 10–12515

Without you the regular offering is not arranged among the Igigū-gods, you
illuminate the Anunnakū-gods like the daylight, you prepare their provisions
and you take care of their living quarters!

It is plausible that this praise relates to the role of the sun and the moon in the
daily temple cult as well as to their journey through the Netherworld during their
invisibility.

II.4.2. The Lunar Month and the Days Connected to Sîn

As we have already seen, the moon and its cycle served to define the boundaries
of the month and the sequence of individual days within it (i.e. the date in the
lunar month). Thus, the moon was the indicator of specific days in the temple
cult as well as in the lives of ordinary people. The most significant lunar
phases – the reappearance of the lunar crescent in the sky and the full moon –
are consequently already attested as festival days in the earliest records of
temple cult in Mesopotamia.516 Still, these festivals were not moon festivals as
such, but they honoured the main deity of each city: Enlil and Ninlil in Nippur;
Nanna and Ningal in Ur, and so forth. That specific lunar phases and festivals
formed constituents of the month is exemplified by the formulations which use
them to identify the most important individual days within one month. An ex-
ample of this can be found in the lipšur-litanies which include an adjuration by
“the day of eve(ning) festival, the day of eššēšu-festival, the 15th day, the 19th
day, the 20th day, the day of moon’s invisibility, the 30th day, the day, the month,
and the year”.517 Furthermore, an incantation in the fourth tablet of Muššu’u
names the seventh day of the month together with the period of the moon’s in-
visibility as the points of time when the sins of the petitioner will be absolved.518
These examples reveal a schedule of festivals and ritually significant days fo-
cused on the main phases of the moon and their ideal days in the lunar month.519
Still, as has already been pointed out, while the date of these monthly festivals
was indicated by the moon, they did not necessarily celebrate the moon god.

515
See the edition on p. 520ff. below.
516
For an overview concerning the organisation of the main festivities within the lunar
cycle see especially Landsberger 1915, 93–100; Hallo 1977, 4–9; Hall 1985, 287–311;
Stol 1992, 247; Sallaberger 1993, 38–40; and Cohen 2015, 89.
517
KAL 10 no. 36 (AO 6775), r. 14–15: [U]D nu-bat-tum UD.ÈŠ.ÈŠ UD.15.KÁM
UD.19.KÁM UD.20.KÁM UD.NÁ.ÀM [U]D.30.KÁM u4-mu ITI u MU.AN.NA (see
also Nougayrol 1947, 331 as well as Wiseman 1969, 179 and 182.
518
Muššu’u IV, 18: UD.7.KAM UD.NÁ.ÀM BÚR.MEŠ ár-ni-ka, “May they absolve
your sins on 7th day and the day of the moon’s invisibility!” (Böck 2007, 153 and 170).
519
Similarly, the ideal scheme of the lunar phases is visible in astrological-astronomical
literature, e.g. in i-NAM-ĝiš-ḫur-an-ki-a (see Brown 2000, 113–114).
 II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 99

In the following chapters, an overview of the individual days in the lunar

month that are attested to have had a connection to Sîn and his cult will be
provided. In this respect, a major source of information is the corpus of hemero-
logical texts that prescribe offerings, ritual actions, or restrictions for particular
days. Since the preserved documentation for the temple cult of the moon god for
this period is practically non-existent,520 the schedule of offerings in his temples
or sanctuaries remains, unfortunately, largely unknown. All activities concern-
ing, or references to, Sîn for which both its specific day within the lunar cycle
and its specific month are known, are presented in a table for an accessible over-
view of the important dates (see Tables 6–13 on p. 129–135 below). As we shall
see, almost every day was associated with Sîn in some way, either through ritual
actions or hemerological remarks. The references are largely to the point: they
name a specific event, e.g. a bread offering to Sîn, Šamaš, and Ningal on the 14th
of Nisannu according to the Offering Bread Hemerology.521 No references sur-
vive for only the 4th, 8th, and 19th days of the month. A plausible explanation for
the insignificance of these days in relation to the moon is their inconsequential
position within the cycle. A further contributing factor may also be that the 4th
and the 8th were the days of Nabû’s eššēšu-festival.522
As expected, the highest level of activity relating to the moon god occurred
during the main phases of the moon: new crescent, waxing half moon, full
moon, waning half moon, and the days of the moon’s invisibility. The signific-
ance of these phases pertained to the practical purposes of time reckoning as
well as to theological notions concerning divine communication. For this reason,
the reappearance of the new crescent indicated the beginning of the month, but it
also communicated divine decisions. Likewise, the full moon indicated the
middle of the lunar cycle, and it also marked the meeting between the moon god
and the sun god on opposite horizons. By the end of the month, during the invis-
ibility of the moon, the meeting of these two gods took place again during the
conjunction of the moon and the sun. Unfortunately, the precise reason why the
days directly preceding and following the full moon – the 13th and the 17th –
gained specific importance cannot be decided on the basis of the current evid-
ence. However, in the case of the 13th day, the day of the moon god’s festival, it
is plausible that its position on the “eve” of the full moon is highly significant.

II.4.2.1. 1st Day (Reappearance of the Moon)

The significance of the first day of the month – the day when the moon reap-
pears in the sky after its period of invisibility – in Mesopotamian culture was
immense. It was not only a prerequisite for the calendrical system used for priv-

520
See the discussion on p. 330ff. below.
521
See the discussion on p. 106 below.
522
See the overview in Livingstone 2013, 251.
100 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

ate economic transactions, but it established the framework for the monthly and
daily religious cult. The importance of the first day is best illustrated by its role
in the cultic calendar of the Ur III period when it was celebrated as a monthly
festival.523 This festival was not necessarily connected to the moon god himself
but was celebrated in honour of the tutelary deity of each city.524
In the case of the moon god’s cult in the 1st millennium BCE, any practices
or conceptions connected to the first day of the month remain largely obscure
because the documentation concerning his cult both in Babylonia and Assyria is
very sparse. An offering to Sîn on the first day of the month is prominently
present only in the royal hemerology Inbu bēl arḫi. According to the entries for
the first day of each month, when the moon makes its reappearance in the sky,
the king should sacrifice a pure gazelle to the moon god who, is designated by
the appellation inbu, “Fruit”.525 The following morning, another offering is
presented to Šamaš and Bēlet-mātāti as well as to Sîn and Bēlet-ilī.526 The first
offering has three significant aspects. First, it is clearly specified that the gazelle
offering should take place during the night (ina mūši).527 This must refer to the
brief appearance of the crescent moon directly after sunset, i.e. at the beginning
of the night. Second, this nocturnal offering is the first of only two monthly of-
ferings made to Sîn alone in Inbu bēl arḫi: only on the 1st and the 11th days of the
month was Sîn the recipient of an offering given solely to him.528 Third, the use
of a gazelle as a sacrificial animal occurs rarely in the 1st millennium BCE
sources.529 This suggests the existence of conceptual implications that unfortu-
nately escape us. A wild gazelle certainly denotes the wilderness in contrast to
domestic sheep or cattle; this is underlined by the gazelle hunting scenes in the
reliefs of Assurbanipal.530 A connection between the gazelle and the moon god

523
See especially Landsberger 1915, 93–100; Hallo 1977, 4–9; Hall 1985, 287–311; Stol
1992, 247; Sallaberger 1993, 38–40; and Cohen 2015, 89.
524
Sallaberger 1993, 38.
525
See the discussion on p. 55ff. above.
526
See e.g. the entries for Araḫsamnu (Livingstone 2013, 217) and Šabāṭu (Marti 2014,
189).
527
See e.g. K. 2514+, 2: ina GI6 SIPA UN.MEŠ GAL.MEŠ NIDBA-šu MA[Š.DÀ KÙ-ta
ana GURUN ú-kan] (Livingstone 2013, 202).
528
See p. 103 below.
529
See the attestations for ṣabītu in CAD Ṣ, 42–44, according to which a gazelle as a sac-
rificial animal is also attested e.g. in BBR no. 100, 13. The skeleton of an animal, which
possibly was a gazelle, was deposited beneath the floor in one of the corridors of the
Northwest Palace at Kalḫu for purificatory purposes (see Albenda 2008, 73).
530
For the depictions of gazelles in Neo-Assyrian reliefs see the overview in Albenda
2008, 73–74. Note also that a gazelle symbolises the steppe in the bīt rimki-ritual SpTU
2 no. 12, III 23–24: as the king exits the ritual enclosure, he should strike a gazelle with a
bow, recite the incantation “Lord, as he is walking in the steppe” (en an-edin-na du-a-ni).
In this section, other animals symbolising the mountains and the sea are the goose and
 II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 101

can be traced back to the Ur III period and to the name máš-dà-gu7, “Eating of
the gazelle”, for the second month of the year.531 Since no explanations for the
use of the gazelle as an offering to the moon god survive, the exact nature of this
association remains unclear. Mark E. Cohen has suggested that a gazelle offer-
ing in the first months of the year was made in order to reinvigorate the moon by
endowing him with the energy and stamina of the leaping gazelle, but this hypo-
thesis remains highly speculative.532 It is more likely that the connecting factor
between the gazelle and the moon god in Inbu bēl arḫi is the aforementioned as-
sociation with the wilderness as well as the thin horns of the gazelle that plaus-
ibly were thought to resemble the thin crescent moon of the 1st day of the
month.533
In another context, the first day of the month marked the beginning of a five-
day period during which Sîn was associated with the sky god Anu.534 However,
on the first day of the month attention was primarily given to astrological con-
cerncs: as the moon reappeared in the sky, the decisions made by the gods, espe-
cially by Sîn and Šamaš during their conjunction, were made manifest.535

II.4.2.2. 2nd Day

The second day after the reappearance of the moon is connected to the moon
god only in few instances. The royal hemerology Inbu bēl arḫi is most important
in this respect since it prescribes a monthly offering to Šamaš, Bēlet-mātāti, Sîn,
and Bēlet-ilī on the 2nd day.536 The only other attestation of cultic activities on

the duck, respectively (SpTU 2 no. 12, III 25–26) (see Scurlock 2002, 372–373).
531
See Sallaberger 1993, 194 and Cohen 2015, 90–92. Cohen notes the use of the gazelle
in the instructions of Inbu bēl arḫi: “[...], in the Neo-Assyrian period a ‘ritually clean
gazelle’ was offered to the moon-god, so just possibly there was a long tradition of asso-
ciating the gazelle with the moon-god” (Cohen 2015, 92).
532
Cohen 2015, 92. This notion is based on Cohen’s hypothesis regarding the moon’s
waning power during the summer months (see Cohen 1996, 13–19 and Cohen 2015, 78–
80). The lack of attestations of gazelle offerings to Nanna in Ur contradicts this hypo-
thesis: the available documentation mainly concerns gazelles that were sacrificed to Enlil
and Ninlil in Nippur (Sallaberger 1993, 56 and 194 note 925).
533
See Landsberger 1915, 107 who remarked: “Das Gazellenopfer wohl im Hinblick auf
die spitzen ‘Hörner’ des jungen Mondes gewählt.” This should be compared to the names
of the moon god involving another wild animal with horns, the ibex (p. 60 above). For
the association of the moon god with the wilderness see p. 247ff. below.
534
See the discussion on p. 136ff. below and especially the citation of K. 2074 on p. 138.
535
For the moon and the sun’s conjunction at the end of the month see p. 119ff. below;
for the moon god’s importance in divine decision-making see p. 150ff. below.
536
This is attested or can be reconstructed for intercalary Nisannu (Livingstone 2013,
203; Marti 2014, 183), Simānu (Livingstone 2013, 206), intercalary Elūlu (Marti 2014,
185), Araḫsamnu (Livingstone 2013, 218; Marti 2014, 187), Šabāṭu (Marti 2014, 189)
and intercalary Addaru (Marti 2014, 190).
102 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

the 2nd day of the month derives from Assur, where a ritual bath (rimku) of Sîn
took place on the 2nd of Tašrītu.537

II.4.2.3. 3rd Day

The 3rd day of the month is linked to Sîn only on specific dates, never on a
monthly basis. In the first month of the year, Nisannu, Sîn, and Šamaš required a
bread offering on the 3rd day according to the Offering Bread Hemerology.538 The
special nature of the 3rd of Araḫsamnu in relation to Sîn is revealed by both the
Prostration Hemerology539 and Inbu bēl arḫi:540 on this day a gift must be dedic-
ated to Sîn. Unfortunately, no explanation for these prescriptions survive.

II.4.2.4. 5th Day

The only reference to activities concerning Sîn on the 5th day is found in the Of-
fering Bread Hemerology, according to which a bread offering was presented to
Sîn on the 5th day of Nisannu.541

II.4.2.5. 6th Day

The Prostration Hemerology prescribes a prostration to Sîn on the 6th of Ay-
yāru.542 In another context, the 6th day of the lunar cycle marked the beginning of
the second five-day segment of the month; during this half moon phase, Sîn was
associated with the god Ea.543

II.4.2.6. 7th Day (Waxing Half Moon)

Despite the general significance of the 7th day to the temple cult,544 only sparse
evidence for cultic activities connected to Sîn are attested for this day. It is pos-
sible that a bread offering to Sîn and Šamaš on the 7th of Nisannu is included in
the Offering Bread Hemerology.545 On the same day, Sîn was given a bath
(rimku) in Assur.546 A Neo-Babylonian list of offerings from Sippar includes an
entry which indicates that Sîn received a sheep offering on the 7th of Araḫsam-

537
BM 121206, VII 5’–7’ (Menzel 1981, T 61; see also the citation on p. 419 below).
538
KAR 178//, I 29–30: ŠUK-su ana d30 / u dUTU GAR-ma (see Livingstone 2013, 108).
539
Prostration Hemerology, 25: ana 30 NÍG.BA lik-ru-ub (Jiménez & Adalı 2015, 167;
see also Livingstone 2013, 164). A variant prescribes a gift to the gods (DINGIR.MEŠ).
540
K. 3269, I 14: ana d+En-líl ana d30 NÍG.B[A lik]-ru-ub (Livingstone 2013, 218).
541
KAR 178//, I 41: ŠUK-su ana d30 GAR-ma (Livingstone 2013, 109).
542
Prostration Hemerology, 6 (Jiménez & Adalı 2015, 161; Livingstone 2013, 162).
543
See the discussion on p. 136ff. below and especially the citation of K. 2074 on p. 138.
544
See especially Landsberger 1915, 93–100; Hallo 1977, 4–9; Stol 1992, 247; Sallaber-
ger 1993, 41; and Cohen 2015, 89.
545
KAR 178//, I 54: [ŠUK-su ana d30] ù dUTU / [(x x x) GAR-ma] (Livingstone 2013,
109; see also Marti 2014, 170).
546
BM 121206, VII 5’–7’ (Menzel 1981, T 61; see also the citation on p. 419 below).
 II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 103

nu.547 According to i-NAM-ĝiš-ḫur-an-ki-a, the half moon of the 7th day was
called “half crown” and “kidney” (kalītu). Furthermore, on this day Sîn was as-
sociated with the god Ea.548

II.4.2.7. 9th Day

It is possible that the Offering Bread Hemerology includes an offering to Sîn and
Šamaš on the 9th day of Nisannu,549 but otherwise, no connections to Sîn are at-
tested for the 9th day of the month.

II.4.2.8. 10th Day

No monthly offerings or cultic activities in connection with Sîn are attested for
the 10th day of the month: only three singular events are proven to have existed.
In the month Ayyāru, on the 10th day, a bath (rimku) was given to Sîn in Assur.550
The Prostration Hemerology prescribes a prostration to Sîn on the 10th of
Elūlu.551 A bread offering to Sîn and Šamaš on the 10th day is included in one of
the versions of the Tašrītu Hemerology.552 The available sources, unfortunately,
do not offer any information concerning the conceptual background of these
activities.

II.4.2.9. 11th Day

In general, there are no attestations for cultic activities in connection with the
moon god on the 11th day of the month. Despite this, the royal hemerology Inbu
bēl arḫi gives much attention to Sîn on this day, presumably each month. The
prescription for this day states that the king should present offerings to Sîn dur-
ing the night when the moon displays a “crown of splendour” (agê tašriḫti).553
Moreover, the moon is called “Fruit” (inbu) on this day – an appellation which,
in the same text, is also used for Sîn on the 1st day of the month.554 A further con-
necting factor between the 1st and the 11th days is that offerings are made solely

547
CT 55 no. 469, 5 (see p. 375 below).
548
See the citation of K. 170+, 1–5 on p. 139 below.
549
KAR 178//, I 66: [d30] u dUTU [GAR-ma] (Livingstone 2013, 110; Marti 2014, 170).
550
BM 121206, VII 5’–7’ (Menzel 1981, T 61; see also the citation on p. 419 below).
551
Prostration Hemerology, 21 (Jiménez & Adalı 2015, 166).
552
BM 34602, r. 8: DIŠ UD.10.KÁM ŠUK-su ana 30 u 20 [GAR ...] (see Labat 1961,
92–93 and Livingstone 2013, 170).
553
See the discussion on p. 65ff. above. The entry for the 11th day of the intercalary Elūlu
in K. 4231 is cited on p. 56 above. The same entry is attested or can be reconstructed also
for intercalary Nisannu (Livingstone 2013, 204), Simānu (Livingstone 2013, 207; Marti
2014, 183), Araḫsamnu (Livingstone 2013, 219; Marti 2014, 187), Ṭebētu (Livingstone
2013, 225; Marti 2014, 188), Šabāṭu (Livingstone 2013, 227), and intercalary Addaru
(Livingstone 2013, 230; Marti 2014, 191).
554
For this appellation of Sîn see the discussion on p. 54ff. above.
104 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

to Sîn.555 The exact reason why particularly on these days the moon god is not
paired with the mother goddess Bēlet-ilī, which is the norm in this text, eludes
us. The explanation for the special character of the 11th day offered by Benno
Landsberger is that, according to the division of the first 15 days of the month
into segments of 5 days, it marked the beginning of the final phase.556 The last
five days before the schematic day of the full moon (the 15th) were not only as-
sociated with the “crown of splendour”, but some sources equate Sîn with Enlil
on these days.557 The reason why a similar special instruction for the 6th day,
which marks the beginning of the second segment in this schema, does not exist
is most likely due to the relative insignificance of the waxing half moon in com-
parison to the importance of the new and gibbous moon.

II.4.2.10. 12th Day

The 12th day of the month does not appear to have had any cultic significance re-
lating to Sîn. According to the Offering Bread Hemerology, however, the 12th
day of the month Simānu was associated with the good disposition of the moon
god and his daughter Ištar.558 A similar notion is also expressed in Inbu bēl arḫi
in the last line of the entry for the 12th of Simānu.

K. 4068+, I 48’559
d
30 u dI[š]-tar im-ma[n-ga?-ru? x x (x)]
Sîn and I[š]tar come to an ag[reement? ...]

This provides further evidence of the existence of special notions about the
moon god on particular, isolated days of the year in the Mesopotamian hemero-
logical tradition.560 The significance of these connections, unfortunately, eludes
us.

555
See p. 99 above.
556
Landsberger 1915, 129.
557
See p. 136ff. below and especially the citation of K. 2074, II 7’–8’ on p. 138).
558
KAR 178//, V 31: DIŠ UD.12.KÁM dINNIN u d30 ŠE (Livingstone 2013, 124).
559
The formulation here is similar e.g. to the entry for the 17th of Tašrītu in the Babyloni-
an Almanac (see p. 114 below). The edition in Livingstone 2013, 207 has the translitera-
tion and translation: d30 u dDI.KU5 imKU[R.RA ...], “Sîn and Mandānu, the East Wi[nd
...]. After the collation of the tablet from a photograph (CDLI P395381; drawing below),
it is clear that the sign Livingstone reads as DI is, in fact, I[Š] and that the sign Liv-
ingstone reads as a damaged KUR is an almost complete MAN.

560
Compare the entry for the 3rd of Araḫsamnu in the Prostration Hemerology and Inbu
bēl arḫi (see p. 102 above).
 II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 105

II.4.2.11. 13th Day

The 13th day of each month was particularly significant to Sîn since it is labelled
as “Sîn’s day” in Babylonian and Assyrian sources concerning the monthly fest-
ivities.561 This designation is known from the list of days in the lipšur-litanies562
and from hemerological texts.563 The connection of the 13th day and the moon
god is also acknowledged in Inbu bēl arḫi, but in a manner typical of that text,
Sîn is paired with the mother goddess Bēlet-ilī: this hemerology designates the
13th day as the “day of Sîn and Bēlet-ilī”, followed by a prescribed offering to
the divine pairs Šamaš–Bēlet-mātāti and Sîn–Bēlet-ilī.564 Furthermore, the text
states that, like on the 11th day, the moon displays the “crown of splendour” (agê
tašriḫti) on the 13th day.565 The moon’s “crown of splendour” is also referred to
in letter SAA 10 no. 59, which informs the king that the 13th day is suitable for a
dream ritual.566 The hemerological texts apart from Inbu bēl arḫi do not contain
prescriptions for the 13th day, with the exception of the fragmentary entry for the
13th of Nisannu in the Offering Bread Hemerology which likely mentions Sîn as
the recipient of a bread offering.567 In other sources, a lone reference to the 13th
day as the day of the moon god, as it is known from the hemerological tradition,
can be found in the composition STT 340 that contains benedictions for the As-
syrian king.

STT 340, 13568

[1]3 KI.MIN <UD>.13.KAM ša d30 min? [x (x)] ⌈a⌉?-⌈na⌉? LUGAL AN-⌈e⌉
⌈lip⌉-⌈qí⌉-du SILIM-ka
13: ditto; the 13th day, that of Sîn: may the ... [...] entrust your well-being to
the king of heaven!

Despite the fact that this line has not been completely preserved, the conceptual

561
See Landsberger 1915, 130 and the overview in Livingstone 2013, 251.
562
See Wiseman 1969, 178 and 181.
563
VAT 10954+, 7’ (Hätinen & Schaudig, KAL [forthcoming]).
564
E.g intercalary Elūlu, K. 4231, II 8–12 (see p. 67 above). Similar entries are attested or
can be reconstructed for intercalary Nisannu (Livingstone 2013, 204), Araḫsamnu (Liv-
ingstone 2013, 219) and Šabāṭu (Livingstone 2013, 227; Marti 2014, 190).
565
For the use of agê tašriḫti see the discussion on p. 65ff. above.
566
See the further discussion on p. 191 below.
567
KAR 178//, I 84 (Livingstone 2013, 110).
568
See also the transliteration in Reiner 1967, 195 and the edition in Watanabe 1991,
349–351. In the edition by Watanabe, the line is read ⌈13⌉ KIMIN <U4> 13 KAM ša d30
MEN n[a-šú]-⌈ú a!-na!⌉ LUGAL AN-⌈e⌉ lip-qí-du DI-ka with the translation “13 dito:
(Am) 13. <Tag>, an welchem Sîn die Tiara trägt, mögen sie (d.i. Sin und die Tiara) Dein
Wohlergehen dem König des Himmels (d.i. Šamaš) anvertrauen!”. The reference to the
tiara/crown of Sîn is, however, not possible according to the copy STT 340.
106 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

connection between the 13th day and the king of heaven is apparent. Whether Sîn
himself is the king of heaven who wears his crown of splendour on the 13th day,
referred to here, remains uncertain. It should be noted that this text appears to in-
vest the gibbous moon with importance; in addition to the line pertaining to the
13th day, it also associates the 16th day with Sîn.569
Despite these numerous attestations linking the 13th day to Sîn, no concrete
references to cultic activities in the moon god’s temples or sanctuaries are, to my
knowledge, attested.

II.4.2.12. 14th Day

Activities concerning Sîn on the 14th day of the month can only be found in the
Offering Bread Hemerology. First, this text prescribes a bread offering to Sîn,
Šamaš, and Ningal on the 14th of Nisannu.570 The entry for this day also includes
the instruction to speak to Sîn and Šamaš who in return will respond(?) to this
person.571 Later in the same text, Sîn is the only deity referred to in the entry for
the 14th of Tašrītu: here the instruction is to beseech Sîn on this day.572

II.4.2.13. 15th Day (Full Moon)

The 15th day of the month, which schematically was the day of the full moon in
the Mesopotamian calendar, was called šapattu in Akkadian. It is important to
note that this was a designation for the day, or more accurately, for the festivities
on this day, not a term used to refer to the full moon as a celestial phenomen-
on.573 There was no specific single term for the full moon itself, but the time of
the full moon was expressed through the opposition of the moon and the sun that
takes place on the 15th day of the ideal 30-day month.574 A commonly used ex-
pression to indicate the day of the full moon in Neo-Assyrian astrological re-
ports was “the moon and the sun are seen together” (Sîn u Šamaš itti aḫāmeš in-
nammarū),575 but also other expressions described the opposition of these
celestial bodies, including “the moon and the sun are in balance” (Sîn u Šamaš
šitqulū),576 “the moon and the sun are in opposition” (Sîn u Šamaš šūtatû)577 and

569
See p. 113 below.
570
KAR 178//, II 10–11 (Livingstone 2013, 111).
571
KAR 178//, II 8–9: NA ana d30 u d[UTU] KA?-šú D[Ù] / NA BI d30 u d[UTU] KA?-šú
[x] x (see Livingstone 2013, 111 with the reading DUG4-šú DÙ and translation “the man
should direct his wish to Sîn and Šamaš”). One of the manuscripts (KAR 176+) names
the god Anu in addition to Sîn and Šamaš.
572
KAR 178//, r. III 79: UD.14.KÁM d30 li-bal (Livingstone 2013, 138).
573
See AHw, 1172 and CAD Š/I, 449–450; see also Landsberger 1915, 132.
574
The terminology is discussed in Brown 2000, 95.
575
E.g. SAA 8 no. 19, 1: DIŠ UD.14.KÁM 30 u 20 KI a-ḫa-meš IGI.MEŠ.
576
E.g. SAA 8 no. 65, 1: DIŠ d30 dŠá-maš ši-it-qu-lu. See also CAD Š/2, 8.
577
E.g. SAA 8 no. 109, 1: DIŠ d30 u dUTU šu-ta-tu-u. See also CAD A/2, 520.
 II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 107

“(if) the moon reaches the sun and follows it closely” (Sîn Šamaš ikšudamma it-
tīšu ittentû).578 These formulations describe the simultaneous appearance of the
moon and sun in the morning during the period of the full moon, when the sett-
ing moon lingers above the western horizon while the sun rises in the east.579
This circumstance is described in Nabû-iqīša’s answer to the king’s concern
about the veracity of the full moon’s observation.

SAA 8 no. 293, r. 1–9

The king, my lord, must not say as follows: “(There were) clouds; how did
you see (anything)?” This night, when I saw (the moon’s) coming out, it
came out when little of the day (was left), it reached the region where it will
be seen (in opposition with the sun). This is a sign that is to be observed. In
the morning, if the day is cloudless (lit. open), the king will see: for one dou-
ble-hour of daytime (the moon) will stand there with the sun.

To further underline the observation in the morning, the astrological literature

reveals that Sîn was supposed to “wait” for Šamaš to appear at the time of the
full moon, which indicates that he must have remained visible in the sky during
sunrise.580 It is important to understand that aside from celestial observations of
the full moon, the simultaneous appearance of the moon and the sun on oppos-
ing horizons was considered to be a “meeting” between the gods Sîn and Šamaš.
This aspect is illustrated by a report by Ištar-šumu-ēreš, responding to the king’s
worries about a successful observation of the full moon that was defined as a
point in time, when “the gods see each other”.

SAA 8 no. 21, 1–5

(As to) what the king, my lord wrote to me: “The clouds were dense, how did
you observe that the gods saw each other (in opposition)?”

This concept of interaction between Sîn and Šamaš during the time of the con-
junction underlines the fact that, as we already discussed, the concepts of the
moon as a physical object and as a manifestation of Sîn cannot be separated
from each other.581
The theological understanding of the simultaneous presence of Sîn and

578
E.g. SAA 8 no. 294, 1–2: DIŠ d30 dUTU ik-šu-ud-ma KI-šú / it-ten-tu. See also CAD
N/2, 165–166.
579
Pizzimenti 2013, 270–271 maintains that these expressions would have referred to the
moonrise in the evening because this is the starting point of the day. However, this view
is opposed by the descriptions provided by the Neo-Assyrian astrological reports.
580
See e.g. SAA 8 no. 499, 1: DIŠ 30 20 la ú-qi-ma ir-bi, “If the moon does not wait for
the sun but sets”.
581
See p. 19ff. above.
108 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

Šamaš on the day of the full moon plays an important role in the rituals that
were performed in front of the moon and the sun at this particular point of time.
A small group of rituals, which were to be performed in the morning at the time
of the full moon, are known to us. The first of them is an anti-ghost therapy, pre-
served in BAM 4 no. 323//, and was prescribed for a person who suffered from
continual headaches, dimmed eyes, sore neck muscles, kidney pains, troubled
heart, and paralysed feet.582 It is the only preserved ritual that includes an expli-
cit reference to the 15th day of the month; in the instructions, the text specifies
the temporal setting for the therapeutic activity with the description “the day
when Sîn and Šamaš stand together” (ūm Sîn u Šamaš ištēniš izzazzū).583 The de-
scription of the ritual and its accompanying prayer (“Sîn & Šamaš 2”) provide
more details on the positions of Sîn and Šamaš: towards the west (moonset), an
incense burner is set up for Sîn, and towards the east (sunrise), the same is done
for Šamaš. For libations, Sîn receives milk (šizbu) and Šamaš receives beer
(šikaru).584 The patient faces north, having the moon on his left and the sun on
his right, as is also stated in the prayer “Sîn & Šamaš 2”.

BAM 4 no. 323//, 99–100585

99 ana GÙB-ia d30 U4.SAKAR AN-e GAL.MEŠ ana ZAG-ia a-bi ṣal-
mat SAG.DU dUTU DI.KU5
100 DINGIR.MEŠ ki-lal-la-an a-bi DINGIR.MEŠ GAL.MEŠ KU5-su
EŠ.BAR ana UN.MEŠ DAGAL.MEŠ
To my left is Sîn, the luminary of the great heavens,586 to my right is the fa-
ther of the black-headed people, Šamaš, the judge; the pair of gods, fathers of
the great gods, the ones who make the decisions for the widespread people!

With these lines, the moon god is praised as a celestial luminary, and the sun god
is designated as the supreme divine judge. The same characterisations are found
in the following short Sumerian appeals to both Sîn and Šamaš, who are design-
ated as “great light of heaven and earth” and “great judge, father of the black-
headed”, respectively.587 The additional epithet in line 100, pārisū purussê ana

582
BAM 4 no. 323//, 89–108 (Scurlock 2006, no. 91). See also Reiner 1995, 136–138.
583
BAM 4 no. 323//, 93: ina UD.15.KÁM u4-um d30 u dUTU 1-iš GUB-zu.
584
BAM 4 no. 323//, 96–99.
585
Scurlock 2006, no. 91.
586
The epithet U4.SAKAR AN-e GAL.MEŠ is understood as uskār šamê rabûti, “moon
crescent of the great heavens”, in Scurlock 2006, no. 91. However, in this context the
logogram U4.SAKAR must be understood as a logographic spelling of the epithet nan-
nāru (see the discussion on p. 31ff. above).
587
BAM 4 no. 323//, 105: ÉN dNanna ĝiš-nu11-gal an-ki-ke4; 107: dUtu ⌈di⌉-⌈ku5⌉ ⌈gal⌉ ⌈a⌉-
a saĝ-ĝi6-ga (Scurlock 2006, no. 91). For the epithets of Sîn describing him as a celestial
light see the discussion on p. 78ff. above.
 II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 109

nišī rapšāti, “the ones who make the decisions for the widespread people”, un-
derlines the authority of both Sîn and Šamaš in divine decision-making.588
The theme of divine decision-making can also be found in an anti-witchcraft
ritual that took place before the moon and the sun during the full moon.589 This
ritual, which is preserved in Neo-Babylonian manuscripts from Sippar (Si.
34(+)//), greatly differs from the other attested anti-witchcraft ritual associated
with Sîn (BAM 5 no. 449+//).590 While both of them take place during the full
moon, the ritual from Sippar specifies the full moon as its temporal setting with
the formulation “When Sîn and Šamaš are [seen] tog[ether and] the decisions
concerning the land are made by Anu and Enlil”.591 With these lines, the notion
of divine decision-making is introduced already within the opening lines of the
text, and the “meeting” of Sîn and Šamaš is defined as the point in time when
the gods Anu and Enlil (Sîn and Šamaš can plausibly be equated with Anu and
Enlil592) establish their decisions (purussû). Since, in the context of celestial
divination, the opposition of the moon and the sun in the morning (as opposed to
the evening) was significant, it is very likely that the ritual took place directly
after the sunrise in the morning, just as it did in BAM 4 no. 323//. Moreover, the
homage to Sîn and Šamaš in the context of the rituals in BAM 4 no. 323// and
Si. 34(+)// is remarkably similar: like the anti-ghost ritual in BAM 4 no. 323//,
the prayer that is addressed to the moon god and the sun god in Si. 34(+)// de-
scribes Sîn predominantly by his luminous qualities and Šamaš is presented as
the god who decrees fates. Together, they are beseeched to give a verdict and to
make a decision in the case that is brought before them.593 It is plausible that the
war ritual preserved in CBS 1516 also took place during the full moon, although
no explicit indication of its temporal setting is preserved. Still, the fact that the
ritual was performed before the moon and the sun, most likely during their sim-
ultaneous appearance during the full moon phase, is clear from the address to
these both gods included in the prayer “Sîn & Šamaš 1”.594 This prayer includes
the same expression ilānū kilallān, “the pair of gods”, that is found in “Sîn &
Šamaš 2”, and the theme of divine decision-making is very prominent.595
In comparison to the rituals that took place at dawn, only a single context as-
suredly dealing with a nocturnal ritual before the full moon is known. According

588
See also the discussion on p. 154 below.
589
See the edition of Si. 34(+)// in Schwemer 2010, 480–504.
590
For the ritual against zikurudû-magic (BAM 5 no. 449+//) see p. 109 below.
591
Si. 34(+)//, 2–3 (Schwemer 2010, 486 and 490). See also the citation on p. 146 below.
592
For this equation see p. 136ff. below. Note that the sun god was associated with the
god Enlil during sunrise (Great Star List, 288; see Koch-Westenholz 1995, 202–203).
593
Si. 34(+)//, 23: di-[n]i di-na EŠ.BAR-a-a KU5-s[a], “Judge my case, make a decision
for me!” (Schwemer 2010, 487 and 491). See also the discussion on p. 154 below.
594
For a new edition of CBS 1516 see p. 520ff. below.
595
See the discussion on p. 154 below.
110 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

to the preserved evidence, a witch could cast a “throat-cutting spell” (zikurudû)

against her victims under the moon.596 Countermeasures against such a spell
were partly performed before the full moon (on the 15th day).597 The instruction
for the case in which the arrabu-mouse, utilised by a witch to cast the spell, was
found in the victim’s house includes an appeal to Sîn to undo the spell that had
been cast. This appeal was to be repeated seven times before Sîn, and it should
be followed by a prostration.598 The text continues with the specific instruction
to let the patient confess all of his concerns to Sîn on the 15th day.599 The therapy
continues with prayers and the burial of the mouse. On the 7th day of the follow-
ing month the patient is freed from the spell that had been cast upon him. Even
in cases where the victim had inadvertently discarded the arrabu-mouse, he
could be freed from the spell. In such circumstances, an offering and prostration
before Sîn on the 15th day, together with a confession and appeal for help were
also needed.600
Other than the rituals that were performed before the moon and the sun on
the morning of the 15th day and the nocturnal procedures against zikurudû-ma-
gic, the references to the performance of prayers or rituals before Sîn on the 15th
day are very rare. In fact, the only explicit case is found in the context of ikrib-
prayers to Sîn: a collection of these prayers include an ikrib which, according to
its rubric, was to be performed on the 15th day.601 This prayer to Sîn praises his
luminous quality and depicts him as a source of fertility by giving him the
power to endow childless people with offspring. Moreover, an association is
made between the moon and the (wild) animals who gather before the moon.602
The hemerological tradition, apart from Inbu bēl arḫi, generally provides
only a limited number of references to Sîn in connection with the 15th day. In the

596
Maqlû IV, 52: “You (have performed) zikurudû-magic before Sîn (against me, have
had performed against me: may Girra release)” (Abusch 2016, 120 and 321; see also
Schwemer 2007c, 102).
597
See Reiner 1995, 136 and Schwemer 2007c, 222–224. An edition of the text BAM 5
no. 449+// is found in Abusch & Schwemer 2011, 407–415 (no. 10.3). It is possible that
an anti-witchcraft ritual from Assur (IM 148516; Fadhil 2018, 197–198) also took place
during the full moon although no explicit information is given. In this case, the timing is
suggested by the similarities between the prayer used in this ritual and the ikrib of the
15th day to Sîn (see K. 2751+, 58’–69’ in the edition on p. 483ff. below).
598
BAM 5 no. 449+//, 24’–28’ (see Abusch & Schwemer 2011, 409 and 412).
599
BAM 5 no. 449+//, 28’: UD.15.KÁM ma-la ŠÀ-šú DAB ana 30 liq-bi, “on the 15th
day, he should say everything that worries him to Sîn” (Abusch & Schwemer 2011, 409
and 412).
600
BAM 5 no. 449+//, 36’–40’ (Abusch & Schwemer 2011, 409 and 413).
601
K. 2751//, 78’: [ik?-rib? d30?] UD.15.KÁM (see the edition on p. 483ff. below). It is
possible that the other prayers in this collection were also assigned to specific days, but
this is the only date that survives.
602
For the association of the moon god with wild animals see p. 247ff. below.
 II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 111

Offering Bread Hemerology, a bread offering to Sîn is prescribed for the 15th day
of Nisannu, but there are no references to Sîn in connection with the 15th day for
any other months.603 It is plausible that the offering to Sîn and Šamaš in the
Prostration Hemerology’s entry for the month of Du’ūzu takes place on the 15th
because these two gods are named together.604 Still, since the date in this entry
has not been preserved in any of the manuscripts, this remains uncertain. The
entry may nevertheless be connected to the Babylonian Almanac, which in-
cludes an “eclipse of the moon” in its entry for the 15th of Du’ūzu.605 The fact
that the 15th day of Nisannu and Du’ūzu have an attested connection with Sîn, or
Sîn and Šamaš, leads to the question of whether this could be seen as a reflection
of the vernal equinox and summer solstice, which schematically occurred on the
15th day of Nisannu and Du’ūzu, respectively, according to the astronomical
compendium MUL.APIN.606 In further attestations, a Late Babylonian compila-
tion that draws from the Prostration Hemerology prescribes the presentation of a
sun disc and a crescent moon to Sîn and Šamaš on the 15th day of Araḫsamnu.607
Since the same instruction is also attested for the 28th of Araḫsamnu, the 15th day
and the 28th day appear to have been conceptually connected by the meeting of
the moon and the sun.608
Contrary to the sporadic offerings attested in other hemerologies, Inbu bēl
arḫi instructs the king to make a bread and an animal offering to the divine pairs
Šamaš–Bēlet-mātāti and Sîn–Bēlet-ilī on the 15th day each month.609 More im-
portantly, however, the 15th day is, in this text, labelled as “accountancy of Sîn
and Bēlet-ilī” (epēš nikkassi ša Sîn u Bēlet-ilī).610 Similar designations are also
attested for the 21st and 22nd days of the month in Inbu bēl arḫi and the Offering
Bread Hemerology.611 According to Benno Landsberger the days of “account-
ancy” were related to a cycle of seven days in economic transactions.612 He

603
KAR 178//, II 18: ŠUK-su ana d30 GAR-ma (Livingstone 2013, 111).
604
Prostration Hemerology, 14 (Jiménez & Adalı 2015, 163).
605
Livingstone 2013, 30. An eclipse on the 16th of Du’ūzu is included in the Offering
Bread Hemerology (see below).
606
MUL.APIN II, i 9–21 (Hunger & Pingree 1989, 72–76). For the “ideal” character of
this scheme see Hunger & Pingree 1989, 150–151 and Brown 2000, 117.
607
BM 34584+, IV 106–109 (Jiménez 2016, 210 and 213). See also p. 219 below.
608
See the discussion on p. 127 below.
609
See e.g. the entry for the 15th day of intercalary Elūlu (Livingstone 2013, 214; Marti
2014, 186). This offering on the 15th is noted also in Reiner 1995, 113.
610
See e.g. the entry for intercalary Nisannu, K. 2514+, 45: DÙ NÍG.ŠID šá 30 DIN-
GIR.MAḪ (Livingstone 2013, 205). The same entry is also preserved for Simānu (Liv-
ingstone 2013, 208; Marti 2014, 184), intercalary Elūlu (Livingstone 2013, 214; Marti
2014, 186), and it can be reconstructed for Araḫsamnu (Livingstone 2013, 220).
611
See p. 117ff. below.
612
Landsberger 1915, 135. The expression nikkassa epēšu, “to conduct an accounting”, is
112 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

demonstrated that a similar designation for the 7th day of the month is found in a
Neo-Assyrian letter, now edited as SAA 13 no. 100. In this letter, the act of bal-
ancing the accounts on the 7th day of an unnamed month is connected to the di-
vine scribe Nabû, who is beseeched to forever balance the accounts of the king
in his “writing tablet of life”.613 Thus, the act of “balancing the accounts” ap-
pears to have been connected to the 7th, 15th, and 21st/22nd days of the month, cor-
responding to the waxing half moon, the full moon and the waning half moon.
Apart from this plausibly economic element, the religious aspect of “account-
ancy of Sîn” remains unclear since, unlike for Nabû, we do not have explicit
statements concerning such activities. Although the “accountancy of Sîn and Bē-
let-ilī” takes a prominent role in Inbu bēl arḫi, a similar designation for the 15th
day of the month is not found in other hemerological texts. The situation is sim-
ilar in the references to the “accountancy of Sîn and Šamaš” on the 21st and 22nd
of the month: only the Offering Bread Hemerology includes the designation “ac-
countancy of Sîn” for the 21st of Nisannu.614 The lack of references outside Inbu
bēl arḫi suggests that Sîn was affiliated with the act of accounting mainly in the
context of this royal hemerology, which possibly was an allusion to his import-
ance in connection with kingship: the king needed to give an accounting to Sîn
and Bēlet-ilī during the full moon, and to Sîn and Šamaš during the waning half
moon.615
In addition to this possible significance of the full moon to the king, there are
some other indications that Sîn was associated with kingship at the time of the
gibbous or full moon. Such an affiliation is most apparent in the “Theology of
the Moon”, according to which Sîn takes hold of Enlil’s divine powers on days
11–15 of the lunar month.616 Therefore, he also took over Enlil’s role as the di-
vine king during these days. In addition, it appears that in the Nippurian cult,
during festivities celebrating Ninurta’s return from the mountain, Sîn assumed
the role of the divine king on the 15th day of Ayyāru.617
The significance of the full moon day in the temple cult is illustrated by the
type of offerings made on the 15th day.618 However, the lack of material means
that we have only a very small number of attestations of the offerings regularly

well-established as an economic term in Mesopotamia (see CAD N/2, 224–229).

613
SAA 13 no. 100, 7–13: UD.7.KÁM e-peš nik-ka-si / dAG ina gišLE.U5.UM-šú / ša ba-
la-ṭi nik-ka-su / ša LUGAL be-lí-ia / ù ša DUMU.MEŠ EN-ia / [a]-na u4-me ṣa-a-ti / [le-
pu]-uš, “The 7th is the day for balancing the accounts: may Nabû [f]orever balance the
accounts of the king, my lord, and the sons of my lord in his writing-tablet of life!”
614
See p. 117 below.
615
For Sîn as a giver of royal insignia and a protector of kingship see p. 196ff. below.
616
See the discussion on p. 136ff. below.
617
OECT 11 nos. 69+70, I 17’–19’ (see the citation on p. 205).
618
See especially Landsberger 1915, 93–100; Hallo 1977, 4–9; Hall 1985, 287–311; Stol
1992, 247; Sallaberger 1993, 38–39; and Cohen 2015, 89.
 II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 113

made to Sîn in his Assyrian or Babylonian temples on the day of the full moon.
The only explicit reference to a sheep offering to Sîn on the 15th day of an
unidentified month is made in a Neo-Babylonian offering list from Sippar.619 In
this case, it remains unclear whether sheep were offered to Sîn on the 15th day of
each month, or only in specific months.

II.4.2.14. 16th Day

On a few occasions, the 16th day of the lunar month is referred to in connection
with Sîn. Letter SAA 10 no. 298 explicitly refers to the performance of a dream
ritual on the 16th day of the month Elūlu.620 According to BM 121206, Sîn’s ritu-
al bath (rimku) takes place on the 16th of Elūlu and the 16th of Araḫsamnu.621 A
Neo-Babylonian list of offerings includes an entry according to which the moon
god in Sippar received a sheep offering on the 16th day of an unidentified
month.622
In the hemerological tradition, the 16th day of Du’ūzu and Simānu is signific-
ant in relation to the moon god. The Offering Bread Hemerology includes the
designation “eclipse of the moon or the sun” in the entry for the 16th of
Du’ūzu,623 and the Prostration Hemerology instructs the worshipper to make a
prostration to Sîn on the 16th of Simānu.624 The prostration to Sîn on the 16th of
Simānu was also included in Inbu bēl arḫi which contains an entry for this day
that deviates from the other references to the 16th day within the same text. Apart
from Simānu, there is an entry involving morning offerings to the pairs Šamaš–
Bēlet-mātāti and Sîn–Bēlet-ilī.625 In Simānu, however, a prostration and a bread
offering to Marduk, Enlil, Sîn, and Gula is prescribed.626 This prescription most
certainly is a conflation of the aforementioned prostration to Sîn on the 16th of
Simānu in the Prostration Hemerology and the bread offering to Marduk, Gula,
and Dilbat in the Offering Bread Hemerology.627

619
CT 55 no. 469, 9 (see p. 375 below).
620
See the discussion on p. 190 below.
621
BM 121206, VII 5’–7’ (Menzel 1981, T 61; see also the citation on p. 419 below).
622
CT 55 no. 469, r. 19’ (see p. 375 below).
623
KAR 178//, VI 40: AN.MI d30 u dUTU (Livingstone 2013, 129). An eclipse on the 15th
of Du’ūzu is included in the Babylonian Almanac (see above).
624
Prostration Hemerology, 10 (Jiménez & Adalı 2015, 161; Livingstone 2013, 162).
625
K. 2514+, 49–50: [ina še-ri]m ana dUTU dBe-let–KUR.KUR ana d30 DINGIR.MAḪ
NIDBA-[šú ú-kan] / [ni-qé-e BAL-qí] (see Livingstone 2013, 205; Marti 2014, 183); K.
3269, II 26–27: ina še-rim ana dUTU dBe-let–KUR.KUR ana d30 DINGIR.[MAḪ] /
NIDBA-šú ú-kan ni-qé-e BAL-[qí] (Livingstone 2013, 220).
626
K. 4068+, II 17’–18’: ana dAMAR.UTU d+En-líl d30 dGu-la liš-[ken] ŠUK-su / ana
d
AMAR.UTU d+En-líl d30 dGu-la GAR-m[a] (Livingstone 2013, 208).
627
KAR 178//, V 44–46 (Livingstone 2013, 125). The adaptation of the Prostration Hem-
erology to Inbu bēl arḫi is briefly discussed in Jiménez & Adalı 2015, 188–189.
114 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

The nature of the 16th day in the hemerological tradition appears to be reflec-
ted in the text STT 340, which contains benedictions for the Assyrian king. This
text mentions the moon god twice: first in connection with the 13th day, which
was the “day of Sîn”; and second in connection with 16th day.628

STT 340, 16629

16 [KI.MIN] nu-b[at!-tu š]a ⌈d⌉⌈AMAR⌉.UTU x [x (x)] ⌈d⌉30 ⌈SU⌉.⌈LIM⌉ ÍL
⌈kul⌉-lat a-a-bi-ka i-na ŠU-ka li-⌈im⌉-nu
16: [ditto] ev[ening festival o]f Marduk ... [...] Sîn bears awesome radiance;
may all of your enemies handed over to you!

The description in this line – the moon bearing šalummatu-radiance on the 16th
day – finds its closest match in the accounts of Sîn wearing his crown of splend-
our during the days of the waxing gibbous moon.630 The similarity suggests that
although the terminology employed was not identical (“awesome radiance” as
opposed to “crown of splendour” ), the waning gibbous moon on the 16th day
may have been conceptually equal to the waxing gibbous moon.

II.4.2.15. 17th Day

The 17th day finds special significance in connection with the moon god’s akītu-
festival in Ḫarrān. This is revealed by the letters SAA 1 no. 188 and SAA 10 no.
338, which concern the procession to the akītu-house on the 17th day of an un-
named month.631 It is possible that this date was associated with the 17th of
Tašrītu which, according to the Babylonian Almanac, was a day on which Sîn is
“well-disposed” (Sîn imaggar).632 This tradition is reflected in the Ḫarrān Stele

628
For the 13th day see the discussion on p. 105ff. above.
629
See Reiner 1967, 195 and Watanabe 1991, 349–351.
630
See the discussion on p. 65ff. above.
631
See the further discussion on p. 410ff. below.
632
Livingstone 2013, 45. The list of days in the small tablet VAT 3, r. 1 includes the same
entry for the 17th day, but the list has been associated with the month Araḫsamnu in the
two editions of it (see Labat 1957, 312 and Livingstone 2013, 47–52 [Unkn.2]). Due to
the fact that the entries fit better to the scheme for Tašrītu, and, more importantly, be-
cause the identification of the month is not made until the second last line of the reverse
after a single ruling, it is highly likely that this tablet concerns the favourable days in
Tašrītu (1–r. 5), followed by a “catch-line” for the next month, Araḫsamnu. In the case of
the manuscript BM 46562 [Unkn.1 in Livingstone’s edition], the entries, which pertain to
Tašrītu, are presented as belonging to the month Addaru by Livingstone. In BM 46562,
VII! 18 – the first column from the left on the reverse – we find the entry d30 i-ma-gàr
(see the photograph of the tablet in Livingstone 2013, 77; read d30 x x in Livingstone
2013, 68). Because the other entries in this column comply with those for Tašrītu, it can
be concluded that this column pertains to Tašrītu, not Addaru. This means that the
columns in this tablet are organised from left to right also in the reverse (as opposed to
 II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 115

of Nabonidus: the 17th of Tašrītu, described with the formulation familiar from
the Babylonian Almanac, is the day which marks the return of Nabonidus from
Tayma.633 This reference has led several Assyriologists to conclude that the
akītu-festival of Sîn in Ḫarrān took place on the 17th of Tašrītu.634 However,
since the festival is not explicitly named in the Ḫarrān Stele, it is better to re-
main cautious and to see this reference firstly as a reflection of the Babylonian
Almanac.
In the Offering Bread Hemerology, the instruction for the 17th of Nisannu in-
cludes offerings to Sîn, Ningal, and Gula, as well as the god and goddess of the
city. Ningal will then intercede with her husband Sîn on behalf of the
supplicant.635

KAR 178//, II 36–39636

II 36 ŠUK-su ana d30 u dNin-gal
d
II 37 Gu-la DINGIR URU-šú dINNIN URU-šú
II 38 GAR-ma ma-ḫir dNin-gal
II 39 ana d30 ab-bu-su ta-ṣa-bat
He should present his bread offering to Sîn and Ningal, Gula, the god of his
city, the goddess of this city, and it will be accepted. Ningal will intercede on
his behalf with Sîn.

Ningal’s intercession on the 17th day of Nisannu also appears in the royal hemer-
ology Inbu bēl arḫi, but the full passage is unfortunately not preserved.637

II.4.2.16. 18th Day

In Inbu bēl arḫi, the 18th day of the month is labelled as the “day of Sîn and
Šamaš”.638 Alternatively, the entry for Simānu holds the designation “festival of
Sîn and Šamaš”.639 On this day, offerings were given to the pairs Šamaš–Bēlet-

the more common organisation from right to left on the reverse).

633
Schaudig 2001, 3.1, II 13 (Ex. 1): ina itiDU6 UD.17.KAM u4-mu d30 im-ma-⌈ag⌉-⌈gàr⌉,
“In the 17th of Tašrītu, the day ‘Sîn will be well-disposed’.”
634
For references see p. 412 below.
635
Ningal is commonly presented as an intermediary between her husband Sîn and the
human petitioner (see the discussion on p. 296ff. below).
636
Livingstone 2013, 112.
637
Sm. 948, 3’: [... dN]in-gal ana 30 a-b[u-u]s-⌈su⌉ D[AB] (Livingstone 2013, 201 and
Marti 2014, 182; see also photograph of the tablet in CDLI P425675).
638
The entry is preserved or can be restored for Nisannu (Livingstone 2013, 201; Marti
2014, 182), intercalary Nisannu (Livingstone 2013, 205; Marti 2014, 183), intercalary
Elūlu (Livingstone 2013, 215; Marti 2014, 186).
639
K. 4068+, II 25’: [DIŠ UD].18.KÁMv EZEN šá 30 u 20 (Livingstone 2013, 208). It is
maintained in Marti 2014, 191 that this same designation should be restored in the entry
116 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

mātāti and Sîn–Bēlet-ilī. According to Benno Landsberger, this day should be

interpreted as a Vorläufer of the festival on the 20th day.640 This interpretation is
supported by the absence of other links between the 18th day and the moon god.
The only other reference to the 18th day in the cult of Sîn comes from Assur,
where a ritual bath (rimku) for Sîn is attested on the 18th of Šabāṭu.641

II.4.2.17. 20th Day

In the Mesopotamian calendrical tradition, the 20th day belonged to the sun god
Šamaš.642 The moon god steps into the picture in the royal hemerology Inbu bēl
arḫi which consistently labels the 20th day of the month as the “day of the bread
donation of Sîn and Šamaš”. A well-preserved example of such an entry is found
for the 20th of the intercalary Addaru.643

K. 4093, II 11’–13’644
II 11’ DIŠ UD.20.KÁMV UD ZÁLAG ⌈SUM⌉ NINDA šá 30 u 20 UD ŠE
ina še-rim LUGAL
II 12’ NIDBA-šú ana dUTU dBe-let–KUR.KUR ana 30 DINGIR.MAḪ
⌈ú⌉-[kan]
II 13’ ni-⌈qé⌉-⌈e⌉ BAL-qí niš ŠU-šú ⌈KI⌉ DINGIR ⌈ma⌉-⌈gir⌉
The 20th day: a bright day, the day of a bread donation to Sîn and Šamaš. In
the morning the king s[ets] his bread offering to Šamaš (and) Bēlet-mātāti, to
Sîn (and) Bēlet-ilī; he makes an (animal) offering. The raising of his hand
will be agreeable to the god.

As can be seen, an offering to the divine pairs Šamaš–Bēlet-mātāti and Sîn–Bē-

let-ilī on the 20th day was required. It is worth noting that this particular entry
(intercalary Addaru) specifies that this offering should take place in the morning
(ina šēri).645 Thus it resembles the offering on the 21st day. It is plausible that

for intercalary Addaru, but in my opinion, such a restoration remains very uncertain due
to the frequency of the label “day of Sîn and Šamaš”.
640
Landsberger 1915, 136. Landsberger compares the cluster of festivities in Inbu bēl
arḫi on the 18th and 20th to the similar cluster on the 13th and 15th of each month.
641
BM 121206, VII 5’–7’ (Menzel 1981, T 61; see also the citation on p. 419 below).
642
See the overview of the “cultic calendar” in Livingstone 2013, 252.
643
See also the entries for Nisannu (Livingstone 2013, 202), intercalary Nisannu (Liv-
ingstone 2013, 205), intercalary Elūlu (Livingstone 2013, 215; Marti 2014, 186),
Araḫsamnu (Livingstone 2013, 221), and Ṭebētu (Livingstone 2013, 225; Marti 2014,
188). See also the beginning of this entry in 82-5-22, 528, 10’ (Livingstone 2013, 234;
Marti 2014, 192).
644
The transliteration here is based on the collation of the photograph CDLI P395396. In
Livingstone 2013, 231, the transliteration of the line II 12’ overlooks DINGIR.MAḪ.
645
Also the fragment K. 12000R, which was not included in Livingstone’s edition (see
 II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 117

morning offerings on the 20th and 21st days of the month reflect the visibility of
the moon in the sky during this phase of the lunar cycle (waning half moon).
The moon’s visibility in the morning hours increases towards the end of the
cycle, and at the time of the waning half moon (around the 21st day) it can be
seen in the sky late at night and in the morning.646
In other sources, references to Sîn in connection with the 20th day are few. A
prostration to Sîn is prescribed for the 20th of Nisannu in the Prostration Hemer-
ology, while a prostration to Šamaš should be made on the 13th.647 This means
that, according to this entry, these deities should be venerated in a mirrored fash-
ion: the prostration to Šamaš takes place on the “day of Sîn” (13th) and the pros-
tration to Sîn on the “day of Šamaš” (20th). Some of the manuscripts for the
Babylonian Almanac include an “eclipse of the moon” for the 20th of Tašrītu.648

II.4.2.18. 21st Day (Waning Half Moon)

The 21st of Nisannu is the day for the “accountancy of Sîn” (epēš nikkassi ša
Sîn) according to one of the manuscripts of the Offering Bread Hemerology.649 A
hemerological text from Assur (VAT 10954+) includes a similar entry, but in this
case, both Sîn and Šamaš are mentioned.650 A similar entry can also be found in
the royal hemerology Inbu bēl arḫi which states that the 21st day of the month is
the “accountancy of Sîn and Šamaš”.651 The prescriptions for this day in nearly
all of the attested months include an offering to the divine pairs Šamaš–Bēlet-
mātāti and Sîn–Bēlet-ilī.652 The entries for Simānu, the intercalary Elūlu and in-
tercalary Addaru show that the offering should take place in the morning (ina
šēri).653 As already discussed in connection with “accountancy of Sîn and Bēlet-

Livingstone 2013, 201), contains an only partly-preserved entry for the 20th day with a
morning offering.
646
See the overview of the lunar phases on p. 18 above.
647
Prostration Hemerology, 3–4 (Jiménez & Adalı 2015, 159; Livingstone 2013, 162).
648
Livingstone 2013, 45. Two manuscripts state that the eclipse is that of the sun and a
further two speak of a lunar eclipse.
649
K. 15161, II’ 1’: DÙ NÍG.ŠID šá 30 (Livingstone 2013, 113 and 159; Marti 2014,
171). Two manuscripts from Assur (KAR 178, KAR 176+) name Šamaš instead of Sîn.
650
VAT 10954+, 11’ (Hätinen & Schaudig, KAL [forthcoming]).
651
The entry for the 21st of intercalary Addaru is best preserved, K. 4093, II 14’: DÙ
NÍG.ŠID šá 30 u 20 (Livingstone 2013, 231). A similar designation can also be restored
for Simānu (Livingstone 2013, 209; Marti 2014, 184), intercalary Elūlu (Livingstone
2013, 215; Marti 2014, 186), and Araḫsamnu (Livingstone 2013, 221; Marti 2014, 187).
The entry for the 21st of Ṭebētu possibly included the “accountancy of Sîn and Bēlet-ilī”
and no offering (Marti 2014, 188).
652
An offering is absent in the entry for Ṭebētu (see previous note).
653
K. 4093, II 21’–22’: ina še-r[im LUGAL] NIDBA-šú ana dUTU dBe-let–KUR.KUR
ana 30 DINGIR.MAḪ / ú-kan ni-[qé]-e BAL-qí (intercalary Addaru; Livingstone 2013,
231).
118 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

ilī” on the 15th day of the month, the days that bear this designation appear to
follow the pattern of lunar phases.654 Moreover, as already noted, in comparison
to the plausible practical economic purposes for conducting an account at set in-
tervals during the month, the religious implications of the role of Sîn and Šamaš
remain unclear. The fact that both Sîn and Šamaš are connected to this “account-
ing” on the 21st of the month may be linked to their approaching conjunction at
the end of the month, during which divine decisions were made and verdicts de-
creed: perhaps an “account” in the sense of a confession was needed in prepara-
tion for this meeting.
In an isolated case, one of the manuscripts of the Babylonian Almanac in-
cludes the entry magir dSîn, “Sîn is well-disposed”, for the 21st day of Tašrītu.655

II.4.2.19. 22nd Day

Similarly to the 15th and the 21st day of the month, the 22nd day is labelled as the
“accountancy of Sîn and Šamaš”, “accountancy of Sîn” or “accountancy of
Šamaš” in Inbu bēl arḫi.656 As can be seen from these designations, the entries
for this day are not as consistent as those for the 15th and the 21st, which are
called “accountancy of Sîn and Bēlet-ilī” and “accountancy of Sîn and Šamaš”,
respectively. From the assuredly attested designations, epēš nikkassi ša Sîn per-
tains to the 22nd of the intercalary Elūlu.657 This designation possibly appears
also in the entry for intercalary Addaru, but its use cannot be confirmed.658 The
“accountancy of Sîn and Šamaš” is attested for the 22nd of Araḫsamnu.659 This is
also the only entry that assuredly prescribes an offering to Sîn and Bēlet-ilī in
addition to Šamaš and Bēlet-mātāti. The 22nd of Šabāṭu is labelled as the “ac-
countancy of Šamaš”.660 Unfortunately, the reason for this variation is not appar-
ent. Perhaps the deviation of the 22nd day from the pattern 7–15–21 serves as an
explanation for the incoherent way the moon god is presented in the entries for
this day in Inbu bēl arḫi. Despite the variation, it is clear that the function of this
day is similar to that of the 21st.
A further association between the 22nd of Ayyāru and Sîn is found in a Baby-
lonian expository text which includes an explanation for the moon god’s rise to

654
See p. 111 above.
655
BM 64359, 4’: 21 ma-gir d30 (Livingstone 2013, 46 [Ms Si5]; see the photograph of
the tablet in Livingstone 2013, 75).
656
For the possible implications of this designation see the discussion on p. 106 above.
657
K. 4231, III 12: [DIŠ UD.22.KÁM] DÙ NÍG.ŠID šá 30 (Livingstone 2013, 216).
658
K. 4093, II 23’: DIŠ UD.22.KÁM DÙ NÍG.ŠID šá 3[0] (according to Marti 2014,
192; the transliteration given in Livingstone 2013, 231 has DÙ NÍG.ŠID šá 20). Unfortu-
nately, the collation of the tablet from a photograph (CDLI P395396) does not provide
any clear proof to support the reading 3[0] or 2[0]: both of them are possible.
659
K. 3269, III 4’: DIŠ UD.22.KÁM DÙ NÍG.ŠID šá 30 u 20 (Livingstone 2013, 221).
660
K. 7079+, II 3’: [DIŠ UD.22.KÁM DÙ NÍG].ŠID šá [d]UTU (Livingstone 2013, 228).
 II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 119

the role of a divine king for this day.661 The context of this association is the Nip-
purian cult and the festivities concerning the god Ninurta.

II.4.2.20. 23rd Day

The designation “guqqû of Sîn” for the 23rd day of the month is attested in the
lipšur-litanies.662 A similar entry can also be found in the hemerological text
VAT 10954+ from Assur.663 The exact nature of guqqû/guggānû-offerings re-
mains unclear, although they are attested as early as the Ur III documentation of
the festivals in Nippur.664

II.4.2.21. 24th Day

The only attestation of attention given to Sîn on the 24th day of the month is
found in the Offering Bread Hemerology which prescribes a bread offering to
Sîn and Adad on the 24th of Tašrītu.665

II.4.2.22. 25th Day

Although the 25th day of the month is attested as a festival in the offering lists
deriving from Old Babylonian Ur,666 there are no Neo-Assyrian or Neo-Babylo-
nian references to offerings to Sîn, or rituals before him, on the 25th day.

II.4.2.23. 26th Day

In the hemerological tradition, the interplay between Sîn and Šamaš forms a pre-
vailing motif in the final five days of the lunar month. Starting with the 26th day
and ending on the 30th, these five days serve as the temporal setting for the exe-
cution of divine decisions and the delivery of verdicts by these two deities. The

661
OECT 11 nos. 69+70, I 25’–28’ (see the citation on p. 205 below).
662
KAL 10 no. 36 (AO 6775), r. 6’: UD.23.KÁM | lip-šur | GUG.GA-qu šá ⌈d⌉⌈30⌉; CTN
4 no. 110, r. 25: UD.23.KÁM | [lip]-šur [guqqû] šá [d3]0. See also the overview in Liv-
ingstone 2013, 253.
663
VAT 10954+, 12’ (Hätinen & Schaudig, KAL [forthcoming]).
664
This offering is only briefly mentioned in the overview of Neo-Assyrian food offer-
ings in Gaspa 2012, 13 and 16, but it seems clear that it is a periodic offering. Note that
while guqqānû is listed as the plural form of guqqû in AHw, 298, the two words are sep-
arated into different lemmas in CAD G, 135. An overview of the Sumerian materials can
be found in Cohen 2015, 160–161; see also Landsberger 1915, 38 note 3.
665
KAR 178//, r. IV 6–7: ŠUK-su ana d⌈30⌉ / u dIŠKUR imMAR.TU GAR-ma, “He should
place his bread offering to Sîn and Adad (towards?) west”. In Livingstone 2013, 139, this
entry is translated “He should place his bread offering for Sîn and Adad and the West
Wind, and it will be [acce]ptable.” The translation “Sîn and Adad-of-the-West wind” for
the formulation d30 u dIŠKUR imMAR.TU is possible (see Schwemer 2001, 30 note 132),
but on the other hand, the use of imMAR.TU in the Prostration Hemerelogy suggests that
it indicates the direction of the offering (see Jiménez & Adalı 2015, 181).
666
See Charpin 1986, 310 and 316 as well as Stol 1992, 247.
120 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

conceptual background to this is the meeting between Sîn and Šamaš during the
conjunction of the sun and the moon at the end of the lunar cycle.
Sîn and Šamaš play the leading role in the entry for 26th of Nisannu in the Of-
fering Bread Hemerology. Here, speaking to Sîn and Šamaš is forbidden, and it
is written that “at that very time”, these two deities make the decisions (purussû)
concerning the land.

KAR 178//, III 2–4667

III 2 [ ana d3]0 u dUTU
III 3 KA-šú NU DÙ ina UD.⌈MEŠ⌉-šú d?!(copy: AB)30668
III 4 u dUTU E[Š].BAR KUR i-par-ra-su
[...] should not speak [to Sî]n and Šamaš. At that very time, Sîn and Šamaš
make the de[ci]sions concerning the land.

The entry concerning the 26th of Araḫsamnu in the Offering Bread Hemerology
involves a prostration to Sîn.669 In this case, in contrast to the entry for the month
Nisannu, no reference to divine decision-making is given.

II.4.2.24. 27th Day

Like the entry concerning the 26th day in the Offering Bread Hemerology, the in-
struction for the 27th day of Nisannu in the same text forbids speaking to Sîn and
Šamaš. In this case, the identity of the speaker is known to us: it is the king
whose words should not be directed at the moon god and the sun god.670 Where-
as the divine decisions made on the 26th day were said to concern the land, the
verdicts (dīnu) decreed on the 27th concern the (wild) animals (umāmu).671

KAR 178//, III 8–10672

III 8 KI.MIN LUGAL ana d30 u dUTU KA-šú NU DÙ
III 9 (x) x d30 u dUTU

667
See Livingstone 2013, 115 and Marti 2014, 171.
668
This line is read DUG4-šú NU DÙ ina UD.⌈MEŠ⌉ ŠÚ ⌈d⌉(tablet: AB)30 in Livingstone
2013, 115 with the translation “he should not direct his request. On these days at the sett-
ing of Sîn [...]”. The interpretation of the sign ŠÚ as a logogram for rabû, “to set”, is un-
likely in the light of the structure and the content of the passage. A more plausible solu-
tion is the temporal expression ina ūmīšu, “at that very time” (see CAD U–W, 148).
669
KAR 178//, r. IV 62: UD.26.KÁM ana d30 KI.ZA.ZA (Livingstone 2013, 141).
670
As a tentative suggestion, perhaps this specification is connected to the king’s power
which extends to the wild animals and which is made visible during the royal hunt. In the
entry for the 28th day, the ordinary citizen (amēlu) receives the same injunction.
671
The noun umāmu can mean both domesticated and wild land animals, but it is often
specifically used to refer to wild animals (see CAD U–W, 95–97 and Streck 2014, 16).
672
See also Livingstone 2013, 115.
 II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 121

III 10 d[i-ni] ú-ma-me i-di-⌈i⌉-nu

Ditto. The king should not speak to Sîn and Šamaš. [...] Sîn and Šamaš de-
cree ve[rdicts] concerning (wild) animals.

The significance of decreeing verdicts over wild animals by Sîn and Šamaš re-
mains elusive, but it is possible to interpret it as a phase in the process of deci-
sion-making that took place at the end of the month and which had significance
for the entire inhabited world, including the animals living in the wild. This is
implied by the fact that on the previous day, the 26th of Nisannu, decisions (pur-
ussû) concerning the land (mātu) were made by the same deities.673 The process
continued on the 28th of Nisannu when decisions concerning mankind (perhaps –
the crucial part is unfortunately broken) were made.674
The theme of divine decision-making is also present in another source in re-
lation to the 27th day of the month. The explanatory work i-NAM-ĝiš-ḫur-an-ki-a
presents mathematical equations, resulting in the number 27 that denotes the 27th
day of the lunar cycle.675 The further explanation that is given to this day de-
scribes it as the day on which the moon and the sun stand together and make
decisions concerning the land.

K. 2164+, 20–23676
20 ⌈ina⌉ [ ] x ⌈d⌉30 u dUTU 3 [A].RÁ 3 ta-nam-bi
21 [ ]⌈9⌉ A.RÁ 3 27 27 UD.27.KAM d30 u dUTU
22 [ ] GUB.ME-zu-ma EŠ.BAR KUR BÀ.MEŠ
23 [ ṣa]-ad-du ana KUR SUM.MEŠ-nu
In? [...] ... you call Sîn and Šamaš 3 × 3, [...] 9 × 3 is 27, the 27th day. Sîn and
Šamaš [...] stand and make the decisions concerning the land. [...] they give a
[s]ign for the land.

The formulation “they give a sign” in the last line of this passage contains a ref-
erence to the lunar omens because the noun ṣaddu, “sign”, is a central term in
the context of celestial divination.677

673
KAR 178//, III 2–4 (see p. 120 above).
674
KAR 178//, III 22–24 (see p. 126 below).
675
It can be assumed that the calculation 3 × 3 that serves as the starting point of this pas-
sage is based on the divine number 30 of Sîn and the reciprocal 0;3 of Šamaš’s number
20 (Livingstone 1986, 41).
676
Collated from the photograph available in CDLI (P394227) See also the edition in
Livingstone 1986, 24–25 and the citation in Gabbay 2016, 170–171.
677
See the discussion on p. 159ff. below.
122 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

II.4.2.25. 28th and 29th Day (Lunar Invisibility)

Both the 28th and the 29th day of the month – rarely also the 30th day – can have
the designation ūm bubbuli (Sum. u4-ná-a/u4-ná-àm), “day of disappearance of
the moon”.678 Since the conjunction of the moon and the sun lasts approximately
24 to 50 hours, the length of the moon’s absence varies each month. According
to an astrological commentary, a month can have three days that are labelled
days of lunar invisibility: this happens when the moon disappears on the 27th day
and reappears on the 30th day.679 This explains how both the 28th and the 29th
days can have the same designation even in texts deriving from the same place.
A good demonstration of this variation is found in the hemerological texts from
Assur: the text VAT 10954+ calls the 28th day bubbulu of Sîn, whereas VAT
10231 gives this designation for the 29th day of the month.680 In the Offering
Bread Hemerology, the 29th of Nisannu is bubbulu of Sîn,681 and Inbu bēl arḫi
contains this same designation for the 29th day of, presumably, each month.682
Notably, Inbu bēl arḫi also labels the 28th day of each month as bubbulu, but not
of Sîn: this day is said to be the ”bubbulu of Nergal”.683 Such a designation most
likely finds an explanation in the association of moonless days with the Nether-
world.684 In VAT 10954+, the 29th day is called “bubbulu of Ea” which most
likely is a reflection of Ea’s general association with the 29th day.685

678
See AHw, 135 (“Neumondstag”) and CAD B, 298–300 (“day of the disappearance of
the moon”). The meaning of this term is discussed in Landsberger 1915, 141–144; Thur-
eau-Dangin 1919, 152; and Lewy & Lewy 1948, 152–153. In addition to bubbulu, also
the term biblu is attested (CAD B, 222). Interestingly, K. Tallqvist presented a very dif-
ferent interpretation of the meaning of the moon’s disappearance: according to him, the
conjunction of the moon and the sun was understood as a time of their marriage, as it is
known from the Greek, Latin, and Indian mythologies (Tallqvist 1938b, 28–29 and
Tallqvist 1947, 41–42). However, this interpretation, based on the Sumerian term (u4-ná-
àm) which connotes “lying down”, reveals more about Tallqvist’s eagerness to find par-
allels between the Mesopotamian world and other cultures than about the actual Sumero-
Babylonian concepts pertaining to the days of the moon’s invisibility.
679
K. 2876, II 11’–12’: DIŠ UD.NÁ.ÀM ina ITI 3-šú GÁL-ši / UD.27.KAM 30 TÙM-
ma UD.30.KAM IGI, “If there are three days of lunar invisibility in a month (means that)
the moon disappears on the 27th day and becomes visible on the 30th” (Reiner & Pingree
2005, 114–115; see also Frahm, Frazer & Jiménez 2013 [CCP 3.1.63.E]).
680
VAT 10954+, 14’ and VAT 10231, I’ 9’ (Hätinen & Schaudig, KAL [forthcoming]).
681
KAR 178//, III 37: DIŠ UD.⌈29⌉.KÁM bu-bu-lu šá d30 (Livingstone 2013, 116).
682
See the entries for Simānu (Livingstone 2013, 210; Marti 2014, 184), intercalary Elūlu
(Livingstone 2013, 216), Araḫsamnu (Livingstone 2013, 222; Marti 2014, 187), Ṭebētu
(Livingstone 2013, 226; Marti 2014, 188), and intercalary Addaru (Livingstone 2013,
232).
683
See e.g. the entry for the 28th of Araḫsamnu (Livingstone 2013, 222; Marti 2014, 187).
684
So already Landsberger 1915, 142.
685
VAT 10954+, 15’ (Hätinen & Schaudig, KAL [forthcoming]). The association of the
 II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 123

The Akkadian term bubbulu is derived from the verb (w)abālum, and thus
refers to the notion of the moon being taken away. The Sumerian noun, u4-ná-
àm, denotes the “day of sleep”. That the moon was thought to have been taken
away is reflected in a line preserved in a fragmentary medical procedure which
takes place on “the day Sîn is taken away from the heaven”.686 Likewise, it is
stated that procedures against zikurudû-magic are not to be performed on an
“empty day” (ūmu rīqu), meaning that they should not take place on moonless
nights.687 These two conceptually different words used to describe the same phe-
nomenon were the subject of study in the scholarly explanatory work i-NAM-
ĝiš-ḫur-an-ki-a which, at the end of its second section, gives philological ex-
planations for the logogram UD.NÁ.ÀM and its Akkadian equivalent bubbulu.

K. 2164+, r. 12’–17’688
r. 12’ DIŠ UD.NÁ.ÀM [bu-u]4-bu-lim NÁ na-a-lum
r. 13’ NÁ ṣa-la-la N[Á i]-tu-lum NÁ ra-ba-ṣu NÁ ba-nu-ú
r. 14’ NÁ te-diš-ti UD [t]e-diš-ti d30 DUMU SAG ša d+⌈En⌉-⌈líl⌉

r. 15’ bu-u4-bu-[l]im BU na-sa-ḫ[u]

r. 16’ UD ú-mu BU.LÌ šu-ta-as-su-ḫu
r. 17’ ta-as-su-[u]ḫ-tum ta-lit-tum
r. 18’ u4-mu i-li-[t]i d30 ki-i DU11.GA-ú
UD.NÁ.ÀM = [bū]buli. NÁ = nâlu (“to lie down”); NÁ = ṣalālu (“to lie
asleep”); N[Á = i]tūlu, (“to sleep”); NÁ = rabāṣu, (“to crouch”); NÁ = banû,
(“to create”689); NÁ = tēdišti (“renewal”); ūm [t]ēdišti, day of the renewal of
Sîn, the first-born son of Enlil.

29th day with Ea is also found in lipšur-litanies, but without the label bubbulu (see KAL
10 no. 34–37, 87).
686
BAM 6 no. 580, V’ 5’: u4-um d30 ina AN-e it-tab-lu (see Reiner 1995, 135). Note the
use of the verbal form itbal in astrological literature to denote the disappearance of celes-
tial objects (see CAD T, 20).
687
Abusch & Schwemer 2016, no. 10.6.2, ll. 41’’–46’’. See also the commentary BM
129092, 28–29: u4-mi ri-qí : UD.29.KÁM / [u4-mu] ⌈šá⌉ d30 la ú-šu-uz-zu, “empty day =
29th day [....] Sîn is not standing” (see the edition in Jiménez 2014d [CCP 3.5.22.A.b]).
The term ūmu rīqu is translated as “distant day” in Freedman 2006, 152 and as “holiday”
in Jiménez 2014d; for the translation “empty day” as a moonless night see Stol 2012,
536. The explanation in these lines refers to the entry with the protasis “If a snake sees a
man on an empty day” in Šumma ālu 23 (translation “If a snake sees a man on a distant
day” in Freedman 2006, 159).
688
See Livingstone 1986, 28–29 (ll. r. 25–31) and Gabbay 2016, 252. The transliteration
here is based on the collation of the tablet from the photograph CDLI P394227.
689
The translation given in Livingstone 1986, 29 is “to be beautiful”.
124 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

būbu[l]i – BU = nasāḫu (“to pull out”); UD = ūmu (“day”); BU.LÌ = šutas-

suḫu (“to be removed”); tassuḫtu (“pulling out”690) = tālittu (“offspring”); it
is as if it said “day of Sîn’s bir[t]h”.

As can be seen, the part that is built around the Sumerian term for this day is fo-
cused on the notion of resting. The elaborations are made on the basis of the ele-
ment NÁ in the Sumerian name of this day, and consequently, they are mostly
connected to the notion of sleeping or lying down. As a result of the derivations,
the day receives the explanation “day of renewal of Sîn” (ūm tēdišti Sîn). The
second part, which analyses the Akkadian word bubbulu, arrives at a similar
conclusion through different associations: this is the day of Sîn’s rebirth, after
which he can make his reappearance in the sky.
Sîn’s regeneration during his rest was, however, only one of the concepts at-
tached to the days of the moon’s disappearance. As noted by François Thureau-
Dangin, this period of time appears to have had a somewhat dual character be-
cause, in addition to the joyous notion of the rebirth of the moon, it was associ-
ated with death and the Netherworld.691 The realm of the dead was a location
where the moon and the sun stayed during their invisibility. The mythological
meeting of the moon god and the sun god in the Netherworld is attested as a mo-
tif in a Sumerian elegy that is preserved in an Old Babylonian manuscript, but
similar motifs are not found in sources from the 1st millennium BCE.692 Still,
there is a reference to the characters of Sîn and Šamaš as illuminators of the
Anunnakū gods, the deities of the Netherworld, in the prayer “Sîn & Šamaš
1”.693 A connection between ūm bubbuli and the Netherworld can also be seen in
the practice of presenting offerings to the dead (kispu) on this day. To feed an-
cestors was a daily task in Mesopotamian households, but a special feast built
around this ritual took place the at the end of the month on ūm bubbuli.694 The
identification of ūm bubbuli as a day for such rituals is based mainly on the ref-
erence to monthly kispu-offerings on this day in an Old Babylonian letter.695
Similar evidence is lacking for the 1st millennium BCE, but the character of this

690
CAD T, 283 has the translation “removal(?)” for tassuḫtu.
691
Thureau-Dangin 1919, 152.
692
Kramer 1960, 54, ll. 88–90: dUtu en gal a-ra-li-ke4 / ki-ku10-ku10 u4-šè ú-mu-ni-in-tu di-
ku5-zu ì-ku5-dè / dNanna-a u4-ná-a nam-zu ḫé-tar-re, “Utu, the great lord of the Nether-
world, will judge your case after turning the dark places to light; may Nanna decree your
fate on the day of moon’s invisibility”. See also Livingstone 1986, 42 and Lambert 2013,
191.
693
CBS 1516, r. 11: dA-nun-na-ki ka-li-šú-nu tu-nam-ma-ra ki-⌈ma⌉ u4-m[e] (see the edi-
tion on p. 520ff. below).
694
See especially the overview of bubbulu as the temporal setting for kispu-offerings in
Tsukimoto 1985, 47–48; Livingstone 1986, 42; and van der Toorn 1996, 49–51.
695
AbB 1 no. 106, 17–19 (see Tsukimoto 1985, 47 and van der Toorn 1996, 50).
 II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 125

day is hinted at in lexical lists: in the list of synonymous Akkadian words, bub-
bulu/ūm bubbuli is equated with ūm kispi, “day of the kispu-offerings”, ūm
nubatti, “day of the eve(ning) festivities” and ūm idirti, “day of darkening”.696
These juxtapositions show that, in addition to its association with the offerings
for the dead, the darkness produced by Sîn’s stay in the Netherworld was one of
the primary aspects of this day. However, it should be stressed that there are no
Neo-Assyrian or Neo-Babylonian references to Sîn acting as a mediator between
the dead and the living – a motif that is known from an Old Babylonian appeal
to the moon god to “release” the dead so that they may enjoy the food and
beverages offered to them.697
In contrast to the moon god’s activities in the Netherworld, the Neo-Assyrian
and Neo-Babylonian sources give more importance to the meeting of the gods
which took place during the conjunction of the moon and the sun, as it was told
in the Enūma eliš.698 The sources do not reveal if the meeting between Sîn and
Šamaš was thought to take place in the Netherworld or in the invisible parts of
the heavens where the bed-chambers of the sun and the moon were located.699 A
solid reference to the divine assembly taking place at the time of the moon’s in-
visibility is found in the Akkadian šu’ila-prayer “Sîn 1”. A passage in this prayer
depicts the divine assembly as a meeting in which the great gods are seated at
the feet of Sîn and discussing their decisions while receiving counsel from the
moon god, who holds authority.

“Sîn 1”, 11–16700

The great gods kneel before you, the decision(s) of all the lands are placed
before you, the great gods ask you, and you give counsel; they sat in their as-
sembly, they deliberated at your feet. O Sîn, the splendid one of Ekur, they
ask you, and you give the response of the gods! The day of disappearance is
the day of your answer, the secret of the great gods! The 30th day is your fes-
tival, the day of [your] divinity’s celebration!

Here the day of the moon’s disappearance is praised as the day of the moon
god’s answer (tāmītu), a secret (pirištu) of the great gods.701 The use of the word
tāmītu reveals that the decisions made during this assembly were made manifest
in the lunar signs: this is the term that is included in the concluding paragraph of

696
Malku III, 151–153 (Hrůša 2010, 84–85); see also MSL 5, 23 (ll. 193–200).
697
BE 6/2 no. 111, 1–33 (Wilcke 1983, 49–54; see also van der Toorn 1996, 53).
698
Enūma eliš V, 24: za x [... š]u-taq-ri-ba-ma di-na di-n[a], “Draw near ... [...] give
judgement” (Lambert 2013, 98–99). See also Lambert 2013, 191–192.
699
See Horowitz 2011, 247–252.
700
See the edition on p. 452ff. below.
701
See the remarks in Lenzi 2008, 165–166 note 145.
126 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

the lunar section of the astrological series EAE.702 The implication of this scene
is that the divine decisions made during the invisibility of the moon were made
manifest in the form of lunar signs when the moon reappeared at the beginning
of the month.
The theme of divine decision-making is also found in the hemerological tra-
dition in connection with the days of the moon’s invisibility. In the Offering
Bread Hemerology, as we have seen, this theme already prevailed on the 26th and
27th of Nisannu,703 and it is also extended to concern the 28th day of that month.
It is likely that the decisions made on the 28th day specifically concerned with a
particular sphere (perhaps mankind), keeping with the decisions concerning the
land and (wild) animals in the entries for the 26th and the 27th of Nisannu, but
due to the damage in the line, their nature remains unknown.

KAR 178//, III 22–24704

III 22 KI.MIN NA ana d30 u dUTU KA-šú NU DÙ
III 23 [ina] ⌈u4⌉-me-šú d30 u dUTU
III 24 [EŠ.BAR x x (x)] ⌈KU5⌉-su705
Ditto. A man should not speak to Sîn and Šamaš. [At] that very time Sîn and
Šamaš make [the decisions concerning ...].

Sîn and Šamaš also appear to be mentioned later in the same entry, possibly in
the sense that they “carry the decision concerning the land to An[u?]”, but the
exact meaning of this formulation remains unclear.706 The theme changes when
the 29th day of Nisannu, referred to as bubbulu, is reached: no references to di-
vine decision-making are made, instead this day is described as unpropitious in
many respects.707 An eclipse of the moon or the sun is even assigned to this
day.708 The entry advises a person to pray to Sîn and Šamaš so that they will
bless him.709 Thus, in the Offering Bread Hemerology, the description of the 29th
of Nisannu greatly resembles that of the 30th of Nisannu.710 Similar reflections
regarding the unpropitious nature of the 29th day are found in the entry for the
29th of Araḫsamnu in the Babylonian Almanac: here an instruction to not pros-

702
See the citation of this passage on p. 169 below.
703
See the discussion on p. 119ff. above.
704
See Livingstone 2013, 116 as well as the remarks on p. 120 above).
705
Read [EŠ.BAR i-par-r]a-su in Livingstone 2013, 116.
706
See KAR 178//, III 30–31 in Livingstone 2013, 116.
707
KAR 178//, III 37–50 (Livingstone 2013, 116–117).
708
KAR 178//, III 43: KI.MIN AN.MI d30 u dUTU (Livingstone 2013, 116).
709
KAR 178//, III 45–46: ana d[30 u dUTU] lik-ru-ub / d30 [u dUTU ana NA BI ŠÙD-šú]
(Livingstone 2013, 116).
710
See p. 127 below. The similarities must have been caused by the fact that either the
29th or the 30th day is the last day of the lunar month.
 II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 127

trate oneself before Sîn is given.711 Still, one of the manuscripts adds that a bread
offering to Sîn should be made.712
The interplay of the moon and the sun at the end of the month is also reflec-
ted in the Prostration Hemerology. Here the instruction for the 28th of Araḫsam-
nu prescribes gifts to Sîn and Šamaš – a crescent moon and a golden sun disc,
respectively.713 Since this date does not fit into the general pattern of the hemero-
logy – the sequence of days for the month Araḫsamnu being the 3rd, 28th, 19th,
and 20th –, it has been argued that the 28th day is given here instead of the 18th
due to a scribal error.714 Moreover, in the latest edition of the text, the date that is
given in the composite transcription of the line is the 15th instead of the 28th.715
The 15th day occurs in a similar entry in BM 34584+, but since four of the manu-
scripts of the Prostration Hemerology clearly speak about the 28th day, the sub-
stitution in this case remains dubious.716 When we consider the conceptual back-
ground of this entry, it is clear that the lunar cycle is the reason there are similar
instructions for both the 15th and the 28th days: both of these days are marked by
the joint activity of Sîn and Šamaš, who either stand in opposition during the full
moon (the 15th day) or meet during the moon’s conjunction with the sun (the 28th
day). As has already been seen, these two points of time in the lunar cycle were
characterised by the making of divine decisions and the decreeing of verdicts by
Sîn and Šamaš. Thus, a votive gift presented to Sîn and Šamaš on either of these
days would have had the same function, presumably to ensure divine benevol-
ence in connection with decisions that were currently made by these two gods.

II.4.2.26. 30th Day

The 30th day, which is rarely defined as bubbulu,717 marked the end of the ideal
30-day month.718 This ideal number of days in the lunar cycle is reflected not
only in the numeric spelling d30 for the name Sîn but also in the name “30th day”
(šelāšû) for Sîn, attested in a fragmentary god-list from Nineveh.719

711
Livingstone 2013, 53.
712
See Isma’el & George 2002, 256 and Livingstone 2013, 53.
713
Prostration Hemerology, 26 (Jiménez & Adalı 2015, 167).
714
Marti 2014, 174.
715
Jiménez & Adalı 2015, 167.
716
These four manuscripts derive from Ḫuzirīna and Nineveh. The preference for the 15th
day is not elucidated in the text edition but is it briefly noted that the manuscripts from
Nineveh appear to have been copied from a single source, and they thus contain the same
mistakes (Jiménez & Adalı 2015, 187). See also the discussion on p. 219 below.
717
The only attestation of the 30th day as bubbulu exists in connection with Nusku as one
of the sons of Enmešara (AO 6479, III 14 and An = Anum I, 145; see p. 316 below).
718
For the system for defining the length of the month see p. 91ff. above. The character
of this day is discussed briefly in Landsberger 1915, 144–145.
719
This list, which deviates from An = Anum, is cited in Feliu 2006, 236 note 43. Note
128 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

K. 2124 (CT 25, pl. 32), 13’–14’

d
13’ 30 | d30
14’ ⌈d⌉UD.30še-la-šú-u.KÁM | d30

The special character of this day in relation to Sîn is also reflected in the Akka-
dian šu’ila-prayer “Sîn 1” which praises it as a festival (isinnu) of Sîn and as a
day for “his divinity’s celebration”.720 The celebration of Sîn on the 30th day is
certainly linked to the inevitable reappearance of the moon in the sky as the lun-
ar month reaches its maximum length.721 Due to this, as Benno Landsberger ob-
served, the 30th day was conceptually connected to the 1st day on which the cres-
cent moon reappeared in the night sky.722
In the Offering Bread Hemerology, the entry for the 30th day includes a simil-
ar prohibition of speech as the entries for 26th, 27th, and the 28th days. Moreover,
a reference to the decisions concerning the land is again made.

KAR 178//, III 58–60

III 58 KI.MIN N[A ana d30 u] d⌈UTU⌉ KA-<šú> NU DÙ
III 59 NA BI [d]30 u dUTU
III 60 EŠ.BAR ⌈KUR⌉ ana DINGIR.[MEŠ GAL].MEŠ na-šu-u
Ditto. A m[an] should not speak [to Sîn and] Šamaš. That man(?), Sîn and
Šamaš bear the decisions of the land to the [great] god[s].723

Despite the prohibition on speaking to Sîn and Šamaš, the final lines of the entry
contain the same instruction as the entry for the 29th day: one should pray to Sîn
and Šamaš to receive their blessing.724

that this name is not included among the moon god’s names in Krebernik 1995, 363.
720
“Sîn 1”, 16 (see the edition on p. 452ff. below).
721
Koch-Westenholz 1995, 102; see also p. 91ff. above.
722
Landsberger 1915, 144. His observation is based on Inbu bēl arḫi where both the 30th
and the 1st day are called “day of Anu and Enlil”; see e.g 1st day of intercalary Nisannu
(Livingstone 2013, 202) and the 30th day of intercalary Elūlu (Livingstone 2013, 217).
723
The exact meaning of this line remains unclear. The translation in Livingstone 2013,
117 is “For that man, Sîn and Šamaš will carry the decision of the land to the great gods”
(cf. “pour cet homme, Sin et Šamaš remettront les décisions aux grands dieux” in Labat
1939, 69; “(per) quest’uomo, Sîn e Šamaš, rimetteranno de decisioni (per) il paese ai
grandi dei” in Casaburi 2003, 42). The translation in Koch 2015, 224 takes the sign KUR
in the copy to actually be ŠE: “(for) that man, Sîn and Šamaš will bring a favourable
decision before the great gods”.
724
KAR 178//, III 62–63: ana d30 u dUTU lik-ru-ub / u d30 u dUTU ŠÙD-šu (see Liv-
ingstone 2013, 117).
 II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 129

Nisannu Nisannu II Ayyāru

1 [...] (IBA) evening and morning offer-
ings (IBA)
2 [...] (IBA) [offering] (IBA)
3 bread offering (OBH)
4
5 bread offering (OBH)
6 prostration
(PH)
7 bread offering (OBH)
rimku of Sîn (Assur)
8
9 [bread offering] (OBH)
10 rimku of
Sîn (Assur)
11 [...] (IBA) offering (IBA)
12
13 [bread offering] (OBH) day of Sîn and Bēlet-ilī; of-
[...] (IBA) fering (IBA)
14 bread offering; speech
(OBH)
15 bread offering (OBH) accountancy of Sîn and Bē-
[...] (IBA) let-ilī; offering (IBA)
16 [...] (IBA) offering in the morning
(IBA)
17 bread offering (OBH)
Ningal intercedes with Sîn
(OBH; IBA)
18 day of [Sîn and Š]amaš; of- [day of Sîn and Šamaš]; of-
fering (IBA) fering (IBA)

Table 6: Days associated with Sîn in Nisannu, Nisannu II, and Ayyāru
(to be continued)
130 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

Nisannu Nisannu II Ayyāru

19
20 prostration (PH) [day of bread donation to
[day of bread donation] to Sîn and Šamaš]; offering
Sîn and Šamaš (IBA) (IBA)
21 accountancy of Sîn (OBH) [...] (IBA)
[...] (IBA)
22 [...] (IBA) [...] (IBA)
23
24
25
26 no speech; decisions about
the land made by Sîn and
Šamaš (OBH)
27 no speech (king); verdicts
on (wild) animals decreed
by Sîn and Šamaš (OBH)
28 no speech (man); decision-
making by Sîn and Šamaš
(OBH)
29 bubbulu; eclipse; prayer;
blessing (OBH)
[...] (IBA)
30 no speech; prayer; bless-
ing; decisions by by Sîn
and Šamaš (OBH)

Table 7: Days associated with Sîn in Nisannu, Nisannu II, and Ayyāru
(continued)
 II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 131

Simānu Du’ūzu Abu Elūlu

1 [...] (IBA)
2 offering (IBA)
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 prostration (PH)
11 offering (IBA)
12 Sîn and Ištar are well-
disposed (OBH; IBA )
13 [...] (IBA)
14
15 accountancy of Sîn eclipse of the
and Bēlet-ilī; offering moon (BA);
(IBA) [offering?] (PH)
16 prostration (PH; eclipse of the dream ritual (SAA 10
IBA); moon or the sun no. 298);
offering (IBA) (OBH) rimku of Sîn (Assur)
17
18 festival of Sîn and
Šamaš; offering (IBA)
19
20 [...] (IBA)
21 [accountancy of Sîn]
and Šamaš; [offering]
in the morning (IBA)
22 [accountancy of ...]
(IBA)

Table 8: Days associated with Sîn in Simānu, Du’ūzu, Abu, and Elūlu
(to be continued)
132 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

Simānu Du’ūzu Abu Elūlu

23
24
25
26
27
28
29 bubbulu of Sîn; [of-
fering?] (IBA)
30

Table 9: Days associated with Sîn in Simānu, Du’ūzu, Abu, and Elūlu
(continued)

Elūlu II Tašrītu Araḫsamnu Kislīmu

1 evening and morn- evening and morning
ing offerings (IBA) offerings (IBA)
2 [offering] (IBA) rimku of Sîn [offering] (IBA)
(Assur)
3 gift to Sîn (PH; IBA)
4
5
6
7 sheep offering (Sippar)
8
9
10 offering (IBA) offering (PH)
11 [offering] (IBA)
12
13 day of Sîn and Bē- [day of Sîn and Bēlet-
let-ilī; offering (IBA) ilī]; offering (IBA)
14 appeal to Sîn
(OBH)

Table 10: Days associated with Sîn in Elūlu II, Tašrītu, Araḫsamnu, and Kislīmu
(to be continued)
 II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 133

Elūlu II Tašrītu Araḫsamnu Kislīmu

15 accountancy of Sîn [accountancy of Sîn
[and Bēlet-ilī]; offer- and Bēlet-ilī]; [offer-
ing (IBA) ing] (IBA)
16 offering in the morning
(IBA);
rimku of Sîn (Assur)
17 Sîn is well-
disposed (BA)
18 day of Sîn and [...] (IBA)
Šamaš; [...] (IBA)
19
20 day of] bread [dona- eclipse of the day of bread donation
tion] to Sîn and moon (BA) to Sîn and Šamaš;
Šamaš; [offering] offering (IBA)
(IBA)
21 accountancy of [Sîn Sîn is well- [accountancy of Sîn
and Šamaš]; offering disposed (BA) and Šamaš]; [offering]
in the morning (IBA) (IBA)
22 accountancy of Sîn; accountancy of Sîn and
[offering?] (IBA) Šamaš; offering (IBA)
23
24 bread offer-
ing (OBH)
25
26 prostration to Sîn
(OBH)
27
28 votive offering to Sîn
and Šamaš (PH)
29 bubbulu [of Sîn]; [of- bubbulu [of Sîn]; offer-
fering?] (IBA) ing (IBA);
no prostration; bread
offering (BA)
30

Table 11: Days associated with Sîn in Elūlu II, Tašrītu, Araḫsamnu, and Kislīmu
(continued)
134 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

Ṭebētu Šabāṭu Addaru Addaru II

1 [...] (IBA) evening and morn- [...] (IBA)
ing offerings (IBA)
2 [...] (IBA) [offering] (IBA) [offering] (IBA)
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11 [offering] (IBA) [offering] (IBA) [offering] (IBA)
12
13 [...] (IBA) day of Sîn [and Bē- [...] (IBA)
let-ilī]; offering
(IBA)
14
15 [...] (IBA) [...] (IBA) [...] (IBA)
16 [...] (IBA) [...] (IBA) [...] (IBA)
17
18 [...] (IBA) [...] (IBA); [festival? of Sîn and
rimku of Sîn (Assur) Šamaš; offering] (IBA)
19
20 day of bread [...] (IBA) day of bread donation
donation to Sîn to Sîn and Šamaš ; of-
and Šamaš; of- fering in the morning
fering (IBA) (IBA)
21 accountancy of [...] (IBA) accountancy of Sîn
[Sîn and Bēlet- and Šamaš; offering in
i]lī? (IBA) the morning (IBA)
22 accountancy of accountancy of accountancy of Sî[n?]
[...] (IBA) Šamaš (IBA) (IBA)

Table 12: Days associated with Sîn in Ṭebētu, Šabāṭu, Addaru, and Addaru II
(to be continued)
 II.4. The Moon God, the Lunar Cycle, and Conceptions of Time 135

Ṭebētu Šabāṭu Addaru Addaru II

23
24
25
26
27
28
29 bubbulu of Sîn; of- [...] (IBA) [bubbulu] of Sîn; of-
fering (IBA) fering (IBA)
30

Table 13: Days associated with Sîn in Ṭebētu, Šabāṭu, Addaru, and Addaru II
(continued)
136 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

II.5. Sîn’s Association with Anu, Ea, and Enlil

A prominent feature in the scholarly Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian cunei-
form sources is the association of the moon god with the triad Anu, Ea, and En-
lil – a phenomenon that has received the designation “Theology of the Moon” in
Assyriological literature.725 The primary notion in the “Theology of the Moon”
is that during the first half of the lunar cycle, while the moon waxes from a thin
crescent to the full moon, the parṣū (Sum. ĝarza), “divine powers”, of Sîn are
those of Anu, Ea, and Enlil.726 In the case of the waning moon, no such associa-
tions are explicitly attested, which underlines the importance of the first fifteen
days of the month in Mesopotamian theological thought.
How should the association of the moon god with the three deities Anu, Ea,
and Enlil be understood? In the light of the available attestations, this triad must
be understood as a collective term for the divine powers of the cosmos: Anu rep-
resents the heaven, Ea the underground waters, and Enlil the earth.727 It is also
significant that the visible heaven was divided into three paths (ḫarrānu) – one
for each of these three gods – that were used to describe the motion of celestial
objects during the year and to identify the locations of celestial objects.728 As the
principal divine forces in the cosmos, the gods Anu, Ea, and Enlil were also per-
ceived to be responsible for its creation and organisation, as well as generating
signs that revealed the divine will to the people.729 The best example of their au-
thority in this respect is found in the prologue of the omen series EAE, according
to which Anu, Enlil, and Ea laid out the plans for heaven and the earth, created
the cosmos with its celestial constellations and natural cycles, and caused the
moon and the sun to emerge, bearing signs.730 Therefore, by taking over the di-
vine powers (parṣū) of Anu, Ea, and Enlil, the moon god takes into his posses-
sion the powers of the whole cosmos (the heaven, the underground waters and

725
See Stol 1992, 250 and Beaulieu 2007, 148–152.
726
The concept parṣu (Sum. ĝarza) has a semantic range ranging from divine powers to
cultic ordinances, rites, or customs (see CAD P, 195–203). Here it is understood to mean
divine powers that can transferred from one deity to another.
727
Galter 1983, 145.
728
See Horowitz 2011, 252–256. These paths run between the eastern and western hori-
zons, and the path of Anu is located in the middle, the path of Enlil in the north, and the
path of Ea in the south. Among other sources, these celestial paths are found in the
Mesopotamian astrolabes (Horowitz 2014) as well as at the beginning of MUL.APIN
(see ll. I i 1–ii 35 in Hunger & Pingree 1989, 18–39). In nocturnal prayers, stars are often
called “those of Anu, Enlil, and Ea” which is a reference to their position in the night sky
(e.g. K. 2315+, 43–44 in Oppenheim 1959, 284).
729
As noted in Galter 1983, 147.
730
See Verderame 2002b, 9 and the citation on p. 94 above. The creation of the cosmos
by Anu, Enlil, and Ea is also attested in VAT 9805+, 14’–20’ (Source E in Rochberg-
Halton 1988, 270–271; concluding paragraph of EAE 22).
 II.5. Sîn’s Association with Anu, Ea, and Enlil 137

the earth), becoming the supreme being who holds power over divine decision-
making. In this respect, it is significant that the sources containing “Theology of
the Moon” are either explicitly or implicitly related to celestial divination. These
sources include the scholarly works the Great Star List and i-NAM-ĝiš-ḫur-an-
ki-a, but on the other hand, the “Theology” is quoted in one of the manuscripts
of the Enūma eliš731 and in inscriptions of Assurbanipal and Nabonidus.732
Whether the “Theology of the Moon” originated in Assyria or Babylonia re-
mains unclear. The majority of sources and its earliest attestations come from
Nineveh, but on the other hand, it is clear that the “Theology of the Moon” is as-
sociated with the Babylonian creation myth Enūma eliš.733 Still, it is clear that
the association between Sîn and Anu, Ea, and Enlil was firmly rooted in schol-
arly thought during the reign of Sargon II at the latest.
The reference to the moon god as Anu, Ea, and Enlil in the section of the
Great Star List that explains divinatory associations as well as the structure of
the heavens is explicitly associated with astrology-astronomy.734 The lines in-
cluded in the Great Star List are also found in the fragmentary god-list K. 2074
which not only contains the “Theology of the Moon” – the crescent moon
(uskāru) equals Anu, the half moon (kalītu, “kidney”) equals Ea, and the gib-
bous/full moon (agê tašriḫti) equals Enlil – but also explains the moon god’s
names in a fashion similar to An = Anu ša amēli.735

731
One of the manuscripts of the Enūma eliš V (K. 13774 = STC 1, p. 191) inserts the
“Theology of the Moon” into the passage in which Marduk creates the moon (see
Kämmerer & Metzler 2012, 230 and Lambert 2013, 98–99).
732
See the discussion on p. 140ff. below.
733
A. Schott and E. Weidner have argued that i-NAM-ĝiš-ḫur-an-ki-a was fundamentally
connected to the emergence and heyday of astronomy-astrology during the reign of Sar-
gonid dynasty in Assyria (Schott 1934, 326–329 and Weidner 1959–1960, 105). On the
other hand, both A. Livingstone and W. Lambert deny this on the basis of the lunar pat-
tern in the Enūma eliš and also due to the unlikelihood that the cultural transfer would
have gone from Assyria to Babylonia (Livingstone 1986, 18 and Lambert 2013, 187).
734
Great Star List, 281–287 (Koch-Westenholz 1995, 202–203; see also Weidner 1915,
6–20 and Weidner 1959–1960, 105–113).
735
The fragment K. 2074 is copied as 3 R 55, no. 3; a photograph of it is available in
CDLI P394175. The fragment was discussed in connection to the Great Star List in
Weidner 1915, 18, and it was edited in Jensen 1915, 94–95 as an appendix to the edition
of the bilingual šu’ila-prayer 4 R2 9+// to Sîn. The section in the Great Star List that cor-
responds to this fragment was cited and discussed in connection with i-NAM-giš-ḫur-an-
ki-a in Livingstone 1986, 47. K. 2074 was also cited in Leibovici 1962, 98 in connection
with the five/seven day periods of the Mesopotamian month. For the latest discussion
concerning this text see Lambert 2013, 186–187 where also the existence of the fragment
K. 2115 (CT 25, pl. 28), which also seems to include the same explanatory passage, is
noted. In this fragment, the line concerning the divine powers of Sîn is inserted after the
line containing a glossed entry of the divine name Nanna (dŠEŠna-an-naKI), followed by a
138 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

K. 2074, II 1’–13’

II 1’ [ŠU.NIGIN] 4 MU.MEŠ ⌈d⌉[ x (x)]

II 2’ ⌈šá⌉ A-nu-ú-ti-[šú]

II 3’ [DIŠ 3]0 ina IGI.LÁ-šú TA UD.1.KÁM EN UD.5.KÁM

II 4’ ⌈5⌉ u4-mi U4.SAKAR dA-nu-um
II 5’ TA UD.6.KÁM EN UD.10.KÁM 5 u4-mi
II 6’ ka-li-tum dÉ-a
II 7’ TA UD.11.KÁM EN UD.15.KÁM
II 8’ 5 u4-mi AGA taš-ri-iḫ-ti ip-pir-ma d+En-líl
d
II 9’ 30 dA-nu d+En-líl u dÉ-a par-ṣu-šu
d
II 10’ Nanna d30 šá AN-e u K[I]736
d
II 11’ EN.ZU d[30 šá EŠ.BAR]737
II 12’ dMIN-30 [d30 šá x x x (x)]738
II 13’ ⌈d⌉Ĝiš-n[u11-gal d30 šá x x x (x)] (rest broken away)
[A total of] four names of (the god) [...] of his Anu-ship.

[Sî]n in his appearance from the first day to the fifth – five days – is a sickle,
he is Anu; from the sixth day to the tenth day – five days – is a kidney, he is
Ea; from the eleventh day to the fifteenth day – five days – he wears the
crown of splendour, he is Enlil. The divine powers of Sîn are Anu, Enlil, and
Ea. Nanna is Sîn of Heaven and Ear[th.] Sîn = [Sîn of decisions]. Sîn-30 =
[Sîn of ...]. Ĝišnugal = [Sîn of ...] (rest broken away)

The same associations are given in a further scholarly text, i-NAM-ĝiš-ḫur-an-ki-

a, which employs mathematics in combination with different readings of signs
to explain different lunar phases and their connections to other deities.739 The

list of the moon god’s other names. K. 11333, published as SAA 8 no. 299, also seems to
contain a similar explanation of the moon’s stages.
736
The copy in 3 R 55, no. 3 has the signs d30 šá e-lam-[...] which are cited as an attesta-
tion of ellammê in CAD E, 100. Collation of the tablet confirms that the signs in reality
are d30 šá AN-e u K[I].

737
See An = Anu ša amēli, 25: dSuen-na | MIN | šá EŠ.BAR (Litke 1998, 230).
738
The entry dMIN-30 is also attested in the manuscript YBC 2401, IV 169 for the god-
list An = Anum (see especially Feliu 2006, 233 and also Litke 1998, 116).
739
The known manuscripts of the text have been edited and discussed in Livingstone
1986, 17–52. It is worth noting that the three manuscripts that concern the moon are of
Assyrian origin (K. 2164+, K. 2670 and K. 170+ ), and they were all written by the
scholar Nabû-zuqup-kēnu who was active under the reigns of Sargon II and Sennacherib
 II.5. Sîn’s Association with Anu, Ea, and Enlil 139

first section in tablet K. 170+ employs these methods to find the “Theology of
the Moon” for the first half of the lunar cycle. First, the association of Sîn with
Anu involves both the appellation “Fruit” (inbu) for him and the crescent moon
at the beginning of the month.740 The terms for the half moon, the stage associ-
ated with Ea, are the “half crown”741 and the “kidney”. For the full moon, which
is schematically set on the 15th day of the month, the text finds a mathematical
explanation using the numerical values 30 and 2. The circular form of the lunar
crown during the full moon is associated with Enlil.

K. 170 (CT 25, pl. 50)+Rm. 520 (CT 46 no. 54), 1–5742
1 [DIŠ GURUN dEN.Z]U MU dA-num im-bu-ú MU-N[I] gab-bi ⌈an⌉ a
ne x bi ki-lal-la-an IGI.DU8.A UD.1.KAM U4.SAKAR dA-num
2 [DIŠ Áb-kár d30 a]p-pa ár-ḫu li-iṭ-ṭu ár-ḫu liṭ-ṭu maš-l[um k]a-ra
ga-na-te-nu-ú ka-ru ṭa-pa-la ga-na A.ŠÀ maš-lum AGA
UD.7.KAM ka15-lit(u) dÉ-a
3 [DIŠ (x x) d3]0 EN EŠ.BAR e-šu 30 2 e-ni be-el [3]0 A.RÁ 30 15 a-
pa-ru AGA UD.15.KAM BÙR d+En-líl
4 [x x dBA]D ⌈ta⌉-lim dÉ-a na-an-nu ŠEŠ t[a]-lim ŠEŠ ⌈ÍD⌉ na-a-ru
na-a-ra dBAD

5 [ ] x mu-didli dSuen-na-ke4
[“Fruit” is Sî]n because Anu called his name All ... both. Appearance on the
1st day is a crescent; Anu.
[Abkar is Sîn.743 (The sign) á]b is arḫu that is the same as liṭṭu; arḫu (as half
brick) is a half liṭṭu. (The sign) kár is the sloping form of the sign gána.
(When) pronounced karu it means ṭapālu (“to scorn”), (when) pronounced
gana it means eqlu (“a field”). The half crown of the 7th day is a kidney
shape; Ea.
[(...) S]în is “Lord of Divine Decisions” (EN EŠ.BAR). ešu is 30; 2 is (the
dual ending) -ēn(i), which is also lord. 0;30 × 0;30 = 0;15. To wear a crown
on the 15th day is the same as a circle; Enlil.

(see PNA 2/II, 912–913 and Frahm 2011, 265–267). The only known Babylonian manu-
script of the text (BM 47860) is significantly younger since it was written during the 33rd
year of Darius (488 BC). This Babylonian tablet does not concern the moon: the subjects
of its mathematical equations are the dimensions of the granaries and Ekur at Nippur.
740
For the appellation “Fruit” (inbu), see the discussion on p. 54ff. above.
741
For the crown of the moon, see the discussion on p. 60ff. above.
742
See Livingstone 1986, 30 and Lambert 2013, 189. Note the typographical errors li-iḫ-
ḫu and liḫ-ḫu for li-iṭ-ṭu and liṭ-ṭu in the transliteration by Lambert. The passage is also
translated in Koch 2015, 190–191. A photograph is available in CDLI P365806.
743
For the name dÁb-kár for Sîn see the discussion on p. 240ff. below.
140 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

[(...) Enli]l is the (favourite) brother of Ea; nannu is šeš; (favourite) b[ro]ther
is šeš. The river is nāru; narru (“wrongdoer”) is Enlil.

[...] the numerous names of Sîn.

In addition to the main phases of the waxing moon, the triad Anu, Ea, and Enlil
appears to have been associated with longer units of time. This is expressed in a
Late Babylonian theological compendium which assigns the day to Enlil, the
month to Anu, and the year to Ea.744
As I have already pointed out, two Mesopotamian kings, Assurbanipal and
Nabonidus, included the “Theology of the Moon” in their inscriptions. The use
of these scholarly theological reflections on the moon god’s abilities was a
prominent literary motif in the Ḫarrān Stele of Nabonidus, and its use has been
interpreted as a sign of his passionate veneration of Sîn.745 The passage describes
the moon god as the “weapon” of Anu and furthermore assigns the divine
powers of Anu, Ea, and Enlil to him in the manner that is familiar from the pas-
sages concerning the “Theology of the Moon” in the Neo-Assyrian scholarly
texts.

Schaudig 2001, 3.1, II 22–28 (Ex. 2)

d
II 22 30 EN DINGIR šá ina UD.1.KAM TUKUL dA-nù
II 23 zi-kìr-šú AN-e ta-lap-pa-tú u KI-tì
II 24 ta-ḫe-ep-pu-u ḫa-mi-im GARZA dA-nù-
II 25 tú mu-gam-mi-ru pa-ra-aṣ d+En-líl-ú-tú
II 26 le-qu-u GARZA dIDIM-ú-tu
II 27 ša nap-ḫar gi-mi-ir GARZA AN-e
II 28 ina qa-ti-šú tam-ḫu dEn-líl DINGIR.MEŠ
II 29 LUGAL LUGAL.LUGAL EN EN.EN
Sîn, lord of the gods, whose name on the first day (of the month) is “weapon
of Anu”, you touch the heaven and smash the earth; he who gathers the di-
vine powers of the Anu-ship, who totally controls the divine powers of Enlil-
ship, who takes (hold of) the divine powers of Ea-ship, who holds the totality

744
TIM 9 no. 60, III 6’: UD dEn-líl ⌈ITI⌉ dA-num MU.AN.NA d[É-a], “Day: Enlil; month:
Anu; year [Ea]” (see Livingstone 1986, 77). The same text associates the 7th day of the
month with Enlil and the 15th day with Ninurta (TIM 9 no. 60, III 9’) – a notion that is
also found in the Neo-Assyrian text STT 400, r. 41–44 (likewise cited in Livingstone
1986, 77). As already noted in connection with the epithet “Fruit” for Sîn, the association
of Anu with the month is most likely linked to his connection with the last day of the
month in the Mesopotamian hemerological tradition (see Livingstone 2013, 253).
745
For the most recent discussion on the topic, see Beaulieu 2007, 148–152. It should be
noted that exactly this passage is interpreted as evidence for the moon god’s “claim for
universal divinity” in Nabonidus’ inscriptions in Albani 2000, 116 note 455.
 II.5. Sîn’s Association with Anu, Ea, and Enlil 141

of divine powers of the heavens in his hand, Enlil of the gods, king of kings,
lord of lords.

The reference to the moon as the “weapon” of Anu most likely is a reference to
the shape of the thin crescent moon that is seen in the heavens at the beginning
of the month.746 Moreover, this could also be a reference to the curved weapon
that is held by the warrior figure – perhaps Nabû747 – that is depicted inside the
lunar disc in the Late Babylonian tablet VAT 7851.748 The expressions concern-
ing “touching the sky” and “smashing the land” remain more elusive, but it is
plausible that they should be seen as acts of illuminating the heaven and the
earth.749 The following lines in this passage stress the ability of the moon god to
take hold of the divine powers of the triad Anu, Ea, and Enlil. The reference to
“the totality of divine powers of the heavens” can be understood as a reference
to the moon god taking hold of all the three paths of heaven during his monthly
cycle, which underlines the role of the celestial paths of Anu, Ea, and Enlil in re-
spect to the “Theology of the Moon”. Therefore, by taking over the celestial
paths of this triad, Sîn takes hold of the entire cosmos.
Nabonidus has been credited as the only Mesopotamian king to include the
“Theology of the Moon” in his inscriptions, and it has been thought that the
compiler of the Ḫarrān inscriptions of Nabonidus had direct access to the schol-
arly texts explaining the phases of the moon.750 Perhaps such a link existed be-
cause the Neo-Babylonian scholars must have been well-acquainted with the
theological reflections on the first half of the lunar month. However, it can now
be shown that the more likely medium of transmission is to be found in Assur-
banipal’s Ḫarrān inscriptions: it is plausible that Nabonidus adopted the “Theo-
logy of the Moon” from the text that Assurbanipal had ordered to be inscribed
on the anzû-birds in the temple Eḫulḫul (K. 8759+).751 The opening passage of

746
For the possibilities in reading the signs KU dA-nù see Schaudig 2001, 491 note 700.
747
KAR 307, r. 5: šá ŠÀ d30 dAG, “the inside of the moon is Nabû” (see Livingstone
1986, 82–83 and 90–91).
748
Published in Weidner 1967, 12–15 and Tf. 1–2; see also the discussion of this image in
Beaulieu 1999, 91–99 and Beaulieu 2007, 153–154. This battling warrior inside the lunar
disc is also briefly discussed in connection to lunar eclipses on p. 173ff. below.
749
In Beaulieu 2007, 152–153, these two expressions are understood to be references to
creation myths that are known from earlier Sumerian sources, AO 4153 (Early Dynastic)
and NBC 11108 (Ur III; both discussed in Sjöberg 2002, 229–247).
750
Lambert 2013, 190.
751
This tablet belongs to the group of eight inscriptions that were composed in connec-
tion with Assurbanipal’s renovation work in the temple complex Eḫulḫul (see Novotny
2003, 35–42). The fragment Rm. 288 was edited and copied in Perry 1907, 28–30 and
Taf. III, and the joins were published in Pongratz-Leisten 1995, 549–557. A translitera-
tion of the text is also provided in Novotny 2003, 231–233. For a short discussion on the
142 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

this text, which is known only from a fragmentary tablet from Nineveh, contains
a lengthy praise of the moon god, to whom the anzû-birds were dedicated. The
presence of the “Theology of the Moon” in this text has been previously un-
noticed due to the errors in the copies of the tablet, and the line in question has
been incorrectly interpreted as a reference to the familial relationship between
Sîn, Anu, and Ea.

K. 8759+Rm. 133+Rm. 288, 1–15752

1 ⌈a⌉-na d30 na-an-nàr AN-⌈e⌉ [u erṣeti ]
2 ⌈a⌉-pir AGA dA-nù-ú-ti š[a ]
3 [m]u-ad-du-ú u4-me ITI u [šatti ]
4 [m]u-kal-lim ṣa-ad-di EN A[GA ]
5 [n]a-din šip-ṭi KU5-is EŠ.BAR A[N-e u erṣeti ]
6 [m]u-ni-iḫ lìb-bi DINGIR.MEŠ ⌈mu⌉-pa-á[š-šir ]
7 ga-mir ur-ti u ṭè-e-m[e m]u-šaq-q[í ]
8 [š]a e-la šá-a-šú DINGIR.MEŠ a[t-ḫu-š]u ši-mat ⌈šu⌉-⌈ut⌉ A[N-e u
KI-tim la i-šim-mu]
9 ⌈d⌉DILI.IM5.BABBAR ZÁLAG ⌈AN⌉.TA.MEŠ [mu-š]áḫ-li
e[k-le-ti ]
10 [(x)] x ša ina IG[I.D]U8.A-šú t[e-diš-ta š]ak-nu ú-šá-p[u ṣa-ad-da
pi-i UN.MEŠ ú-kan-nu]753
11 [kab?]-tu šá d⌈A⌉-num d+E[n-líl u d]⌈É⌉-a par-ṣu-šu [ ]→
[ ]754
12 [EN] réme-nu-ú šá it-t[i dUTU bu]-uk-ri-šú ši-t[ul-tu

form and dating of the inscription see Holloway 2002, 291 note 219.
752
See Pongratz-Leisten 1995, 549–557 and Novotny 2003, 231–233.
753
Reconstruction according to Sm. 671, 10: [... t]e-diš-ta šak-nu ú-šá-pu-u ṣa-ad-da pi-i
UN.MEŠ ú-kan-nu (see Bauer 1933, pl. 49 and Novotny 2003, 249–250; a photograph of
the tablet is available in CDLI P425533). In the previous editions, this line is read
[MA]Ḫ ša ina IGI.DU8.A-šu KUR [x x P]A-nu (Pongratz-Leisten 1995, 551) and [x] x
ša ina IGI.DU8.A-šu x [x x š]ak-nu (Novotny 2003, 231).
754
Read [lit]-tu ša dA-nim li-[pu šá d]É-a par-ṣu-šu both in Pongratz-Leisten 1995, 551
and Novotny 2003, 231 – an understanding of the line based on the earliest edition of
Rm. 288 in Perry 1907, 29. A collation of the tablet (drawing below) shows that the sign
previously identified as li is in fact d+E[n].

The epithet kabtu for the moon god is attested in SAA 12 no. 90, 2 (see the citation on p.
415 below) and “Sîn 2”, 8 (see the edition on p. 462ff. below). For the use of the adject-
ive kabtu (“honoured, influential, venerable”) as an epithet for deities see CAD K, 26–
27.
 II.5. Sîn’s Association with Anu, Ea, and Enlil 143

i-šak-ka-nu ]755
13 [x x] nu ba-nu-ú m[u(or: n[a]) x x]756 DINGIR u d15 ḫa-me-[em pa-
?

ra-aṣ dA-nù-ú-ti]
14 [na-di]n gišGIDRU gišGU.ZA B[ALA-e ù] a-ge-e EN-ú-t[i] →
[ ]
15 [ḫ]a -⌈’i⌉ -[i]ṭ lìb-bi UN.[MEŠ mu?-na?-ḫiš?] ka-la da-⌈ád⌉-⌈me⌉-[e
? ? ?757

a-šib É-ḫúl-ḫúl šá qé-reb uruKASKAL EN GAL-e EN-šu]758

For Sîn, the luminary of heave[n and earth ...], [the o]ne who wears the
crown of Anu-ship [...], [the o]ne who defines the day, the month and [the
year ...], the reveal[er] of signals, lord of the cr[own ...], [the o]ne who gives
the verdict, the one who makes the decisions concerning the he[aven and the
earth ...], the one who appeases the hearts of the gods, the one who undo[es
...], the one who gives the final order and comma[nd, the o]ne who raises
[...], without whom the gods, [h]is br[others do not decree] the fate of the
ones (livings in) h[eaven and earth], Namraṣīt, the light of the upper world,
[the ill]uminator of dar[kness ...], [...] in whose appearance r[enewal] is
present – he make[s ominous signs visible, he makes the mood of people sta-
ble] –, [the venerable o]ne, whose divine powers are Anu, E[nlil, and] Ea
[...], the merciful [lord], who takes co[unsel] wit[h Šamaš], his [first-born
s]on [...], [...] creator [...] of god and goddess, the one who gat[hers the di-
vine powers of Anu-ship ...], [the one who giv]es the scepter, the throne, the
r[eign and] the crown of lordsh[ip ...], [the one w]ho pe[netra]tes? the hearts
of me[n, he who makes?] all the inhabited region[s prosperous?, who resides
in Eḫulḫul in the midst of Ḫarrān, his lord].

Despite the fragmentary nature of line 11, the reference to the divine powers of
Anu, Enlil, and Ea belonging to Sîn is clear: the wording ([kab]tu? Anu E[nlil u]
Ea parṣūšu) is the same as that known from the Great Star List and the fragment
K. 2074, II 9’ (Sîn Anu Enlil u Ea parṣūšu).759 Because this dedicatory inscrip-

755
For the beginning of the line cf. SAA 12 no. 90, 3: EN réme-nu-u (see p. 415 below).
756
Novotny 2003, 231 suggests n[a?-ram?]. Such a formulation, however, seems unlikely
when the attestations for narāmu in CAD N/1, 343–345 are taken into consideration.
757
Read ⌈mu⌉-x-UD? lìb-bi UN.[MEŠ] in Pongratz-Leisten 1995, 551 and [m]u(?)-
⌈an(?)⌉-UD lìb-bi UN.[MEŠ] in Novotny 2003, 231. The expression ḫā’it libba nišī is at-
tested in connection with Šamaš (see CAD Ḫ, 160).
758
The formulation munaḫḫiš kala dadmē is included both in Pongratz-Leisten 1995, 551
and Novotny 2003, 231. However, the attestations in CAD N/1, 134 do not include any
parallels to this expression. The epithet munaḫḫiš dadmē is attested for Marduk (as En-
bilulu) in the Enūma eliš VII, 66.
759
See the discussion on p. 137ff. above. It should be noted that the triad Anu, Enlil, and
Ea also appear to have been named in the akītu-house inscription of Assurbanipal al-
though this was not linked to the “Theology of the Moon” (Sm. 671, 13; see Bauer 1933,
144 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

tion of Assurbanipal is only partially preserved, it is difficult to judge whether

further allusions to the “Theology of the Moon” were incorporated. Still, the
same passage speaks of the appearance of the moon (at the beginning of the
month) and the counsel of Sîn and Šamaš (in the middle of the month as well as
during the absence of the moon at the end of the month), which exhibits an in-
terest in the lunar cycle.760 It is also significant that the epithet ḫāmim paraṣ An-
ūti, an expression that is found in the later Ḫarrān Stele of Nabonidus, is likely
to be restored in the line 13 of K. 8759+, thus providing a further link between
the Ḫarrān inscriptions of these two kings.761 The important thing about the use
of the “Theology of the Moon” in Assurbanipal’s inscription is that it diminishes
the role that has been ascribed to the motif in the presumed elevation of Sîn by
Nabonidus throughout the empire.762 The “Theology of the Moon” now receives
an aspect that is inherently connected with the moon god’s central role in his cult
city, Ḫarrān. Additionally, the essential role played by lunar omens in the exer-
cise of royal power must have been an influencing factor in incorporating the
“Theology of the Moon”, a text fundamentally linked to lunar astrology, in the
royal inscriptions of both Assurbanipal and Nabonidus.
In respect to the role of divination in the use of the “Theology of the Moon”,
the association of the moon god with the sky god Anu that is also otherwise at-
tested becomes significant.763 As we have seen, the “Anu-ship” (anūtu) became
an important part of the moon god’s persona in Assurbanipal’s dedicatory in-
scription for Eḫulḫul: he wears the “crown of Anu-ship” and he gathers the di-
vine powers of “Anu-ship”.764 As the other uses of the term anūtu show, it
should be interpreted as a designation for the supreme divine power that be-
longed to Anu.765 For example, the god Ninurta, depicted as the returning divine

pl. 49 and Novotny 2003, 249–250).

760
For these crucial stages of the lunar cycle see the discussion on p. 98ff. above.
761
The connection between the Ḫarrān inscriptions of Assurbanipal and Nabonidus was
already pointed out by H. Tadmor in his discussion of the chronological setting of Na-
bonidus’ building activities (Tadmor 1965, 353 note 16). For recent discussions see
Michalowski 2003, 143–144 as well as Michalowski 2014, 205–208. The Assyrian-
styled motifs and literary devices used by Nabonidus are outlined in Vanderhooft 1999,
57 note 206 and Schaudig 2001, 17. For the accounts concerning the renovation/rebuild-
ing of the temple Eḫulḫul, see also the discussion on p. 396ff. below.
762
For the elevation of Sîn by the “Theology of the Moon” in Nabonidus’ Ḫarrān Stele,
see e.g. Lambert 2013, 262 who describes the passage as “the most extravagant thing
possible” to have been said about the moon god.
763
The name Anu is listed among Sîn’s names already in Tallqvist 1938a, 443. It should
be noted that no similar equation of Ea and Sîn is attested. In the local theological con-
text of Ur, the moon god is prominently presented in the inscriptions of the governor Sîn-
balāssu-iqbi as an Enlil-figure (see the discussion on p. 331ff. below).
764
K. 8759+, 2 and 13 (see p. 142 above).
765
AHw, 55–56 and CAD A/2, 150–151.
 II.5. Sîn’s Association with Anu, Ea, and Enlil 145

hero, possesses a “mace of Anu-ship”766, and Ištar of Uruk is exalted as the su-
preme goddess by ascribing the divine powers of Anu to her.767 In the Marduk
Prophecy the god Marduk is given the highest standing in the Babylonian pan-
theon through his “Anu-ship”.768 In this sense, Sîn’s assumption of Anu, Ea, and
Enlil’s divine powers in the “Theology of the Moon” is expressed in the same
way as Marduk’s rise to the top of the Babylonian pantheon.769 Further attesta-
tions of Anu’s divine powers show that the term directly relates to supreme
power over fates and rule over cosmos through authoritative commands. This as-
pect becomes apparent in the Enūma eliš when the god Qingu receives the status
of “Anu-ship” after taking hold of the Tablet of Destinies.770 Similarly, this is the
power that the gods who decree destinies gave to Marduk after he defeated
Tiamat.

Enūma eliš IV, 3–6771

3 at-ta-ma kab-ta-ta i-na DINGIR.MEŠ GAL.MEŠ
4 ši-mat-ka la ša-na-an sè-kàr-ka dA-nu-um
d
5 AMAR.UTU kab-ta-ta i-na DINGIR.MEŠ GAL.MEŠ
6 ši-mat-ka la ša-na-an sè-kàr-ka dA-nu-um
(They said,) “You, you are the most honoured among the great gods,
your destiny is unequalled, your command is like Anu’s.
Marduk, you are the most honoured among the great gods,
your destiny is unequalled, your command is like Anu’s.”

This last case is especially significant since it pertains to the immutable com-
mand over the cosmos.772 The supreme authority that accompanies Anu’s divine

766
An-gin7 dím-ma, 131: ĝišmitum nam-an-na-mu / miṭ-ṭi da-nu-ti-ia (Cooper 1978, 78–
79).
767
RINAP 4 no. 133, 2: dINANNA UNUGki ru-ba-a-ti ṣir-ti le-qa-a-ti pa-ra-aṣ da-nù-ú-
tu, “Ištar-of-Uruk, august princess who takes (unto herself) divine powers of Anu-ship”.
768
E.g. Marduk Prophecy, I 15: gišGU.ZA da-nu-ti-ia5, “throne of my Anu-ship” (see Bor-
ger 1971, 5 and 16). For anūtu as a designation for the supreme status of Marduk see
Sommerfeld 1982, 188–198.
769
See the discussion in Lambert 2013, 248–277. An example of praising Marduk as a
god who possesses the powers of Anu, Ea, and Enlil can be found in Assurbanipal’s ac-
rostic hymn to Marduk and Zarpanītu (SAA 3 no. 2, 3). The aspect of the moon god’s ex-
altation is emphasised by A. Livingstone in his discussion on the “Theology of the
Moon” (Livingstone 1986, 47).
770
Enūma eliš I, 148–162 (see Lambert 2013, 58–59).
771
See Lambert 2013, 86–87.
772
In Dalley 1997, 170 Marduk’s possession of Anu’s powers is understood as the neces-
sary prerequisite for him to create the heaven and its celestial bodies. However, in the
broader context, supreme command over the cosmos should also be taken into
consideration.
146 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

powers is an aspect of “Anu-ship” that is also reflected in the cases where the
moon god is called by this name. In the šu’ila-prayer “Sîn 1”, he is named “Anu
of Heaven” (Anu šamê) and the following relative clause (“whose intent no one
can comprehend”) stresses his intellectual sovereignty among the deities.773 An-
other similar instance is found in an ikrib-prayer to Sîn in which he is praised
with the line “great Anu, whose command cannot be [t]ransgressed!”774 Both of
these prayers appear in the context of divination, and they underline the role that
Sîn had in establishing divine decisions and decrees that were then made mani-
fest in signs, be they in the appearance of the moon or in the entrails of the sacri-
ficial animal. Just as Marduk received absolute command through his “Anu-
ship”, the equation of Sîn with Anu stresses the supreme authority that he pos-
sessed within the divine assembly. It should also be noted that the notion of Sîn
equalling Anu in terms of authority in giving immutable commands possibly
reaches at least as far back as Old Babylonian period.775 In the “Theology of the
Moon”, Sîn is associated with Anu at the beginning of the month when the cres-
cent moon returns to the heaven after its invisibility. However, the aforemen-
tioned attestation of Sîn as Anu in one of the ikrib-prayers, explicitly connected
to the 15th day of the month according to its rubric,776 shows that an association
between these two deities also existed during the full moon. This is further rein-
forced by the apparent reference to the gods Sîn and Šamaš as Anu and Enlil in
an anti-witchcraft ritual that takes place on the morning of the full moon.777

Si. 34(+)//, 2–3778

2 e-nu-ma d30 u dUTU it-ti a-ḫ[a-miš innammarūma]
3 EŠ.BAR KUR dA-num u dBAD KU5-su ina x x x [x x x]
When Sîn and Šamaš [are seen] tog[ether and] Anu and Enlil make the deci-
sions concerning the land, in ... [...]

773
“Sîn 1”, 9: Anu šamê ša lā ilammadu milikšu ma[mman], “O Anu of heaven, whose in-
tent no one can comprehend!” (see the edition on p. 452ff. below and the discussion con-
cerning the moon god’s wisdom in divine decision-making on p. 154ff. below).
774
K. 2751+//, 59’: dA-nu-um GAL-⌈ú⌉ šá qí-bit-su la [i]n-net-ti-qu (see p. 483ff. below).
775
A similar attestation of calling Sîn by the name Anu in respect to his immutable com-
mand is attested already in the hymn KBo I no. 12, o.! 9–13 (edited in Ebeling 1954a,
213–215; see also the citation of these lines on p. 490 below). It has been suggested in
Archi 2007, 185 that this prayer dates back to the Old Babylonian period.
776
K. 2751+//, 78’: [ik-rib d30?] UD.15.KÁM (see the edition on p. 483ff. below).
777
See the comments on this association in Schwemer 2010, 498–499. It is possible that
the association between the sun god Šamaš and Enlil during the sunrise (Great Star List,
288; see Koch-Westenholz 1995, 202–203) also played a role in this context. For an
overview of the sources pertaining to the 15th day, see also p. 106ff. above.
778
See Schwemer 2010, 486 and 490.
 II.5. Sîn’s Association with Anu, Ea, and Enlil 147

The principle underlying the association the moon god with Anu both at the be-
ginning of the month and during the full moon must be related to the signific-
ance of these two points for time in divination. Therefore, the idea that the moon
god possessed the powers of Anu in respect to divine decision-making, both in
the first days of the month and during the full moon, can be understood as a ref-
erence to his activities in establishing verdicts, decreeing fates, and making
decisions.779
A further aspect of the moon god taking the name Anu can be found in a bi-
lingual šu’ila-prayer to him. In this prayer, the moon god receives the names An-
šar and An/Anu, who both represent the heaven as a cosmic entity.780 Due to
their strong association with the upper parts of the cosmos, it is possible that
these names praise the supreme status of the moon god in heaven.

4 R2 9+//, 1–4781
1 ù-mu-un nir-ĝál dìm-me-er-e-ne an-ki-a dili-ni maḫ-àm
be-lum e-tel-li DINGIR.MEŠ ša ina AN-e u KI-tim e-diš-ši-šú
ṣi-i-ru
2 a-a dNanna umun An-šár nir-ĝál dìm-me-er-e-ne
a-bu dNa-an-nar be-lum An-šár e-tel-li DINGIR.MEŠ
3 a-a dNanna umun An-gal-e nir-ĝál dìm-me-er-e-ne
a-bu dNa-an-nar be-lum dA-num GAL-u e-tel-li DINGIR.MEŠ
4 a-a dNanna umun d+Suen-na nir-ĝál dìm-me-er-e-ne
a-bu dNa-an-nar be-lum d30 e-tel-li DINGIR.MEŠ
(Sum.) Lord, ruler of the gods – he alone is exalted in heaven and earth,
(Akk.) Lord, ruler of the gods, who alone is exalted in heaven and earth,
(Sum. & Akk.) father, Nanna, lord Anšar, ruler of the gods,
(Sum. & Akk.) father, Nanna, lord great Anu, ruler of the gods,
(Sum.) father, Nanna, lord Suen/Sîn, ruler of the gods,
(Akk.) father, Nanna, lord Sîn, ruler of the gods.

The šu’ila-prayer 4 R2 9+// is not the only reference to the moon god as Anšar;
this name also appears in the lamentation “The Honoured One Who Wanders

779
For Sîn’s abilities in this context, see p. 150ff. below.
780
According to the Enūma eliš I, 11–16 the sky god Anu is the offspring of the pair An-
šar and Kišar (see Lambert 2013, 50–51 as well as Lambert 2013, 417–426 and 448–
449). The name Anšar for Sîn has also been seen as a further attestation of the moon
god’s equation with the Assyrian head of the pantheon, Aššur (see Schaudig 2002, 630).
Still, in the context of Sumerian prayers and lamentations the equation Sîn = Anšar =
Aššur is implausible. In the listing of names and epithets for Sîn in Tallqvist 1938a, 443,
the name An-šár for Sîn is translated as “der Gott des oberen Alls”. This is noted also in
his Swedish translation of the prayer (Tallqvist 1953, 103–106).
781
See Shibata, HES (forthcoming) and Sjöberg 1960, 166 and 169.
148 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

About” (e-lum di-da-ra) together with the names Nanna and Dilimbabbar.782
Here the celestial connotations are presented more prominently than in 4 R2 9+//,
since the waxing moon is praised using the Sumerian description “growing radi-
ant horn of heaven” (Akk. “radiant luminary of the heaven”).783

e-lum di-da-ra, b+86–89784

b+86 si mú kù an-na še-er-ma-al-la ní-te-na diri-ga-zu-dè za-e diri-ga-zu-
dè
na-an-na-ru el-lu šá šá-me-e e-tel ra-ma-ni-šú ina šu-tu-ru-ti-ka
at-ta5 MIN785
b+87 a-a dNanna si mú kù an-na še-er-ma-al-la ní-te-na
b+88 a-a dNanna umun-e An-šár
b+89 umun dNanna umun dDili-ím-babbar-rù
(Sum.) The radiant growing horn of the heaven, pre-eminent by his own right,
when you are surpassing, when you are surpassing,
(Akk.) The radiant luminary of the heaven, pre-eminent by his own right,
when you are surpassing, when you are surpassing,
father Nanna, the radiant growing horn of heaven, pre-eminent by his own
right,
father Nanna, lord Anšar,
lord Nanna, lord Dilimbabbar!

In the light of these two attestations, it appears that the status of the moon god as
a celestial authority existed especially in the Sumerian liturgical tradition.786 An-

782
As noted already in Sjöberg 1960, 172. It should be pointed out that the name Anšar is
given not only to Sîn, but is also the name of Marduk at the first station of his journey to
the akītu-house (see KAR 142, I 1 in Pongratz-Leisten 1994, 221; see also the discussion
in Pongratz-Leisten 1994, 88–89).
783
The use of the Sumerian expression “growing horn” (si mú) as an equivalent of the
Akkadian nannāru is discussed on p. 35 above.
784
Cohen 1988, 179–180 and 183.
785
In Cohen 1988, 179 ina šu-tu-ru-ti ka-at-tú MIN. See, however, the interpretations of -
ka as the possessive suffix – in correspondence to the Sumerian line – in Langdon 1919,
326 (line 15) and Sjöberg 1960, 47–48.
786
To note here only briefly: a reverse phenomenon is attested in the Late Babylonian
period when lunar epithets were employed to praise the sky god Anu (see already Tallqv-
ist 1938a, 254). For example, in AO 6461, 5–6 the epithet “lord of the crown of splend-
our” is used for Anu on the 10th day of Nisannu (see Thureau-Dangin 1921, 108–110 and
Linssen 2004, 197–199 as well as the citation on p. 68 above). In AO 6494 the luminous
qualities of Anu are praised in terms similar to the moon god’s praise (AO 6494, 15–16:
[...]-ta è-zu-gé zalag-ga [m]u-un-ni? [...] / [i-n]a a-ṣ[e]-e-ka a-na ek-le?-tim? na-mir!-ti ta-
ša[k-kan] “When you come out you bring about brightness to the darkness”; see the edi-
tion in Frank 1933, 193–199).
 II.5. Sîn’s Association with Anu, Ea, and Enlil 149

šar’s equation with Nanna/Sîn is plausibly reflected in the sanctuary name É-an-
šár, “House of all Heaven”, that according to Sîn-balāssu-iqbi’s brick inscription
designated a chapel for Sîn in Ningal’s temple in Ur.787 Whether the association
of the moon god with Anu (and Anšar) had further theological implications in
addition to his supremacy in divine decision-making and his status as a celestial
authority remains uncertain. Paul-Alain Beaulieu has argued that an association
between the gods Sîn, Anu, and Nabû is already apparent in the “Theology of
the Moon” from the Neo-Assyrian scholarly sources,788 Nabonidus’ Ḫarrān
Stele,789 and, especially Late Babylonian sources in which Nabû is praised not
only as the god Anu but also in lunar terms.790 The evidence of such multifaceted
theological reflections on these deities and their divine personas is, however,
meagre and circumstantial, and therefore especially the equation Sîn–Nabû re-
mains very vague.
To conclude, the association of the moon god with Anu, Ea, and Enlil can
find meaning on different conceptual levels. The “Theology of the Moon”
presents a theological idea that was specifically connected to divination, as the
references to it in scholarly contexts demonstrate. Therefore, it relates to Anu,
Ea, and Enlil’s power as the supreme authorities in decreeing fates and making
divine decisions: by taking over their divine powers during the first half of the

787
RIMB, B.6.32.2011, 6 (see the citation on p. 352 below). This had also been noted
already in Sjöberg 1960, 172. For the sanctuaries/shrines for the moon god and Nippuri-
an deities in Ningal’s temple in Ur, see the discussion on p. 351ff. below.
788
Note the wordplay concerning inbu (“fruit”), nabû (“to call”) and Anu becoming nābû
(“the called one”) (Beaulieu 2007, 150). The section that is referred to by Beaulieu is
cited on p. 139 above (K. 170+, 1–5).
789
According to Beaulieu, the stylus of Nabû is depicted mounted on the staff of Na-
bonidus in the Ḫarrān Stele (Beaulieu 2007, 148–149; based on the description in Gadd
1958, 40) and it corresponds to the crescent moon mounted on the staff of the king in
Nabonidus’ Babylon Stele. Therefore, in his opinion, these two deities were theologically
juxtaposed as gods who bestow kingship. However, in the photographs of the two stelae
from Ḫarrān and their drawings in Börker-Klähn 1982, nos. 263–264, the divine emblem
on top of the staff is difficult to identify as a stylus, which undermines this hypothesis.
790
Nabû is associated with Anu in the procession text BM 34030 (see the edition in Lam-
bert 1997, 161) and in a description of Nabû and Tašmētu’s marriage rites for the month
Ayyāru (SBH no. VIII; see the edition in Matsushima 1987, 158–161). In this latter text,
the god Nabû is described in a way that is similar to the descriptions of the moon god: he
“shines forth from inside Ezida during the night like nannāru” (SBH no. VIII, II 16: ul-tu
qé-⌈reb⌉ É-zi-da ina šat mu-ši uš-ta-pa-a na-an-na-ri-iš) and he “illuminates the darkness
like the moon as it rises” (SBH no. VIII, II 17: ki-ma d30 ina ni-ip-ḫi-šú ú-nam-mar ek-
let). It has been noted that the equation of Nabû with Anu and Sîn in SBH no. VIII is
connected with the month’s beginning (Beaulieu 2007, 151–152). Due to Anu and Sîn’s
association with the beginning of the month, this possible connection is the most import-
ant aspect of the proposed syncretism.
150 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

lunar cycle, Sîn assumes their authority in these matters. Moreover, since the tri-
ad Anu, Ea, and Enlil represents the cosmos, Sîn simultaneously assumes the
powers connected with the heavens, the underground waters, and the earth. In
this respect, the moon god as he is described in the “Theology of the Moon” can
be compared to the god Marduk, who also possesses “Anu-ship”, “Enlil-ship”,
and “Ea-ship” as a mark of his supreme position among the gods. Outside of the
“Theology of the Moon”, Sîn is associated specifically with the sky god Anu,
which must be partly interpreted as a sign of his authority in the context of di-
vine decisions and partly as a reflection of his nature as a prominent celestial
deity.

II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions

A central aspect of the moon god, in addition to his role as the celestial
luminary, was his role in the context of divination. As one of the great gods of
the Assyro-Babylonian pantheon, Sîn had the power to make decisions concern-
ing the cosmos and to establish the fates of mankind. His decisions, and also
those of the other gods, were revealed in signs, which could be observed in the
surrounding world. In the case of the moon god the main vehicle for sending
signs was naturally the moon itself, the celestial manifestation of Sîn. Lunar
omens form the first 22 tablets of the astrological omen series EAE, and the
moon was keenly observed in order to discover the fate of the king and the land
set by the gods. However, this was not the only form of divination in which the
moon god played a part. As one of the great gods, who established their deci-
sions in the divine assembly, Sîn was also consulted by using the body of the
sacrificial animal as a medium. In connection to his role as a nocturnal deity, the
moon god was also relatively prominent in the context of dreams. In the follow-
ing chapters these aspects of the moon god – his ability to make divine decisions
concerning mankind and his role in various forms of divination – will be
discussed.

II.6.1. Sîn’s Power over Divine Decisions

The moon god was one of the highest-ranking Mesopotamian deities, who were
responsible for divine decisions concerning mankind and the world. This aspect
of Sîn is deeply rooted in the context of astrological omens, although glimpses
of it also can be found in other contexts dealing with deliberation, advice, and
the decreeing of fates. Divine decision making, in which Sîn played an import-
ant role, took place in the divine assembly (Sum. unkin; Akk. puḫru).791 In the
Sumero-Babylonian tradition the moon god appears to have been closely associ-
ated with this assembly of deities: in the god-list An = Anum two of his names

791
For the assembly, composed of either gods or men, see CAD P, 485–493.
 II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 151

are dUnkin, “Assembly”, and dUnkin-uru16, “Powerful Assembly”.792 This divine

assembly and the supreme nature of Sîn within it is a theme that is present in the
šu’ila-prayer “Sîn 1”.793 The passage, to which the attalû-formula is attached in
some manuscripts, depicts the divine assembly convened with the moon god in
its centre. The other deities sit at the feet of Sîn, asking his advice about the mat-
ter at hand, so that a decision could be reached.

“Sîn 1”, 11–13794

The great gods kneel before you, the decision(s) of all the lands are placed
before you, the great gods ask you and you give counsel, they sat in their as-
sembly, they deliberated at your feet

The divine assembly, in which the moon god takes a prominent role according to
“Sîn 1”, was thought to take place at the time of the moon’s conjunction with the
sun (during the moon’s invisibility). Another meeting took place when the moon
and the sun faced each other during the full moon.795 A divine assembly, in
which Sîn was a participant, also convened to give a verdict in a case that was
presented to it in course of the extispicy ritual.796 These assemblies were the oc-
casions for making divine decisions (Sum. eš-bar; Akk. purussû) and verdicts
(Sum. di(-ku5); Akk. dīnu). Again, the lines of the Akkadian šu’ila-prayer “Sîn
1” cited above inform us how the decisions concerning all the lands are laid be-
fore the moon god in the assembly.797 According to the god-list An = Anu ša
amēli it was under the name Sîn/Suen that the moon god was associated with di-
vine decisions (purussû).798 This primary connection between Sîn and purussû is
further augmented by the various epithets that are build around this concept of
divine decisions.799 Sîn is called bēl purussê, “lord of decisions” in the inscrip-

792
An = Anum III, 21–22 (Litke 1998, 119 and Feliu 2006, 236; see also Tallqvist 1938a,
443 and Krebernik 1995, 363).
793
Two other Akkadian prayers to Sîn also make references to his abilities in respect to
the assembly. In “Sîn 3”, 6 a textual variant appears to present him as a force that con-
venes the assembly, but this reference remains unclear (see the edition on p. 464ff. be-
low). In “Sîn 11” his activities in the assembly are most likely described, but a half of the
line remains obscure (see the edition on p. 477ff. below).
794
See the edition on p. 452ff. below.
795
See the discussion on p. 90ff. above. It remains unclear to me whether these two as-
semblies differed from each other with regard to content.
796
See the discussion of Sîn’s presence in the context of extispicy on p. 181ff. below and
the edition of ikrib-prayers to Sîn on p. 483ff. below.
797
“Sîn 1”, 11 (see the edition on p. 452ff. below).
798
An = Anu ša amēli, 25: dSuen-na | MIN(=d30) | šá EŠ.BAR (Litke 1998, 230).
799
See already the overview in Tallqvist 1938a, 447. For the use of the term purussû in
the context of omen literature see Butler 1998, 36–37 and Rochberg 2004, 194–196. The
152 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

tions of Sennacherib800 and Assurbanipal.801 The epithet pāris purussê, “decision

maker”, is attested in the inscriptions of Sargon II,802 Sennacherib,803 and Esar-
haddon.804 The fact that these decisions concern lunar omens is clear from the
use of the epithet mušaklim ṣaddi, “one who reveals signs”, together with pāris
purussê.805 A variation of this same motif is also found in the incantation against
Lamaštu that names Sîn among other great gods and praises him as “lord of the
crown, decision maker, revealer of signs” (bēl agê pāris purussê mukallim it-
tāti).806 Refinements to this theme are expressed through the epithet bēl purussê
arḫi, “lord of the month’s decisions”, which is attested in the text i-NAM-ĝiš-
ḫur-an-ki-a.807 In this case the role of the moon god simultaneously as an indic-
ator of time and revealer of signs through his appearances during the lunar cycle
is stressed.808 Another variation is the epithet “decision maker of heaven and
earth”, which is attested in a bilingual šu’ila-prayer to Sîn.

4 R2 9+//, 22809
umun ka-aš bar-bar-ra an-ki-a ⌈mu⌉-⌈LU⌉ [dug4-g]a-⌈bi⌉ nu-m[u-un-kúr-re]
be-lum pa-ri-is EŠ.BAR AN-e u KI-tim šá qí-bit-su mam-m[a-an lā
unakkaru]
Lord, the one who makes the decisions of the heaven and earth, (and) whose
command no o[ne can change].

This same epithet pāris purussê šamê u erṣeti together with the epithet nādin
šipṭi, “giver of verdict”, can also be found in Assurbanipal’s dedicatory inscrip-

Sumerian equivalent of purussû, eš-bar, was used to designate the decisions made by
deities, whereas ka-aš-bar (also purussû) designated the decisions made by humans (see
Klein 1971, 122).
800
RINAP 3 no. 153, 7: d30 EN EŠ.BAR na-áš qar-ni gaš-ra-a-ti [...].
801
Assurbanipal Prism A, IV 110: ina itiSIG4 ITI d30 EN EŠ.BAR; Assurbanipal Prism F,
III 33–34: ina itiSIG4 ITI d30 EN EŠ.BAR-e (Borger 1996, 45; RINAP 5/I nos. 11 and 9).
802
OIP 38, 130 no. 3, 1–2: dEN.ZU DINGIR KÙ KU5-is EŠ.BAR mu-šak-lim / ṣa-ad-di
a-na I20–GIN (Fuchs 1994, 280; see also the citation of this inscription on p. 428 below);
Sg Zyl, 57: KU5-is EŠ.BAR mu-šak-lim ṣa-ad-di (Fuchs 1994, 41; see also the citation
on p. 294 below).
803
RINAP 3 no. 36, 5: pa-ri-is puru-se-e (see also the citation on p. 160 below).
804
RINAP 4 no. 48, 5: d30 e-deš-šú-u DINGIR KÙ KU5-is EŠ.BAR mu-šak-lim ṣa-ad-di.
805
pāris purussê is understood as a description of Sîn as the “Supreme Divine Arbiter” in
Parpola 1993c, 178 note 70, where the connotation of celestial divination is not explicitly
recognised. See also the discussion on p. 154ff. below.
806
Lamaštu I, 82: KI.MIN d30 EN a-ge-e KU5-is EŠ.BAR mu-kal-lim GISKIM.MEŠ (see
the edition in Farber 2014, 151–153).
807
K. 170+, 9: EN EŠ.BAR ITI | 30 | d30 (see Livingstone 1986, 30–31).
808
For the moon god’s role in respect to time see the discussion on p. 90ff. above.
809
See Shibata, HES (forthcoming) and Sjöberg 1960, 167 and 170.
 II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 153

tion to the Ḫarranian moon god.810 The immutable nature of Sîn’s command
(qibītu) is expressed in 4 R2 9+//, and a similar notion is also present in Assur-
banipal’s inscriptions in relation to a lunar eclipse: the moon god’s decision
(purussû) is described as unalterable.811 The moon god’s importance to the deci-
sion-making process within the divine assembly is underlined in the šu’ila-pray-
er “Sîn 11”, which states that no decisions can be made when the moon god is
absent.812 It is worth noting that, unlike the sun god, who is depicted as the su-
preme divine judge, the moon god is not conceptually associated with verdicts
as a judge (dayyānu) although he is active in decreeing verdicts (dīnu). On the
basis of this difference, Sîn’s main competence lies in the realm of decisions
(purussû) and advice (milku).813 In Ur the name of the moon god’s ziqqurrat in
the inscriptions of Sîn-balāssu-iqbi and Nabonidus is É-lugal-ĝalga-si-sá,
“House of the King of Righteous Counsel”, a name that combines the notions of
the moon god as the king of his home city and as a deity who gives advice to the
people.814
Other terms that involve the notion of making decisions and forwarding them
to the recipients as orders and commands are also associated with the moon god.
In the inscription of Assurbanipal for the temple Eḫulḫul in Ḫarrān the moon
god is praised as “the one who gives the final order and comma[nd]” (gāmir ûrti
u ṭēm[e]).815 In the same inscription the moon god is also presented as a deity
who inspects the hearts of people.816 Giving orders (ûrtu) is likely to have been
perceived as one of the moon god’s central qualities. This is suggested by the
fragmentary relative clause “who [...] to give orders”, which was used to de-
scribe Sîn in one of Sennacherib’s inscriptions.817 The motif of the moon god as
a deity who determines the fate (šīmtu) of the king is present in a bilingual
šu’ila-prayer addressed to him.818 The fact that Sîn is described as a deity de-
creeing the king’s fate is consistent with his significance in the context of lunar
astrology, a sphere of divination that concerns only the king and his land. Sîn’s
importance in decreeing the fates of the beings in the heavens and on earth is un-

810
K. 8759+, 5: [n]a-din šip-ṭi KU5-is EŠ.BAR A[N-e u KI-tim ...] (see p. 142 above).
811
Assurbanipal Prism B, V 9: ú-kal-lim-an-ni GURUN EŠ.BAR-šú ša la in-nen-nu-u
(see the citation on p. 58 above).
812
“Sîn 11”, 13: d30 ša ina ba-lu-uš-šú EŠ.BAR-e la KU5-su (see p. 477ff. below).
813
To my knowledge, only one epithet describing the moon god as a judge, dayyān kiššati
(“judge of the universe”), is attested on a Kassite cylinder seal (see Langdon 1919, no.
29 and Tallqvist 1938a, 80 and 447). The virtual absence of this notion in connection
with the moon god is noted in Tallqvist 1938b, 99.
814
For the ziqqurrat of Sîn in Ur see the discussion on p. 343ff. below.
815
K. 8759+, 7: ga-mir ur-ti u ṭé-e-m[e] (see p. 142 above).
816
K. 8759+, 15: [ḫ]a?-⌈’i⌉?-[i]ṭ? lìb-bi UN.[MEŠ] (see p. 142 above).
817
RINAP 3 no. 153, 8: ša a-na na-dan ur-ti [...].
818
4 R2 9+//, 17 (see the citation on p. 212 below).
154 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

derlined by Assurbanipal’s inscription for the temple Eḫulḫul, which states that
the other gods are unable to do this without him.819
It is conspicuous that the motif of divine decisions is underlined in the pray-
ers that were addressed to a pair of celestial authorities, Sîn and Šamaš. In these
prayers, which are attested as a part of rituals performed before the moon and
the sun during their simultaneous appearance at the time of the full moon, divine
decision-making and divine judgements are a central theme. This is the case in
the ritual against witchcraft that takes place before the moon and the sun: a di-
vine decision (purussû) made at the place of judgement (ašar šipṭi) and a verdict
given in the legal case (dīnu) presented in the ritual are central in this petition to
Sîn and Šamaš.820 In the prayer to Sîn and Šamaš that is incorporated into a ritual
against ailments caused by a ghost, these two deities are praised as “the ones
who make decisions for the wide-spread people” (pārisū purussê ana nišī
rapšāti).821 In the prayer to Sîn and Šamaš attested in a royal war ritual, these
gods are even presented as personifications of their divine decisions with the
line “it is you (who) are the decision(s) of the heaven and earth!”.822 This identi-
fication is combined with the notion of time (day, month, and the year), which is
established by the collaboration of these two celestial bodies, and further con-
nected to the power of Sîn and Šamaš as deities, who decree fates.823 Providing
verdicts appears also as a motif in the fragmentary part of Marduk’s instructions
to the moon in the 5th tablet of the Enūma eliš.824 These lines are fragmentary,
but it is plausible that the collaboration between the moon and the sun as divine
authorities establishing verdicts during their conjunction and opposition is al-
luded to here. An allusion to the collaboration between Sîn and Šamaš is also in-
cluded in Assurbanipal’s dedicatory inscription for Eḫulḫul, which relates to the
counsel that Sîn takes with his son, Šamaš.825
According to the view expressed by Knut Tallqvist, the moon god was wise
and ineffable.826 This view of the moon’s wisdom has been further promoted by

819
K. 8759+, 8: [š]a e-la šá-a-šú DINGIR.MEŠ a[t-ḫu-š]u ši-mat ⌈šu⌉-⌈ut⌉ A[N-e u KI-
tim la i-šim-mu], “without whom the gods, [h]is br[others do not decree] the fate for the
ones belonging to the h[eaven and the earth]” (see also p. 142 above).
820
Si. 34(+)//, 18: [ina] aš-ru šip-⌈ṭi⌉ KU5-su [EŠ.BAR]; 23: di-[n]i di-na EŠ.BAR-a-a
KU5-s[a] (Schwemer 2010, 487).
821
BAM 4 no. 323//, 101: KU5-su EŠ.BAR ana UN.MEŠ DAGAL.MEŠ (“Sîn & Šamaš
2”; see Scurlock 2006, no. 91).
822
CBS 1516, r. 5 (“Sîn & Šamaš 1”; see the edition on p. 520ff. below).
823
CBS 1516, r. 6–7 (“Sîn & Šamaš 1”; see the edition on p. 520ff. below).
824
Enūma eliš V, 24: za x [... š]u-taq-ri-ba-ma di-na di-n[a] (see Lambert 2013, 98–99).
825
K. 8759+, 12: [EN] réme-nu-ú šá it-t[i dUTU bu]-uk-ri-šú ši-t[ul-tu i-šak-ka-nu], the
merciful [lord], who del[iberates] wit[h Šamaš], his [s]on (see also p. 142 above).
826
See Tallqvist 1938a, 446. According to Tallqvist, the wisdom of the moon is a recur-
ring theme not only in Semitic mythology (Tallqvist 1938a, 446) but also in lunar mytho-
 II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 155

Simo Parpola, who has given Sîn the designation “god of wisdom/understand-
ing” in his publications on the Assyrian roots of the kabbalistic “Tree of Life”.827
Although the basic premise of these designations is correct and based on moon
god’s actual epithets, such a simplification is misleading. Upon close examina-
tion the “wisdom” of the moon god is connected solely to the realm of divine
decision-making and by extension to celestial divination.828 Sîn does have the
epithet eršu, “wise”, in the Nimrud Monolith of Assurnaṣirpal II829 and the same
designation should probably be restored in the line describing him in the Black
Obelisk of Šalmaneser III.830 Because this adjectival epithet appears together
with the epithet bēl agê, “lord of the crown”, it is very likely that the wisdom of
the moon god bears very specific connotations to lunar omens.831 The assump-
tion that the moon god’s wisdom is restricted into the area of divine decisions,
made manifest in celestial signs, is supported by the way that his abilities are de-
scribed in prayers. In the opening line of the šu’ila-prayer “Sîn 7”, attested in a
ritual for making the unpropitious appearance of the moon good, Sîn bears the
epithet apkal ilānī, “sage of the gods”.832 From the context of the prayer, it
seems likely that the sagacity of Sîn was indeed linked to the messages observed
in the lunar phenomena.
A related theme is the inscrutable nature of the moon god’s mind, which is
mentioned on several occasions in prayers to him. In the šu’ila-prayer “Sîn 1”
the moon god is praised as the god Anu, whose intent no one can understand.833
Later in the same prayer, the same praise is repeated, but this time the moon god
is addressed with his name Dilimbabbar/Namraṣīt.834 In the ikrib-prayers ad-
dressed to Sîn during the extispicy ritual, he is extolled as a god, “whose com-
mand cannot be chan[ged] and whose will no other god knows”.835 Both of these

logies around the world (Tallqvist 1947, 201–206).

827
See Parpola 1993c, 177–178 and Parpola 1995a, 379–401.
828
Moreover, to reduce the moon god’s divine persona to include only the aspect of wis-
dom/deliberation in decision-making is not acceptable on the basis of the abundance of
references to his other qualities in Neo-Assyrian textual sources.
829
RIMA 2, A.0.101.17, I 4–5: d30 er-šu EN a-ge-e ⌈LAL⌉-ú / nam-ri-ri.
830
RIMA 3, A.0.102.14, 6: ⌈d⌉[30 er-šu] LUGAL a-ge-e šá-qu-ú nam-ri-ri.
831
This appears to also be connoted by the expression mūdû pirišti mušaklil ṭēmi u milki,
“one who knows the secret, one who provides counsel and advice in full”, which is attes-
ted as an epithet of Sîn on a Kassite cylinder seal (see Langdon 1919, no. 29 and Tallqv-
ist 1938a, 87 and 446).
832
K. 6018+//, x+27’: d30 ABGAL DINGIR.MEŠ (see p. 497ff. below).
833
“Sîn 1”, 9: Anu šamê ša lā ilammadu milikšu ma[mman], “O Anu of heaven, whose in-
tent no one can comprehend!” (see p. 452ff. below). See also the discussion concerning
the association of Sîn to the gods Anu, Ea, and Enlil on p. 136ff. above.
834
“Sîn 1”, 17: Namraṣīt emūq lā šanān ša lā ilammadu milikšu mamman, “O Namraṣīt,
power without rival, whose intent no one can comprehend!” (see p. 452ff. below).
835
K. 2751+//, 8’–9’; 30’–31’ (see p. 483ff. below).
156 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

instances are deeply rooted in Sîn’s character as a god who has the power to
make decisions over the future of the world or to establish a verdict in a case
that has been brought before him. A similar notion is expressed in an inscription
of Sennacherib, which speaks of the inscrutable signs of Sîn, thus transferring
this motif directly into the context of celestial omens.836 A bilingual šu’ila-prayer
to the moon god in turn speaks literally of his “distant heart”, which refers both
to his mind or to his desires.837

4 R2 9+//, 18838
i-bí-eš-du ĝìr-ra šà-ab sù-ud diĝir na-me nu-mu-un-⌈pà⌉-da-e-dè
a-šá-re-du ga-áš-ru šá lìb-ba-šú ru-ú-qu DINGIR mam-man la ut-tu-u
(Sum.) The strong foremost one, (his) distant mind no god can discover
(Akk.) The strong foremost one, whose distant mind no god can discover

These examples show how essential the ability to establish decisions was for the
moon god. Naturally he was only one of the great gods, all of whom possessed
the power to decree fates and make decisions concerning the future of the world,
but he is often praised as the superior authority in these matters. The decisions,
which were made in the divine assembly by Sîn and other gods, were made
manifest in signs that could be observed in various phenomena in the heavens
and on earth.

II.6.2. Signs of the Moon

Lunar omens were the foremost medium for transmitting the moon god’s deci-
sions and wishes to the people. Celestial divination – the observation of celestial
objects as signs from the gods – was one of the most significant divinatory prac-
tices in ancient Mesopotamia and it continually gained importance in the course
of the 1st millennium BCE.839 Celestial omens, i.e. signs sent by the gods, were
one of the most important forms of communication between the king as the rep-
resentative of humans and the divine forces who resided in their own cosmic
sphere. The benign disposition of the gods towards the king was made manifest
in propitious signs, and possible transgressions were met with inauspicious mes-

836
RINAP 3 no. 36, 4: ša GISKIM-šú la il-lam-⌈ma⌉-[du], “whose sign cannot be under-
sto[od]” (see p. 160 below).
837
For this meaning of libbu see CAD L, 169–172.
838
See Shibata, HES, (forthcoming) and Sjöberg 1960, 167 and 170.
839
The principles of Mesopotamian celestial divination have been discussed at length in
various publications. A notable monograph on the topic has been published by Ulla
Koch-Westenholz (1995). Furthermore, the use of astrology in the exercise of royal
power during the Neo-Assyrian period has been discussed in Pongratz-Leisten 1999, 17–
46 and Maul 2013a, 237–275. For overviews of astrology as one of the divinatory prac-
tices in Mesopotamia see especially Maul 2003b, 51–57 and Koch 2015, 146–196.
 II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 157

sages. The gods were also thought to send further communications to the king
when something disconcerting had occurred: this was their way of showing their
concern for the king.840 References to astrological phenomena first appear in
royal inscriptions during the reign of Sargon II and they served to underline the
divine support for the king made manifest through auspicious celestial phenom-
ena.841 A prominent example of the use of astrological motifs for political pur-
poses by the king Esarhaddon is the reference to the ideal appearances of the
moon and the sun at the time of his accession to the throne as a sign of divine
support for his reign.842 The importance of the propitious signs sent by the moon
god to the attentive king is exemplified also in the letter SAA 10 no. 13, which
was sent by Ištar-šumu-ēreš, the chief scribe of the king.843 This letter includes
advice concerning the favourable month and day for transporting royal statues to
Ḫarrān. Specific instructions for their installation are given in the latter part of
the letter, detailing the position of statues around the image of Sîn, most likely in
his temple Eḫulḫul.844

SAA 10 no. 13, r. 2’–17’845

r. 2’ [šum]-ma ina IGI ⌈LUGAL⌉ ⌈EN⌉-i[a ma-ḫi-ir]
r. 3’ ⌈ṣa⌉-lam LUGAL.MEŠ KALAG.[MEŠ]
r. 4’ ZAG u KAB ⌈ša⌉ ⌈d⌉[30]
r. 5’ lu-šá-zi-z[u]
r. 6’ ṣa-lam.MEŠ ša DUMU.[MEŠ]
r. 7’ ša LUGAL EN-ia ina [EGIR d30]
r. 8’ ina IGI d30 lu-š[á-zi-zu]
d
r. 9’ 30 EN a-[ge-e]
r. 10’ a[r]-ḫi-šá-am la na-[par-ka-a]

840
SAA 8 no. 63: “When I wr[ote] to the king, my lord, saying ‘the gods have opened the
ears of the king, [my lord]’, (I meant) if something [happens] to [the king and] he wor-
ries, th[e gods ...] first send a message fr[om heaven] saying: [‘Let him be on guard’ ...].”
See also Koch 2015, 148.
841
See Koch-Westenholz 1995, 152–161; Pongratz-Leisten 1999, 38–46; and Koch 2015,
194–195.
842
RINAP 4 no. 57, I 3’–10’ (see the citation on p. 220 below with further discussion of
the role that Sîn and Šamaš played in the context of royal power).
843
For the position of Ištar-šumu-ēreš in the “inner circle” of scholars see Parpola 1993a,
XXV–XXVI.
844
It has been maintained that these royal images were installed in the sanctuary of the
moon god in Ḫarrān in connection with rebuilding of the temple Eḫulḫul by Esarhaddon,
(Melville 1999, 59) but it seems more likely that this was done in connection with the
successful campaign to Egypt, for which Sîn had given his blessing (see Uehlinger 1997,
318; Nissinen 1998, 123–124; and Novotny 2003, 69–70).
845
See also the commentary to this letter in Parpola 1983, 10–11.
158 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

r. 11’ ina ni-ip-ḫi ù [ri-i-bi]

r. 12’ i-da-at d[u-un-qi]
r. 13’ ⌈šá⌉ UD.MEŠ ⌈GÍD⌉.[DA.MEŠ]
r. 14’ ⌈kun⌉ [ø] BA[LA-e]
r. 15’ na-da-⌈an⌉ kiš-šú-[ti]
r. 16’ a-na LUGAL EN-i[a]
r. 17’ [la] ⌈i⌉-pa-ra-ka-⌈a⌉
If it [is acceptable] to the king, my lord, the large royal statues should be
erecte[d] on the right and the left side of [Sîn]. The statuettes of the king’s
son[s] should be s[et up behind] (and) in front of Sîn. Sîn, lord of the
cr[own], every month without fa[il], in rising and [settings], will [not] cease
(sending) h[appy] signs of long-last[ing] days, steady rei[gn] and increase in
powe[r] to the king, my lord.

By installing these images, Esarhaddon marked the Assyrian royal presence in

Ḫarrān846 and in addition ensured that the moon god in Ḫarrān permanently re-
ceived the attention of the Assyrian king and his successors. In return, the moon
god would each month, without ceasing, send auspicious omens as a sign of his
benevolence towards to the king and thus guarantee that his reign would be long
and prosperous.
Observation of the moon was primarily concerned with its first appearance as
the sign for the beginning of the new month, and the opposition of the moon and
the sun in the middle of the lunar cycle. This reflects the tendency to observe
synodic phenomena, i.e. the return of a celestial body to a certain position in re-
lation to the sun and the earth, which is a central feature of Mesopotamian astro-
logy-astronomy. The interplay of the moon and the sun is reflected in the Enūma
eliš, in the passage that describes the creation of the moon to illuminate the
night.847 Observers paid attention not only to the time of the moon’s rising and
its appearance in the night sky but also to the presence of other celestial bodies
in the sky and meteorological circumstances. The idea that Sîn’s decisions were
made manifest in the appearance of the moon (tāmartu) in the sky is reflected in
two references to this as the moment when the decision (purussû) is given.848
The signs that were conveyed by these phenomena are recorded in the astrolo-
gical omen series Enūma Anu Enlil, out of which they form the largest section
(22 tablets).849 Tablets 1–14 deal with the “appearances of the moon”

846
For this “figurative policy”, which made royal power visible through stelae and rock
reliefs see Uehlinger 1997, 299–305.
847
Enūma eliš V, 12–22 (Lambert 2013, 98–99; see also p. 93 above).
848
KAR 337, r.? 7’: [a?-na?] ta-mar-ti-šú EŠ.BAR i-nam-di[n] (see Lambert 1964, 12–
13); KAL 4 no. 40, r.? 13’: [... ana] IGI.DU8.A-šú EŠ.BAR AN-⌈e⌉ [...].
849
For the latest overview of EAE see Koch 2015, 163–179.
 II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 159

(IGI.DU8.A.ME šá 30)850 and tablets 15–22 are dedicated to lunar eclipses.851

The tablets have a thematic organisation: e.g. tablet 3 treats the “crown” of the
moon and tablet 5 the “horns” of the moon.852 Thus the whole spectrum of pos-
sible scenarios for the appearance of the moon in the night sky is covered. The
observations were diligently made by astrologer-astronomers in the service of
the king and they were reported together with their interpretation to the royal
court. The earliest preserved Neo-Assyrian report found in Kalḫu can be dated
to the reign of king Assurnaṣirpal II,853 but in general the reports date to the
reigns of Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal.854 The importance of lunar phenomena
to the Assyrian king is reflected by the vast number of reports concerning lunar
observations: they constitute the majority of the reported phenomena in the cor-
pus of the Neo-Assyrian astrological reports.855
A central term in respect to signs conveyed by the moon as a celestial object
and the moon god as a revealer of the divine will through omens is ṣaddu, “sign-
al; sign”.856 That Sîn’s ability to convey signals was one of his essential charac-
teristics is exemplified by the way this quality is presented in a syncretistic
hymn to Marduk.857 In this hymn, Marduk is praised as the main Babylonian god
by listing of the traits of other deities, who were perceived only to be his as-
pects. In this context, the god Marduk, under the name858 Nannāru, was con-
sidered to give a decision at the time of the moon’s rising,859 to convey signs to
the people through lunar omens, and to decree the fate of the people. The syn-
cretistic prayer to Marduk, KAR 26, depicts a similar situation. Here the power
of Marduk is described through the activities of other deities, who could not fun-
ction without him. The line referring to the moon god Sîn underlines his role as

850
See Weidner 1941–1944, 318. The tablets 1–6 have been edited by Lorenzo
Verderame (2002) and he has announced his future publication of the tablets 7–13
(Verderame 2002b, VII note 3). For an overview of the tablets 1–13 see also Verderame
2002a, 447–457. The tablet 14 is published in Al-Rawi & George 1991–1992, 52–73.
851
The lunar eclipse tablets of EAE have been edited in Rochberg-Halton 1988.
852
For the concepts of the moon’s crown and horns see p. 60ff. and p. 229ff. respectively.
853
CTN 4 no. 29 (see Koch 2015, 150).
854
These reports have been edited by Hermann Hunger (1992).
855
See Koch 2015, 193.
856
See AHw, 1073 and CAD Ṣ, 56–57.
857
See the composite transliteration in Lambert 1964, 12–13. According Schwemer 2001,
665 note 5519, an edition of KAR 26 and further manuscripts has seen announced by W.
G. Lambert and I. Finkel.
858
The section concerning the weather god Adad is cited in its unpublished form (see pre-
vious note) in Schwemer 2001, 665 note 5519 and it indicates that the deities listed in
this hymn were thought to also be names of Marduk, and thus their traits were con-
sidered to be his aspects (see also Oshima 2011, 392–394).
859
KAR 337, r.? 7’: [a?-na?] ta-mar-ti-šú EŠ.BAR i-nam-di[n] (see Lambert 1964, 12–13).
160 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

the luminous sign-giver in the heavens.

KAR 26, 19860

ina NU.ME-ka d30 U4.SAKAR AN-e ṣa-ad-da a-na UN.MEŠ ul i-šaq-qá
Without you Sîn, luminary of the heaven, does not rise as? a signal for the
people!861

The variety of epithets describing the moon god as the giver or revealer of signs
in the inscriptions of both Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian kings accentuates
the centrality of this notion in connection with lunar omens and consequently to
the exercise of royal power. A well-attested epithet mušaklim ṣaddī, “revealer of
signals”, appears alongside the epithet pāris purussê, “decision maker”.862 A
good example of this is the description of the moon god in an inscription of Sen-
nacherib, in which the moon god’s aspect as a decision maker and revealer of
signs is brought forth, together with a reference to the inscrutable nature of the
moon god’s mind.863

RINAP 3 no. 36, 3–5

3 [d30 (...)]
4 e-deš-šu-ú DINGIR KÙ ša GISKIM-šú la il-lam-⌈ma⌉-[du ...]
5 pa-ri-is puru-se-e mu-⌈šak⌉-[lim ṣa]-ad-di
[Sîn (...)], the ever-renewing one, pure god, whose sign cannot be under-
sto[od ...], maker of decisions, reveal[er of si]gnals.

A similar combination of pāris purussê and mušaklim ṣaddī can be found in the
inscriptions of Sargon II864 and Esarhaddon.865 A related epithet is mukallim ṣad-

860
See the editions in Mayer 1999, 145–163 and KAL 2 no. 21.
861
Two different opinions concerning the grammatical structure of this line have been ex-
pressed in recent publications of this prayer. According to W. Mayer, whose translation
has also been adopted by D. Schwemer, the verbal form is likely to be a mistake for a D-
stem form ú-šaq-qá (Mayer 1999, 161). In the translation by T. Oshima it is the noun ṣa-
ad-da that is seen as a mistake for a nominative form ṣa-ad-du (Oshima 2011, 405), and
it is interpreted as an epithet of the moon god. However, since the epithets and expres-
sions involving the noun ṣaddu use it as the object of an action by Sîn (revealing or bear-
ing), it is unlikely that ṣadda would be an epithet here. The suggestion here is to under-
stand ṣadda as “Akkusativ der Beziehung und des Zustandes” (GAG § 147).
862
For pāris purussê see the discussion on p. 151ff. above.
863
See the discussion on p. 154ff. above.
864
OIP 38, 130 no. 3, 1–2: dEN.ZU DINGIR KÙ KU5-is EŠ.BAR mu-šak-lim / ṣa-ad-di
a-na I20–GIN (Fuchs 1994, 280; see p. 428 below); Sg Zyl, 57: KU5-is EŠ.BAR mu-šak-
lim ṣa-ad-di (Fuchs 1994, 41; see also p. 294 below).
865
RINAP 4 no. 48, 5: d30 e-deš-šú-u DINGIR KÙ KU5-is EŠ.BAR mu-šak-lim ṣa-ad-di.
 II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 161

dī, “revealer of signals”, which is attested in the dedicatory inscription of As-

surbanipal for Eḫulḫul in Ḫarrān866 and in the Imgur-Enlil Cylinder of Na-
bonidus.867 These two epithets denote the moon god in his ability to produce
signs that were observable in the moon. A different notion is that the moon god
himself, in his celestial manifestation, is a “bearer of signals” (nāš ṣaddī).868 In
connection with the rebuilding of the moon god’s sanctuary in Borsippa, the
Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II called Sîn “bearer of signals (that are) fa-
vourable to me” (nāš ṣaddī damiqtīya).869 Thus it is the Babylonian king himself
who is here conceived of as receiving the communications of Sîn’s will via ce-
lestial omens – a central trait of Mesopotamian lunar divination. Since the moon
and the signs that it revealed during its cycle were visible to the entire popula-
tion of Mesopotamia, it is no wonder that the significance of the moon as a sign-
giver is extended to also affect ordinary people. Thus in the En-niĝaldi-Nanna
Cylinder of Nabonidus the moon god is praised as the “bearer of signals for the
inhabited world” (nāš ṣaddī ana dadmī)870 – an epithet that invokes the moon
god as a celestial deity, whose embodiment and messages can be observed
wherever there are people.871 The further wish in the En-niĝaldi-Nanna Cylinder
of Nabonidus suggests that the “signal” (ṣaddu) of Sîn connotes the first appear-
ance of the moon at the beginning of the month: “Each month as you renew
yourself, may I constantly see your propitious signal!”872
The propitious nature of lunar omens was dependent on the benevolence of
the moon god towards the king. A disruption in the human-divine relationship
e.g. through a transgression on the part of the king would become visible in the
unpropitious signs that conveyed the discontent of the moon god or of other
deities. Similarly, the benevolence of the gods was made visible in propitious
omens. Thus the propitious signs shown by the moon god were essential for the
justification of royal power.873 The power of the moon god in making signs pro-
pitious is portrayed in the Eḫulḫul Cylinder of Nabonidus. Here the moon god,

866
K. 8759+, 4: [m]u-kal-lim ṣa-ad-di EN A[GA ...] (see also p. 142 above).
867
Schaudig 2001, 2.1, I 8: ni-bi-it dNanna-ri be-lu a-gi-i mu-kal-li-im ṣa-ad-du.
868
In Assyria, this epithet is attested in a fragmentary inscription that can be attributed to
the reign of Assurbanipal (81-2-4, 251+Rm.II 243, 6: d30 na-áš ṣa-ad-di ar-[...], “Sîn,
bearer of signals ... [...]”). The word beginning with the sign ar is perhaps arḫu, “month”,
or one of the adverbial expressions that are derived from it. 81-2-4, 251 is transliterated
in Borger 1956, § 102a, where it is identified as Esarhaddon’s inscription.
869
1 R 55, IV 61–62: dEN.ZU na-aš ṣa-ad-du / da-mi-iq-ti-ia (see also p. 383 below).
870
Schaudig 2001, 2.7, I 6: dNanna-ri EN a-gi-i na-áš ṣa-ad-du a-na da-ad-mi.
871
The observations made for non-royal purposes certainly pertained to time-keeping and
agrarian purposes, but further popular beliefs concerning the moon elude us.
872
Schaudig 2001, 2.7, II 37–38: e-ma ITI i-na i-te-ed-du-ši-ka / ṣa-ad-da-ka da-mi-iq-ti
gi-na-a lu-ut-tap-la-as (see also p. 211 below).
873
For a discussion of the moon god’s role in the sphere of kingship see p. 196ff. below.
162 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

for whom Nabonidus had just rebuilt his temple in Ḫarrān, is beseeched to act
benevolently towards the king and make the signs auspicious for him. He also
included his wish for a long and stable reign, which of course is possible only
when the gods are pleased with the king.

Schaudig 2001, 2.12, II 33–36 (Ex. 1)

d
II 33 +EN.ZU LUGAL DINGIR.MEŠ šá AN-e ù KI-tim i-na ni-iš i-ni-šú
SIG5.MEŠ
II 34 ḫa-di-iš lip-pal-sa-an-ni-ma ár-ḫi-šam-ma i-na ni-ip-ḫi ù ri-ba
II 35 li-dam-mi-iq it-ta-tu-ú-a UD.MEŠ-ia li-šá-ri-ik
II 36 MU.AN.NA.MEŠ-ia li-šá-an-di-il lu-ki-in pa-lu-ú-a
May Sîn, king of the gods of heaven and earth, look at me joyfully with his
benevolent glance and may he monthly at the rising and setting make my
signs propitious, may he lengthen my days, may he increase my years, may
he make my reign stable!

Similar notions regarding the moon god’s role in making celestial omens propi-
tious had been expressed before this inscription of Nabonidus was written.874 In
Dūr-Šarrukīn Sargon II praises Sîn as a god making decisions and revealing
signs explicitly to him as the king.875 In the Zinçirli Stele of Esarhaddon, Sîn is
presented as mudammiq ittātīya, “one who makes my signs good”.876 The same
epithet was also employed by king Nebuchadnezzar II in connection with his
building activities in the temple complex Ekišnugal in Ur.877 In a related manner,
Assurbanipal describes the moon god with the line “[S]în, radiant god, made a
favourable sign visible regarding my exercising the kingship”.878 For the people
who acted against his will, Assurbanipal wished for revenge from the moon god:
Sîn should make the portents of such a person unpropitious.879 A different no-
tion, Sîn’s ability to act against unspecified unpropitious signs, is underlined in
the šu’ila-prayer “Sîn 11” through the line “destroyer of the evil (and) bad

874
As already noted, astrological motifs emerge in royal inscriptions during the reign of
Sargon II (see p. 156 above). Correspondingly, the moon god and his benevolence ex-
pressed in lunar omens are not present in the earlier stages of Assyrian royal inscriptions,
but rather he is presented as one of the great gods who collectively protect the king (see
e.g. Nimrud Monolith of Assurnaṣirpal II: RIMA 2, A.0.101.17, I 1–12).
875
OIP 38, 130 no. 3 (see the citation on p. 428 below).
876
RINAP 4 no. 98, 5: d30 dNANNA nam-ru mu-dam-mì-iq GISKIM.MEŠ-ia.
877
Da Riva 2012, WBC, VIII 14: a-na d30 EN mu-dam-mi-i[q Á].MEŠ-ia (see also the
citation of this section on p. 342 below).
878 4
L , I 13: [d3]0 ⌈DINGIR el-lu⌉ áš-šú e-peš LUGAL-ti-ia uš-tak-li-ma munusSIG5 it-⌈tum⌉
(see Novotny 2014, 77 and 96).
879
SAA 12 no. 90, r. 12–13. For a discussion concerning curses that are related to divina-
tion see p. 260ff. below.
 II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 163

portents and signs”.880 Since the manuscript preserving this prayer contains in-
structions for healing a person suffering from māmītu,881 this attests to the idea
that Sîn also acted outside of the royal context: the prayers in the therapeutic
procedure in this text are directed to the two main celestial authorities, Šamaš
and Sîn, and clearly indicate the importance of their word in the lives of ordin-
ary people.
The counterparts to the benevolent communications conveyed by propitious
lunar omens were the moon’s inauspicious signs that revealed trouble in the hu-
man-divine relationship. Among the unpropitious lunar omens, two different
modes can be differentiated: one concerning the inauspicious appearances of the
moon during its cycle and one concerning lunar eclipses, an infamous omen that
could result in the crowning of a substitute king.

II.6.2.1. Unpropitious Appearances of the Moon

The control of future events through properly executed rituals was a central
method by which the Babylonians and Assyrians sought greater security in life.
The ritual procedure called namburbi aimed to release the individual from the
evil “infection” that had been caused by an unpropitious sign, be it a howling
dog, or fungus growing on the wall of a house.882 It appears, however, that the
celestial omens that were collected in the astrological omen compendium EAE
were perceived as a separate group from other portents, which could be counter-
acted by means of such procedures: only two attested namburbi-texts refer to ce-
lestial omens, one of which is a lunar eclipse.883 In the case of unpropitious
portents observed in the appearances of the moon, a universal namburbi could
be performed, thus averting any sort of evil that had been announced by the
omens.884 This was, however, only one of the options, as can be seen from an as-
trological report which informed the king about the observation of the full
moon, SAA 8 no. 320. After a list of omen entries suitable for interpreting this
case, the writer Munnabitu strongly recommended that the king perform either a
namburbi-ritual or any other ritual that is suitable for the purpose.

SAA 8 no. 320, r. 6–9885

r. 6 a-na UGU ta-ma-ra-a-ti a-gan-na-a-ti

880
“Sîn 11”, 14: mu-ḫal-liq Á.MEŠ GISKIM.MEŠ ḪUL.MEŠ NU DU10.GA.MEŠ (see
the edition on p. 477ff. below).
881
The complete text is now edited as KAL 10 no. 11.
882
The texts pertaining to these rituals have been studied in detail by S. M. Maul (1994).
For a brief overview of the structure and content of the namburbi-rituals see also Maul
1992, 77–86 and Maul 1999c, 123–129.
883
See Maul 1994, 453–460. For lunar eclipses see the discussion on p. 167ff. below.
884
See Maul 1994, 13 and 30.
885
Cited in Maul 1994, 20. See also the discussion in Koch-Westenholz 1995, 104.
164 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

r. 7 šá d3[0 LU]GAL la i-šá-ṭu lu-ú NAM.BÚR.BI

r. 8 lu-ú [mim]-ma dul-lu šá a-na muḫ-ḫi qer-bu
r. 9 LUGAL le-pu-uš
[The k]ing should not be negligent about these observations of the mo[on]:
may the king perform either namburbi or [an]y ritual that is pertinent to it.

A valid option in this case would certainly be a ritual meant to undo the evil that
had been observed in the moon. Such a ritual can be found in K. 6018+//,886
which according to the rubrics of certain sections was meant for “making the
evil appearance of the moon good” (KA.INIM.MA šá IGI.DU8.A d30 ḪUL
SIG5.GA.KAM).887 This rubric, which uses the term IGI.DU8.A (Akk. tāmartu),
allows us to connect these rituals with the appearance of the moon which is the
subject matter of the first 14 tablets of the omen series EAE,888 and which is also
alluded to in the report SAA 8 no. 320 cited above. In other words, these are the
protective measures that were taken in the case of inauspicious lunar portents
other than an eclipse, encompassing the spectrum of lunar observations from the
first appearance of the crescent at the beginning of the month to the observation
of the full moon. Due to the wide spectrum of lunar phenomena, unpropitious
portents belonging to this group must have been observed often, but textual ref-
erences to counter-measures against them are sparse. The threat posed by such
an unpropitious lunar appearance was not as dire nor dramatic as that of a lunar
eclipse, which may explain the absence of specific references to the performance
of protective rituals against inauspicious lunar appearances e.g. in the Neo-As-
syrian royal correspondence.
The ritual for averting the evil indicated by the unpropitious appearance of
the moon is attested in two manuscripts of the same text: the Neo-Assyrian tab-
let K. 6018+ and the Neo-Babylonian tablet CBS 1695. Unfortunately the full
extent of the text eludes us, but most of the content appears to have been pre-
served. Since the beginning of the text has not been preserved, explicit reference
to the identity of the petitioner is missing. Because the lunar omens concern the
king, it is very plausible that this ritual was meant for the king’s use – a hypo-
thesis supported by the inclusion of the ritual among the tablets in the royal lib-

886
This text (K. 6018+//) is edited on p. 497ff. below and it will be only briefly discussed
here, since a deeper analysis of it is out of the scope of this study.
887
Literally “It is the wording of making good the evil appearance of the moon”. In Rein-
er 1995, 135 this rubric is understood as an indication of another kind of purpose for the
ritual: her view is that these rituals were performed “in order to turn evil into good at the
first visibility of the moon”, because the first lunar appearance was considered to be a fa-
vourable moment. This interpretation however misses the central point of the text, aimed
at appeasing the moon god who had sent the unfavourable portent.
888
For IGI.DU8.A.ME šá d30 as a title for this first chapter of the lunar tablets in EAE see
Weidner 1941–1944, 318 and also Verderame 2002a, 447.
 II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 165

rary of Assurbanipal.889 It also remains unclear whether this text represents a

complete ritual or whether it was part of a larger ritual cycle for undoing the evil
that has been revealed by unpropitious omens. The fact that the manuscript from
Nineveh ends with the incipit of the šu’ila-prayer to Nergal as a catchline hints
at the possibility that this text portrays only one part of a more complex
whole.890
Since the text has a lacuna at the beginning and in the middle, it is difficult to
tell if the whole tablet involves a single procedure or if it is a collection of separ-
ate rituals. As far a we can tell, the ritual requires the fabrication of a woollen
band on two separate occasions: first a band of white wool891 and later a band of
multi-coloured wool.892 In the first instance this is directly followed by the fash-
ioning of a female puppet out of clay and the further throwing of this puppet into
the river.893 What happens after this remains unclear due to the fragmentary state
of the manuscript. The text resumes with the aforementioned spinning of a
multi-coloured woollen band which is then tied with seven seven knots. After
this, combed wool, over which an incantation has been recited seven times, is
placed on the neck of the petitioner.894 Finally, another puppet is made out of
clay and is thrown into the river behind the back of the person performing these
actions.895 Based on the wording of the preceding prayer, it is clear that this clay
substitute takes the fear and the guilt of the repenting individual upon itself, and
carries them away as it disappears in the waters.896 This method of freeing one-
self from evil contamination is widespread in Mesopotamian rituals: a substitute
for the person is employed very often in rituals involving the cleansing and ridd-
ing a person of polluting agents.897 The river as a cleansing power and as a recip-
ient of the substitute is also widely attested in Mesopotamian rituals.898 It is

889
See the colophon of the tablet K. 6018+ (p. 497ff. below).
890
The prayer “Nergal 2” thematises the reconciliation of the petitioner with the divine
and is also attested in connection with lunar eclipses (see the commentary on p. 506).
891
K. 6018+//, 5’–7’.
892
K. 6018+//, x+24’–x+26’.
893
K. 6018+//, 14’–16’.
894
K. 6018+//, x+34’–x+35’.
895
K. 6018+//, x+45’–x+48’.
896
As noted in van der Toorn 1985, 124. In Lambert 1974, 297 the wording of the prayer
is taken to be an indication for the repenting individual bathing in the river. Although this
method of cleansing is well-attested in rituals (see e.g. its role in namburbi-rituals in
Maul 1994, 85–89), Lambert’s view does not take into account the following ritual that
involves disposing of a substitute by means of throwing it into the river.
897
For a general overview of the use of substitutes (either figurines, animals or humans)
in Mesopotamian rituals see Verderame 2013, 301–323. For the use of substitutes in dif-
ferent contexts see Maul 1994, 72–93 (namburbi); Maul 2004, 87–89 (nam-érim-búr-ru-
da); and Schwemer 2007a, 199–202 (anti-witchcraft rituals).
898
See the brief overview in Couto-Ferreira 2013, 103–104. A more detailed description
166 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

worth noting that a similar method of purification is found in the namburbi-

rituals against a lunar eclipse: in the first preserved prayer in that text the guilt
and transgressions of the petitioner are transferred to a sassatu-plant that is sup-
posed to take them to Apsû.899
The conceptual background of the ritual in K. 6018+// is familiar to us from
various examples pertaining to divine wrath in Mesopotamian sources: the anger
of god(s), induced by the transgressions committed by the individual, was seen
as the ultimate cause of not only physical, mental, and social problems but also
of unpropitious omens.900 In order to fully undo the evil that was announced by
the omen or indicated by an illness, the angry god needed to be pacified by the
performance of penitential prayers and rituals. In the case of unpropitious lunar
appearances, the misdeeds of the individual had roused the anger of the moon
god (and most likely also of other deities as the catchline for “Nergal 2” at the
end of K. 6018+ suggests). This anger had to be appeased by the recognition of
these transgressions in a confession. The centrality of the theme of transgres-
sions that had aroused divine anger is underlined especially in prayer “Sîn 7”,
which is now better known through the new manuscript CBS 1695. Albeit still
not completely preserved, this prayer appears to function as a confession by a
person repenting his misdeeds. These include the transgression of the set limits
and not speaking truth to his comrade.901 If the assumption that the king is the
petitioner in this ritual is correct, the main concept behind the rituals is that the
unpropitious lunar appearances are caused by the transgressions committed by
the king through such acts as telling lies to his associates. The need to reconcile
the petitioner with the moon god is also seen in the attestations of the prayer
“Sîn 6a–b” and the ritual actions combined with it in other contexts. The manu-
scripts BAM 3 no. 316 and LKA 25 contain the prayer “Sîn6a–b” and a similar
ritual section, but do not explicitly pertain to the unpropitious lunar appear-
ances.902 Still, they are very closely related to the text K. 6018+//: the section in
BAM 3 no. 316 concerns the appeasing of divine wrath and makes a reference to
the evil of dreams, portents, and signs,903 and in LKA 25 the prayer “Sîn 6b” has

of the river’s role in namburbi-rituals can be found in Maul 1994, 85–89.

899
BM 121037 (CT 51 no. 190), 4’–8’ (see the edition in Maul 1994, 458–459). See also
the discussion on p. 176 below.
900
See van der Toorn 1985, 56–93 and Krebernik 2008, 44–55.
901
K. 6018+//, x+27’–x+32’.
902
Judging by the very fragmentary lines following the prayer to Sîn in K. 8183, this ma-
nuscript appears to contain a similar ritual for making a clay substitute. It is, however,
impossible to say if the ritual in question was exactly the same as the one in the other
manuscripts.
903
BAM 3 no. 316, VI 29’: ⌈ana⌉? Ḫ[U]L MÁŠ.GI6.MEŠ Á.MEŠ GISKIM.MEŠ [BÚR?].
It is suggested in van der Toorn 1985, 123 that this prayer and ritual are performed in re-
sponse to the disturbed sleep of the individual. See also Reiner 1995, 135 note 628.
 II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 167

a rubric that identifies it as an incantation for appeasing an angry god.904

Moreover, the prayer “Sîn 6a–b” is itself a modification of the wording that is
attested in the diĝir-šà-dab-ba prayers, stressing the element of divine anger in
the context of unpropitious lunar appearances.905

II.6.2.2. Lunar Eclipses

The theme of divine anger resulting from the transgressive behaviours of the
king can naturally also be found in the context of the most dangerous of the
moon’s signs: the lunar eclipse.906 Most likely because of the dramatic nature of
the moon’s darkening, we possess more references to eclipses than to other
kinds of lunar phenomena. A reflection of the cosmic dimension of eclipses can
be found in the Poem of Erra, in which the darkening of the moon and the sun
appears as a motif reflecting the destruction of the cosmic order.

Poem of Erra IIc, 14–15907

14 a-qab-bi šá dUTU-ši ú-šam-qa-ta šá-ru-ri
15 šá d30 ina šat mu-ši ú-kàt-tam pa-nu-[uš-šú]
I command, I will quench the rays of the sun, I will cover the face [of] the
moon in the night!

The fact that the destruction of the moon and the sun – specifically their lumin-
osity – is among the first steps in Erra’s plan to play havoc with the cosmic
forces shows the central character of the illuminating forces of Sîn and Šamaš.
The darkening of the moon in the Poem of Erra is, however, merely a brief ref-
erence to the phenomenon that attracted much attention in a variety of Assyrian
and Babylonian sources. Thanks to these sources, be they mythological reflec-
tions or technical literature, we are able to glean information about the conceptu-
al background of eclipses, the extent of their negative influence, and the meth-
ods for warding off the evils of the eclipse.
The signs that could be observed during the darkening of the moon posed
danger not only to the king but also to his land. The omen apodoses in the lunar
eclipse tablets of the omen series EAE detail a variety of phenomena, whose
character ranges from political, such as rebellion in the land, to ecological, such
as devastation by a flood.908 Importantly, a lunar eclipse was potentially ex-

904
LKA 25, 1.S II 10’: KA.INIM.MA diĝir-šà-dab-ba gur-ru-da-⌈kamv⌉. See also the
overview of the rubrics attested for the prayer “Sîn 6a–b” in Jaques 2015, 115.
905
See Lambert 1974, 277 (ll. 55–63) and Jaques 2015, 73–74.
906
Many of the points discussed in this and the following chapter are also treated in a re-
cently-published article by Francesca Rochberg (2018).
907
See transliteration in Cagni 1969, 86 and the translations in Cagni 1977, 40 and Foster
2005, 895.
908
See the edition of the lunar eclipse tablets in Rochberg-Halton 1988, 67–272.
168 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

tremely dangerous to the king, who had to be protected from its evil by the in-
stallation of a substitute king.909 A lunar observation was interpreted by analys-
ing several aspects that were present in the eclipse: the date of the eclipse; its
time and duration and its appearance in the lunar disc; the presence of other ce-
lestial objects, and the weather.910 As an example of alleviating circumstances,
the presence of the planet Jupiter (a manifestation of Marduk) in the sky during
the eclipse resulted in an interpretation that promised no danger to the king.911
Despite the possible absence of direct negative effects, an eclipse in itself was
always perceived as a negative phenomenon. A glimpse at the ideas regarding
the general disarray caused by the mere occurrence of an eclipse can be found in
a tamītu-query concerning a lunar eclipse: if the eclipse were to take place, the
people of the land would grieve, mourning rituals would be performed, and the
bolts of the doors would remain undrawn.912

K. 2884, 10–18913
d
10 UTU EN di-nim dIŠKUR EN bi-ri
11 ina ŠÀ ITI NE lu-ú UD.12.KAM lu-ú UD.13.KAM lu-ú
UD.14.KAM
12 lu-ú UD.15.KAM lu-ú UD.16.KAM d30 na-an-nar AN-e KÙ.MEŠ
13 lu-ú ina ba-ra-ar-ti lu-ú ina MURUB4-ti
14 lu-ú ina šat ur-ri AN.MI la GAR-nu
15 lu-ú ad-ru-us-su la uṣ-ṣa-am-ma UN.MEŠ KUR
16 la IGI.BAR.MEŠ-sa-šú-ma la i-sap-pi-du
17 ⌈NENNI⌉ EN SÍG u TÚG.SÍG NE ina KI.ḪUL AN.MI d30 šá ITI
NE
18 la ip-pa-la-as-si-ḫu ina KÁ-šú ši-ga-ru la ip-par-ri-ku
O Šamaš, lord of the judgement, Adad, lord of the inspection, within this
month, either on the 12th, the 13th, the 14th, the 15th or the 16th day, will Sîn,
the luminary of the radiant heavens, not set an eclipse either during the
evening watch, the midnight watch or the morning watch? Or will he not

909
See the discussion concerning the substitute king ritual on p. 175ff. below.
910
These principles have been presented in Parpola 1983, 406–408; Rochberg-Halton
1988, 36–63; Koch-Westenholz 1995, 104–111; Koch-Westenholz 2001, 72–73; and
Brown 2000, 139–153.
911
See e.g. SAA 10 no. 502, r. 10–11 (Koch-Westenholz 1995, 109 and Koch-Westenholz
2001, 73). See also the brief remarks concerning the presence of Marduk in connection
with the lunar eclipse myth of Udug-ḫul in Wee 2014, 56–57.
912
Koch-Westenholz 2001, 78 and Koch 2015, 195.
913
A copy of the text K. 2884 was originally published in Gurney, Meier & Weidner
1936–1937, Tf. III. The latest edition with a new copy of the tablet can be found in Lam-
bert 2007, 44–47 (no. 2a). See also the translation in Koch-Westenholz 2001, 78 and the
reference to this text in Koch-Westenholz 1995, 111.
 II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 169

come out while being darkened so that the people of the land will not see him
and not grieve? So-and-so, owner of this wool and fringe, will he not throw
himself to the ground in the mourning rites for the lunar eclipse in this
month, will the bolts in his door not be undrawn?

The general disarray brought about by the lunar eclipse is also described in the
the 16th tablet of Udug-ḫul, which describes how the Anunna gods fall quiet, the
wild animals become disturbed, and all the people become confused as the dark-
ness encircles all the lands.914 Thus the effects of the eclipse concern three differ-
ent spheres: the divine realm, the wilderness, and human civilisation. Further
reflections on the effects of an eclipse, either lunar or solar, can be found in a
Neo-Assyrian text from Assur that contains a prayer addressed to an eclipsed
god.915 According to this text, an eclipse affects not only the people, who are
moaning, but also the gods, who are crying. Furthermore, all temple activity
ceases in the face of this calamity.
The conceptual background of an eclipse is supplied by Mesopotamian astro-
logical literature and other sources, which provide information concerning the
causes for an eclipse.916 A concise summary of these causes can be found at the
end of the 22nd tablet of EAE, the last tablet of the section dealing with lunar
eclipses.917

Concluding paragraph of EAE 22918

1 ta-mi-a-tum an-na-a-tum e-nu-ma d30 mit-luk-ta GAR-nu DIN-
GIR.MEŠ šá AN-e u KI-tim
2 ep-šet a-me-lu-ti tu-bu-ul-šú-nu i-ši-im-ma(var.: -mu)

914
Udug-ḫul 16, 66–69 (Geller 2007, 180–181 and 253; Geller 2016, 518–519) and
Udug-ḫul 16, 109’–116’ (Geller 2007, 182–183 and 254; Geller 2016, 525–526).
915
VAT 13832; see the edition in Ebeling 1948, 416–422 and also the translation in Koch-
Westenholz 2001, 79–80. As both of these scholars have remarked, the name of the ec-
lipsed god is not mentioned in the prayer itself. Both Ebeling and Koch-Westenholz sug-
gest that the prayer concerns the sun god Šamaš (against the attribution of the prayer to
the moon god in CAD Q, 180 and in Rochberg 2018, 291). This view is supported by the
absence of epithets otherwise known from the prayers to the moon god. It appears, how-
ever, that the identity of the eclipsed god is intentionally left very ambiguous (e.g. by the
lack of well-established epithets), which suggests that the prayer could have been used to
invoke either one of these main celestial luminaries.
916
See the overviews in Stol 1992, 257–263 and Koch-Westenholz 2001, 71–84.
917
This passage is found as the concluding paragraph in EAE 20 and 22, which attests to
two recensions of the text (Rochberg-Halton 1988, 178–179 and 252).
918
See the edition in Rochberg-Halton 1988, 269–270. The passage has also been trans-
lated in Koch-Westenholz 1995, 100; Koch-Westenholz 2001, 74; Wee 2014, 61 and
Koch 2015, 169. See also the citation of this passage in Lambert 2007, 6 in connection
with the term tamītu, which is here used to mean lunar omens.
170 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

3 AN.TA.LÙ ri-iḫ-ṣu mur-ṣu mu-tum GAL5.LA.MEŠ GAL.MEŠ

d
IMIN.BI
4 ma-ḫar d30 it-ta-nap-ri-ku
These are the oracles: When Sîn establishes the decision, the gods of heaven
and earth determine that they would take away(?)919 the works of humankind.
(With) eclipse, devastation, sickness (and) death the great gallû-demons, the
Sebettu, keep becoming obstacles before Sîn.

These lines present the two-fold scheme that is also apparent in other sources:
lunar eclipses were thought to be caused by a divine decree by the moon god
himself or by other deities,920 or the eclipses were caused by malevolent demon-
ic forces that attacked the moon god in the sky.921 That the moon god himself
causes eclipses is often referred to in the omen literature or in the astrological re-
ports to the Assyrian royal court. Sîn is said to have established (the verb
šakānu, “to set”, is used) an eclipse, and he himself also has the power to undo
it, to let is pass (šūtuqu).922 The anger and displeasure of the moon god – and of
other great deities – could only be dissipated by the performance of apotropaic
rituals, or in the worst case, the substitute king ritual.923 It is important to note
that the ability to predict the occurrence of an eclipse – already cultivated by the
Neo-Assyrian scholars – did not diminish the value of the eclipse as a sign in-
forming the people of the gods’ will: only the observation of the eclipse could
determine its effects and allow its the message to be interpreted.924
In astrological literature, lunar eclipses are at times described metaphorically
as the “mourning” or the “distress” of the moon god.925 The expression lumun
libbi, “grief; sorrow; anger”, is used in the astrological series EAE to describe
the lunar eclipse.926 The crying moon god is also found in the astrological com-
mentary series Šumma Sîn ina tāmartīšu, in which the protasis describing the
crying moon receives the explanation that a lunar eclipse will take place in the

919
The interpretation of the problematic word tu-bu-ul-šú-nu as a D-stem infinitive is
suggested in Wee 2014, 61.
920
The importance of the other deities is discussed in Wee 2014, 43–44.
921
In Koch-Westenholz 2001, 74 this scheme is presented as having three parts.The ec-
lipse is the result of: 1) the moon god’s own decision; 2) a decree by some other deity or
3) demonic forces. Since the first two causes both fall into the category of divine deci-
sions, in my opinion, they should not be separated from each other.
922
See Stol 1992, 260 and Koch-Westenholz 2001, 74.
923
See the discussion on p. 175ff. below.
924
Brown & Linssen 1997, 154–156; Koch-Westenholz 1995, 110; and Koch-Westenholz
2001, 73. The ability to predict an eclipse meant that protective measures could be em-
ployed before the eclipse took place (see p. 175ff. below).
925
See Stol 1992, 257–258; Rochberg 1996, 478–481; and Rochberg 2018, 291–297.
926
See CAD L, 250–251 and Rochberg-Halton 1988, 48.
 II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 171

month Kislīmu.927 This motif is also found in the incantation used in cases of dif-
ficult childbirth: the moon god, called Ellammê, weeps due to the distress of the
cow that is giving birth.928 The commentary on the text further explains the ap-
pellation Ellammê as the moon god, who establishes an eclipse.929 This attesta-
tion of the moon god being saddened by birth pangs challenges the view that
Sîn’s sadness or distress was solely caused by demonic attacks against him.930
Consequently, it is plausible that the moon god’s emotional distress was thought
to have had a variety of sources, of which the mythological attack by demons
and the distress of the cow represent only two.
An attack against the moon by demons who cause a lunar eclipse forms the
content of the 16th tablet of Udug-ḫul.931 This demonic attack against Sîn has
been widely interpreted as the mythological explanation for lunar eclipses, as
opposed to the “scholarly” view, according to which the moon god himself
caused them.932 According to this myth, the Sebettu (the seven demons), charac-
terised as winds, whirl at the base of heaven and constantly circle the moon
(Nannāru-Sîn), diminishing his brightness and silencing him.933 In the sub-
sequent description, the Sebettu win the gods Šamaš and Adad over to their side,
forcing the goddess Ištar to hide from them.934 The vizier Nusku informs Enlil of
the moon’s darkening, and Enlil in turn sends Nusku to Apsû with a message.935
There, Ea receives this message and he commands his son Marduk to go and
fight the demons.936 After this the text provides ritual instructions for the protec-
tion of the king, which include the binding of prophylactic woollen bands
around the palace gates and the limbs of the king.937 The purification of the king

927
See the discussion on p. 69 above.
928
See the citation of VS 17 no. 34, 4–7 on p. 69 above with further discussion.
929
See the citation of 11N-T3, 17–19 on p. 69 above with further discussion.
930
This motif is thought to be connected to the mythological attack of the demons in
Koch-Westenholz 2001, 81.
931
See the editions in Geller 2007, 178–187 and 251–257 as well as Geller 2016, 499–
541. This 16th tablet appears to stand separate from the other tablets of the series (as
noted in Geller 2007, xvii).
932
Stol 1992, 260 and Koch-Westenholz 2001, 80–81. According to Thorkild Jacobsen
this mythological passage represented a tradition earlier than the notions of eclipses
present in the prayers or astrological literature of the 1st millennium BCE, but he presents
no proof to support his argument (Jacobsen 1976, 123).
933
Udug-ḫul 16, 29–30 (Geller 2007, 178–179 and 252; Geller 2016, 507–508; see also
Wee 2014, 37–38). For the aspect of the moon god’s silence in connection with his dark-
ness see the discussion on p. 78ff. above.
934
This interpretation presented in Wee 2014, 38–43 differs from the one given by Mark
Geller in his translation and various scholars before him.
935
Udug-ḫul 16, 37–53 (Geller 2007, 179–180 and 252; Geller 2016, 509–513).
936
Udug-ḫul 16, 54–78 (Geller 2007, 180–181 and 252–253; Geller 2016, 513–521).
937
Udug-ḫul 16, 79–81 (Geller 2007, 181 and 253; Geller 2016, 521).
172 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

was also accompanied by the noise of a copper instrument, which connects this
ritual to the lunar eclipse ritual that is attested in Late Babylonian manuscripts
from Uruk.938
There have been a variety of interpretations of this myth about the darkening
of the moon.939 Thorkild Jacobsen, among others, saw this attack as a collabora-
tion between the seven demons and the moon god’s children.940 According to an-
other view, the god Anu, who had been ousted from heaven by Sîn, Šamaš, and
Ištar, sent the demons to attack these deities with the result that he won Ištar
over to his side.941 A compelling new interpretation of the attack on the moon by
demons has recently been proposed by John Wee.942 He builds on the conceptual
distinction between the two explanations for the lunar eclipse: either the moon
god himself establishes the eclipse or he darkens because of an external attack
by demons. The question that arises from this distinction involves divine will:
how does an eclipse caused by demonic attack reflect the mind of Sîn and the
other deities, whose will – favourable or disfavourable – was be made manifest
in the eclipse? The answer that Wee proposes is that this eclipse myth functioned
as a royal apology, underlining the innocence of the king.943 If this interpretation
is correct, the myth stands in strong contrast to the substitute king ritual, which
made the difficulties in the royal-divine relationship visible to the public.944
Since the lunar eclipse was the result of an external attack by demonic forces,
which subdued not only the moon god Sîn, but also the gods Šamaš, Adad, and
Ištar, the factor of divine displeasure is absent. Furthermore, the theme of the de-
monic attack is extended to the section that includes instructions for the protec-
tion of the king during the eclipse: after the lines instructing that woollen bands
should be bound around the king’s limbs, the king is likened to the moon god
himself. Such a comparison is understandable in the light of the strong concep-
tual connection between the moon and kingship,945 but it also functions on an-
other level, making the king a fellow victim of the demonic attack.946

938
Udug-ḫul 16, 120’ and 147’ (Geller 2007, 183–184 and 254–255; Geller 2016, 526 and
529). The latest discussion concerning this copper instrument employed in rituals dis-
pelling demons is offered in Rendu Loisel 2015, 211–227. For the eclipse ritual from
Uruk, which includes citations from the eclipse myth, see on p. 180ff. below.
939
See the overview of the interpretations in Wee 2014, 36–43.
940
Jacobsen 1976, 123 and Geller 2005, 153.
941
Falkenstein 1931, 75 and Edzard 1965, 101. A similar view is briefly mentioned also
in Stol 1992, 260; Hunger 1995, 359; and Krebernik 1995, 366.
942
Wee 2014, 29–67.
943
Wee 2014, 47–59.
944
As noted in Wee 2014, 50. For an overview of the substitute king ritual as a means of
protection against the evil of the lunar eclipse see the discussion on p. 175ff. below.
945
See the discussion on p. 196ff. below.
946
Wee 2014, 53–54.
 II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 173

Udug-ḫul 16, 83–84947

83 lugal-e dumu diĝir-ra-na u4-sakar dSuen-na-gin7 zi kalam-ma šu-du7
šar-ru DUMU DINGIR-šú šá ki-ma na-an-na-ri d30 na-piš-ti
[m]a-a-ti ú-kal-lu
84 u4-sakar gibil-gin7 saĝ-bi su ši-lim gùr-ru-a
ki-ma na-an-na-ri ed-de-ši-i ina re-ši-šú šá-lum-ma-tú [n]a-šu-u
(Sum.) (It is) the king, son of his personal god, who like the moonlight pro-
vides in full the sustenance of the land, bearing radiance on his head like the
new crescent moon.
(Akk.) (It is) the king, son of his personal god, who like the moonlight pre-
serves the life of the land, bearing radiance on his head like the constantly re-
newing luminary.

The comparison between the eclipsed moon and the king continues later in the
myth, in a section that relates to the darkening of the moon. The eclipse is de-
scribed by means of royal symbolism: the stripping of the crown (agû, i.e. the il-
luminated part of the lunar disc948) and the removal of the moon’s insignia
(tiqnu).949 As Mark Geller has noted and John Wee has further discussed,950 this
may also be an allusion to the substitute king ritual, during which the real king
gave away his royal insignia and hid himself in the guise of a “farmer”. Here,
however, the stripping off of the royal insignia is portrayed as caused by external
agents, and may very well have reflected the notion of royal innocence.951
There have been attempts to locate the dragon that devours the moon during
the eclipse, according to later Greek tradition, in Babylonian views of lunar ec-
lipses.952 Such an explanation for the eclipse would be conceptually similar to a
demonic attack against the moon: the luminary in the night sky is violently obs-
cured by an external agent. The main recent proponent for identifying Late
Babylonian drawings of a heroic figure battling a lion-dragon inside the lunar
disc953 as evidence for the existence of such a mythological explanation for lunar
eclipses has been Anne D. Kilmer, who connects these depictions with lunar ec-
lipses.954 There is, however, no textual evidence to support a Babylonian origin

947
See Geller 2007, 181 and 253 as well as Geller 2016, 522.
948
See the discussion on p. 60ff. above.
949
Udug-ḫul 16, 110’–112’ (Geller 2007, 182 and 254; Geller 2016, 525).
950
Geller 2007, xvi and Wee 2014, 54–56.
951
Wee 2014, 56: “[...] the absence of crown and insignia represented a state of denuda-
tion and vulnerability, and the Myth’s portrayal of divestment as an act of violation might
well have resounded with the king’s own sentiments and misgivings”.
952
This topic has been discussed in Stol 1992, 260–263 and Rochberg 2018, 305–311.
953
This drawing is found in the Late Babylonian tablet from Uruk, VAT 7851 (Weidner
1967, pls. 1–2).
954
Azarpay & Kilmer 1978, 369–370 and 373–374. Kilmer notes that the text connected
174 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

for the notion that the eclipse of the moon was caused by a dragon: the image of
the hero combatting a dragon more plausibly depicts what the Babylonians saw
in the disc of the moon itself.955 As Marten Stol mentioned and Paul-Alain Beau-
lieu later discussed, the image of the “man in the moon” is already explained in
the Neo-Assyrian sources. The explanatory text KAR 307 from Assur includes a
section concerning the measurements of the moon and the sun and the gods that
are enclosed within the moon and the sun.956 In the same section it is stated that
the god Nabû is found inside the moon.957 Moreover, this allusion to the “man in
the moon” may have been a reference to the Labbu myth.958 This myth is pre-
served to us only in a single fragment of a manuscript from Assurbanipal’s lib-
rary, and therefore much of the content remains unknown.959 However, it is cer-
tain that this myth is about the battle between the hero Tišpak and the lion-
serpent Labbu. This battle has many celestial connotations: the lion-serpent has
been drawn into the sky by the god Enlil, and the moon god Sîn, the most prom-
inent deity in the nocturnal sky, sends the warrior Tišpak to a battle with it. A
parallel to this myth is found in KAR 6, in which it is Nergal who fights the sea-
dragon (bašmu).960 Despite the fact that neither of these two myths featuring a
fight between a hero (Tišpak/Nergal) and a dragon (labbu/bašmu) are explicitly
connected to lunar eclipses, they present the same fundamental narrative found
in the lunar eclipse myth in Udug-ḫul: a battle between the monster/demons and
the heroic deity. Therefore, as a result of a fusion of traditions, the depiction of
the hero inside the lunar disc may also have been understood to represent Mar-
duk’s battle against the Seven, who precipitate the eclipse, instead of as the
battle of Tišpak or Nergal against the labbu or bašmu.961 For this reason an “Ec-
lipse Dragon” remains unattested in Mesopotamian mythology.

to the illustrations on the tablet concerns lunar eclipses (see Weidner 1967, 12–15).
955
As concluded in Weidner 1967, 8 and Stol 1992, 263. This interpretation is further dis-
cussed in Beaulieu 1999, 91–99. According to Knut Tallqvist, this image portrayed the
fight between the new crescent moon and the black moon at the beginning of the month
(Tallqvist 1938b, 21 and Tallqvist 1947, 38).
956
KAR 307, r. 4–6 (see the editions in Livingstone 1986, 82–83 and SAA 3 no. 39 as
well as the citation in Beaulieu 1999, 93).
957
KAR 307, r. 5: šá ŠÀ d30 dAG, “the inside of the moon is Nabû” (see Livingstone
1986, 82–83 and 90–91).
958
See the discussion in Beaulieu 1999, 94–97.
959
Rm. 282 (CT 13, pls. 33–34). For the most recent edition of the myth see Lewis 1996,
30–33. A translation is found also in Foster 2005, 581–582; for discussions see also Wig-
germann 1989, 117–120; Stol 1992, 260–262; and Cooley 2013, 120–124.
960
Beaulieu 1999, 95.
961
As noted in Beaulieu 1999, 97–98.
 II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 175

II.6.2.3. Protection Against the Evil of the Eclipse

An eclipse of the moon, the sun, or one of the planets could indicate so great a
danger to the king that the performance of an elaborate ritual involving a human
substitute for him was needed: this was the means for preventing the king’s
death that had been predicted by the the eclipse.962 In the years following the
downfall of Assyrian and Babylonian civilisations, this substitute king ritual (šar
pūḫi) developed a legendary reputation based on references to it in the writings
of the classical historiographers and later literature. However, our reconstruction
of this ritual draws primarily on references to it found in the Neo-Assyrian royal
correspondence.963 During the reigns of Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal, a substi-
tute king was crowned eight times.964 According to the outlines of the ritual
provided by Simo Parpola and Lorenzo Verderame, its basic principle was that a
substitute (šar pūḫi) assumed the identity of the king and therefore also assumed
the negative consequences announced by the lunar eclipse.965 Neo-Assyrian let-
ters show that a substitute’s enthronement as well as the performance of bīt
rimki could take place as a pre-emptive measure before the eclipse had actually
occurred – an action that illustrates how the prediction of eclipses was used to
take protective measures before the expected darkening of the moon.966 While
the substitute held the position of the king, the real king remained incognito un-
der the designation “farmer” (ikkaru): his true identity was restored to him only

962
The eclipses of the main celestial bodies are referred to in a text describing the substi-
tute king ritual, K. 2600+, A 9–13: [... Ḫ]UL Á.MEŠ GISKIM.MEŠ ḪUL.MEŠ NU
DU10.GA.MEŠ / [... A]N-e u KI-tim šá ana IGI-ia GIB.MEŠ / [... A]N.MI d30 AN.MI
d
UTU AN.MI dŠul-pa-è-a / [AN.M]I dDil-bat AN.MI mulUDU.IDIM.MEŠ / [šá ina IT]I
NENNI u4-mu NENNI iš-šak-na, “[... the e]vil of evil (and) not good portents and signs,
[... hea]ven and earth that stand in my way, [... an ec]lipse of Sîn, an eclipse of Šamaš, an
eclipse of Šulpae’a (=Jupiter), [an eclip]se of Dilbat (=Venus), an eclipse of the (other)
planets [which] was established for me [in the mont]h so-and-so, the day so-and-so (see
Lambert 1957–1958, 110). Ritual texts concerning lunar eclipses have recently been dis-
cussed in Rochberg 2018, 298–304.
963
For overviews of the substitute king ritual see Parpola 1983, XXII–XXXII; Rochberg-
Halton 1988, 16; Ambos 2013a, 89–91; Ambos 2013b, 39–54; Verderame 2013, 317–
321; and Koch 2015, 195–196. A monograph dedicated to the topic has been announced
in Verderame 2013, 317 note 61.
964
See the attestations in Parpola 1983, XXIII.
965
Claus Ambos has suggested that the evil of the eclipse did not affect the king as a per-
son, but rather the royal space occupied by the king (Ambos 2013b, 47–48). This would
imply that the displeasure caused by any intentional or unintentional transgression was
also tied to the royal space.
966
SAA 10 no. 240, r. 14–20: “I am also worried about the impending observation of the
moon; let this be [my] advice. If it is suitable, let us put somebody on the throne. (When)
the night [of the 15th day] comes, he will be afflicted [by it]; but he will sa[ve your life].”
See also Parpola 1983, 176–180 as well as Ambos 2013a, 90 and 190.
176 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

after the death of the substitute.967 At the beginning and end of this whole ritual
sequence, the purificatory ritual bīt rimki was performed.968 As part of bīt rimki,
the king recited prayers to various nocturnal deities during his stay in a ritual
structure made of reeds.969 One of the deities invoked in these prayers was the
moon god, whom the king beseeched with the words of the šu’ila-prayer “Sîn
1”.970 This prayer is focused on the luminous character of the moon god and his
power over divine decisions, both of which are aspects that are closely related to
lunar omens. For the use of this prayer within the performance of bīt rimki fol-
lowing a lunar eclipse, a specific section, known as the attalû-formula (“eclipse
formula”), was inserted into the existing prayer, thus making it useful for undo-
ing precisely the evil that had been made manifest by the eclipse.971 This formula
is attested in prayers to several deities972 – a reflection of the collective respons-
ibility of the gods for the occurrence of the eclipse.973 The king’s purification
and his reconciliation with the angry deities was an essential part of the ritual,
since the ultimate reason for the eclipse lay in the king’s transgressions towards
the gods.974
Even when the lunar eclipse did not foreshadow the king’s death, its negative
influence needed to be warded off through protective means. The precise actions
in this case are not known to us, but it is clear that an eclipse at least demanded
the performance of a namburbi-ritual.975 Letter SAA 10 no. 347 suggests that a
namburbi also had to be performed if the observed eclipse concerned geograph-
ical areas other than Assyria.976 Only a single namburbi-ritual (BM 121037) ex-
plicitly intended to avert the evil of a lunar eclipse is known to us, but whether
this is the ritual referred to in SAA 10 no. 347 remains unknown.977 Only

967
See Parpola 1983, XXIV–XXVI and Verderame 2013, 317–318.
968
Ambos 2013b, 40. For an overview of bīt rimki’s structure see Ambos 2013b, 41–45.
969
For the šu’ila-prayers included in bīt rimki see Frechette 2012, 176–180.
970
See the edition on p. 452ff. below.
971
Mayer 1976, 100–102.
972
It is claimed in Koch-Westenholz 2001, 75 and Koch 2015, 196 that the attalû-formula
could not be inserted into the prayers addressed to the moon god, but as the prime ex-
ample in “Sîn 1” demonstrates, this is not true.
973
As noted in Wee 2014, 43–44.
974
This aspect is stressed in Parpola 1993b, 52–55. For transgression as the prominent
motif in the ritual for averting the evil of lunar appearances see p. 163ff. above.
975
Koch-Westenholz 2001, 75 and Koch 2015, 195.
976
SAA 10 no. 347, r. 17’–19’: a-na LUGAL EN-ía SILIM-mu ù a-na / ma-ṣar-ti lu-u la
i-ši-ṭu / NAM.BÚR.BI-e-šú a-na MAN EN-ía / le-pu-šu, “For the king, my lord, all is
well, but the guard should not be neglected: let them perform its namburbi for the king,
my lord” (see also Parpola 1983, 267–268 and Maul 1994, 20–21).
977
The text BM 121037 (CT 51 no. 190) is edited in Maul 1994, 458–460. This
namburbi-ritual together with the Eclipse Hemerology was understood in Stol 1992, 258
to concern the common person, but as noted by U. Koch, it is more likely that also this
 II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 177

roughly half of the complete text is preserved for us, but some important ele-
ments linking this namburbi to the other procedures connected to the lunar
omens are nevertheless apparent. The same prayer to moon god as in bīt rimki,
“Sîn 1”, is attested in this ritual: this prayer is to be recited three times before
Sîn after a ritual meal has been offered to him.978 After the recitation of “Sîn 1”
and the following prostration, the petitioner recited another prayer to Sîn. Des-
pite this prayer being addressed to the moon god, the wishes it expresses involve
the roles played by other deities in making the moon luminous again and in
pacifying the moon god’s heart.

BM 121037 (CT 51 no. 190), r. 1–8979

r. 1 DINGIR.MEŠ GAL.MEŠ li-nam-mi-ru-ka
r. 2 ŠÀ-ka li-ni-iḫ-ḫu
r. 3 IGI.BAR-ma dnanna-ar DINGIR.MEŠ AN-e d+EN.ZU MAŠ.MAŠ
r. 4 ḪUL AN.MI ia-a-ši u É-ia
r. 5 a-a TE-a a-a KU.NU a-a is-ni-qa
r. 6 a-a ik-šu-da-an-ni da-li-li-ka lud-lul
r. 7 ⌈u⌉ a-mi-ru-ú-a ana da-ra-a-ti
r. 8 [d]a-li-li-ka lid-lu-lu
May the great gods illuminate you, may they appease your heart! Look (here
again), luminary of the heavenly gods, Sîn, mašmaššu! May the evil of the
eclipse not come near to me or my house, may it not approach, may it not
reach me! Let me proclaim your glory and the let ones who see me forever
proclaim your [g]lory!

The second important factor is the purification of the petitioner and the transfer
of his guilt to a substitute, which were performed before the offering and peti-
tion to the moon god.980 That the guilt and transgressions of the petitioner were
transferred to a plant (which carried them away to Apsû), is not only reminiscent
of other namburbi-rituals, but also to the actions that were taken to protect from
the unpropitious appearance of the moon in the ritual K. 6018+//.981 This petition
to the moon god is also the only instance in which he is addressed with the epi-
thet mašmaššu, “incantation priest”.982 The exact implications for the use of this

namburbi was meant for the king (Koch-Westenholz 2001, 75 and Koch 2015, 195): this
is suggested by the fact that BM 121037 (CT 51 no. 190) forms a part of the series
NAM.BÚR.BI.MEŠ in the tablet collection of Assurbanipal.
978
BM 121037 (CT 51 no. 190), 9’–14’ (see Maul 1994, 458–459).
979
See the edition in Maul 1994, 458–459.
980
BM 121037 (CT 51 no. 190), 4’–8’ (see Maul 1994, 458–459).
981
See the discussion on p. 163ff. above.
982
The epithet mašmaššu is otherwise well-attested in connection with Marduk/Asalluḫi
(see CAD M/1, 381).
178 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

epithet to describe Sîn remain unclear, but it can be assumed that the moon god
was expected to take a role in undoing the negative effects of the eclipse that he
himself in his anger had caused.
Another source of information for the rituals connected to lunar eclipses is
the Eclipse Hemerology, which has survived in a single tablet.983 According to
its colophon, this tablet, written in Neo-Assyrian script, is a copy of an original
from Nippur. The Eclipse Hemerology deals with the particular actions that
should be taken when a lunar eclipse takes place on the 12th, 13th or 14th day of
each of the twelve months. This includes various apotropaic actions for undoing
the evil of the eclipse. In the opening section, which is cited below, these actions
form a sequence, performed for the duration of the eclipse, that consists of the
hanging of a red garment at the gate, the offering of incense and libations to Anu
and Enlil at the gate, and the smearing of the bed-frame with a mixture of swal-
low’s blood and cypress oil.

Bu. 88-5-12, 11 (CT 4, pl. 5), 1–8984

1 DIŠ ina itiBÁRA lu UD.12.KÁMv lu UD.13.KÁMv lu UD.14.KÁM
2 AN.MI d30 GAR-un ḪUL šu-a-tu LUGAL NU DIM4
3 u4-um AN.MI d30 šak-nu-u16 TÚG sígḪÉ.ME.DA
4 KÁ tal-lal NÍG.NA úKUR.KUR ina 15 KÁ ana dA-nu-um ta-šá-kanv
5 KAŠ.ŠUR.RA BAL-qí ul tuš-ken NÍG.NA šimGIG ina GÙB KÁ
6 ana d+En-líl ta-šak-kan GEŠTIN BAL-qí ul tuš-ken
7 LUGAL T[A A]N.MI ut-ta-me-ru ana imDIŠ uš-ken ÚŠ
SIM.MU!mušen!
8 KI Ì.GIŠ gišŠUR.MÌN ḪE.ḪE gišNÁ TAG Ḫ[U]L DU8-ár
If Sîn establishes an eclipse on the 12th or the 13th or the 14th of Nisannu, that
evil will not reach the king. As the eclipse of the moon takes place,985 you

983
The first copy of the tablet Bu. 88-5-12, 11 was published by C. Bezold (1888), but it
was copied later also as CT 4, pl. 5–6. The latest editions of the text have been published
in Koch-Westenholz 2001, 75–77 and Livingstone 2013, 195–198. See also the correc-
tions to Livingstone’s edition in Marti 2014, 180–181. Eclipse Hemerology is the title
given to the text by A. Livingstone, although it is in fact a menology. The entry for
Simānu and its implications for the royal offspring are discussed in Cassin 1987, 258–
266, and a general overview of the text is provided in Koch 2015, 225–226.
984
Koch-Westenholz 2001, 76; Livingstone 2013, 195; and Marti 2014, 180.
985
Both U. Koch and A. Livingstone translate this sentence as referring to the day of the
eclipse, (“On the day of the lunar eclipse”/“On the day that the eclipse of the moon oc-
curs”, respectively). Thus it is seen as an indication of the commencement of the ritual
activity before the eclipse had become visible. Such a literal translation is however, in
my opinion, not necessary (see GAG § 174 a), because ūm can stand here for the tempor-
al “as”. For a similar structure in connection with the lunar appearance see the ritual in-
structions in the text K. 6018+// (p. 497ff. below). The spelling ša-ak-nu-um for the stat-
 II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 179

hang a garment of red wool at the gate. You set in place an incense burner
with atā’išu-plant to the right of the gate for Anu, you libate pressed beer,
you do not prostrate yourself. You set in place an incense burner with kanak-
tu-resin to the left of the gate for Enlil, you libate wine, you do not prostrate
yourself. A[s] the [ec]lipse clears up, the king prostrates himself to the south.
You mix swallow’s blood with cypress oil, you smear the bed-frame. The
e[v]il will be undone.

The entries for other months include purification rituals, dietary restrictions, and
various behavioural instructions, such as sleeping behind the door in the month
Abu.986 In the month Simānu the king is instructed to stay silent, which has been
interpreted as a reflection of the silenced state of the moon god during the ec-
lipse.987 In the month Du’ūzu an eclipse in turn requires that two days be spent in
the ritual enclosure bīt mēseri.988 The multiple references to the king and his
country make it clear that the Eclipse Hemerology was intended for use in the
royal court.989
If the role of the moon god as the main deity responsible for the eclipse is
taken into consideration, it is remarkable that he is explicitly mentioned only
twice in the entries of the Eclipse Hemerology: in the month Simānu a flour of-
fering for Sîn is necessary,990 and in the month Du’ūzu the correct performance
of the proper actions ensures that Sîn will look benevolently at the person (i.e.
the king).991 Other deities, to whom offerings should be made or to whom pray-

ive form is clear in the copy of the tablet, although no mimation for such a form is
expected. Because the value u16 for UM is attested in Old Babylonian sources as well as
in Middle and Neo-Babylonian ones (see the attestations in Schaudig 2001, 113–114), a
conceivable solution is to read ša-ak-nu-u16.
986
Unfortunately, it is not possible to discuss these actions here in detail.
987
Cassin 1987, 260–261.
988
Bu. 88-5-12, 11 (CT 4, pl. 5), 14: DIŠ ina itiŠU KI.MIN-ma 2 u4-me ina É me-ser(i)
TUŠ, “If in the month Du’ūzu ditto, he should spend two days in bīt mēseri” (see Koch-
Westenholz 2001, 76 and Livingstone 2013, 196).
989
Contra the view in Stol 1992, 258 that this text contained ritual instructions for com-
mon people. A. Livingstone admits to the place of this hemerology in a royal context, but
strangely draws attention to the alleged “folk religion” and “superstition” found in it in
comparison to Inbu bēl arḫi (Livingstone 2013, 195: “[...] its stuff is that of royal ritual
but not the formal royal ritual known from texts such as Fruit, Lord of the Month.
Rather, it smacks of folk religion and popular superstition and in this respect resembles
most closely the Prostration hemerology.”).
990
Bu. 88-5-12, 11 (CT 4, pl. 5), 12: zìEŠA ana d30 BAL-qí, “he should pour out an offer-
ing of fine flour to Sîn” (see Koch-Westenholz 2001, 76 and Livingstone 2013, 196). An
offering to Sîn in Simānu is likely to be connected to the hemerological tradition, which
connects this month with the moon god (see p. 294 below).
991
Bu. 88-5-12, 11 (CT 4, pl. 5), 16: d30 ana MUNUS.SIG5 IGI.BAR-su, “Sîn will look
180 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

ers should be offered, are Anu and Enlil (Nisannu), and Marduk and Šakkan
(Araḫsamnu). The constellations mulUD.KA.DU8.A (“Panther”, Akk. Nimru) and
mul
GÍR.TAB (“Scorpio”, Akk. Zuqāqīpu) also receive offerings.992 Owing to the
lack of additional textual sources pertaining to the actions described in this men-
ology, the circumstances for their performance remain unclear. Were these ac-
tions performed during every eclipse or did they apply only to certain specific
occasions? Were all of these instructions meant for the king even though his role
was not explicitly indicated? The possibility that the Eclipse Hemerology ap-
plied to every eclipse that occurred on the 12th, 13th, and 14th of the month – as
opposed to only the ones interpreted as harmful to the king – has been suggested
by Ulla Koch,993 and this suggestion seems very plausible. Thus the existence of
this menology attests to a much more elaborate means of warding off the evil in-
fluence of the lunar eclipse than is often perceived.
In addition to the performance of namburbi-rituals and to the prescriptions
for behaviour given in the Eclipse Hemerology, there are indications that the evil
of the eclipse was warded off by the means of rituals employing a kettledrum.994
An elaborate eclipse ritual is known from Uruk,995 but the existing manuscripts
for it are all Late Babylonian.996 The basic structure of this ritual, as it has been
preserved, can be divided into two parts: averting the evil during the eclipse and
purification following the eclipse.997 The first part includes the performance of
Emesal lamentations by the kalû during the eclipse, the burning of braziers at the
temple gates and the in the main street, and the performance of funerary offer-
ings. Moreover, the people of the land and seven soldiers must sing a song,
which was intended to avert the evil of the eclipse away from the city and its
temples. The second part of the ritual takes place on the following day, when the
gates of the temples are unsealed, ritual paraphernalia that was most likely used

at him with favour” (see Koch-Westenholz 2001, 76 and Livingstone 2013, 196).
992
According to the compendium MUL.APIN, the constellation Panther is the god Nergal
(MUL.APIN I, i 28; Hunger & Pingree 1989, 26) and Scorpio is the goddess Išḫara
(MUL.APIN I, ii 29; Hunger & Pingree 1989, 38).
993
Koch-Westenholz 2001, 75.
994
See the overview in Brown & Linssen 1997, 150 and Koch-Westenholz 2001, 80. As
noted in Parpola 1983, 268 and Beaulieu & Britton 1994, 77, the beating of drums or
banging of metal instruments is also attested in much later times: incidents involving
people banging pots during a lunar eclipse were recorded still in the 19th (Layard 1867,
314–315) and 20th centuries (Stark 1937, 60–61). See also Stol 1992, 259 for references
to similar practices in the Roman era and the Middle Ages, and the discussion in Tallqv-
ist 1938b, 25–26 and Tallqvist 1947, 185.
995
For the latest editions of BRM 4 no. 6 and BM 134701 as well as the related text
CLBT, pl. 1 see Linssen 2004, 306–320.
996
Linssen 2004, 8.
997
See the outline in Brown & Linssen 1997, 150–154 and Linssen 2004, 109–117.
 II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 181

in the performance during the eclipse is disposed of by throwing it into the river,
and the temples are purified. It is worth noting that only the sanctuary of the
moon god in Uruk, Edumununa,998 is mentioned by name among the temples to
be purified. At the end, the paraphernalia used to purify is disposed of by the
same means as before: by throwing them into the river. In connection with this
eclipse ritual, a reference to the lunar eclipse myth in the 16th tablet of Udug-
ḫul999 is made: the text BM 134701 cites this myth in Akkadian in a section that
has been interpreted as a reference to the recitation of Udug-ḫul as a part of the
rituals involving the purification of the temples.1000
Attestations of the playing of drums are also found in other Late Babylonian
texts: in the 8th regnal year of the Persian king Cyrus, kalûs are reported to have
played the kettledrum at the gate of the temple Ebabbar in Larsa and at the gate
of the temple Eana in Uruk in anticipation of a lunar eclipse.1001 Due to the ori-
gin of these references in the Persian or the Hellenistic period there can be no
certainty that the same actions had taken place centuries earlier during the first
half of the 1st millennium BCE. However, it appears likely that similar, if not ex-
actly the same, rituals were performed by kalûs as early as Neo-Assyrian period.
A brief reference to a kettledrum in connection with a lunar eclipse, which had
been observed in Akkad, Borsippa, and Nippur, can be found in letter SAA 10
no. 347.1002 Unfortunately the exact meaning of this reference remains unclear
due the fragmentary state of the following lines. On the basis of the sparse refer-
ences to the kettle-drum ritual in Neo-Assyrian sources and the existence of the
elaborate eclipse ritual in Late Babylonian Uruk, the possibility that such rituals
evolved towards greater complexity from the Neo-Assyrian period to Hellenistic
times has been suggested.1003 According to this hypothesis, the ability to predict
an eclipse allowed the execution of more elaborate rituals without the danger of
wasting expensive paraphernalia employed in the process. However, such a hy-
pothesis cannot be tested on the basis of the present textual sources, which only
hint at possible Neo-Assyrian, or even earlier, kettledrum rituals on the occasion
of an eclipse.

II.6.3. The Presence of Sîn in the Extispicy Ritual

The practice of extispicy – the inspection of the entrails of a sacrificial animal
for signs revealing messages from the gods – was perhaps the most important

998
For the cult of the moon god in Uruk see the discussion on p. 371ff. below.
999
See the discussion on p. 171ff. above.
1000
Brown & Linssen 1997, 152.
1001
See Beaulieu & Britton 1994, 73–86.
1002
SAA 10 no. 347, 9–10: ⌈LI⌉.[LI.ÌZ] URUDU / is-sa-ak-nu, “A bronze d[rum] was set
up”. See the commentary for these lines in Parpola 1983, 268.
1003
Brown & Linssen 1997, 154–156.
182 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

divinatory method in ancient Mesopotamia.1004 Nocturnal deities played a central

role in the extispicy ritual, which lasted from evening to the sunrise of the fol-
lowing day: the nighttime stars were important messengers between mankind
and the deities who had gone to their chambers to spend the night, according to
the so-called “prayers to the gods of the night”.1005 Not only the stars and plan-
ets, but also the moon god, as one of the principal celestial bodies, played a role
in this ritual that preceded the verdict given by the sun god at sunrise.1006 The
function of the nocturnal deities has been one of the topics in recent research on
the extispicy ritual, but the moon god’s role has been overshadowed by those
played by the planets and the stars, which are more prominently featured in the
available material. In addition to the prayers to “the gods of the night”, ikrib-
prayers to individual divine celestial bodies have also been preserved. These in-
clude the stars Anunītu1007 and Sirius (mulGAG.SI.SÁ, Akk. šukūdu),1008 the con-
stellation Pleiades (MUL.MUL, Akk. zappu),1009 and the planets Venus (d151010
and dNin-si4-an-na1011) and Jupiter (dŠul-pa-è).1012 Like the stars and planets, the
moon god was also invoked through ikrib-prayers during the extispicy ritual, at-
testing to the role that he occupied in this context.1013 In this section I will dis-
cuss the structure and temporal setting of the extispicy ritual from the perspect-
ive of the moon god’s participation in it, and also describe the theological
concepts that are connected to the moon god in the three preserved ikrib-prayers

1004
The role and meaning of extispicy has recently been extensively discussed by S. M.
Maul (2013). For a brief overview of this divinatory practice see Maul 2003b, 69–82.
1005
See Fincke 2009, 524–541. An edition of the prayers to “the gods of the night” is be-
ing prepared by A. Al-Magasees (Heidelberg).
1006
Important discussions on the extispicy ritual – of its nocturnal character and of the
legal discourse that is used in it – can be found in Reiner 1995, 63–72, Fincke 2009,
519–558, Steinkeller 2005, 11–47, Wilcke 2007, 224–241, and Maul 2013a, 32–54.
1007
IM 80214 (de Meyer 1982, 277–278). Anunītu is the eastern fish in Pisces (see Koch-
Westenholz 1995, 207 and Hunger & Pingree 1999, 271).
1008
K. 128 (Burrows 1924, 33–40; Mayer 2005, 51–56). “Arrow star” (Sirius), is a mani-
festation of Ninurta.
1009
K. 6993+K. 12268 (Lambert 2004, 37–38).
1010
K. 20 (Gurney, Meier & Weidner 1936–1937, 368–369) with the duplicates K.
6993+K. 12268, K. 3930 and K. 21418 (Lambert 2004, 37–38).
1011
IM 80213 (de Meyer 1982, 274–277). According to Reiner 1995, 68 dNin-si4-an-na
seems to be a male aspect of Venus. It is also possible that the broken reverse of K.
3794+ (Ms B in the ikrib-prayers to Sîn, see p. 483ff. below) contains an ikrib-prayer to
Ištar/Venus as the evening star (Reiner 1995, 74).
1012
A prayer to Šulpae follows the ikrib-prayer to Sîn in K. 3794+ (Ms B in the edition on
p. 483ff. below).
1013
Five different ikrib-prayers to Sîn are known to us from tablets from Nineveh (see
Table 5 on p. 16 above and the edition on p. 483ff. below). For a brief account of ikrib-
prayers as a genre see Lambert 2014, 53–55.
 II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 183

addressed to him.
The examination of the liver of a sacrificial animal was preceded by a com-
plex ritual which, including all its many preparations, lasted from the late after-
noon to the following morning, and which naturally could only take place on an
auspicious day.1014 Certain days of the month were deemed completely unsuit-
able for this endeavour, and these days are listed in hemerologies as days on
which the bārû should not give a prognosis.1015 There seems to be a certain lunar
pattern in the distribution of the days unsuitable for extispicy, since they follow
a pattern of roughly seven day sequences in the lunar cycle. This is most evident
in the royal hemerology Inbu bēl arḫi, in which the days that are deemed inaus-
picious are the 7th, 14th, 19th, 21st, and 28th.1016 A more complex model is found in
the Offering Bread Hemerology from Assur, KAR 178, in which the unsuitable
days for the bārû to give a prognosis are the 1st, 7th, 9th, 14th, 19th, 21st, 28th, 29th,
and 30th.1017 Moreover, the extispicy compendium KAR 151 provides a list of the
days that are auspicious for extispicy and these complement the inauspicious
days known from the sources mentioned above.1018 Still, a certain amount of in-
coherence appears to have existed: an unpublished fragment from Assur sug-
gests a different scheme with six inauspicious days for extispicy, the last three of
them being the 20th?, 23rd, and 25th of the month.1019 Despite this, the basic struc-
ture found in Inbu bēl arḫi was perhaps one of the underlying principles behind
the varying schemes. The reason why the days of the waxing half moon, the full
moon, and the waning half moon were so inauspicious escape us, but in the case
of the moon’s disappearance at the end of the month the negative connotations
pertaining to darkness, the Netherworld, and demons contribute to the unlucky

1014
See Jeyes 1991–1992, 30–31; Maul 2003b, 76–77; Fincke 2009, 556 note 183; and
Maul 2013a, 34–35.
1015
For discussions concerning the auspicious days for extispicy as they are attested in
hemerologies see Livingstone 1993, 108–111; Livingstone 1997, 174–176; Pongratz-
Leisten 1999, 172–175; Livingstone 2013, 275; and Maul 2013a, 34–35.
1016
Landsberger 1915, 119. See now the edition in Livingstone 2013, 119–248 with sig-
nificant corrections that are made in Marti 2014, 181–193.
1017
KAR 178//, r. VI 64–69 (see Labat 1939, 144–147; Casaburi 2003, 113; and Liv-
ingstone 2013, 149). Although Ebeling’s copy speaks of the 24th day, it has been sugges-
ted that this day should in fact be the 28th (Jeyes 1991–1992, 31 note 38). This is implied
by the fact that three extispicy reports (SAA 4 nos. 137; 331; and 332) are dated on the
24th day (Jeyes 1991–1992, 31 note 41). Note also the auspicious nature of the 24th day in
KAR 151 (KAL 5 no. 70), r. 53–61 (Heeßel 2012, 232 and 236). This day is read
UD.24(sic).KÁM in Casaburi 2003, 113. In the contrast to his earlier publications (Liv-
ingstone 1993, 109), Livingstone reads UD.24.KÁM in his new edition of the text (Liv-
ingstone 2013, 149).
1018
KAR 151 (KAL 5 no. 70), r. 53–56 (see Heeßel 2012, 230–242).
1019
VAT 10954+, 17’–18’ (Hätinen & Schaudig, KAL [forthcoming]).
184 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

character of the 28th day.1020

Neo-Assyrian manuscripts from Nineveh provide an overview of the actions
that were taken both before and after the inspection of the entrails from the sac-
rificial animals, and on the basis of these manuscripts we can generally recon-
struct the procedure.1021 The ritual began before sunset on an auspicious day,
when a ritual sacrifice was performed before the goddess Gula. As soon as the
stars of the heavens appeared in the visible regions of the sky, a sacrifice was
offered to the deities Anu, Enlil, and Ea, who represented the three paths of the
sky, i.e. the stars that are visible in these three different areas.1022 After these pre-
parations, when the first star rose,1023 the rooftop was swept, ritual arrangements
for Marduk and the personal deities of the client were assembled there, and a
sacrifice was made. Towards the end of the night, as soon as the horizon grew
red, the ritual continued with sheep offerings, not only to Šamaš and Adad, but
also to the wife of Šamaš, Aya, and their vizier, Bunene. During the sunrise, all
the deities who participated in the earlier parts of the ritual (Šamaš, Adad, Mar-
duk, Aya, Bunene, and the personal deity of the client) as well as Truth and
Justice (in their deified forms Kittu and Mīšaru) were present, and they received
their final offerings.
The moon god Sîn is not mentioned at all in this general scheme of the extis-
picy ritual, but it is nevertheless certain that at a certain point offerings accom-
panied by prayers were made to him: Sîn, like other celestial deities, was called
to be present in the sky, and he was petitioned to act as a judge in cases for
which a divine verdict was sought. This is apparent from the few preserved ritu-
al texts that mention the moon god among the other deities who were asked to
participate in the gathering in which the verdict, i.e. the oracular answer to the
question presented to Šamaš and Adad, was decreed.1024 Two invocations from
the Old Babylonian period as well as a similar Neo-Assyrian invocation accom-
panied by a ritual description attests to the participation of a defined set of deit-
ies in this gathering: in addition to Šamaš and Adad, the deities Sîn, Nergal,
Ištar, Išḫara, and Ĝeštinana/Belet-ṣēri were asked to be present at the divine
council.1025 This divine council was therefore comprised of deities who held dif-

1020
See the discussion on p. 122ff. above.
1021
BBR 1–20 (Zimmern 1901, 96–110). This structure of this ritual is outlined in
Steinkeller 2005, 12–13 note 1 and elaborated in Fincke 2009, 541–547. See also the de-
scription in Maul 2013a, 32–54.
1022
Fincke 2009, 543. For the paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea see Horowitz 2011, 252–256.
1023
For the different restorations of this line see Steinkeller 2005, 12–13 note 1 and
Fincke 2009, 543.
1024
P. Steinkeller has recently discussed the location in which this divine assembly took
place (Steinkeller 2005, 11–47). He concluded that the divine assembly mentioned here
took place in the Netherworld, where Šamaš resides during the night.
1025
See the discussion below. The text 81-2-4, 256 (BBR 5)+K. 9735 adds Ninurta and
 II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 185

ferent roles, and who also represented different parts of the cosmos through their
celestial and chthonic manifestations.1026
Text 81-2-4, 256 (BBR 5)+K. 97351027 contains the only attestation of offer-
ings made explicitly to Sîn – present in a group together with Ninurta, Nergal,
Ištar, Išḫara, Nanaya, Ninĝeštinana, and Gula – during the extispicy ritual.

81-2-4, 256 (BBR 5)+K. 9735, I 1’–16’

I 1’ [ ] x mi1028
I 2’ [ ana dA-nim dEn]-líl u dDIŠ
giš giš
I 3’ [3 BANŠUR.MEŠ GIN-an] šá 1 BANŠUR 48 NINDA mut-qì
I 4’ [ZÍZ.ÀM tara-kás 144] ⌈NINDA⌉ mut-qí šá 3 gišBANŠUR.MEŠ
I 5’ [(x) x] [NINDA].⌈Ì⌉.DÉ.A LÀL Ì.NUN.NA Ì+GIŠ.BÁRA.TAG.
GA1029
I 6’ [ZÚ.LUM].MA še-er-qu gišGEŠTIN.ḪÁD.A ina TE KEŠDA1030
I 7’ [ina GÙB1031] ⌈GIN⌉-an 4 dugNÍG.TA.KUR4 KAŠ.SAG
I 8’ [ina ZAG/ina gišBANŠUR]1032 [GI]N-an ma-qi-tum šá BANEŠ
KAŠ.SAG GIN-an
I 9’ [10 uduSILA41033 t]a-pa-ki-ir uzuZAG uzuME.ḪÉ

the goddesses Nanaya and Gula to this group of deities.

1026
See Maul 2013a, 39.
1027
This particular manuscript containing a part of the extispicy ritual was already edited
by H. Zimmern in 1901, but the section containing the instructions for the offerings to
the aforementioned deities was omitted from the composite edition (BBR 1–20, 41–53;
Zimmern 1901, 98–101) and copy; the section is mentioned only in the addendum to
BBR 1–20 (Zimmern 1901, 189). A photograph is available online (CDLI P398284).
1028
The parallel line in BBR 1–20, 41 would offer the restoration [iš-tu kakkab(MUL)
šá-m]a-mi, but the remains of the sign before mi resemble GIŠ more than ma.
1029
In the absence of a better explanation, I assume that Ì+GIŠ.BÁRA.TAG.GA is here a
writing of šamnu ḫalṣu, “pressed oil” (usually Ì.GIŠ.BÁRA.GA, cf. AHw, 313 and CAD
H, 50–51). The parallel lines in BBR 6, 7 and 4 have the writing BÁRA.GA.
1030
Zimmern reads giškaranu a-na riksi omitting the sign ḪÁD and misreading TE as NA
(Zimmern 1901, 98). The structure ina lēt riksi is also attested e.g. in BMS 12, 102: 1-niš
ina Ì gišŠUR.MÌN ḪE.ḪE ina TE KEŠDA GAR-an ŠÉŠ-su (Mayer 1993, 322).
1031
Cf. SpTU 3 no. 80//, 11 (Maul 1994, 250).
1032
The use of dugNÍG.TA.KUR4-vessels in namburbi-rituals is mentioned in Maul 1994,
53. It would seem that this vessel was put on the offering table, which would speak for
the restoration ina paššūri: four dugNÍG.TA.KUR4-vessels are attested passim in BBR 1–
20, e.g. BBR 1–20, 215–216: 4 dugNÍG.TA.KUR4 KAŠ.SAG šá ina gišBANŠUR k[un-nu]
ÍL-ši-ma ana IGI NÍG.NA BAL-qí, “You raise the four kurkurru-vessels that were placed
on the table and pour them in front of the incense burner”. On the other hand, the verb
kunnu is conventionally used when objects (libation vessels, incense burners, offering
tables) are placed on the ground, not on the table (cf. Maul 1994, 53 note 102).
1033
Cf. BBR 1–20, 51: 10 uduSILA4 eb-bu-ti ta-pa-ki-ir, “you tie up 10 pure lambs”.
186 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

I 10’ [uzuKA.NE s]íl-qu tu-šá-áš(i) 3 NÍG.NA šimLI

I 11’ [šimERIN/ZÌ.MAD.GÁ]1034 [D]UB-aq KAŠ.SAG BAL-qí
I 12’ [ina GI]6? ana d30 dNin-urta dU.GUR
I 13’ [dIštar dI]š-ḫa-ra dNa-na-a
I 14’ [dN]in-ĝeštin-an-na dGu-la
I 15’ [MUL?].MEŠ GIN7 šá dA-nim dEn-líl
I 16’ [dEa x (x)] x 48 NINDA mut-qí ZÍZ.ÀM tara-kás
[...] ... [... for Anu, En]lil, and Ea [you set up three tables.] As to one table,
[you arrange] 48 loaves of sweet bread [made of emmer.] You set up [144]
loaves of sweet bread of the three tables [... mir]su (with) syrup, ghee,
pressed oil, [dat]es, strewn offering and raisins on the side of the ritual
arrangement, [on the left]. [You arran]ge 4 kurkurru-vessels of first-class
beer [on the right/on the table]. You set up libations of 30 litres of first-class
beer. [Y]ou tie up [10 lambs]. You let the right shoulder, the fat tissue [roast-
ed meat (and) the b]oiled meat be presented. You strew three incense burners
with juniper (and) [cedar/roasted flour], you libate first-class beer. [In the
nigh]t? you arrange 48 loaves of sweet bread [...] for Sîn, Ninurta, Nergal,
[Ištar, I]šḫara, Nanaya, [Ni]nĝeštinana, Gula, [the star]s? similarly to those of
Anu, Enlil, [and Ea ...].

The first offering here is made to the unnamed stars in the celestial paths of Anu,
Enlil, and Ea: they act as messengers between the deities who were visible in the
night sky and the deities who were either permanently, or only temporarily,
residing in the Netherworld.1035 Only after this are the divine judges, who will
participate in the assembly in which the divine verdict for the case is decreed,
given attention. Due to the similarities in the instructions, it can be assumed that,
like the stars, these deities are also about to make themselves manifest in the
night sky.1036 Each of the deities mentioned here had a well-established astral
manifestation, except for Bēlet-ṣēri/Geštinana, who was associated with the
Netherworld: Ninurta is present as the star Sirius,1037 Nergal as the planet Ṣal-
batānu (Mars),1038 Ištar as the planet Dilbat (Venus),1039 Išḫara as the constella-
tion Zuqaqīpu (Scorpio),1040 Nanaya as the star mulBAL.TÉŠ.A (Corona Boreal-

1034
The parallel passage in BBR 4, 53 mentions cedar (šimERIN) and roasted flour
(ZÌ.MAD.GÁ). Maybe one of these substances was also mentioned here, but there is not
enough space for both logograms at the beginning of the line.
1035
See Maul 2013a, 40–41.
1036
Fincke 2009, 547 has noted that the offerings to the celestial deities in BBR 1–20 are
always laid out before the appearance of the actual stars and planets.
1037
See Streck 1998–2001, 517–518.
1038
See Brown 2000, 55–56.
1039
See Brown 2000, 55.
1040
See Prechel 1996, 147–153.
 II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 187

is),1041 and Gula as the constellation Enzu (Lyra).1042 With few exceptions, these
same deities are also invoked in another text from Nineveh that describes the
rituals of the diviner: in this fragment (Sm. 802) the gods Šamaš, Adad, Sîn,
Nergal, Ištar, Išḫara, and Bēlet-ṣēri are petitioned to be present during the
extispicy.

Sm. 802, 6’–14’1043

d
6’ UTU EN di-nim dIŠKUR EN b[i-ri]
7’ er-ba dUTU EN di-nim er-ba dIŠKUR EN b[i-ri]
8’ er-ba d30 EN AGA er-ba dU.GUR EN giš[TUKUL]
9’ er-ba dIš-tar be-let ta-ḫa-zi
10’ er-ba dIš-ḫa-ra be-let di-nim ⌈ù⌉ [bi-ri]1044
11’ er-ba dNIN-EDIN šá-as-suk-kat DINGIR.MEŠ GA[L.MEŠ]
12’ na-ram-ti dA-nim er-ba-nim-ma DINGIR.MEŠ GAL.MEŠ
13’ ina INIM-MU MU ŠU-MU ina mim-ma ma-la DÙ-šú
14’ ⌈ù⌉ ta-mītu a-kar-ra-bu kit-tum lib-ši
O Šamaš, lord of judgement! O Adad, lord of ex[tispicy]!
Enter here, Šamaš, lord of judgement! Enter here, Adad, lord of ex[tispicy]!
Enter here, Sîn, lord of the crown! Enter here, Nergal, lord of the m[ace]!
Enter here, Ištar, lady of the battle!
Enter here, Išḫara, lady of judgement and [extispicy]!
Enter here Bēlet-ṣēri, registrar of the gr[eat] gods,
beloved of Anu! Enter here, great gods!
In my word, in my prayer, in everything I do
and in the oracle query I present, may there be truth!

Very close parallels to the wording in these Neo-Assyrian exemplars are found
in the Old Babylonian texts YOS 11 no. 231045 and YOS 11 no. 22.1046 In these
older texts a similar group of deities – Sîn, Išḫara, Geštinana, Nergal, Ištar, and

1041
See Stol 1998, 147; Drewnowska-Rymarz 2008, 153. According to KAR 142, IV 4–8
mul
BAL.TÉŠ.A belongs to a group of six “palace ladies” (Weidner 1957–1971, 81).
1042
See Frankena 1957–1971, 696.
1043
This fragment has been joined with K. 3654 (BBR 83), K. 7969 (BBR 89) and Sm.
1319. Fragments Sm. 802 and Sm. 1319 are unpublished and they are cited here accord-
ing to the Geers’ copy (Sm. 802 = Geers J 91). This passage can also be found in
Bezold’s Catalogue (Bezold 1896, 1438), and it has been quoted also in Starr 1983, 51–
52 note 81; Steinkeller 2005, 32; and Maul 2013a, 44.
1044
The epithet bēlet bīri for Išḫara is also attested e.g. in the god-list An = Anum I, 201
(Litke 1998, 44 and Prechel 1996, 170–171).
1045
See the edition in Starr 1983, 30–60 and Wilcke 2007, 233–236 as well as the citation
in Steinkeller 2005, 29–30. A translation can also be found in Foster 2005, 212–213.
1046
Goetze 1968, 25–29; cited in Steinkeller 2005, 29–30 (collations by W. Farber).
188 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

Anu, in addition to Šamaš and Adad, the patron gods of extispicy – is asked to
be present at the assembly in which the decision over the query is made. These
deities hold power over the different areas of human destiny as well as the dif-
ferent cosmic realms, and therefore they are responsible for making the decision
in the case brought before them.1047 In the case of the moon god, a slightly dif-
ferent epithet is used in both of the Old Babylonian texts: instead of bēl agê,
“lord of the crown”, Sîn is called šar agêm, “king of the crown”.1048 The use of
this epithet, which is frequently applied to the moon god in Mesopotamian royal
inscriptions, suggests that the moon god represents kingship within this divine
assembly.1049 An affiliation with kingship can also be found in the motif em-
ployed in the ikrib-prayers to Sîn: at the time of the moonrise the kings gather to
show their respect and to bring their offerings to the moon god.1050 The fact that
the known descriptions of the extispicy ritual derive from the context of the roy-
al court in Nineveh and portray a ritual customised for the purposes of the king
is probably reflected in the affiliation of the moon god with kingship here.1051
Whether or not the moon god was always present and invoked during the
extispicy ritual remains unclear, although the fact that moonless nights were in-
auspicious for extispicy would suggest that prayers to Sîn were an integral part
of the ritual at least in the royal court. Whether or not Sîn was also part of the di-
vine assembly in the cases brought forth by ordinary people is unknown. The at-
testations in the Old and Middle Babylonian extispicy reports, which recorded
offerings to different astral deities, indicate that the modifications in the proced-
ure were perhaps caused by the particular conditions of each case, or simply by
the visibility of particular celestial objects.1052 If we assume that this was also the
case in the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods, the presence of the moon

1047
See Maul 2013a, 44: “Der große Weltenrichter Schamasch, der Wettergott Adad, der
Mond, der über das Königtum entscheidet, der Unterweltsgott Nergal, die Kriegs- und
Liebesgöttin Ischtar, Ischara als Orakelgottheit und die göttliche Schreiberin der Unter-
welt verkörpern gemeinsam die Kräfte, die das Schicksal dem Menschen gewogen oder
feindlich machen können. Das Wohlwollen dieser sieben Götter galt es zu erlangen.”
1048
YOS 11 no. 23, 13: er-ba-am ⌈dEN⌉.ZU šar-ri a-ge-em, “Enter here, Sîn, king of the
crown!”; YOS 11 no. 22, 60: An-nu-um a-bi ša-me-e dEN.ZU šar-ri a-ge-em, “Anum,
father of the heaven, Sîn, king of the crown”. This epithet is also found in Neo-Assyrian
royal inscriptions instead of bēl agê (see p. 199 below).
1049
As noted in Maul 2013a, 44 (see the quotation above). For the epithet bēl agê see p.
60ff. above. For the moon god’s relationship to kingship see p. 196ff. below.
1050
K. 2751+//, 32’–33’ (see the edition on p. 483ff. below).
1051
The royal context for the ritual texts of bārû is noted in Maul 2013a, 36.
1052
Fincke 2009, 551. Steinkeller 2005, 42 considers the possibility that an individual had
his own “guiding” or “lucky” star which would have been selected to participate in a par-
ticular extispicy case similar to a personal god. The possibility of choosing a particular
celestial deity to take part in the extispicy ritual on the basis of his or her visibility in the
sky is considered possible in Maul 2013a, 42.
 II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 189

god in the divine council could have been affected by the same considerations.
The remains of the rubrics in the collection of ikrib-prayers to Sîn point toward
an existing set of prayers which included prayers that could be recited on any
given night, but also prayers that were performed during specific lunar
phases.1053 The preserved rubrics speak of “regular ikrib-prayers to Sîn” and pre-
sumably also of “ikrib-prayers to Sîn of the 15th day”.1054 This differentiation
also finds a correlation in the prayers’ subject matter: the “regular” ikrib-prayer
to Sîn underlines his power over divine decision-making and kingship, whereas
the prayer for the 15th day is more concerned with matters of procreation and
fertility. Whether or not this variation reflected the conditions of a specific case
presented to Sîn cannot be determined on the basis of the present material.
Despite the thematic variation in the content of the ikrib-prayers to Sîn, the
central motif is his power over divine decision-making: he is the god whose
command cannot be changed or transgressed.1055 As a participant in the divine
assembly, Sîn is expected to pronounce the verdict in the case that is brought be-
fore him. The epithets used to praise Sîn in this context pertain to his role in di-
vine decision-making and to his image as a protector and giver of kingship, but
they also underline his genealogical relationship to Enlil. The motif of the be-
loved and true heir of Enlil is particularly emphasised in the ikrib-prayer that has
the rubric “constant ikrib-prayers to Sîn”.1056 The pronounced father-son rela-
tionship between Enlil and Sîn in this context is not only a mythological refer-
ence: it must be seen as a reference to the power of both these deities over divine
decisions and kingship.1057 The aspect of power over divine decisions is reflected
also in the ikrib-prayer that was presumably performed on the 15th day of the
month, but in this case the moon god is not associated with Enlil, but with the
sky god Anu.1058 These themes underline Sîn’s abilities in relation to determining
divine decisions and to kingship, thus equating his role in the context of extis-
picy to his role in celestial divination.

II.6.4. Sîn and Dreams

In addition to his nature as a celestial sign-giver and his presence in the divine
council that pronounced verdicts in extispicies, Sîn also played a role in the con-
text of dreams. Dreams, as messages from the divine realm either as signs or
revelations, comprised a very significant branch of divination in Mesopot-

1053
K. 2751+// (see the edition on p. 483ff. below).
1054
K. 2751+//, 56’ and 78’.
1055
K. 2751+//, 7’; 30’ and 58’ (see the edition on p. 483ff. below and the discussion on p.
150ff. above).
1056
K. 2751+//, 23’–56’ (see the edition on p. 483ff. below).
1057
This connotation in the epithets that describe Sîn as Enlil’s son or heir is discussed on
p. 291ff. below.
1058
For the equation of Sîn with the god Anu see p. 136ff. above.
190 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

amia.1059 One of the moon god’s characteristics that most likely played a part in
his role in this context is his status as the ruler of the night: as the foremost deity
present during the night, Sîn is a logical choice to petition in matters concerning
sleep and dreams. The fundamental nature of the moon god as a god of light ap-
pears to have also been important in this respect, since gods who provide light in
the darkness – Gibil, Nusku, Šamaš, and Sîn – are all attested in Mesopotamian
dream rituals.1060 The full extent of the moon god’s role in this sphere of divina-
tion is not known to us, but we do have some attestations of him as the deity
who is approached in dream rituals.1061 Such a ritual (SDR) is known from manu-
scripts from Sippar, which name Šamaš-šumu-ukīn as the person for whom the
ritual was carried out.1062 This ritual involved the recitation of the šu’ila-prayer
“Sîn 1”, which praises the moon god as a celestial luminary as well as highlights
his abilities in divine decision-making. A notable theme of the prayer is the
reconciliation between the petitioner and his personal deities, who had become
angry with him, causing inauspicious signs to appear.1063 This is clear in the peti-
tion to the moon god to grant the petitioner an ominous utterance (egirrû)1064 of
goodness and righteousness (dumqi u mīšari), and in the wish that the personal
god and goddess of the petitioner may make peace with him after being angry
for an extended period of time.1065 Letter SAA 10 no. 298, which was sent to the
king by the exorcist Nabû-nāṣir, includes instructions for a ritual that is similar

1059
For dreams and dream rituals in Mesopotamia see especially the studies by A. L. Op-
penheim (1956), S. A. L. Butler (1998), and A. Zgoll (2006). See also the overviews of
oneiromancy in Maul 2003b, 68–69; Zgoll 2014, 114–118; and Koch 2015, 296–311.
1060
The character of the deities addressed in dream rituals as gods of light (Gibil, Nusku,
Šamaš, and Sîn) or gods of magic (Ea and Marduk) is noted in Butler 1998, 135.
1061
The connection of the moon god to dreams was discussed in Tallqvist 1938b, 96 and
Tallqvist 1947, 205–206.
1062
Edited as Shamash-shum-ukin Dream Ritual (SDR) in Butler 1998, 379–398.
1063
“Sîn 1”, 19–25 (see the edition on p. 452ff. below). The same theme is central in the
rituals against unpropitious lunar omens (see the discussion on p. 163ff. above). The role
of “Sîn 1” in rituals performed in the event of a lunar eclipse is noted by S. Butler, who
maintains that “SDR reveals the uneasy transfer of this incantation from rituals against a
lunar eclipse into a dream rite” (Butler 1998, 139). However, the shared themes of divine
anger and the message of reconciliation that dreams could provide demonstrate that the
presence of the same prayer in these two different contexts was not problematic with re-
gard to the content.
1064
For the correspondence of the term INIM.GAR/egirrû with the Greek kledon, a
chance oracular utterance, see Oppenheim 1954–1956, 49–55.
1065
These aspects are also important in the other contexts in which the prayer “Sîn 1” is
attested, namely the purification ritual bīt rimki, which was performed in the event of
lunar eclipses, and the warding off of unpropitious lunar signs by a namburbi-ritual (see
the discussion on p. 167ff. above).
 II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 191

to the ritual performed for Šamaš-šumu-ukīn.1066 The purpose of the ritual,

which took place before the moon on the 16th day of Elūlu, is not specified in the
letter, but based on its similarities to SDR, it can be assumed that the intention
was likewise to obtain a pleasant dream or a good oracular utterance (egirrû) as
a sign of divine benevolence towards the petitioner.1067
Another Neo-Assyrian letter informs us of the importance of lunar phases in
the execution of dream rituals. In SAA 10 no. 59 the king is informed by the um-
mânu Balasî that the 13th day of an unnamed month was propitious for perform-
ing dream rituals.1068 On this day of the gibbous moon Sîn wears the “crown of
splendour”.1069 Balasî’s instruction does not say if the ritual should be performed
in the presence of the moon or whether the moon god would be involved in any
way, but he specified that the ritual should take place in the morning.1070 An im-
portant feature of the ritual, which Balasî mentioned in his advice, was its asso-
ciation with the opposition of the moon and sun on the 14th day. Unfortunately,
damage to the relevant lines prevents us from grasping the full meaning of
Balasî’s comment. In spite of this, it appears that the connection between a
dream ritual performed on the morning of the 13th day and the propitious opposi-
tion of the moon and sun on the 14th day assures the king a good ominous utter-
ance (egirrû).1071 The affinity of the ritual to the middle point of the lunar cycle –
a point of time when divine decisions were made by Sîn and Šamaš – must have
had importance in respect to propitious signs.
The god Zaqīqu,1072 who belonged to the circle of deities around Utu/Šamaš,
according to the god-list An = Anum, is identified as a mediator between Sîn and
humankind in textual records from both the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian
periods.1073 Zaqīqu is mentioned in the petition to the moon god in the šu’ila-
prayer “Sîn 1”, which shows that he was connected to Sîn. Since “Sîn 1” is also

1066
See the commentary on this letter in Parpola 1983, 213–214 (LAS 219).
1067
It is noted in Pongratz-Leisten 1999, 118 – with reference to the SDR ritual and the
prayer “Sîn 1”– that these dream rituals functioned to ward off bad dreams. This is, how-
ever, only a part of their overall purpose, which according to the prayer “Sîn 1” was the
reconciliation of the petitioner with his personal deities.
1068
See Parpola 1983, 56–57 (LAS 50) and Pongratz-Leisten 1999, 117.
1069
See the discussion on p. 60ff. above.
1070
The overview of the timing of dream rituals in Butler 1998, 123–124 shows clearly
that rituals for undoing evil portents received in dreams were performed early in the
morning, immediately after waking up.
1071
The role of the opposition of the moon and the sun in this respect is noted in Parpola
1983, 57 and Koch 2015, 310. For a discussion of the importance of the opposition of the
moon and the sun on the 14th day see p. 217ff. below.
1072
For an overview of this deity see Butler 1998, 83–85. Zaqīqu can be found in An =
Anum III, 189 (Litke 1998, 137).
1073
See Oppenheim 1956, 233; Butler 1998, 84; and Zgoll 2014, 116.
192 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

attested in contexts other than dream rituals and appears to have always included
the line that speaks of Zaqīqu, one can conclude that the connection between this
deity and the moon god existed in a broader sense. As Sally Butler has already
noted, the way that Zaqīqu is included in the fixed wording of “Sîn 1” suggests
that the reconciliation between the petitioner and his personal gods was thought
to be indicated by a dream.1074

“Sîn 1”, 21–241075

My god and my goddess, who have been angry with me since numerous
days, may they make peace with me in justice and equity! May my path be
good, may my road be straight! I have ordered Zaqīqu, the god (var.: gods) of
dreams so that he may absolve my sins (for me) during the night! May I learn
of my misdeed, may I be cleansed!

A more concrete connection between Zaqīqu and Sîn is found in the wording of
the dream ritual attested in two manuscripts of the prayer “Sîn 1”: the god
Zaqīqu is called našparti Nannāri, a proxy or medium of Nannāru.1076 When the
wording of the preceding prayer is taken into consideration, it appears that the
dream god Zaqīqu is being sent by the petitioner to the moon god to receive a
message.1077 This implies that he is not under Sîn’s command, which further ex-
plains why he can be associated with other deities as well.1078
Oneiromancy is first mentioned in the Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions dur-
ing the reign of Esarhaddon, who refers to dreams in connection with other
forms of divination. Despite this, his inscriptions do not contain any sequences
that specified the content of divine messages received in dreams.1079 Divine mes-
sages received through dreams first take on a significant role in the inscriptions
of the kings Assurbanipal and Nabonidus.1080 Among the gods that sent their
messages to these Assyrian and Babylonian kings via dreams was the moon god
Sîn. In the context of the civil war between Assurbanipal and his brother Šamaš-

1074
Butler 1998, 208.
1075
See the edition on p. 452ff. below.
1076
BM 78432, r. 8 and Si. 18, r. 10: Zaqīqu našparti Nannāri (see line 32 in Butler 1998,
390). It is noted in Parpola 1983, 57 that the dream god Zaqīqu as the messenger of Sîn
was thought to be particularly active during the full moon, but to my knowledge there is
no evidence for such a notion.
1077
See the commentary to these lines on p. 460 below.
1078
In a šu’ila-prayer to Nusku (KAR 58, r. 9–10) Zaqīqu is identified as messenger (mār
šipri) of Marduk (see Butler 1998, 84).
1079
See Pongratz-Leisten 1999, 113.
1080
The dream sequences in the inscription of Assurbanipal are discussed in depth in Pon-
gratz-Leisten 1999, 120–127 and Zgoll 2006, 189–215. For the dreams of Nabonidus see
Zgoll 2006, 217–231.
 II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 193

šumu-ukīn, a communication from the gods was said to have been seen by a
young man in a dream, written on the “pedestal of Sîn” (kigallu ša Sîn).1081 In
variants of this passage, this written message is read out loud by Nabû, the di-
vine scribe, in order to convey the will of the moon god to the dreamer.

Assurbanipal Prism A, III 118–1271082

III 118 ina u4-me-šu-ma 1-en lúGURUŠ
III 119 ina šat mu-ši ú-tul-ma
III 120 i-na-aṭ-ṭa-al MÁŠ.GI6
III 121 um-ma ina UGU ki-gal-li šá d30 šá-ṭir-ma (var.: um-ma dAG ṭup-šar
gim-ri [š]i-pir DINGIR-ti-šú ú-šu-uz-ma iš-ta-na-as-sa-a mal-ṭa-tu ki-gal-
li d30)
III 122 ma-a šá it-ti IAN.ŠÁR–DÙ–A LUGAL KUR AN.ŠÁRki
III 123 ik-pu-du munusḪUL-tu ip-pu-šú ṣe-lu-ú-tú
III 124 mu-u-tu lem-nu a-šar-rak-šu-nu-ti
III 125 ina GÍR.AN.BAR ḫa-an-ṭi mi-qit dGíra SU.GU7
III 126 TAG-it dÈr-ra ú-qát-ta-a nap-šat-su-un
III 127 an-na-a-te áš-me-e-ma at-kil a-na a-mat d30 (var.: d+AG) EN-ia
At that time, a young man was sleeping during the night and saw a dream. It
was written on the pedestal of Sîn (var.: Nabû, the scribe of the universe, per-
formed his divine skill and read the inscription on the pedestal of Sîn, saying):
“Who(ever) has evil schemes against Assurbanipal, king of Assyria, and
starts a fight, I will bestow on them a dire death, I will cut off their life with a
quick sword, a burst of flames, hunger, (and) an outbreak of disease!” I heard
these (words) and put my trust in the words of Sîn (var.: Nabû), my lord.

Here, the mode of communication between Sîn and the dreamer differs from the
theophany that is attested in connection with Ištar: the moon god does not him-
self appear in the dream, but rather gives his message through written words,
which according to variants of the text are read out loud by Nabû.1083 Bearing in
mind that in Assurbanipal’s inscriptions Sîn has a prominent role in regard to
kingship, Sîn’s divine support for Assurbanipal in this dream sequence can be

1081
The noun kigallu refers to the pedestals on which cultic statues were standing (see
CAD K, 348–349).
1082
See Borger 1996, 40–41 and 233; now also RINAP 5/I no. 11.
1083
For the comparison between theophany and written messages in the dreams of As-
surbanipal see Pongratz-Leisten 1999, 120–127. A. Zgoll has suggested that the divine
actors in this dream, Sîn and Nabû, were chosen to represent the Babylonian cities Ur
and Borsippa, and thus to serve as a reminder to the rebellious Babylonian not to side
with the treacherous brother of Assurbanipal in the conflict (Zgoll 2006, 214). It should
also be noted that later in Assurbanipal Prism A the punishments conveyed in the dream
are, in fact, said to have come true (Pongratz-Leisten 1999, 123).
194 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

seen as further evidence for the moon god’s power to legitimise kingship.1084
The will of the moon god as revealed in dreams is also an important motif in
the inscriptions of Nabonidus.1085 It is in a dream that Sîn and Marduk appear to
Nabonidus together and command him to rebuild the moon god’s temple in Ḫar-
rān so that Sîn could return there after years of absence.1086 On the other hand, in
the Ḫarrān Stele the moon god alone appears to Nabonidus in a dream and
promises that if he builds the temple Eḫulḫul quickly, he will control all the
lands.1087 Perhaps it was in this same dream that Sîn requested the fashioning of
a divine statue, to which a sword donated to the moon god by Nabonidus be-
longed.1088 The rebuilding of Eḫulḫul as a topic of divine communication can
also be found in the dream of Nabonidus’ mother Adda-guppi, in which Sîn in-
forms her that her son Nabonidus will build this temple and bring its gods back
to their house in Ḫarrān.1089
In the aforementioned cases, the form of the moon god’s manifestation is not
specified, but there are instances among Nabonidus’s dreams in which the moon
god appears in an explicitly celestial form. This is clear in the passage in the
Babylon Stele, which concerns the status of Nabonidus as the legitimate suc-
cessor of Nebuchadnezzar II and contains a report about a dream within a
dream.1090 Nabonidus dreams that Nebuchadnezzar stands in a chariot with his
attendant, and demands that Nabonidus inform him about the dream that he had
had. Nabonidus proceeds to describe his dream to the king. In it he had seen the
“Great Star”, Sîn, and Marduk, high in the firmament, along with the propitious
signs that he had sought in this celestial constellation.1091 This sequence is a re-
markable combination of celestial portents and dream, allowing divine messages
to be conveyed in dreams not only through written and spoken word, but also
via celestial omens.1092 Still, the explicitly celestial aspect of the moon god is not

1084
For the moon god’s role in connection with kingship see p. 196ff. below (especially
206ff.).
1085
For overviews of the dream sequences in Nabonidus’ dreams see Oppenheim 1956,
202–205 and Zgoll 2006, 217–231. See also the discussion in Berger 1993, 275–289.
1086
Eḫulḫul Cylinder = Schaudig 2001, 2.12, I 15–20 (see also the citation of this passage
on p. 408 below). See also the discussion concerning this passage in Oppenheim 1956,
202–203 and Beaulieu 1989, 108–109. Note that the gods Šamaš and Anunītu, children
of Sîn, also order the rebuilding of their temples in a dream (see Oppenheim 1956, 203
as well as Schaudig 2001, 2.12 (Ex. 2), I 67’–69’ and III 36–37).
1087
Schaudig 2001, 3.1, I 10–14 (see also the citation on p. 215 below).
1088
See the discussion on p. 25 above.
1089
Schaudig 2001, 3.1, II 5–9.
1090
Schaudig 2001, 3.3a, VI 1’–36’.
1091
See Oppenheim 1956, 203–205 and Beaulieu 1989, 110–113.
1092
A. L. Oppenheim notes that “it is somewhat startling that astronomical phenomena
seen in dreams are given as much meaning as those which actually occur in the sky”
 II.6. Sîn and Divine Decisions 195

surprising, since all the deities that convey messages to Nabonidus in his dreams
are, in fact, celestial deities.1093 The moon as a celestial body seen in a dream can
also be found in the report that a person called Šumu-ukīn sent to Nabonidus: he
recounts that he had seen a meteor, Venus, Sirius, the moon, and the sun in his
dream and prayed to them for the well-being of the king and prince Belšazzar.1094
The importance of dreams in the official texts of Nabonidus is possibly
reflected in the propaganda text Verse Account, composed after his reign.1095
Here Nabonidus is depicted as a king who boasts of his wisdom despite his inab-
ility to read. According to the text this wisdom had been shown to him by the
Syrian moon god Il-Śer.

Schaudig 2001, P1, V 8’–13’

V 8’ GUB-zu ina UNKIN ú-šar-ra-ḫu r[a-man-šú]
V 9’ en-qé-ek mu-da-a-ka a-ta-mar k[a-ti-im-tú]
V 10’ mi-ḫi-iṣ GI.DUB-pu ul i-de a-ta-mar n[i-ṣir-tú]
V 11’ ú-šab-ra-an dIl-te-ri kul-lat ú-ta-[ad-da-a]
V 12’ U4.SAKAR dA-num d+EN.LÍL.LÁ ik-ṣu-ru A-da-p[à]
V 13’ UGU-šú šu-tu-qa-ak kal né-me-q[u]
He stood in the assembly and glorified h[imself]: “I am wise (and) knowl-
edgeable, I have seen h[idden things]. The cuneiform writing I do not know,
(but) I have seen s[ecret things], Il-Śer has revealed (them) to me, he has
sh[owed me] everything! I am above the (series) Uskār-Anu-Enlil, which
was compiled by Adapa, in all the wisdom!

Although the text does not express it explicitly, it is possible that the divine rev-
elation that had granted the king his wisdom had occurred in a dream.1096 Due to
the close relationship of dreams and astrological omens in connection with Na-
bonidus, noted above, a possible reason for the reference to precisely astrologic-
al omens in this passage – expressed by the name “crescent of Anu and Enlil”
instead of Enūma Anu Enlil, used perhaps to underline Nabonidus’ supposed
ignorance1097 – is the weight that Nabonidus’ inscriptions put on his own ac-
counts of receiving messages from celestial bodies via his dreams.
It can be concluded that the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian sources por-

(Oppenheim 1956, 205). See also the discussion in Berger 1993, 275–289.
1093
The astral character of the deities in Nabonidus’ dreams is noted in Zgoll 2006, 228.
1094
YOS 1 no. 39 (see Weidner 1921–1923, 297–299; Oppenheim 1956, 205; and Beau-
lieu 1989, 192).
1095
See the discussion concerning this passage in Beaulieu 1989, 217–218; Machinist &
Tadmor 1993, 146–151; and Zgoll 2006, 219.
1096
Zgoll 2006, 219. The verbal form that is used for divine revelation (ušabrân) is typic-
ally used for dreams (see e.g. Eḫulḫul Cylinder, I 15 on p. 215 below).
1097
See Machinist & Tadmor 1993, 146–151.
196 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

tray Sîn as a god who, together with the other great gods, holds power over the
divine decisions concerning the heavens and the earth. The decisions made by
the gods were made manifest in various forms of omens. The sources describe
Sîn as a deity active in three different spheres of divination: lunar astrology, ext-
ispicy, and dreams. The connecting factor in all of these branches of divination
is Sîn’s role as a divine decision-maker, which is reflected in the epithets that de-
scribe his abilities and activities. A further point of connection is the concept of
kingship. Unlike many other forms of divination, lunar astrological omens are
associated with the security of the king and his land, thus making the king
dependent on the benevolence of the moon god. This conceptual connection also
manifests in the praise of the moon god in the ikrib-prayers addressed to him
during the extispicy ritual, and in the dreams of Assurbanipal and Nabonidus, in
which Sîn is portrayed as the protector and establisher of kingship.

II.7. Sîn and Kingship

The notion of kingship is central to the theological framework surrounding the
moon god in Mesopotamia.1098 As the discussion in the previous section shows,
the area of Sîn’s “expertise”, in the context of divination, lay in the sphere of
royal power. Moreover, the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian sources describe
him as a deity who is able to endow kingship, to protect the king, and to secure
his reign. Sîn’s abilities are often described as working in co-operation with
those of his son, the sun god Šamaš. In this way, the importance of these two
luminaries and forces that keep the cosmic order in rhythm is applied to the con-
text of royal power. At times, Sîn himself was also portrayed as the king of the
gods – a phenomenon that related to his role as the tutelary deity of Ur and Ḫar-
rān, his two main cult cities.

II.7.1. Sîn as King

According to the Sumero-Babylonian tradition, the moon god Nanna/Sîn was
the son of the divine king Enlil, and for this reason he was commonly known as
mār rubê, “son of the prince”.1099 Although lugal, “king”, was a common epithet
for the moon god in Sumerian contexts,1100 implying his position as the tutelary
deity of Ur, descriptions of the moon god as king are not very common in Neo-
Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian sources.1101 The main body of the descriptions of
Sîn as a king, a lord, or a prince can be compared to the descriptions of the

1098
It should be noted that L. Verderame’s contribution to the concepts of royal power in
connection with the moon and time-reckoning (Verderame 2017) became available to me
only after the present chapters were written.
1099
For the genealogical relationship between Sîn and Enlil see p. 291ff. below.
1100
See the overview in Hall 1985, 672–675.
1101
An overview of the Akkadian epithets connected to the moon god’s role as a ruler or a
king is found in Tallqvist 1938a, 448.
 II.7. Sîn and Kingship 197

moon god as the king in earlier Sumerian sources: through this epithet he was
presented as the most important god in his cult city.
In the god-list An = Anum, two of the names for Sîn are dLugal, “King”, and
d
Umun, “Lord”.1102 These two names immediately follow the appellations dDu-
mu-nun-na and dDumu-gi7, which describe Sîn as the son of Enlil, the king the
of gods. Therefore, it is possible that the names dLugal and dUmun are associated
with Sîn’s status as the eldest son of Enlil. Indeed, in an Old Babylonian eršema
to Suen, the moon god is said to have received his royal sceptre from his father
Enlil.1103 Elsewhere in An = Anum, in Enki/Ea’s household, Sîn is presented un-
der the name dLugal-ki-sur-ra, “King of the Boundary”.1104 An additional name
for the moon god that is built around the notion of him as a king – dLugal-
kalam-ma-ù-tu-ud, “King, Genitor of the Land” – is found in K. 2124, which de-
viates from the other manuscripts of An = Anum.1105 This name is plausibly
linked to the role of the moon god as the tutelary deity of Ur, since the same no-
tion of the moon god as the genitor of the land can be found in a bilingual šu’ila-
prayer to him.1106 Furthermore, this prayer contains a concentration of epithets
that praise the moon god as a king and a lord – a sign of his role as the leading
deity of his home city. This is already expressed in the opening line of the pray-
er, which praises the moon god as the “ruler of the gods, who alone is sublime in
the heaven and the earth”.1107 This theme is further developed in the following
lines that focus on the moon god’s sublime position as the ruler of the gods and
his royal power.

4 R2 9+//, 5–91108
5 a-a dNanna umun Úriki-ma nir-ĝál dìm-me-er-e-ne
a-bu dNa-an-nar be-el Ú-ri e-tel-li DINGIR.MEŠ
6 a-a dNanna umun É-ĝiš-nu11-gal nir-ĝál dìm-me-er-e-ne

1102
An = Anum III, 17–18 (see Litke 1998, 118 and Feliu 2006, 235–236). In respect to
the name dLugal, note how the the elements dLugal and d30 are equated in the list of
Sumerian personal names with their Akkadian translations (5 R 44, II 25: I.dLugal-nesaĝ-
ibila | I.d30–a-[šá-red–ap-li]; see Lambert 1957, 12).
1103
BM 13930 (CT 15, pl. 17)//, 18: dMu-ul-líl-le mu-ud-ru u4-sùd-du šu-za ma-ra-ni-in-
du7, “Mullil has given in your hand the sceptre of the distant days” (Sjöberg 1960, 44–
46). See also Tallqvist 1938b, 97.
1104
See the discussion on p. 249ff. below.
1105
K. 2124 (CT 25, pl. 32), 12’: dLugal-kalam-ma-ù-tu-ud | d30 (cited in Feliu 2006, 236
note 43). For further discussion see p. 231ff. below.
1106
4 R2 9+//, 15–16 (see the citation on p. 232 below).
1107
4 R2 9+//, 1: ù-mu-un nir-ĝál dìm-me-er-e-ne an-ki-a dili-ni maḫ-àm / be-lum e-tel-li
DINGIR.MEŠ šá ina AN-e u KI-tim e-diš-ši-šú ṣi-i-ru (see Shibata, HES [forthcoming]
and Sjöberg 1960, 166).
1108
Cited according to Shibata, HES (forthcoming). See also Sjöberg 1960, 166 and 169.
198 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

a-bu dNa-an-nar be-el É.MIN e-tel-li DINGIR.MEŠ

7 a-a dNanna ⌈umun⌉ men dallax-na nir-ĝál dìm-me-er-e-ne
a-bu dNa-an-nar be-lum a-ge-e šu-pu-ú e-tel-li DINGIR.MEŠ
8 a-a dNanna na-áĝ-men gal-le-eš šu-du7-a nir-ĝál dìm-me-er-e-ne
a-bu dNa-an-nar šá šar-ru-tam ra-biš šuk-lu-lu4 e-tel-li DIN-
GIR.MEŠ
9 ⌈a⌉-⌈a⌉ dNanna túg-túg na-áĝ-egi-na sù-sù nir-ĝál dìm-me-er-e-ne
a-bu dNa-an-nar šá ina ti-di-⌈iq⌉ ⌈ru⌉-bu-tú i-šad-di-ḫu e-tel-li
DINGIR.MEŠ
Father Nanna, lord of Ur, ruler of the gods,
father Nanna, lord of Eĝišnugal, ruler of the gods,
father Nanna, lord of the splendid crown, ruler of the gods,
father Nanna, (Sum.) who superbly perfects the “crown-ship”/(Akk.) who is
superbly perfected in kingship, ruler of the gods,
father Nanna, who marches along in his garment of princedom, ruler of gods

Despite this, Sîn is rarely depicted as a king in the context of Akkadian prayers.
In the šu’ila-prayer “Sîn 3” he is praised as “king of the world, father of the
gods, lord of mankind” (šar kibrāti abi ilānī bēl amelūti).1109 Another example
can be found in the context of the ikrib-prayers to him. Here the moon god, who
travels across the world, is said to hold power over the lands as the king of the
universe – reasonably a reflection of the moon god’s grasp of all the celestial re-
gions during the lunar cycle.1110 Although the lines that follow this praise are
only partially preserved, it is clear that they are strongly associated with the no-
tion of kingship: the royal crown (agû) and the throne (kussû) are mentioned.
This refers, without doubt, to the moon god as a god who endows royal insignia
to the king.1111 The seat of the moon god’s own rule (Sum. ki-tuš nam-en-na;
Akk. šubat bēlūtīšu) – where he no longer resides due to the demonic attack
against him – is referred to in the lunar eclipse myth of Udug-ḫul, suggesting
that this seat is found in the night sky.1112
A prayer that involves benedictions for an unidentified recipient contains a
further attestation of Sîn explicitly called by the title šarru, “king”. Here the
moon god is the first of a group of four deities to be mentioned, the others being
Ninurta, Marduk, and Baba.

1109
“Sîn 3”, 3 (see the edition on p. 464ff. below).
1110
K. 2751+//, 25’–27’ (see the edition on p. 483ff. below).
1111
See the discussion on p. 206ff. below.
1112
Udug-ḫul 16, 40 (Geller 2007, 179 and 252; Geller 2016, 510).
 II.7. Sîn and Kingship 199

K. 2279+Sm. 675+Sm. 2152, r. 12–151113

d
r. 12 30 LUGAL lu-u [na]-ṣir-ka
r. 13 mu-šal-lim-ka lu-u [d]MAŠ qar-ra-du
r. 14 mu-kil na-piš-ti-ka lu-u dAMAR.UTU
r. 15 mu-dan-nin piṭ-ri-ka1114 lu-u dBa-ba6
May Sîn, the king, be your [pro]tector! May your safeguard be Ninurta, the
hero! May the one who preserves your life be Marduk! May the one who
makes your gut strong be Baba!

Each of the four named deities play a role here that is connected to their natures:
Baba, as a healing goddess, is responsible for the health of the person; the role
of Marduk is to protect the life of the person; and the divine hero Ninurta is be-
seeched to safeguard the person. The role of the moon god Sîn is not as clearly
presented, since he, in general, is not a deity who is concerned with the well-be-
ing of humans. In fact, the moon god is presented as a protector only in connec-
tion with kingship,1115 which leads us to the assumption that the recipient of
these benedictions may have been the Assyrian or Babylonian king himself.1116
The most common epithet describing Sîn as a king is šar agê, “king of the
crown”, which is the equivalent of the epithet bēl agê, “lord of the crown”, in
some of the Assyrian royal inscriptions.1117 The origin of this epithet remains un-
clear, but it dates back to at least the Old Babylonian period, as is clear from its

1113
This tablet K. 2279+ has been copied and edited in Sidersky 1920, 565–572. The lines
that are discussed here were cited in Livingstone 1999, 376–377, where a new edition of
K. 2279+ and its duplicate TIM 9 no. 55 was also announced. A photograph of K. 2279+
is available online (CDLI P394316).
1114
In the earlier edition, this line was read as mu-dan-nin bit ḫup-ka lu-u ilatBa-ú, “May
the supporter of the bridal tent be Bau” (Sidersky 1920, 569 and 572). The citation in
Livingstone 1999, 376 only gives the translation “May the one who strengthens your
father’s house be Baba”. As seen in the photograph of the tablet (CDLI P394316; draw-
ing below) the sign following É is slightly eroded, but it is clearly RI, not ḪUB.

Since the text is written syllabically, a syllabic reading for the both signs (É and RI) is
called for. Therefore, I suggest that this line refers to the physical and mental well-being
of a person, which when disrupted causes the person to have a “shaky belly”. This is how
the noun piṭru together with the verb nâšu, “to shake”, is used in medical contexts (see
the attestations in CAD P, 450) and also in Ludlul bēl nēmeqi II, 67 (for the latest edition
see Oshima 2014, 90–91 and 257).
1115
Cf. the epithet nāṣir agê bēlūtīya in RINAP 3 no. 17, VII 91 (see p. 206ff. below).
1116
This was the original suggestion concerning the identity of the recipient in Sidersky
1920, 565–572. In Livingstone 1999, 376–377 the suggestion is a wealthy agriculturalist.
1117
The epithet bēl agê is discussed on p. 63ff. above.
200 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

syllabic attestations in Old Babylonian extispicy prayers.1118 It is worth noting

that the use of šar agê as an epithet for Sîn is almost only attested prior to the
rule of the Sargonid dynasty. The epithet bēl agê as a designation for Sîn is used
in the inscriptions of Sargon II,1119 Sennacherib,1120 Esarhaddon,1121 and Assur-
banipal.1122 It is well-attested also in the inscriptions of the Babylonian king Na-
bonidus.1123 The king Šalmaneser III,1124 and perhaps also Tukultī-Ninurta II who
preceded him,1125 chose, however, to use the epithet šar agê instead. In the case
of Assurnaṣirpal II, both epithets are attested.1126 Curiously, after a long gap in
time, Sîn-šarru-iškun reintroduces the epithet šar agê in his cylinder inscrip-
tion.1127 In comparison to the attestations in the inscriptions of earlier kings, this
attestation in the cylinder of Sîn-šarru-iškun leaves no doubt about its intended
connotation: here the moon god is firmly described as a god, who has the power
to endow kingship.1128 Like bēl agê, “lord of the crown”, the epithet šar agê,
“king of the crown”, presents the moon god as the divine force holding control
over the lunar disc, and by extension as a deity able to endow royal insignia,
most notably the crown and the sceptre.1129
The most visible instances in which Sîn is described as a king are found
among the Ḫarrān inscriptions of Nabonidus. This clear tendency to let the
moon god assume the role of king in the Babylonian pantheon has been inter-
preted as a clear sign of the special veneration that Nabonidus showed towards
the moon god of Ḫarrān, to the detriment of the main Babylonian god Mar-
duk.1130 The moon god was portrayed as šar ilānī, “king of the gods”, especially
in the inscriptions of Nabonidus, who applied this epithet to Sîn twenty-two

1118
YOS 11 no. 23, 13; YOS 11 no. 22, 60 (see p. 188 above).
1119
TCL 3, 318: EN a-ge-e.
1120
RINAP 3 no. 1023, 8: d30 DINGIR KÙ EN AGA.
1121
RINAP 4 no. 1, II 32: d30 EN AGA.
1122
Assurbanipal Prism A, I 3: d30 EN AGA (Borger 1996, 14 and 208; RINAP 5/I no.
11); K. 8759+, 4: EN A[GA] (see the transliteration on p. 142 above).
1123
Schaudig 2001, 2.1, I 8: dNannari be-lu a-gi-i; Schaudig 2001, 2.7, I 6: dNannari EN
a-gi-i; Schaudig 2001, 2.7, II 29: EN a-gi-i; Schaudig 2001, 3.3a, X 25’: d30 EN a-gi-i.
1124
RIMA 3, A.0.102.6, 4: d30 MAN a-ge-e; A.0.102.10, 7: d30 MAN a-ge-e; A.0.102.14,
6: ⌈d⌉[Sîn eršu] LUGAL a-ge-e.
1125
The attestation in the inscription of Tukultī-Ninurta II for šar agê is not certain, since
the passage is broken (RIMA 2, A.0.100.1, 5: [dSîn šar a-g]e-e).
1126
RIMA 2, A.0.101.20, 5: MAN ⌈a⌉-[ge-e]; A.0.101.17, I 4: EN a-ge-e.
1127
Sîn-šarru-iškun Cylinder C, 11: d30 LUGAL a-ge-e (Grayson 1972, 161).
1128
The passage exhibits the theme that is present also in Sîn-šarru-iškun Cylinder A (see
the citation on p. 210 below).
1129
This intended meaning in using the epithet bēl agê for Sîn is noted in Reiner 1985,
21. See also the discussion on p. 206ff. below.
1130
See the discussion in Beaulieu 1989, 43–65.
 II.7. Sîn and Kingship 201

times in five different inscriptions.1131 Moreover, he also employed the epithets

šar ilānī ša šamê u erṣeti, “king of the gods of the heaven and the earth”,1132 and
šar šarrī, “king of the kings”.1133 In addition to these epithets depicting Sîn as
the divine king, other epithets used by Nabonidus in these inscriptions portray
him in the sublime position of bēlu, “lord”. Various epithets that contain bēlu as
an element, most of them corresponding to the ones depicting him as a king,1134
are used by Nabonidus in the context of rebuilding the temple Eḫulḫul in Ḫarrān
or in connection with the moon god in Ur:
bēlu rabû, “great lord”1135
bēlu šurbû, “supreme lord”1136
bēl bēlī, “lord of the lords”1137
bēl ilānī, “lord of the gods”1138
bēl ilānī ina šamāmī, “lord of the gods in heaven”1139
bēl ilānī u ištarāti ina šamāmī, “lord of the gods and goddesses in heaven”1140
bēl ilānī u ištarāti āšibūti ša šamê, “lord of the gods and goddesses who live
in heaven”1141

1131
Attestations for the epithet šar ilānī (LUGAL DINGIR.MEŠ) in the inscriptions of
Nabonidus are found in the Elugalĝalgasisa Cylinder (Schaudig 2001, 2.2, I 29); the
Sammelinschrift concerning the building of temples in Ḫarrān and Sippar (Schaudig
2001, 2.14, II 38 [Ex. 3]; III 27 and III 34 [Ex. 2]); Ḫarrān Stele (Schaudig 2001, 3.1, I
18 [Ex. 1]; I 29 [Ex. 2]; III 30 [Ex. 2]; III 39 [Ex. 2]); Adda-guppi Stele (Schaudig 2001,
3.2, I 12 [Ex. 1]; I 17 [Ex. 1]; I 39 [Ex. 1]; I 44 [Ex. 1]; II 5 [Ex. 1]; II 11–12 [Ex. 1]; II
21 [Ex. 1]; II 23 [Ex. 1]; II 28 [Ex. 1]; II 34 [Ex. 1]; III 45 [Ex. 1]); and Tariff Stele
(Schaudig 2001, 3.4, 2–3; 14). In the form šarru ša ilānī (LUGAL šá DINGIR.MEŠ) this
epithet appears in the aforementioned Sammelinschrift (Schaudig 2001, 2.14, I 42 [Ex.
2]) and in the stone bowl dedicated to Sîn of Ḫarrān (Schaudig 2001, 4.2, I 1).
1132
LUGAL DINGIR.MEŠ šá AN-e ù KI-tì (see Schaudig 2001, 2.2, II 4; Schaudig 2001,
2.12, II 26 [Ex. 1]; II 33 [Ex. 1]; and Schaudig 2001, 3.2, I 33 [Ex. 1]).
1133
LUGAL LUGAL.LUGAL (Schaudig 2001, 3.1, II 20 [Ex. 1]).
1134
It should be noted that Sumerian lugal often corresponds with Akkadian bēlu in bilin-
gual texts, indicating that these terms were understood similarly (see CAD B, 192).
1135
EN GAL-ú (Schaudig 2001, 2.5, II 8; 2.1, I 13 and I 19); EN ra-bu-ú (Schaudig 2001,
2.12, I 8).
1136
EN šu-ur-bu-ú (Schaudig 2001, 2.7, I 22).
1137
EN EN.EN (Schaudig 2001, 3.1, II 20 [Ex. 1]); EN EN (Schaudig 2001, 3.1, III 39
[Ex. 2]).
1138
be-lí DINGIR.MEŠ (Schaudig 2001, 2.2, II 3); [EN DINGIR.M]EŠ (Schaudig 2001,
3.5, I’ 5); EN DINGIR (Schaudig 2001, 4.1, 1). Also the form bēlu ša ilānī is attested
(EN šá DINGIR.MEŠ [Schaudig 2001, 3.1, II 14 (Ex. 1)]).
1139
EN DINGIR.MEŠ ina šá-ma-mu (Schaudig 2001, 2.14, III 73 [Ex. 2]).
1140
EN.DINGIR.MEŠ ù diš-tarv /i-nav šá-ma-mu (Schaudig 2001, 2.14, I 31’–32’ [Ex. 1]).
1141
EN DINGIR.MEŠ u d+INANNA a-ši-bu-tú ša / AN-e (Schaudig 2001, 3.1, I 5–6 [Ex.
1]).
202 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

bēl ilānī ša šamê u erṣeti, “lord of the gods of heaven and earth”1142
bēl ilānī u ištarāti āšibūti ša šamê u erṣeti, “lord of the gods and goddesses
who live in heaven and earth”1143

Thus the moon god Sîn was characterised as the lord of gods both in heaven and
on earth, although the celestial quality of his superiority received more attention.
To these epithets we can add the ultimate praise from Nabonidus’ Elugalĝalga-
sisa Cylinder from Ur, which singles Sîn out as the most important deity (or a
plural divine character) among all the other gods: “gods of gods” (ilānū ša
ilānī).1144 The exaltation of the moon god through these epithets – together with
an episode in the propaganda text Verse Account, in which Nabonidus claims
that Marduks’s temple in Babylon (Esaĝil) in fact belonged to Sîn1145 – has been
a significant factor in support of the hypothesis concerning Nabonidus’ religious
reform, namely his replacement of Marduk with Sîn as the main god of the
Babylonian pantheon.1146 Still, recent reassessment of the available sources has
led a few scholars to question the supposed exaltation of the moon god.1147 In-
deed, the fact that the epithets praising Sîn as the highest-ranking god are con-
nected either with Ur or Ḫarrān does raise doubts about the scale of Nabonidus’
devotion to Sîn.1148 The view that underlines the local importance of deities and
their depiction in dedicatory inscriptions connected to their temples is supported
by the earlier Neo-Assyrian dedicatory inscriptions, written in connection to the

1142
EN DINGIR.MEŠ šá AN-e u KI-tì (Schaudig 2001, 2.2, I 28).
1143
EN DINGIR.MEŠ ù diš-tar / a-ši-bu-tú šá AN-e ù KI-tì (Schaudig 2001, 2.14, I 42’–
43’ [Ex. 2]).
1144
Schaudig 2001, 2.2, I 29; II 5: DINGIR.MEŠ šá DINGIR.MEŠ. See also Beaulieu
1989, 62.
1145
Schaudig 2001, P1, V 18’–27’.
1146
It is concluded both in Tadmor 1965, 351–363 and Beaulieu 1989, 43–65 that Na-
bonidus’ devotion towards the moon god increased during his reign and culminated after
his return from Tayma. This evaluation is strongly based on the comparison of Sîn’s and
Marduk’s epithets in Nabonidus’ inscriptions deriving from the different phases in his
reign. The monotheistic tendencies of Nabonidus’ exaltation of the moon god in relation
to the biblical monotheism have been brought forward in Albani 2000, 116–122.
1147
A. Kuhrt has pointed out that Sîn’s venerated status in Nabonidus’ inscriptions may
have been a reflection of his important building project in Ḫarrān and that no deliberate
religious reform can be postulated on the basis of how Sîn is portrayed in these texts
(Kuhrt 1990, 139). The importance of the local pantheon in Babylonian inscriptions has
been discussed in Da Riva 2010, 45–61: here Sîn’s status in Nabonidus’ inscriptions is
compared to the portrayal of Šamaš in the context of Sippar and Larsa. Doubts about the
validity of the claims for intra-Babylonian strife between Nabonidus and the Babylonian
clergy are also expressed in Jursa 2007, 74–75.
1148
Due to his family background as the son of Adda-guppi, a devotee of the Ḫarranian
moon god, Nabonidus most likely held Sîn in special regard.
 II.7. Sîn and Kingship 203

reconstruction of the temples in Ḫarrān. The fact that Sîn had already been
called šar ilānī, “king of gods”, by Assurbanipal on the occasion of
Emelamana’s renovation shows that the notion of the Ḫarranian moon god as the
sublime head of the local pantheon already existed before the time of Na-
bonidus.1149 For Assurbanipal, like Nabonidus, Sîn is bēlu rabû, “great lord”,1150
and bēlu ašarēdu, “foremost lord”, in the context of Ḫarrān.1151 The moon god of
Elumu1152 is also depicted by Assurbanipal with the exultant epithets bēlu rabû,
“great lord”,1153 bēlu rēmēnû, “merciful lord”,1154 and etelli ilānī šaqû, “lofty
ruler of the gods”.1155 Outside the explicitly local context only one other instance
of the moon god being depicted as the leader of the pantheon is known, but also
in this case a connection to Ḫarrān is expected: in a petition for help from the
moon god against the rebellion instigated by Yau-bi’di of Hamath, Sargon II
calls Sîn “king of the gods, lord of the lands”.1156 We can assume that the Ḫarra-
nian moon god is meant here, since the rebellion occurs in the western provinces
of Assyria, an area under the influence of Sîn of Ḫarrān. Moreover, this instance
attests to the association of Sîn of Ḫarrān with Aššur: similar expressions to
those used here to describe the moon god are used for Aššur elsewhere, indicat-
ing that Sîn of Ḫarrān was likened to Aššur in the western parts of the Assyrian
empire.1157 Also comparable is the exaltation of the moon god in Ur as the “king
of heaven and earth” (lugal an-ki-a) and “king of the Enlil(-god)s” (lugal dEnlil-
e-ne) in the inscriptions of the governor Sîn-balāssu-iqbi.1158 In addition to these
epithets, Sîn-balāssu-iqbi describes the moon god of Ur as piriĝ diĝir-e-ne, “lion
of the gods” in connection with the rebuilding of the ziqqurrat enclosure Ete-

1149
This epithet is attested with certainty in only one of the Ḫarrān inscriptions of Assur-
banipal for Emelamana (K. 9143, 11’: [ú-ma-’i]-⌈i⌉-⌈ru⌉-šu LUGAL DINGIR.MEŠ
d
D[ILI.ÍM.BABBAR]; see Novotny 2003, 245), but it can be restored to two more in-
scriptions due to the similarity of the expressions used (K. 2803+, 11 and K. 2813+, 11;
see Novotny 2003, 237 and 239).
1150
EN GAL-u (Bu. 89-4-26, 209, r. 19); EN GAL-ú (K. 8759+, r. 4); EN GA[L-ú] (K.
8759+, r. 2); E[N GAL]-⌈ú⌉ (K. 8759+, r. 13); [EN GAL-u] (Sm. 671, 3’); see the edi-
tions in Novotny 2003, 224–250.
1151
EN a-šá-re-di (Bu. 89-4-26, 209, 5; see the citation on p. 301).
1152
See the discussion on p. 415ff. below.
1153
EN GAL-u (SAA 12 no. 90, 12 and r. 11).
1154
EN réme-nu-u (SAA 12 no. 90, 3).
1155
e-tel-⌈li⌉ DINGIR.MEŠ šá-qu-ú (SAA 12 no. 90, 20).
1156 d
EN.ZU LUGAL DINGIR.MEŠ be-el KUR.KUR (Frahm 2013a, 46 line 16). The epi-
thet bēl mātāti is otherwise attested for Sîn in the context of extispicy prayers (K. 2751+/
/, 39’; see the edition on p. 483ff. below).
1157
As noted in Frahm 2013a, 49, cf. Aššur Charter, 21–23 (Saggs 1975, 14–15). For the
juxtaposition of the Ḫarranian Sîn and the god Aššur see p. 395ff. below.
1158
See the discussion on p. 343ff. below.
204 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

menniguru.1159 This reference to the moon god as a lion is unique in the Neo-As-
syrian and Neo-Babylonian sources, but there are parallels in earlier Sumerian
sources, such as “lord, great lion of the heaven and earth” (en piriĝ gal an-ki),1160
and “great lion of the pure heaven” (piriĝ gal an kù-ga).1161 The lion was used as
a metaphor for ferocity and power in Mesopotamia, especially in royal contexts:
kings and potent deities were described as lions in Sumerian and Akkadian
sources.1162 Therefore the reference to the moon god as “lion of the gods” in Ur
can be interpreted both as a reference to the earlier tradition concerning the
moon god in the city and as a statement that underlines his power in the context
of his cult city, where he is seen as the king of the gods.1163 Outside of Sîn-
balāssu-iqbi’s inscriptions the elevation of Sîn to the position of the divine king
in Ur is suggested by a bilingual šu’ila-prayer to Nanna/Sîn, in which he is
praised as “king of kings”.

4 R2 9+//, 351164
⌈idim⌉ ⌈bára⌉ ⌈íl⌉-⌈la⌉ me-bi mu-LU al nu-di nam-dì[m-me-er(-ra)]-⌈ni⌉ nu-
mu-un-da-ab-⌈sè-sè⌉-ga
šar šar-ri šá-q[u-u(2) ša parṣīšu mamman lā ir-ri]-šú(?) DINGIR-ti-šú
DINGIR la maš-lu
(Sum.) the venerable one of the lofty dais, whose me-powers no one can de-
mand, whose divi[ni]ty no one equals
(Akk.) lof[ty] king of kings, [whose ordinances no one can deman]d, whose
divinity no god equals

Outside of the context of Sîn’s cult cities, an example of him in the role of the
king is found in a Late Babylonian expository text from Kiš.1165 The purpose of

1159
RIMB, B.6.32.2002, 2.
1160
Ibbi-Suen A, 9–10 and 31 (Steible 1991, 286; see also Hall 1985, 142).
1161
TCL 15 no. 30, 5 (Sjöberg 1960, 70–71). For an overview of the Sumerian epithets
depicting Nanna/Suen as a lion see Hall 1985, 691.
1162
The use of this animal metaphor in royal and divine context has been discussed in
Watanabe 2002, 42–56 and 89–110. Note also the equation of the Sumerian noun piriĝ
with Akkadian šarru in lexical lists and commentaries (see CAD Š/2, 77–78).
1163
A further possibility for interpreting this epithet does exist, since piriĝ is attested to
have been understood as an equivalent of the Akkadian noun namru, “bright” (see An-
gin7 dím-ma, 69 in Cooper 1978, 66–67). A similar attestation can be found in the Akka-
dian translation kakku ša pānūšu namrū for the weapon name d.ĝištukul-saĝ-piriĝ (see Liv-
ingstone 1986, 54–55). Therefore, the epithet piriĝ diĝir-e-ne may also have been under-
stood in relation to the moon god’s luminosity.
1164
See Shibata, HES, (forthcoming) and Sjöberg 1960, 168 and 171.
1165
OECT 11 nos. 69+70. See Gurney 1989, 26–33; George 1990, 157–159; Livingstone
1990, 68–69; and Frahm 2011, 339.
 II.7. Sîn and Kingship 205

the text is to explain cultic festivities in Nippur on the basis of mythological

events. The section relating to the second month of the year, Ayyāru, which is
centred around the return of Ninurta from battle, refers to the moon god Sîn hav-
ing been raised to kingship.

OECT 11 nos. 69+70, I 17’–19’

I 17’ DIŠ i-na itiGU4 UD.15.KAMv šá IM.ŠÁR.RA GAR-nu ⌈d⌉MAŠ TA
KUR-i KUR-ma
I 18’ MU d30 ana NAM.LUGAL-ti d+En-nu-gi ana ⌈SUKKAL⌉-tim ÍL-ú
d
I 19’ MAŠ IM.ŠÁR.RA GAR-ma ag-giš ana É-šu-me-ša4 KU4-ub
In the month Ayyāru, 15th day when the IM.ŠÁR.RA(-festival?) is held: Nin-
urta will arrive from the mountain, and because Sîn has been elevated to
kingship (and) Ennugi to the office of the vizier, Ninurta will hold the
IM.ŠÁR.RA(-festival?) and furiously enter the temple Ešumeša.

A further entry for the 22nd day in the same text includes a further reference to
the moon god and his elevation to kingship.

OECT 11 nos. 69+70, I 25’–28’

I 25’ DIŠ i-na ⌈iti⌉GU4 UD.22.KAMv šá BÁRA ⌈šá⌉ uruŠÀ–URU ú-šal-mu-
ú MU d30
I 26’ ⌈a⌉-na LUGAL-ut u d+⌈En⌉-nu-⌈gi⌉ ana SUKKAL-ti ÍL-ú MU
d
+EN.ZU
I 27’ SU[KKAL].MAḪ dNin-š[ubur ši-pir na?]-gi-ru-ti ⌈ú⌉-še-pi-iš1166
In the month Ayyāru, 22th day when the daises of the Inner City are encir-
cled. That is because Sîn was elevated to kingship and Ennugi to the office of
the vizier; because Sîn let the vizier Ninš[ubur] perform the duties of the
[he]rald.

The most important detail of these entries is their relationship to the lunar cycle:
the first reference to the moon god who has been raised to kingship relates to the
15th of Ayyāru, i.e. to the full moon. The second reference dates to the waning
half moon on the 22nd of Ayyāru.1167 This is no mere coincidence, but probably
reflects the lunar associations of the festivities. The association between Sîn as
the king and the full moon is closely related to the notion of the moon god being
Enlil during the full moon and the days preceding it.1168 Similar celestial notions

1166
The reading of the line is based on the suggestion given in George 1990, 158.
1167
For the 21st and 22nd days of the lunar cycle and their associations see p. 117ff. above.
1168
For the “Theology of the Moon” see the discussion on p. 136ff. above. In my opinion,
the lunar associations in the text suggest that indeed the moon god Sîn, not Enlil, is
meant here (as opposed to the corruption of the text suggested in George 1990, 158).
206 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

may be at play in this cultic commentary, but the available textual sources do not
provide information about such connotations.

II.7.2. Sîn as Giver of Royal Insignia and Protector of Kingship

The notion of the moon god – lord of the celestial crown1169 – as a deity with the
power to endow kingship, firmly existed in the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylo-
nian periods.1170 In earlier sources, this idea that the moon god endowed royal in-
signia on the king was expressed locally in Ur where Rīm-Sîn of Larsa received
the crown of kingship from him.1171 The moon god Suen, who is characterised as
the son of Enlil, was also the god who gave the royal throne to Išme-Dagan of
Isin, and secured the brilliance of his crown into the distant future.1172 This latter
act strongly connoted the celestial “crown” of the moon. In the prologue of his
law code, Ḫammurapi calls himself the “seed of kingship who was created by
Sîn”.1173 In a similar vein, an Old Babylonian bilingual literary composition
credits the king’s leadership (Sum. nam-saĝ-kal, Akk. ašarēdūtu) to the moon
god Sîn.1174
The moon god’s abilities with respect to kingship are frequently mentioned
in Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian sources, most often in the context of royal
inscriptions and prayers. Unlike the sun god, with whom the Assyrian king was
equated,1175 the moon god did not usually embody the royal persona, but rather
acted as the protector and establisher of kingship. A notable exception to this can
be found in the mythological account concerning a lunar eclipse in the 16th tablet

1169
See the discussion on p. 60ff. above.
1170
An overview of the epithets describing Sîn as a god, who is connected to kingship has
already been presented in Combe 1908, 28–30 and Tallqvist 1938a, 447–448. For the at-
testations in the Sumerian literary sources for the moon god as a giver of the royal in-
signia see Hall 1985, 630–631.
1171
Rīm-Sîn G, 22: dNanna lugal an-ki-ke4 aga zid maḫ nam-lugal-la šu-du7 / saĝ-za ḫé-ni-
ib-gen6-né, “May Nanna, the king of heaven and earth, fit perfectly onto your head the
legitimate august headdress of kingship!” (according to the edition in ETCSL 2.6.9.7; see
also the edition of this prayer and discussion of its context in Charpin 1986, 295–302).
1172
Išme-Dagan A+V, 72–75: dSuen dumu-saĝ dEn-⌈líl⌉-[lá-ke4] / ĝišgu-za lugal-la me
⌈ur4⌉-[ur4 ...] / barag nam-en-na saĝ-bi-šè [è]-a ⌈ḫé-bí⌉-in-[ĝar] / ud sù-rá-šè aga-⌈ĝu10 dal-
la⌉ ḫé-bí-in-è, “Suen, the first-born of Enlil, ... for me a royal throne that gathers together
the divine powers, established an excellent lordly dais, and made my crown shine
brilliantly until distant days” (ETCSL c.2.5.4.01; see also Römer 1965, 43).
1173
CH, I 13–15: NUMUN šar-ru-tim / ša dSuen / ib-ni-ù-šu. This expression also refers
to the aspect of Sîn as a god responsible for fertility and procreation (see p. 229ff.
below).
1174
BM 90842 (CT 21, pls. 40–42) (Wasserman 1992, 3; see also the translations in
Foster 2005, 136 and Pongratz-Leisten 2015, 437).
1175
For the sun as the model for kingship and the occasional equation of the king with the
sun god see especially Maul 1999a, 201–214 and Frahm 2013b, 97–120.
 II.7. Sîn and Kingship 207

of the series Udug-ḫul, in which the king is compared to the moon god.1176 This
case should, however, be interpreted as a reflection of the moon god’s meaning
for kingship through lunar omens, an aspect of his that was immensely import-
ant for the exercise of kingship, as has already been established.1177
The role of the moon god in relation to the Mesopotamian king is indicated
through epithets that describe his power to endow, to establish, and to protect,
kingship – all notions undoubtedly connected to the concept of the moon as a
crown, to his control of time, and to his power over divine decisions. His status
as the eldest son of Enlil, the king of gods, was probably also associated with
this aspect.1178 In this respect, a close association of Enlil and his son Sîn can be
seen in the section of Tintir which lists the street names in Babylon. The street
named after Sîn follows the street named after Enlil and both of these names in-
corporate the same theme: the establishment of royal power. In contrast to Enlil,
Sîn is here explicitly characterised as responsible for establishing the “crown of
lordship” (agê bēlūti)1179 as a sign of royal power.

Tintir V, 71–721180
71 SILA dEn-líl mu-kin LUGAL-ti-šú SILA KÁ.GAL d[En-l]íl
72 SILA d30 mu-kin AGA be-lu-ti-šú SILA KÁ.GAL d[LU]GAL
Street: “Enlil is the Establisher of his Kingship”, the street of the Enlil Gate.
Street: “Sîn is the Establisher of his Lordly Crown”, the street of the Gate of
the (divine) [K]ing.

It should be noted that although the gate that was connected to the street named
“Sîn is the Establisher of his Lordly Crown” is not said to belong to Sîn,1181 it is
plausible that the moon god was meant by the appellation dLUGAL on the ac-
count of the use of this name for Sîn in the god-list An = Anum.1182 The epithet
used in the street name “Sîn is the Establisher of his Lordly Crown” in Babylon
was taken over by Sennacherib in the naming of Sîn’s gate in Nineveh, which
was called Nannāru mukīn agê bēlūtīya, “Nannāru is the Establisher of my

1176
The passage is cited on p. 173 above with further discussion.
1177
See the discussion on p. 150ff. above. The importance of the moon god for kingship
due to his role in the context of celestial divination has been stressed in Jacobsen 1976,
123–124 and Wee 2014, 53–54.
1178
As the son of Enlil, Sîn is generally associated with divine decisions (see the discus-
sion on p. 291ff. below).
1179
One of the manuscripts (K. 3089+, 72) also has the variant AGA NAM.LUGAL.LA-
šu, “crown of his kingship” (George 1992, 68).
1180
George 1992, 68–69. See also the commentary on the lines in George 1992, 364.
1181
Sîn is absent also in the list of the names for these gates in Tintir V, 49–56 (George
1992, 66–67).
1182
See p. 197 above.
208 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

Lordly Crown”.1183 The variant name Nannāru nāṣir agê bēlūtīya, “Nannāru is
the Protector of my Lordly Crown”, is also attested for this gate.1184 According to
Sennacherib’s account, Sîn’s gate was one of the three northern gates of the
city.1185 The use of the epithets mukīn agê bēlūtīya and nāṣir agê bēlūtīya in the
context of the capital city Nineveh underlines the importance of the moon god in
the sphere of royal power during this period. Similar epithets pertaining to the
moon god’s authority over kingship could already be found in earlier Neo-As-
syrian royal inscriptions, since this role was given to him by Sennacherib’s
grandfather, Tiglath-pileser III. By calling Sîn nannāru namru nādin ḫaṭṭi agê
mukīn bēlūti, “bright luminary, giver of sceptre (and) crown, establisher of lord-
ship”,1186 Tiglath-pileser III simultaneously praised him as a celestial light and a
god able to provide the king with royal power. Later, in the context of Ḫarrān, a
corresponding epithet was used by Assurbanipal in his inscription for the temple
Eḫulḫul when he calls the moon god [nādi]n ḫaṭṭi kussê p[alê u] agê bēlūt[i],
“[give]r of the sceptre, the throne, the d[ynasty and] the crown of lordshi[p]”.1187
The same text also focused on the sceptre and staff as royal insignia related to
justice and righteousness: “Give me the just staff, gra[nt me] the sceptre of right-
eousness!” is Assurbanipal’s plea to Sîn in this dedicatory inscription.1188
The notion of the moon god as a deity endowing kingship is, in fact, espe-
cially apparent in connection with Ḫarrān. A prominent example of this was Es-
arhaddon’s coronation, which took place there while he was en route to Egypt.
This event is known to us from letter SAA 10 no. 174, sent to Assurbanipal by
the haruspex (bārû) Marduk-šumu-uṣur, who had been in the king’s service
already during the reign of Esarhaddon.1189

1183
RINAP 3 no. 18, VII 28’–29’: dNanna-ru mu-kin a-ge-e ⌈be⌉-[lu]-⌈ti⌉-ia / KÁ.GAL
d
30. For the similarity of the gate names in Babylon and Nineveh see George 1992, 364.
1184
RINAP 3 no. 17, VII 91: dNanna-ru na-ṣir AGA be-lu-ti-ia KÁ.GAL dEN.ZU.
1185
See RINAP 3 no. 17, VII 92–93. The passage naming the northern gates in the in-
scription RINAP 3 no. 16, VII 55–62 does not include a gate of Sîn, but rather “gate of
the orchards”, which bore the name “Igisigsig is the One who Makes Orchards Flour-
ish” – thus the god Igisigsig is named in this connection (RINAP 3 no. 16, VII 59–60:
d
Igi-sig7-sig7 mu-šam-me-eḫ ṣip-pa-a-te / KÁ.GAL gišKIRI6.MEŠ). See also the overview
of these gates in Thompson 1940, 92; Pongratz-Leisten 1994, 211–214; and Frahm 1997,
273–274.
1186
RINAP 1 no. 35, I 8: [d30 na-an-na-ru nam-ru] ⌈na⌉-din gišGIDRU AGA mu-⌈kin? be⌉-
[lu]-⌈ti⌉ (Iran Stele); RINAP 1 no. 37, 5: [d30] na-an-⌈na⌉-ru nam-ru na-din ⌈giš⌉GIDRU
a-⌈ge⌉-[e] mu-kin be-⌈lu⌉-ti (Mila Mergi rock inscription).
1187
K. 8759+, 14: [na-di]n gišGIDRU gišGU.ZA B[ALA-e ù] a-ge-e EN-ú-t[i] (see the
transliteration on p. 142 above).
1188
K. 8759+, r. 5: id-na uš-pa-ru ki-i-nu gišGIDRU i-šar-ti šu-ú[r-ka ...] (see Pongratz-
Leisten 1995, 551 and 553 and Novotny 2003, 232).
1189
For a commentary on the letter in Parpola 1983, 100–101 (LAS 117). This letter has
been discussed on various occasions and for these discussions see especially Onasch
 II.7. Sîn and Kingship 209

SAA 10 no. 174, 10–16

10 ki-i AD-šú ša LUGAL EN-ia a-na kurMu-ṣur il-lik-[u-ni]
11 ina qa-an-ni uruKASKAL É–DINGIR ša gišEREN e-⌈pi⌉-[iš]
d
12 30 ina UGU gišŠIBIR kam-mu-us 2 AGA.MEŠ ina SAG.DU ⌈šak⌉-
[nu]
13 [d]Nusku ina IGI-šú iz-za-az AD-šú ša LUGAL EN-ia e-tar-ba
14 [AGA?] ina SAG.DU is-sa-kan ma-a tal-lak KUR.MEŠ ina ŠÀ-bi
ta-kaš-šad
15 [it-ta]-⌈lak⌉ kurMu-ṣur ik-ta-šad re-eḫ-ti ma-ta-a-ti
16 [ša a-na] AN.ŠÁR d30 la kan-šá-a-ni LUGAL EN LUGAL.MEŠ i-
kaš-šad
When the father of the king, my lord, went to Egypt, a temple of cedar was
bu[ilt] outside the city of Ḫarrān. Sîn was seated upon a staff, two crowns
were placed on (his) head. Nusku stood before him. The father of the king,
my lord, entered; he placed [the crown(s)?] on (his) head, (and it was said to
him): “You will go and conquer the world with it.” [So he we]nt and con-
quered Egypt; the king, lord of kings, will conquer the rest of the countries
[which] have not submitted to Aššur (and) Sîn.

As the letter states, a cedar temple was built for the moon god outside of the
city,1190 and the moon god was present there, seated (or literally squatting, kam-
mus) upon a staff. Esarhaddon approached Sîn, who was holding two crowns,
and he was then crowned as the conqueror of the world. The implications of this
episode have already been noted in various previous studies.1191 It is sufficient
here to observe the perception that the Ḫarranian moon god was able to crown
the Assyrian king as the conqueror of all lands. This notion must have been

1994, 160–161; Holloway 1995, 293; Uehlinger 1997, 316–318; Nissinen 1998, 123–
124; Theuer 2000, 353–354; Holloway 2002, 408–409; Schaudig 2002, 628–629; and
Novotny 2003, 59–65.
1190
J. Lewy has suggested that this cedar temple was in fact the akītu-house of Sîn, since
it was located outside of the city (Lewy 1945–1946, 458 note 246). J. Novotny has re-
futed this, maintaining that this structure was temporary and built only for this occasion,
perhaps as a place to house the divine images of Sîn and his family during the rebuilding
of the temple Eḫulḫul (Novotny 2003, 60–65).
1191
See especially Holloway 1995, 293; Uehlinger 1997, 316–318; and Schaudig 2002,
628–629. In Radner 2003, 173 another hypothetical reason for this visit to Ḫarrān is sug-
gested: Esarhaddon made a pilgrimage to the main Assyrian sanctuary of the moon god
because he was plagued by chronic skin disease. Thus he was seeking help for his condi-
tion from Sîn, who was considered to be the source of a variety of skin diseases (for the
connection between the moon god and skin diseases in Mesopotamian medical lore see
the discussion on p. 281ff. below). This explanation remains, however, hypothetical,
since no such motive can be established on the basis of the available textual sources.
210 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

rooted in the concept associating the Mesopotamian moon god with the royal
power and royal insignia. Another important feature of this letter, from the per-
spective of assessing Sîn’s roles, is the juxtaposition of the gods Aššur and Sîn
as the deities to whom the conquered lands will submit. As many scholars have
observed, the moon god of Ḫarrān appears to have been Aššur’s equal in the
western provinces of Assyria.1192 This provides a further explanation for the
close association between the Ḫarranian moon god and kingship during the reign
of the Sargonid dynasty: as will be seen later in this chapter, Assurbanipal also
asserted that it was the moon god Sîn who chose him to be the king of Assyria,
so that he could rebuild the temple Eḫulḫul in Ḫarrān.1193 Moreover, perhaps in
connection with Esarhaddon’s coronation in Ḫarrān and his victory in Egypt,
royal images were installed around the image of the Ḫarranian moon god.1194
The subtext for this instalment appears to have been the desire to ensure Sîn’s
continuing support for the Assyrian king, made manifest in the continual propi-
tious signs observed each month.
The motif of the king’s coronation by Sîn can also be found in the cylinder
inscriptions of Sîn-šarru-iškun. In a passage attested in Cylinders A, B, and D,
with minor variants, it is said that the moon god crowned Sîn-šarru-iškun with
the “crown of lordship” (agê bēlūti).

Sîn-šarru-iškun Cylinder A, 3–51195

3 a-na kun-ni SUḪUŠ KUR
4 šu-te-šur ba-’u-la-ti dal-ḫa-a-ti a-na tu-qu-ni ab-ra-a-ti
5 a-na ke-še-ri a-ge-e be-lu-ti i-pi-ru-uš na-an-nar AN-e d30
So that he would secure the foundation of the land, bring the disturbed popu-
lation to order, bring order to the mankind (and) so that he would repair, Sîn,
the luminary of the heavens, crowned him with the crown of lordship.

The corresponding passage in Sîn-šarru-iškun Cylinder C extends the motif to

include not only the “crown of lordship”(agê bēlūti), but also the sceptre of
kingship (ḫaṭṭi šarrūti).1196 In this context, the crown and the sceptre given to the

1192
See e.g. Schaudig 2002, 628–629. For the juxtaposition of Aššur and Ḫarranian Sîn
see the discussion on p. 395ff. below.
1193
See the discussion on p. 214 below.
1194
As described in SAA 10 no. 13 (see the citation on p. 157 above).
1195
See the edition in Meinhold 2009, 450–451 and 457–458. A similar passage can be
found also in the Sîn-šarru-iškun Cylinder B (Borger 1965, 76–78) and in Sîn-šarru-
iškun Cylinder D (Schramm 1975–1976, 45–48).
1196
Sîn-šarru-iškun Cylinder C, 11–12: d30 šàr a-ge-e a-na kun-ni SUḪUŠ KUR šu-[te-
šur ba-’-ú-la-a-ti a-ge-e EN-u]-ti e-pir-an-[ni] / gišGIDRU LUGAL-u-ti ú-šat-me-eḫ rit-
tu-u-a, “Sîn, king of the crown, crowned m[e with the crown of lordship] (and) placed
the sceptre of kingship in my hands so that I would secure the foundation of the land
 II.7. Sîn and Kingship 211

king are seen as the prerequisite for the royal aspiration to bring stability to the
land and guide the population – both royal tasks that are reflected in the regular-
ity and stability of the moon and sun.1197 The idea that the moon god crowned
the king with the royal crown, as it is expressed in the inscriptions of Sîn-šarru-
iškun, was later used by the Babylonian king Nabonidus in his E’amaškuga Cyl-
inder. Here the goddess Ningal, as the spouse of Sîn and the lady of E’amaškuga
in Kissik, acts alongside her husband to endow the king with the crown.1198

Schaudig 2001, 2.6, I 21–23

d
I 21 EN.ZU ù dNin-gal
I 22 ⌈a⌉-ge-e du!(gi)-úr UD.MEŠ
I 23 ⌈i⌉-pi-ri ra-šu-uš-šu
(whose) head Sîn and Ningal have covered with an eternal crown

Similarly, in the En-niĝaldi-Nanna Cylinder Nabodinus expresses the wish for

the continuity of this royal power – symbolised by the royal crown and throne of
lordship – and for the propitious signs from the moon god as a communication
of his good will towards the king.1199

Schaudig 2001, 2.7, II 34–38

II 34 e-ma ITI liš-tap-pa-a i-da-a-ti du-um-qí-ia
II 35 a-ge-e šar-ru-ti a-na da-rí-a-tì lu-ki-in ra-šu-ú-a
giš
II 36 GU.ZA be-lu-ti-ia šu-úr-ši-id a-na aḫ-ra-a-tu UD.MEŠ
II 37 e-ma ITI i-na i-te-ed-du-ši-ka
II 38 ṣa-ad-da-ka da-mi-iq-ti gi-na-a lu-ut-tap-la-as
Each month may he make manifest signs of my well-being for me, may he
firmly fix the crown of kingship for eternity on my head! Establish firmly the
throne of my lordship for the days to come! Each month as you renew your-
self, may I constantly see your propitious signal!

The notion that the moon god gave the king his royal insignia is attested also in
the prayers addressed to him. The prayer “Sîn 11”, which is known in the con-
text of a therapeutic procedure to release a man from māmītu, includes a line
praising Sîn as a god who gives the sceptre to all the kings.1200 His ability to en-

(and) br[ing the population in order]” (see Grayson 1972, 161 and 164). In Sîn-šarru-
iškun Cylinder A it is Nabû, who endows Sîn-šarru-iškun with the sceptre (see ll. 9–11 in
Meinhold 2009, 450–451 and 458).
1197
The importance of this aspect of the sun god to the royal ideology is discussed in
Maul 1999a, 201–203.
1198
For the cult of Ningal in Kissik see the discussion on p. 367ff. below.
1199
For the moon god as a sign-giver in the context of divination see p. 150ff. above.
1200
“Sîn 11”, 4: [d30] na-din [giš]GIDRU a-na DÙ-šu-nu LUGAL.MEŠ (see the edition on
212 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

dow kingship is also stressed in a bilingual šu’ila-prayer to him.1201

4 R2 9+//, 171202
⌈na⌉-áĝ-bára e-ne mu-sa4-a mudru!(“AN”) zé-èĝ-ĝu10-a u4 sù-ud-⌈da⌉-⌈šè⌉
⌈nam⌉ ⌈mu⌉-⌈ni⌉-íb!(“DU”)-tar-e-dè
na-bu-ú šar-ru-ti na-din ḫaṭ-ṭi šá šim-ti ana u4-me r[u-q]u-ti i-šim-mu
(Sum.) he who calls (a king) to kingship, he who gives (him) the sceptre, he
decides a good fate for him for all the future
(Akk.) he who calls (a king) to kingship, he who gives (him) the sceptre, he
who decides a good fate for him for al[l t]he future.

As can be seen, the role of the moon god in endowing the king with kingship is
here combined with the idea of decreeing a (good) fate for him – a notion that
unites Sîn’s power in the context of divine decision-making with the concept of
Sîn as a deity who supports royal power.1203 The affiliation of the moon god with
the sceptre as a mark of royal power can also be found in the wider context of
Babylonian literature, as the speech of Ninsun to the sun god Šamaš in Gilgameš
shows.

Gilgameš III, 101–1061204

“O Šamaš, will Gilgameš not ... the gods? Will he not share the heavens with
you? Will he not share the sceptre with Sîn? Will he not become wise with
Ea of the Apsû? Will he not rule the black-headed race with Irnina? [Will he]
not dwell in the Land-of-No-Return with Ningišzida?”

In light of this deeply embedded notion that the moon god was a deity who en-
dowed the king with royal insignia, his absence in the accounts of the king’s cre-
ation is remarkable. In the mythological account concerning the creation of the
king, Sîn is not included among the deities who take part in equipping the king
with the necessary insignia and powers.1205 Also in the Coronation Hymn of As-

p. 477ff. below). A similar praise should most likely be restored also in KAL 4 no. 40, r.?
17’: [... gi]š!GIDRU! a-na DÙ-šu-n[u x (x)] (read [...] x PA a-na DÙ-šu-n[u ...] in the edi-
tion of the text).
1201
The lines 5–9 of this prayer praise the moon god himself as the ruler of the gods (see
the citation on p. 197 above).
1202
See Shibata, HES (forthcoming) and Sjöberg 1960, 167 and 170.
1203
For the power of Sîn over divine decisions see the discussion on p. 150ff. above. The
motif of kingship is especially visible in the context of extispicy: one of the ikrib-prayers
to Sîn stresses his importance in respect to royal insignia (the crown and the throne; see
K.2751+//, 25’–27’ on p. 483ff. below).
1204
George 2003, 580–581.
1205
VS 24 no. 92//, 30’–42’ (Mayer 1987, 55–68 and Jiménez 2013b, 235–254; see also
 II.7. Sîn and Kingship 213

surbanipal1206 the moon god is nowhere to be seen despite his depiction else-
where as the god who created Assurbanipal for kingship. Only in the account
concerning the creation of Nabonidus as the king in the E’igikalama Cylinder is
the moon god included among the deities who are present at the creation: “Nan-
nāru, son the prince, oversaw his creation”.1207 In comparison to the frequent
connections of Sîn to kingship in Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions, the moon god
is conspicuously absent in the texts left behind by the Neo-Babylonian kings.
Apart from Nabonidus’ inscriptions connected to Ḫarrān or Ur, the only refer-
ences to this aspect of Sîn’s derive from Nebuchadnezzar II’s reports on his
building activities in Ur. When he gives an account of rebuilding the temple
Ekišnugal in Ur, he calls Sîn bēlu narām šarrūtīya, “the lord, who loves my
kingship”.1208 Otherwise the Babylonian kings seem to have thought of Sîn, the
tutelary deity of Ur, too insignificant in respect to royal power to deserve a men-
tion in their inscriptions.
In addition to the endowment of royal insignia, which was the most frequent
motif connecting the moon god to kingship in Mesopotamia, references connect-
ing him to the act of nominating the king are known.1209 The royal epithet nibīt
Sîn, “called by Sîn”, is attested in the inscriptions of two Neo-Assyrian kings,
and in both of these instances this royal epithet is used in connection with anoth-
er deity, or deities, of the Assyrian pantheon. Assurnaṣirpal II calls himself
“called by Sîn, favourite of Anu, loved one of Adad, who is almighty among the
gods”.1210 A similar formulation – “chosen by Aššur, Nabû, and Marduk, called
by Sîn, favourite of Anu, beloved of the queen Ištar, goddess of everything” – is
later used by Esarhaddon in his Zinçirli Stele.1211 The motif of nomination by the
moon god is taken furthest by Assurbanipal, who describes how he was selected
for kingship by the gods Aššur and Sîn.1212

the discussions in Cancik-Kirschbaum 1995, 5–20 and Ambos 2013a, 10–11).

1206
SAA 3 no. 11.
1207
Schaudig 2001, 2.5, I 11: dNanna-ri DUMU ru-bé-e ú-ṣa-ab-ba-a nab-nit-su.
1208
1 R 65, II 45 (see the citation on p. 342 below).
1209
See the overview of royal epithets of the form nibīt DN in Seux 1967, 205–207.
1210
RIMA 2, A.0.101.1, I 33: ni-bit d30 mi-gir dA-nim na-mad d10 kaš-kaš DINGIR.MEŠ;
see also RIMA 2, A.0.101.1, III 130; A.0.101.17, I 37–38; A.0.101.20, 44–45 and
A.0.101.26, 40–41.
1211
RINAP 4 no. 98, r. 21–22: ni-šit AN.ŠÁR dAG u dAMAR.UTU ni-bit d30 mi-gir dA-
nim na-ra-am šar-ra-ti / dIš-tar i-lat kal gim-ri.
1212
Although the role of the moon god in nominating and creating the Assyrian king is se-
curely attested originally in the inscriptions of Assurbanipal, it is possible that a similar
notion can already be found in the inscriptions of his grandfather, Sennacherib. A frag-
mentary passage in a text concerning the building project in Bavian suggests a far greater
role for Sîn and his spouse Ningal in this respect than is otherwise attested Sennacherib’s
inscriptions. RINAP 3 no. 153, 23–25: ib-ru-ú-ma kul-lat [...] / ip-pal-su-in-⌈ni⌉ [...] / d30
214 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

Assurbanipal Prism A, I 1–71213

I1 a-na-ku IAN.ŠÁR–DÙ–A bi-nu-ut AN.ŠÁR u dNIN.LÍL
I2 DUMU LUGAL GAL-ú ša É re-du-u-ti
I3 ša AN.ŠÁR u d30 EN AGA ul-tu UD.MEŠ SUD.MEŠ
I4 ni-bit MU-šú iz-ku-ru a-na LUGAL-u-ti
I5 ù ina ŠÀ AMA-šú ib-nu-šú a-na SIPA-ut KUR AN.ŠÁRki
d
I6 UTU dIŠKUR u d15 ina EŠ.BAR-šú-nu ke-e-ni
I7 iq-bu-ú e-peš LUGAL-u-ti-ia
I am Assurbanipal, creation of Aššur and Mullissu, eldest royal son of the
Succession Palace, who was called to kingship by Aššur and Sîn, lord of the
crown, since the distant past and who they created in the womb of his mother
for the shepherd-ship of Assyria; Šamaš, Adad, and Ištar have decreed with
the firm decision the exercise of my kingship.

The report in the Assurbanipal Prism T focuses on the divinely ordained back-
ground for the rebuilding of temples in Ḫarrān at the beginning of Assurbani-
pal’s reign: these actions took place, because Assurbanipal had been created for
kingship and chosen by Sîn long ago to be the one who restored the dilapidated
temple Eḫulḫul.1214

Assurbanipal Prism T, II 29–351215

II 29 a-di a-di-ni a-bi la im-ma-al-la-du
II 30 um-mì a-lit-ti la ba-na-at ina lìb-bi AMA-šà
II 31 a-na e-peš É-ḫúl-ḫúl iz-kur ni-bit MU-ia
d
II 32 30 šá ib-na-an-ni a-na LUGAL-u-ti
II 33 um-ma IAN.ŠÁR–DÙ–A É.KUR šu-a-tu
II 34 ip-p[u-uš-ma] qé-reb-šú ú-šar-man-ni
II 35 pa-rak da-ra-a-ti
Even before my father was born, my birth-mother had not been created in her
mother’s womb, the god Sîn, who created me for kingship, nominated me to
build Eḫulḫul, (saying): “Assurbanipal will bu[ild] this temple [and] make
me sit therein upon an eternal dais!”.

d
Nin-⌈gal ⌉ [...], “They (the gods) searched all of [...] and [...] they looked [(...)] upon me
[...] Sîn (and) Ningal [...]”. A comparison between these remains of three lines and the
passages in Assurbanipal’s inscriptions describing a nomination by Sîn is made in Frahm
1997, 216.
1213
Borger 1996, 14–15 and 208. See also Reiner 1985, 17–28.
1214
For the building activities of Assurbanipal in Ḫarrān see p. 396ff. below.
1215
Also in Assurbanipal Prism C, I 71–98 (see Borger 1996, 141–142 and 207; Novotny
2003, 97–99; and RINAP 5/I no. 6) and Assurbanipal Prism I, II 28’–33’ (see Novotny
2014, 50 and RINAP 5/I no. 5). Assurbanipal Prism T is edited as RINAP 5/I no. 10.
 II.7. Sîn and Kingship 215

This passage further attests to the conceptions of kingship that were present in
the Ḫarranian context during the reign of the Sargonid kings. Not only does As-
surbanipal claim that he had been chosen by the moon god to rebuild his temple
in Ḫarrān in the distant past, but he also acknowledged that he received the man-
date for kingship from the moon god himself, not from other deities. This idea
that Assurbanipal had been chosen by Sîn is later echoed in the words of the
Babylonian king Nabonidus, who claimed that both the kings Esarhaddon and
Assurbanipal were given power by the moon god.1216 Moreover, in the opening
lines of the Eḫulḫul Cylinder, Nabonidus himself claimed to have been chosen
to be king of Babylonia by the moon god before his birth.

Schaudig 2001, 2.12, I 1–5 (Ex. 11)

I1 a-na-ku dNa-bi-um–na-’i-id LUGAL ra-bu-ú LUGAL dan-nu
I2 LUGAL kiš-šá-tu4 LUGAL KÁ.DINGIR.RAki LUGAL kib-ra-a-tú
er-bet-ti
I3 za-ni-in É-saĝ-íl ù É-zi-da
I4 ša d+EN.ZU ù dNin-gal i-na ŠÀ um-mi-šu
I5 a-na ši-ma-at LUGAL-ú-ti i-ši-mu ši-ma-at-su
I am Nabonidus, the great king, the strong king, king of the world, king of
Babylon, king of the four corners (of the world), provider of Esaĝil and Ezi-
da, for whom Sîn and Ningal chose the fate of kingship already in his moth-
er’s womb

A shorter version of the same revelation in a dream is recorded in the Ḫarrān

Stele.1217 This time the rebuilding of Eḫulḫul is directly linked to the mandate for
kingship that the moon god had given to Nabonidus, which will allow him to
subjugate all the lands to his control.

Schaudig 2001, 3.1, I 10–14 (Ex. 1)1218

I 10 ù d30 a-na LUGAL-ú-ti
I 11 [i]m-ba-an-ni ina šá-at mu-ši MÁŠ.GI6 ú-šab-ra-an
I 12 um-ma É-ḫúl-ḫúl É d30 šá uruKASKAL ḫa-an-ṭiš
I 13 e-pu-uš KUR.KUR.MEŠ ka-la-ši-na a-na ŠUII-ka
I 14 lu-mál-la

1216
Schaudig 2001, 2.14, II 37–38 (Ex.2): IAN.ŠÁR–ŠEŠ–MU LUGAL KUR Aš-šur u
I
AN.ŠÁR–DÙ–A DUMU-šú / šá d30 LUGAL DINGIR.MEŠ kiš-šat KUR.KUR ú-šat-li-
mu-šu-nu-ti-ma, “Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, and Assurbanipal, his son, who Sîn, king
of the gods, endowed with the totality of the lands”.
1217
See also the discussion concerning Nabonidus and dreams p. 194ff. above.
1218
This passage is also cited in Beaulieu 1989, 60.
216 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

[...] and Sîn [ap]pointed me to kingship. He showed me a dream during the

night: “Build hastily Eḫulḫul, the temple of Sîn in the city Ḫarrān; I will give
all the lands into your hands!”

In conclusion, there are three main points in this analysis of the moon god’s im-
portance to the Mesopotamian king, as it was portrayed in the royal inscriptions
of the Sargonid kings and the Babylonian king Nabonidus. First, the references
to Sîn as the protector and establisher of royal power are connected to his celes-
tial manifestation. This is clear from the frequent use of the appellation or epi-
thet Nannāru in royal inscriptions as well as by the epithet “lord of the crown”,
which was typically used in official texts.1219 The notion that the moon was a
crown played a role in this respect: it made the moon god capable of endowing
this insignia of royal power to the king. Second, the importance of lunar omens
should be stressed in respect to kingship: the support of the moon god for the
king is expressed through propitious celestial signs, especially the timely reap-
pearance of the moon at the beginning of the month. The role of Sîn as one of
the great gods standing at the side of the Assyrian king is clear from the numer-
ous depictions of his crescent moon among the other symbols of deities in As-
syrian reliefs.1220 Sîn was also one of deities depicted in the dumāqu-pectoral
worn by the king (Fig. 12).1221 This necklace is usually portrayed decorated with
the symbols of five great deities of the Neo-Assyrian pantheon: the crown of
Aššur, the sun disc of Šamaš, the crescent moon of Sîn, the star-disc of Ištar, and
the lightning bolt of Adad.1222
The third main point is that the regularity of the lunar cycle and the renewal
of the moon, month after month, were significant concepts in connection with
kingship. In this respect, two different phenomena can be observed: the moon
alone as the regulator of time and the embodiment of regenerative power, and
the moon and the sun together as the two cosmic constants. The concepts at-
tached to the moon alone are reflected in SAA 12 no. 90, in which Assurbanipal
donates a recovered village to the moon god of Elumu.1223 In this document, the

1219
For the use of Nannāru as a name and an epithet of Sîn see p. 31ff. above, and for the
use of the epithets bēl agê and šar agê see p. 63ff. and 199ff. above.
1220
For the aspect of communication between the king and the deities underlying in these
depictions see Magen 1986, 54.
1221
The best depictions of this pectoral can be found on the the two statues of Šalmaneser
III (Strommenger 1970, 16–17). See also the depictions of Assurnaṣirpal II from Kalḫu
(Börker-Klähn 1982, nos. 136 and 137) and the short discussion in Pongratz-Leisten
2015, 423–424 (the role of the dumāqu-pectoral in the context of royal rituals).
1222
Magen 1986, 54–55. See also the short inscription of Esarhaddon that was written on
the divine symbols around the neck of the king, according to its colophon (RINAP 4 no.
43, r. 18’: ša ina UGU DINGIR.MEŠ-ni ša GÚ LUGAL).
1223
For the moon god of Elumu see the discussion on p. 415ff. below.
 II.7. Sîn and Kingship 217

king expressed the wish that his dynasty “may renew itself forever”1224 – in this
context certainly an allusion to the regenerative power of the moon. In Assur-
banipal’s hymn to Nanaya, the notion of Sîn as a deity who maintains order is
referred to in the plea to him to “keep his throne in order” (kussêšu taqqin).1225 I
consider it very likely that this was, in fact, an allusion to the rhythm and order
in the cosmos set by the moon, and consequently to the order that can be
brought to the reign of the king by the moon god. Moreover, Sargon II’s dedicat-
ory inscription to Sîn in Dūr-Šarrukīn describes the ability of the moon god to
offer stability and longevity of cosmic proportions to the king’s reign: the final
wish expressed to Sîn is that he would “let his reign last as long as the heaven
and the earth (and) establish his throne in the four corners (of the world)”.1226

Fig. 12: Statue of Šalmaneser III from Assur (Strommenger 1970, Abb. 5)

II.7.3. Sîn, Šamaš, and the King

The correct rhythm and order in the cosmos is reflected in the relationship
between the moon and sun to the Mesopotamian king. Although both Sîn and
Šamaš have their own distinct roles in the royal ideology of Assyria and Babylo-
nia – the king being especially associated with the sun god through his power to

1224
SAA 12 no. 90, r. 3: a-na u4-me da-ru-ti li-te-ed-diš pa-lu-⌈u⌉-[ia? ...].
1225
SAA 3 no. 5, 7: d30 gišGU.ZA-šú taq-qí-in x [x x x]. In his edition A. Livingstone
translates this wish as “keep safe his throne”, but the semantic range of the verb taqānu,
“to be placid, orderly, secure”, involves being orderly rather than safe (see CAD T, 197–
199).
1226
OIP 38, 130 no. 3 (see the citation on p. 428 below).
218 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

maintain the order in the cosmos1227 – these two deities were important to the the
Mesopotamian kings as a pair.1228 The importance of Sîn and Šamaš in this re-
spect is underlined especially by the astrological-astronomical observations that
were constantly reported to the royal court. The first appearance of the moon at
the beginning of the month was crucial in this respect, but equally important was
the opposition of the moon and sun at the mid-point in the lunar cycle. The point
of time that was observed was the simultaneous appearance of the two gods in
the eastern and western horizons at sunrise.1229 The ideal date for the opposition
of the moon and sun was the 14th day, which was portrayed as a positive omen
for that day.1230 The positive outcome for the king and his country is exemplified
by the following report of Ištar-šumu-ēreš to the king.

SAA 8 no. 15
1 DIŠ 30 u 20 šit-qú-lu KUR i-ka-na
2 at-mu-ú ke-e-nu ina KA UN.MEŠ GAR
3 LUGAL KUR gišAŠ.TE SUMUN-bar
4 DIŠ 30 u 20 šu-ta-šu-ú LUGAL KUR uz-nu
5 ú-rap-pa-aš
6 DIŠ UD.14.KAM 30 u 20 a-ḫa-meš IGI.MEŠ
7 KA GI.NA ŠÀ-bi KUR DU10-ab
8 DINGIR.MEŠ KUR URIki
9 a-na da-mì-iq-ti
10 i-ḫa-sa-su
r. 1 ḫu-ud lìb-bi ERIM-ni
r. 2 lìb-bi LUGAL DU10-ab
r. 3 MÁŠ.ANŠE KUR URIki
r. 4 ina EDIN par-ga-niš NÁ-iṣ
r. 5 ša I15–MU–KAM-eš

1227
See especially the discussion in Maul 1999a, 206.
1228
For comparison note e.g. the veneration of the sun and the moon by the king in South
Arabia: “Der südarabische Archäolog Hamdâni (10. Jahrh.) beschreibt aber (Iklîl 8.
Buch) das alte Bergheiligtum Rijâm »auf dem Gipfel des Berges Itwa, im Lande Ham-
dân. Ringsherum befinden sich die Stätten, wo die Pilgerscharen sich zu lagern pflegten.
Dort ist auch das Königsschloss, und vor dem Tore des Schlosses befindet sich eine
Mauer, worin eine Platte mit dem Bild der Sonne und des Neumondes eingefügt ist.
Wenn der König aus dem Schlosse hinaustritt, so fällt sein Blick nur auf die erste von
beiden (die Sonne). Sobald er sie erblickt, so verneigt er sich vor ihr.«” (Nielsen 1927,
202).
1229
See the discussion on p. 106ff. above.
1230
The principle of the ideal patterns in Mesopotamian astrological thinking is presented
in Brown 2000, 146–151.
 II.7. Sîn and Kingship 219

If the moon and sun are in balance: the land will become stable; reliable
speech will be placed in the mouth of people; the king of the land will make
his throne last long.
If the moon and sun are in opposition: the king of the land will widen his
understanding.
If on the 14th day the moon and sun are seen together: reliable speech, the
land will become happy. The gods will remember Akkad favorably; joy
among the troops; the king will become happy; the cattle of Akkad will lie in
the steppe undisturbed.
From Ištar-šumu-ēreš.

An opposition on the 13th, 15th or the 16th day of the month, on the other hand,
was seen as negative.1231 In this case the moon had been either too “slow” or too
“fast”, which had led to either too early or too late a date for the opposition.1232
Astrological reports to the Assyrian king mention “bad ways” in the land and
plundering by an enemy,1233 the rise and attack by a strong enemy, raging lions
and wolves,1234 as well as hostility between kings and a victorious military cam-
paign conducted by an enemy.1235 Thus the problems that faced the king if the
monthly order of the cosmos was disturbed encompassed both internal and ex-
ternal disturbances to the land. The king’s personal safety was also threatened by
this irregularity.1236 Despite its negative connotations in the context of celestial
omens, the 15th day of the lunar cycle as the schematic date for the opposition of
the moon and the sun appears to have been considered auspicious for the king in
a Late Babylonian hemerological composition.1237 The description of the day’s
auspicious nature is accompanied by the instruction (otherwise known from the
Prostration Hemerology) to consecrate a crescent emblem to Sîn and a golden

1231
Due to the variation in the lunar cycle, a full moon was possible on each of these
days. It is possible that this ideal was based on the division of the month into the 7-day
segments that can be seen in omen literature (see Rochberg-Halton 1988, 40). The posit-
ive and negative connotations of the days for the opposition are discussed also in Schwe-
mer 2010, 498.
1232
ACh Sin 3, 44: “If the moon is slowed down (uttaḫḫas) in its course ... means it is
seen with the sun on the 13th day. If the moon is steady (nēḫ) in its course ... means it is
seen with the sun on the 14th day. If the moon sped up (ezi) in its course ... means it is
seen with the sun on the 15th day.” (Rochberg-Halton 1988, 39–40; Stol 1992, 255).
1233
SAA 8 no. 360 (opposition on the 13th day).
1234
SAA 8 no. 23 (opposition on the 15th day).
1235
SAA 8 no. 111 (opposition on the 16th day).
1236
SAA 8 no. 111 has an apodosis with the imprisonment of the king in his own palace.
1237
BM 34584+, IV 106–109 (Jiménez 2016, 210 and 213). This description is followed
by the entry known otherwise from the Prostration Hemerology (see Livingstone 2013,
164 and Jiménez & Adalı 2015, 167 and 177).
220 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

sun disc to Šamaš, thereby acknowledging their simultaneous presence in the

sky during this phase of the month.1238 The interplay between the moon and the
sun was not restricted to these particular celestial bodies, but it could also be ob-
served in other astral phenomena as a result of their association with the sun and
the moon. According to the astrological commentary Šumma Sîn ina tāmartīšu,
the entry “If the solar disc stands above and below the moon: the foundations of
the throne of the king of the land will be stable, variant: the king of the land will
stay in his truth” can also be interpreted as an observation of the planet Saturn
together with the moon, since Saturn was associated with the sun.1239
The basic concept of regularity and order that was connected to the moon
and the sun is also reflected outside of the astrological-astronomical context. As
the importance of the opposition of the moon and the sun is considered, a very
important factor is found in the cultic topography of the Middle Assyrian Sîn-
Šamaš temple in Assur. There, cellas of the gods were located opposite each oth-
er, thereby fixing the moon and the sun permanently in their positions in opposi-
tion to each other in the sky.1240 The plan of the temple was later changed, but its
nature as a dual temple of the moon and the sun remained the same. It is import-
ant to note that the cultic setting for Sîn and Šamaš in a dual temple in Assur
was later adopted in both Dūr-Šarrukīn and Nineveh when they became capitals
of the empire. Among the Assyrian centres of royal power, it was only in Kalḫu
that Sîn and Šamaš did not share a temple.
The theme of the moon and sun as joint divine powers supporting the throne
of the Assyrian king was introduced in the inscriptions of Esarhaddon and furth-
er used by his son Assurbanipal.1241 The stability and regularity of the moon and
the sun in connection with the stability of royal power was a recurring theme in
both of their inscriptions. The regular appearance of the moon and sun at the be-
ginning and in the middle of the month are given a prominent position in the
passage, which describes propitious astrological omens regarding the ascent of
Esarhaddon on the Assyrian throne.

RINAP 4 no. 57, I 3’–10’1242

d
31 [30 u d]UTU DINGIR.MEŠ maš-šu-te

1238
See Livingstone 2013, 164 and Jiménez & Adalı 2015, 167 and 177. In Jimenéz and
Adalı’s edition, the date for the entry is reconstructed as the 15th day, but the majority of
the manuscripts for the Prostration Hemerology ascribe it to the 28th day. Of course, this
is a point in the month when the moon and the sun meet, thus making it possible that this
offering to them was made both during their opposition and their conjuction (see the dis-
cussion on p. 122ff. above).
1239
Šumma Sîn ina tāmartīšu 1, 64–65 (Koch-Westenholz 1999, 157).
1240
See the discussion on p. 416ff. below.
1241
See Koch-Westenholz 1995, 155–158 and Pongratz-Leisten 1999, 41–44.
1242
See also the earlier edition in Borger 1956, Ass. A. I 31–38.
 II.7. Sîn and Kingship 221

32 áš-[šú] de-en kit-te

33 ù mi-šá-ri
34 ana KUR u UN.MEŠ šá-ra-ku
35 ITI-šam-ma ḫar-ra-an kit-te
36 ù mi-šá-ri ṣab-tu-ma
37 UD.[1].KÁM1243 UD.14.KÁM
38 ú-sa-di-ru ta-mar-tú
In [order] to give the land and the people verdicts of truth and justice, [Sîn
and] Šamaš, the twin gods, took the road of truth and justice monthly. They
made appearance regularly on the [1]st and 14th days.

Here two important aspects of these deities are depicted: the constant and regu-
lar movement of the moon and sun in the sky, and the function of these deities as
the divine judges who made decisions concerning the land and the people. Sim-
ultaneously, the propitious character of the lunar and solar observations conveys
the notion of divine benevolence towards the king.1244 Through the propitious
signs that were given by the moon and the sun, Esarhaddon received both a di-
vine mandate to rebuild the Babylonian cult centres and stability and longevity
for his reign.1245 The theme of Sîn and Šamaš’ divine support for the king was re-
peated on other occasions in the inscriptions of Esarhaddon, although with dif-
ferent phrasing. An example of this is found in the inscriptions that probably re-
cord Esarhaddon’s renovation of the temple of Sîn and Šamaš in Nineveh.1246
Because of the connection between these deities and the temple, it is natural that
they are given the prominence in the text. Nevertheless, the view presented here
complies with the other attestations of the powers of Sîn and Šamaš in respect to
propitious celestial signs and the longevity of the king and his reign.

RINAP 4 no. 12, 24–311247

24 a-na šat-ti d30 dUTU EN.MEŠ GAL.MEŠ x [...]

1243
This first day has been left open in both of the editions of this inscription, but it cer-
tainly must be seen as a reference to the beginning of the month due to the ideal scheme
of the moon and the sun and their interplay at the beginning and the middle of the lunar
cycle (see the citations of this passage in Koch-Westenholz 1995, 155; Pongratz-Leisten
1999, 41; Parpola 1997, LXXIV; Brown 2000, 148; and Koch 2015, 194). In his edition
Borger suggests that the 13th day should be reconstructed here (Borger 1956, § 12 Ass. A.
I 37), but this seems very unlikely due to the negative connotations of that day for the
opposition of the moon and the sun.
1244
See the discussion on p. 156ff. above.
1245
RINAP 4 no. 48, r. 59–60 (see also Koch-Westenholz 1995, 156–157 and Pongratz-
Leisten 1999, 43).
1246
For a discussion of this double temple in Nineveh see p. 431ff. below.
1247
See also the previous edition in Borger 1956, § 29 (Nin. H and Nin. I).
222 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

25 ia-a-ti AN.ŠÁR–ŠEŠ–SUM.NA LUGAL mi-⌈gi⌉-[ir ...]

26 ina ta-mar-ti e-lat AN-e ù iti⌈BÁRA⌉ [...]
27 it-tu da-mì-iq-tu ša a-rak u4-me x [...]
28 ka-šid lit-tu-ti šu-muḫ pe-er-’i šum-[dul na-an-na-bi ...]
29 li-tap-pa-lu a-ḫa-meš i-na ṣi-it pi-i-[šú-nu la šu-un-né-e
lú
KÚR.MEŠ-ia?]
30 li-né-ru a-a-bé-e-a lis-ki-pu li-šam-qí-tu ga-re-[e-ia ina li-i-ti ki-šit-
ti ŠUII]
31 [ṣe-er] lúKÚR.MEŠ-ia li-⌈šá⌉?-[zi]-zu-ni-ma e-ma lìb-[bi i-qab-bu-u
la-be-el la-áš-pur]
Thereupon, may Sîn (and) Šamaš, the great lords, ... [...] me – Esarhaddon,
the king, favor[ite ...]; in the appearance at the height of heaven and (in) the
month Nisannu, [...] good omen concerning the lengthening of (my) days ...
[...]; (my) reaching extreme old age, the abundance of (my) offspring, the
incr[ease of my progeny, ...] may they discuss with one another. May they
kill [my enemies] by [their immutable] command, may they flatten my ene-
mies, may they cut down [my] foes, (and) allow me to stand [over] my ene-
mies [in victory (and) triumph! May I rule (and) govern] wherever [my]
hea[rt wishes!]

The concept of time, which is reflected in the wish for the king to reach old age,
is closely related to Sîn and Šamaš. These are the two deities who not only made
divine decisions concerning the king manifest by means of their appearance in
the sky, but they were the two main cosmic forces in control of time. Further-
more, because of their regularity and never-ending circulation across the sky,
they represented two cosmic constants, who would continue to rise and set as
long as the world itself existed. This aspect of Sîn and Šamaš is apparent in a
letter sent to king Esarhaddon by his āšipu Adad-šumu-uṣur, in which the sender
blesses the king in numerous ways. As one of these blessings, a wish for the
dynasty’s durability is expressed through an analogy to the moon and the sun.

SAA 10 no. 197, r. 5–8

r. 5 ki-i šá d[3]0 [u dU]TU ina AN-e
r. 6 kun-nu-u-ni LUGAL-ú-[tú]
r. 7 šá LUGAL EN-ia ša NUMUN NUM[UN-šú]
r. 8 ina DÙ KUR.KUR lu kun-na-[at]
As firmly as [Sî]n [and Ša]maš are established in the sky, so firmly may the
kings[hip] of the king, my lord, and [his] descenda[nts], be establish[ed] in
the whole world!

The motif of durability and stability can also be found in Assurbanipal’s inscrip-
 II.7. Sîn and Kingship 223

tion for the moon god’s akītu-house in Ḫarrān.1248 In this passage the opposition
of the moon and sun is described as the phenomenon that is connected to the sta-
bility of the throne and the preservation of the king’s reign. The verb denoting
the opposition of the moon and sun is šutātû, which is also used in astrological
contexts to indicate the opposition of the two celestial bodies during the full
moon.1249

Sm. 671, 111250

[... šá it-t]i dUTU uš-ta-tu-ma ú-šar-šá-du gišGU.ZA BALA-ú ú-kan-nu
[... who] stands in opposition [wit]h Šamaš and (through that) establishes
firmly the throne (and) preserves the rule

Similar themes are found in the prayer to Sîn and Šamaš embedded in a royal
war ritual.1251 Here the king, highlighting his attentiveness to the appearances of
the moon and the sun, beseeches Sîn and Šamaš to make unpropitious omens
pass by, to establish auspicious omens, and to command permanence for his
reign.1252 The appeal to Sîn and Šamaš in the context of a war ritual despite their
peaceful nature is reminiscent of the apodosis of an liver omen, cited in the
Babylon Stele of Nabonidus, that predicts support from the moon and sun for the
king’s troops.

Schaudig 2001, 3.3a, XI 11’–21’

XI 11’ BE ina IGI gi-ip-ši šá 15
XI 12’ 2 gišTUKUL na-an-du-ru-ti
XI 13’ GAR per-níq-qu MU-šú-nu
XI 14’ mu-ze-er-ri
XI 15’ ir-ta-a-mu
XI 16’ ina qaq-qar nu-kúr-ri
XI 17’ sú-lum-ma-a GÁL-ši
XI 18’ d30 u dUTU i-di(“KI”) ÉRIN.⌈MU⌉
XI 19’ DU.MEŠ-ma lúKÚR KUR-⌈ád⌉
XI 20’ DINGIR.MEŠ ze-nu-ti
XI 21’ it-ti LÚ SILIM-mu

1248
For a discussion concerning this akītu-house and the celebration of akītu-festival in
Ḫarrān see p. 410ff. below.
1249
See p. 106ff. above.
1250
This inscription is known from a copy found at Nineveh, Sm. 671 (Bauer 1933, pl.
49; Novotny 2003, 249–250).
1251
“Sîn & Šamaš 1” (CBS 1516; see the edition on p. 520ff. below).
1252
CBS 1516, r. 17–25 (see the edition on p. 520ff. below).
224 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

If there are two weapons clasping each other in front of the thickened part,
perniqqu is their name: the ones that hate each other will love each other; a
treaty of peace will come to be in an enemy land; Sîn and Šamaš will walk
on the sides of troops and I will reach my enemy; the angry gods will be-
come reconciled with the people.

The security offered to the king by Sîn and Šamaš is reflected in the prophecy of
Bayâ to Esarhaddon, which speaks of the deities who were present when the
king was born. Here Sîn and Šamaš are the only gods mentioned by name and
they are described as standing on the right and left side of the newly-born
king.1253

SAA 9 no. 1, II 20’–26’

II 20’ ki-i munusAMA-ka
II 21’ tu-šab-šu-ka-ni
II 22’ 60 DINGIR.MEŠ GAL.MEŠ is-si-ia
II 23’ it-ti-ti-su it-ta-ṣar-u-ka
II 24’ d30 ina ZAG-ka dUTU ina 150-ka
II 25’ 60 DINGIR.MEŠ GAL.MEŠ ina bat-ti-bat-ti-ka
II 26’ i-za-zu MURUB4-ka ir-tak-su
When your mother gave birth to you, sixty great gods stood with me (and)
protected you. Sîn (was) on your right, Šamaš (was) on your left; sixty great
gods were standing around you (and) girded your loins.

A similar image of Sîn and Šamaš standing on the right and left sides of the king
is attested in a ritual context in one of the incantations performed when the king
was invested with his royal insignia as a part of the new year’s festival in
Tašrītu.1254 The incantation that was recited to the crown of the king contains, at
its end, a wish for Sîn and Šamaš to accompany the king on his right and left
side.

K. 4624, I 20’–23’1255
I 20’ lugal-e sipa-kalam-ma-ke4 á-zi-da-na [dUtu (...)]
I 21’ á-gùb-bu-na dNanna [...]
I 22’ ša LUGAL re-é KUR-šú ina im-ni-šú dUTU [li-x-x]
I 23’ ina šu-me-li-šú d30 li-[x x]

1253
In Leichty 2007, 191 this passage has been interpreted as evidence of the special ven-
eration of the Ḫarranian moon god by the Sargonid kings.
1254
See Ambos 2013a, 68 and 212–223.
1255
See the edition in Ambos 2013a, 214 (ll. 48–48). A copy of K. 4624 is published in 4
R2 18 and 18* no. 3.
 II.7. Sîn and Kingship 225

May Utu/Šamaš [stand/walk?] on the right side (and) may Nanna/Sîn [stand/
walk?] on the left side of the king, the shepherd of the land!

The power of Sîn and Šamaš to appoint the king is apparent in Nabonidus’ in-
scriptions connected to Sippar. Among these inscriptions there are three in-
stances when the moon god and the sun god are depicted as a pair connected to
royal power. First, the section dealing with the rebuilding of the temple E’ulmaš
in Sippar in the Eḫulḫul Cylinder includes instruction for the future ruler who
will rebuild the temple when it becomes dilapidated. This speech by Nabonidus
to the unknown future king opens with the line “Whoever you may be whom Sîn
and Šamaš have appointed to be a king ...”.1256 Through this line the role of both
Sîn and Šamaš, who were present in Sippar as father and son,1257 is stressed in
this matter – a notion that is otherwise not very apparent in the available textual
sources. The Ebabbar-Ekurra Cylinder reveals that Nabonidus thought that he
himself had also been appointed by Sîn and Šamaš: the opening section includes
the epithet nibīt Sîn u Šamaš, “the one appointed by Sîn and Šamaš”, for him.1258
The moon and sun god’s support for Nabonidus is also expressed in his other in-
scription describing the rebuilding of Ebabbar in Sippar. In this context the love
Sîn and Šamaš had for Nabonidus’ reign (palû) is stressed, most likely also with
the implication that their support gave stability to the king.1259
Lastly, it should be noted that Sîn and Šamaš were also grouped with other
deities in respect to their power over kingship. In his cylinder inscription from
Nineveh, the king Sîn-šarru-iškun sees Sîn and Šamaš, together with their
spouses, as part of the group of deities who chose him for kingship. This is em-
phasised by Sîn-šarru-iškun’s epithet itût kūn libbi Sîn Ningal Šamaš u Aya,
“chosen one of the steadfast heart of Sîn, Ningal, Šamaš, and Aya” in the intro-
ductory passage of this text.1260 Moreover, Sîn and Šamaš are grouped together
with the weather god Adad by Assurbanipal, who called himself “the one ap-
pointed by Sîn, Šamaš (and) Adad” (nibīt Sîn Šamaš Adad) in Assurbanipal
Prism E.1261

1256
Schaudig 2001, 2.12, III 43 (Ex. 1): man-nu at-ta šá d30 ù dUTU a-na LUGAL-ú-tu i-
nam-bu-šu-ma.
1257
For the cult of the moon god in Sippar see the discussion on p. 373ff. below.
1258
Schaudig 2001, 2.4, I 5: ma-al-ka it-pe-šu ni-bit d30 u dUTU. See also Seux 1967,
207.
1259
Schaudig 2001, 2.14, I 11–13 (Ex. 4): [i-n]a pa-le-e-a / ki-i-nim šá d30 ù dUTU / i-ra-
am-mu, “during my legitimate reign, which Sîn and Šamaš love”.
1260
Sîn-šarru-iškun Cylinder C, 3: i-tu-ut kun lìb-bi d30 dNin-gal dUTU u dA-a (Grayson
1972, 161; see also Seux 1967, 121–122). In this text Sîn is said to have endowed Sîn-
šarru-iškun with the royal insignia (see the discussion on p. 206ff. above).
1261
BM 127940+, I 6: ni-bit d30 dUTU dIŠKUR (Millard 1968, 100; now edited as RINAP
5/I no. 2). See also Seux 1967, 207.
226 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

II.7.4. Sîn, Theophoric Personal Names, and Kingship

A significant factor in examining the status and meaning of the moon god Sîn
during the Neo-Assyrian period is the emergence of royal names that are built
around the theophoric element Sîn.1262 This phenomenon has been seen as evid-
ence for the possible origin of the Sargonid dynasty in the western parts of As-
syria, specifically in Ḫarrān.1263 Its special character and therefore its importance
is shown by the almost complete lack of royal names with the element Sîn
among the names of previous Assyrian kings: according to the Assyrian King
List, only two kings with Sîn names, Nāṣir-Sîn and Sîn-namir, reigned in the
first half of the 2nd millennium BCE.1264 During the Middle Assyrian and Neo-
Assyrian periods the kings’ names were built around the theophoric elements
Aššur, Enlil, Ninurta, Adad, or Salmānu. As kings of the gods, Aššur and Enlil
were especially important for the king, and the warrior Ninurta also held a cent-
ral position in Assyrian royal ideology. The use of Adad as a theophoric element
may, in turn, be interpreted as a reference to the illustrious Šamšī-Adad I.1265 The
connection between the god Salmānu and the king is explained by his being one
of the deities in the royal palace according to a Middle Assyrian royal ritual.1266
The moment when a change occurred in the nomenclature of the Assyrian kings
can be dated to the reign of Tiglath-pileser III and his son Sargon II, who appar-
ently rose to the throne in middle age. From this point onwards, the Sargonid
dynasty showed clear differences in royal nomenclature in comparison to the
earlier Neo-Assyrian and also the Middle Assyrian kings.1267 Since we do not
have information concerning the nomenclature of the royal household for the
times preceding the Sargonid dynasty, it is impossible to know if personal names
containing the theophoric element Sîn were common in earlier times. Therefore
the fact that Sargon’s brother was named Sîn-aḫu-uṣur (“O Sîn, protect the
brother!”) – the first attested person in the Neo-Assyrian royal household to
have a theophoric name invoking the moon god – does not necessarily signify a

1262
The importance of this naming practise has been previously mentioned in Mayer
1995, 66–67 and Mayer 1998, 257 note 37, where the emergence of theophoric names
with the element Sîn among the sons of Tiglath-pileser III is seen as proof of Sîn’s rise in
importance in the royal sphere. Similar conclusions have been presented also in Parpola
2003, 105 note 15 and Parpola 2007, 265 note 38.
1263
See Leichty 2007, 191 and Pongratz-Leisten 2015, 344.
1264
Assyrian King List, kings XLIII–XLIV (Grayson 1980–1983, 106). For an overview
of the available information about Sîn-namir see Michel 2011, 522.
1265
Radner 1998, 38.
1266
Radner 1998, 39.
1267
It has been suggested in Frahm 2005, 47–48 that this change in nomenclature coin-
cides with Assyria becoming an empire during the reign of Tiglath-pileser III: according
to this view the rulers of the new empire wanted to distance themselves from the earlier
kings by choosing names that had not been previously used as royal names.
 II.7. Sîn and Kingship 227

special connection between the royal family and the moon god.1268 Similarly, the
fact that the name Sîn-per’u-ukīn, “Sîn has established the offspring”, was held
by one of the younger children of Esarhaddon – best known from the letters con-
cerning his health – is in itself not sufficient to prove that the Sargonid rulers es-
pecially venerated the moon god.1269 It is more important that two reigning kings
(Sennacherib and Sîn-šarru-iškun) and an appointed crown prince (Sîn-nādin-
apli) did not adopt throne names invoking Aššur, but retained their names refer-
ring to Sîn. Sennacherib (Sîn-aḫḫē-erība, “Sîn has replaced the brothers”1270) was
the first king in Assyria since the early 2nd millennium BCE to have a name with
the theophoric element Sîn. His name was also unusual as a royal name, because
it exhibits a common name pattern and as such it did not emulate royal names
like Salmānu-ašarēd, the name adopted by Šalmaneser V, the uncle of Sen-
nacherib.1271 The name Sîn-šarru-iškun, “Sîn has established the king”,1272 is im-
portant for understanding the role of Sîn in two respects. First, a name invoking
the moon god was once again considered suitable as a throne name for the As-
syrian king. Second, the meaning of the name itself refers to Sîn’s power over
kingship – a notion apparent in the epithets that Sîn-šarru-iškun applied for
him.1273 We will never know if Esarhaddon’s heir Sîn-nādin-apli, “Sîn is the
giver of an heir”, would have kept his name after his coronation, since he died
before becoming king.1274 Still, the fact that Esarhaddon’s eldest son was given a
name invoking Sîn plausibly reflects his close connection to the moon god, inso-
far as it is attested in other aspects of his life.1275
A tendency to associate the moon god with kingship – visible in the name
Sîn-šarru-iškun – can also be observed in other theophoric personal names. Such
personal names are attested from the reign of Tiglath-pileser III until the fall of

1268
The name Sîn-aḫu-uṣur may very well have been purposely chosen for Sargon’s “fa-
vourite brother” (aḫu talīmu) who wielded much power as the “grand vizier” (see PNA
3/I, 1128 and May 2017, 491–527).
1269
SAA 10 no. 222 and SAA 10 no. 223. See also the overview in PNA 3/I, 1139–1140.
1270
See PNA 3/I, 1113–1121 and Frahm 2009, 12–22.
1271
Radner 2005, 34.
1272
Overviews of the king Sîn-šarru-iškun can be found in PNA 3/I, 1143–1145 and
Schaudig 2011, 522–524.
1273
See the discussion on p. 206ff. above.
1274
For an overview of the life of Sîn-nādin-apli see PNA 3/I, 1138–1139 and Novotny &
Singletary 2009, 168–169. The extispicy query pertaining to the appointment of Sîn-nā-
din-apli as the crown prince is SAA 4 no. 149. For a list of the attested children of Esar-
haddon see Parpola 1983, 117–118.
1275
To these connections belong e.g. his coronation in Ḫarrān (see p. 209 above). Natalie
May has suggested that Esarhaddon, who was not the eldest son of Sennacherib, had a
close personal connection with Ḫarrān and its moon god because the city may have
served as a domain of the collateral branches of the royal family (May 2017, 516–521).
228 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

the Assyrian empire. It has to be admitted that the chronological setting of these
attestations may be coincidental due to the large quantity of material from the
time of the Sargonid dynasty and the lack of documents from the early Neo-As-
syrian period. Still, the emergence of non-royal personal names that present the
moon god as a protector and establisher of kingship appears to have more or less
coincided with the emergence of royal names invoking the moon god. The earli-
est attestation for a personal name in which the moon god is invoked to protect
the king dates to the reign of Tiglath-pileser III. During his reign a man by the
name Bēl-Ḫarrān-šarru-uṣur, “O Lord of Ḫarrān, protect the king!”, served as an
oxherd of the palace in Kalḫu.1276 Thus the moon god of Ḫarrān was explicitly
beseeched to offer protection for the king and this name continues to be attested
until late in the reign of Assurbanipal in Kalḫu and Nineveh, the residential cit-
ies of the Assyrian royal family.1277 An equivalent of this name is Sîn-šarru-uṣur,
“O Sîn, protect the king!”, which is widely attested from the reign of Sargon II
onward, mostly among the individuals employed by the royal family.1278 This is
also the name of the successor and brother of the governor Sîn-balāssu-iqbi in
Ur.1279 Another variation is found in the name Sîn-šarru-uṣuranni, “O Sîn, protect
the king for me!”, which is the name of an official active in Laḫiru during the
reign of Assurbanipal.1280 The name Sîn-šarru-ibni, “Sîn has created the king”, is
attested for six individuals during the reign of Assurbanipal or later.1281 The
statement expressed in this name perceives the moon god as a creator of the
king, similar to the notion that Sîn created Assurbanipal for kingship.1282 Perhaps

1276
PNA 1/II, 303–304. ND 2769, r. 2 and r. 6: IEN–KASKAL–MAN–PAB (Saggs 2001,
211–213). Note also the name Bēl-Ḫarrān-bēlu-uṣur, most prominently attested for the
palace herald of the kings Šalmaneser IV and Tiglath-pileser III (PNA 1/II, 301).
1277
See PNA 3/I, 304. Seven other individuals with this name are known: a military offi-
cial from Kalḫu (reign of Sargon II); an information officer from Nineveh (reign of Sen-
nacherib, 694); an individual from Nineveh (reign of Esarhaddon, 671); a major-domo
from Nineveh (reign of Esarhaddon or Assurbanipal); horse trainer of the royal court
from Nineveh (reign of Assurbanipal, 636*); son of an court official (possibly the reign
of Sargon II); an individual named in a list found at Nineveh (details unknown).
1278
The list in PNA 3/I, 1145–1147 includes 18 individuals, who lived in the period of
time ranging from Sargon II to Sîn-šarru-iškun.
1279
Sîn-šarru-uṣur followed his brother Sîn-balāssu-iqbi as the governor of Ur, most
likely shortly before the outbreak of the civil war between Assurbanipal and Šamaš-
šumu-ukīn (see PNA 3/I, 1145–1146 as well as Frame 1992, 126 and 278).
1280
ABL 459, 4: I.d30–LUGAL–PAB-a-ni (see PNA 3/I, 1147).
1281
PNA 3/I, 1143. Six attested individuals: cook from Nineveh (reign of Assurbanipal;
667); diviner in the court of Nineveh (reign of Assurbanipal); an official or messenger
active in Elam (reign of Assurbanipal); cohort commander from Assur (after the reign of
Assurbanipal; 626*) eunuch and governor of Kar-[...] (reign of Aššur-etel-ilānī); official
responsible for oxen from Nineveh (dating unknown).
1282
See the citation on p. 214 above.
 II.8. Sîn, Creation, Growth, and Animals 229

the name Sē’-šarru, which is attested for an individual living in Dūr-Katlimmu

during the reign of Assurbanipal,1283 is an abbreviation of one of the aforemen-
tioned name formulae. The moon god as a deity establishing kingship is attested
in the name Sîn-šarrūssu-ka’’in, “O Sîn, establish his kingship!”, which be-
longed to an individual who functioned as the eponym, possibly for the year
628.1284 The meaning of the name Šarru-Sîn, “The king (is) Sîn(?)”, which is at-
tested in Kalḫu during the reign of Sargon II,1285 remains unclear, since it could
be a statement of the king being like the moon1286 or an abbreviation of a longer
name.

II.8. Sîn, Creation, Growth, and Animals

The affinity between the moon and concepts regarding creation, fertility, and
growth is universal and commonly associated with the menstrual cycle of hu-
mans, the ebb and flow of the sea, and the moist dew.1287 Fundamental to this

1283
PNA 3/I, 1106: BATSH 6 no. 64, r. 7: ISe-e’–MAN, an individual from Dūr-Katlimmu
(reign of Assurbanipal, 636*).
1284
PNA 3/I, 1145. I.d30–LUGAL-su–GIN (read Sîn-šarrūssu-ka’’in in PNA and Sîn-šar-
rūssu-ukīn in Reade 1998, 256) functions as the eponym in a single document from
Kalḫu. The year 628* is proposed as his eponymy in Reade 1998, 256
1285
PNA 3/II, 1251: CTN 3 no. 101, I 23: ILUGAL–30, a military official active in Kalḫu
(reign of Sargon II).
1286
Cf. the description of the king and the moon god in Udug-ḫul 16, 82–84 (see the cita-
tion on p. 173 above).
1287
An overview of the religious notions concerning the moon and lunar deities in various
cultures can be found in Bram 1987, 83–91. As a particular example, in Hindu mytho-
logy the moon god Candra nourishes the vegetation with his light, and in astrology, he
rules women and water (Gansten 2009, 648–649). Because of these prevalent, universal
notions in mythology and folklore, the possible lunar influence on the human – espe-
cially female – body has been a matter of interest also to modern science. The results
have been varying. For example, it was concluded in Law 1986, 45–48 that there appears
to be a larger concentration of menstruation during the moon’s invisibility, leading to
ovulation occurring during the full moon. Another study achieved an opposite result: the
full moon was the time when menstruation most frequently occurred, and menstruation
fluctuated in a seasonal pattern (Cutler et al. 1987, 959–972). A study conducted among
the women belonging to the Dogon tribe in Mali offers perhaps the closest parallel to the
living conditions of Mesopotamian women (Strassmann 1997, 123–129). In contrast to
the majority of women in industrialised societies, Dogon women spend most of their re-
productive years either pregnant or lactating. Furthermore, their living habitats typically
have no electrical lighting, a major factor in determining the possible influence of the
moon’s luminosity in this respect. In contrast to the aforementioned two other studies,
the study conducted among the Dogon showed no indication of any specific lunar timing
for menstruation. This correlates with the scientific consensus that, although human phy-
siology is regulated by daily, annual, and seasonal cycles, the lunar cycle does not show
any significant effects on human biological processes or human behaviour (Foster &
230 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

idea are the waxing and waning of the moon during its cycle, and its disappear-
ance and rebirth each month: the moon is perceived to be the epitome of growth
and renewal in many cultures throughout the globe. Although fecundity is a sig-
nificant aspect of lunar theologies of various cultures, often other forms of im-
pact on the human body were associated with the moon. The conglomerate of
lunar influence is exemplified by the Greek physician Galen, who wrote

“the moon makes fruits swell and living beings fat, guards the monthly peri-
ods of women, watches the periods of epileptics (...)”.1288

Similar notions can be found in Mesopotamia. The moon god Sîn himself bears
the appellation “Fruit”, which stresses his monthly renewal and growth.1289 Un-
doubtedly in association with notions of growth and renewal, he had the ability
to create abundance in the land and give people offspring. In relation to this
idea, but also in connection with the celestial appearance of the crescent moon
with its horns, he was widely associated with cattle – an aspect that is particu-
larly distinct in his cult city Ur. These matters pertaining to the moon as the
source of fecundity will be discussed in the chapters below. Also included here
is the association of the moon god with wild animals, although the relationship
between them was based on the moon’s appearance and its presence in areas un-
inhabited by humans. The association of the moon god with epileptic seizures –
which also existed in classical antiquity as the quotation from Galen shows –
will be treated in the later chapters dedicated to Sîn’s role in relation to dis-
eases.1290 Here, the launching point for mapping the moon god’s role in matters
pertaining to fecundity and creation are the depictions of him as a creator and a
father.

II.8.1. Sîn as Creator and Father

In Assyria and Babylonia, the moon god Sîn was perceived as a creator god and
a father of other deities, especially in his cult cities Ur and Ḫarrān.1291 This local
theological aspect underlines notions about local authority: as a father figure, the
moon god was the paternal authority in his household, which consisted of his
wife, his children, and his servants. In Ur, the god Ningublaga was thought to be
his son1292 and the goddesses Amarazu and Amaraḫea were his daughters.1293 In

Roenneberg 2008, R791–R792).

1288
Galen, IX 903 (cited here according to Stol 1993, 123).
1289
See the discussion on p. 54ff. above.
1290
See p. 270ff. below.
1291
For a short discussion concerning the role of the Sumerian moon god Nanna/Sîn as a
father figure in respect to his cult city and its inhabitants see Hall 1985, 886.
1292
See the discussion on p. 317ff. below.
1293
See the discussion on p. 324ff. below.
 II.8. Sîn, Creation, Growth, and Animals 231

Ḫarrān, the god Nusku is attested as the son of the moon god.1294 Still, as will be
seen, evidence linked to the local theological framework in Ur portrayed the
moon god not only as the local father-figure but also as the source of life for all
living beings. In addition to these localised conceptions, Sîn was considered to
be the father of the sun god Šamaš and the goddess Ištar in Sumero-Babylonian
mythology, and references to these genealogical relationships are widely found
in Sumerian, Babylonian, and Assyrian sources since the earliest written
documentation.1295
The role of the moon god as the divine father and creator in his southern cult
city Ur is prominent in a bilingual šu’ila-prayer to him, 4 R2 9+//.1296 The first
lines of the prayer praise Sîn as the father (Sum. a-a/Akk. abu) in connection
with Ur and his temple there, Ekišnugal, and this is a phenomenon that can be
found in other Sumerian cultic compositions linked to Ur.1297 Based on the
names of the city and the temple, it is clear that it is the moon god of Ur that is
addressed in this prayer. The two main sections in 4 R2 9+// focusing on the
theme of creation describe the moon god of Ur as the creator of all living beings,
the gods, the land, and the cult places. The first section focuses on the idea that
the moon god was the source of life, calling him both a womb that has given
birth to the living beings and a merciful father who controls the lives of his
children.

4 R2 9+//, 12–131298
12 ama gan niĝin-na mu-LU ši da-ma-al-la ki-tuš maḫ bí-in-⌈ri⌉
ri-i-mu a-lid nap-ḫa-ri šá it-ti šik-na-at na-piš-ti šub-tú KÙ-tim
ra-mu-u
13 ⌈a⌉-⌈a⌉ šà-lá sù mar-ra-na mu-LU na-áĝ-ti-la gú ka-naĝ-ĝá šu-šè mu-
un-dab-⌈ba⌉
[a-b]u réme-nu-u ta-a-a-ru šá ba-laṭ nap-ḫar ⌈ma⌉-a-ti qá-tuš-šú
tam-ḫu
(Sum.) Birth-mother of everything, who occupies an exalted abode among the
wide-spread living beings,
(Akk.) Womb (or: wild bull1299) (that) gives birth to everything, that occupies a
pure abode with all the living beings,

1294
See the discussion on p. 314ff. below.
1295
For Sîn’s children see the discussion on 305ff.
1296
See the editions in Shibata, HES (forthcoming) and Sjöberg 1960, 166–179.
1297
See e.g. eršema to Sîn, BM 13930 (CT 15, pls. 16–17)//, 2–4 (Sjöberg 1960, 44–47).
For the Sumerian epithet a-a, “father”, for Nanna/Sîn see Hall 1985, 625–626.
1298
Shibata, HES (forthcoming); Sjöberg 1960, 167 and 170.
1299
The Sumerian formulation suggests that rēmu, “womb”, is meant here. The Akkadian
spelling, however, points toward rīmu, “wild bull”, an animal commonly associated with
the moon god (see p. 240).
232 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

(Sum. & Akk.) compassionate, merciful father, who holds the lives of all the
land in his hand.

In the following lines, the focus shifts from living beings, humans, and animals
to the cosmic and cultic spheres. Here the moon god is depicted as responsible
for the creation of the land and its organisation along with the sanctuaries of the
various gods. Furthermore, he is praised as the father of both the people and the
gods: a clear indication of his authority in the local cultic setting.

4 R2 9+//, 15–161300
15 ⌈ù⌉-[tu-u]d-da ka-naĝ-ĝá ⌈zag⌉ mu-un-šub-ba mu-un-da-ab-sa4-e-dè
b[a-nu]-u ma-a-ta mu-šar-⌈ši⌉-du eš-re-e-ti na-bu-ú šu-mì-šú-un
16 ⌈ad⌉? ugu-na dìm-me-er-e-ne na-áĝ-⌈lú⌉-⌈u18⌉-⌈lu⌉ ⌈bára⌉ ri-àm nidba
mu-⌈un⌉-⌈gi⌉-⌈eš⌉-⌈àm⌉
a-bu a-lid DINGIR.MEŠ u a-me-li ⌈mu⌉-šar-mu-u šub-tum mu-
kin nin-⌈da⌉-bé-e
(Sum.) Gen[it]or of the land, he firmly establishes sanctuaries (and) then
gives them names
(Akk.) Cr[ea]tor of the land, who firmly establishes the sanctuaries, who calls
out their names
(Sum.) The biological father of the gods (and) the people, establishing the
pedestals he made the food offerings permanent
(Akk.) The father, begetter of the gods and the people, the one who settles the
abode, the one who permanently establishes the food offerings

The conception of the moon god as the creator of the land is also attested in one
of his names in a fragmentary god-list from Nineveh: in this list he is called
d
Lugal-kalam-ma-ù-tu-ud, “King, genitor of the land”.1301 Although it has been
claimed that this name does not reflect the prevailing notions in Sumero-Babylo-
nian theology,1302 the similarity of this name to line 15 of the šu’ila-prayer 4 R2
9+// indicates that it may have been directly linked to the local cult in Ur, where
the moon god was venerated as a divine creator.1303
Unfortunately, no sources similar to 4 R2 9+// are preserved in connection
with the Ḫarranian moon god. Still, the use of the epithet bānû šassūri, “creat-
ors? of the womb” in one of Assurbanipal’s inscriptions suggests that Sîn, plaus-

1300
Shibata, HES (forthcoming); Sjöberg 1960, 167 and 170.
1301
K. 2124 (CT 25, pl. 32), 12’: dLugal-kalam-ma-ù-tu-ud | d30 (cited in Feliu 2006, 236
note 43). See also Tallqvist 1938a, 354 (“König, Erbauer des Landes”) and Lambert
1987c, 145 (“The king who begat the land”). See also the discussion on p. 197 above.
1302
So according to Lambert 1987c, 145; criticised in Andersson 2012, 101 note 535.
1303
See Sjöberg 1960, 175.
 II.8. Sîn, Creation, Growth, and Animals 233

ibly together with other deities, may have been perceived as a source of fertil-
ity.1304 The portrayals of Sîn of Ḫarrān as a father are restricted to the
inscriptions of Assurbanipal and Nabonidus. Furthermore, the majority of these
references pertain to particular genealogical relationships: Sîn as the father of
Nusku, Šamaš, Ištar, and Anunītu. In fact, the inscriptions of Assurbanipal writ-
ten when the temple Emelamana in Ḫarrān was rebuilt contain the only direct
references to the moon god as the “biological father” (abu ālidu) of Nusku.1305 In
the inscriptions of Nabonidus, the moon god’s status as the divine father and
creator is focused in two ways. First, Sîn is depicted as the father of the sun god
Šamaš and the goddesses Ištar and Anunītu. Second, he is said to be the father of
all celestial and terrestrial deities. The first notion is highlighted in Nabonidus’
Eḫulḫul Cylinder and in the collection of stele inscriptions that commemorated
the rebuilding of the temples Eḫulḫul in Ḫarrān, Ebabbar in Larsa and Sippar,
and E’ulmaš in Akkad and Sippar. In these texts, the moon god as the “father
creator” (abu bānû)1306 and “biological father” (abu ālidu)1307 is present in rela-
tion to his children Šamaš, Ištar, and Anunītu. Sîn is also depicted as the creator
of Šamaš in the Ḫarrān Stele of Nabonidus.1308 On a few occasions, however, his
fatherhood is extended to other gods living in heaven and on the earth. In the
Ḫarrān Stele of Nabonidus, Sîn is described as the “father creator” (abu bānû)
of every celestial deity.

Schaudig 2001, 3.1, II 32–35 (Ex. 1)

II 32 šá nap-ḫar DINGIR.MEŠ u d15
II 33 ⌈a⌉-⌈ši⌉-⌈bu⌉-ti⌉ šá AN-e i-na-aṣ-ṣa-ru
II 34 ⌈ṣi⌉-⌈it⌉ ⌈pi⌉-⌈i⌉-⌈šú⌉ ⌈ú⌉-⌈šal⌉-la⌉-mu qí-bi-ti
II 35 ⌈d⌉⌈Nanna⌉-⌈ri⌉ ⌈AD⌉ ⌈ba⌉-⌈ni⌉-⌈šú⌉-un
(You,) whose utterance the totality of gods and goddesses living in heaven
protect, they carry out the command of Nannāru, father, their creator.

1304
Sm. 671, 9: [...] x ba-nu-u ŠÀ.TÙR mu-rap-pi-šú su-pu-⌈ri⌉, “[...] ... creators? of the
womb, the ones? who extend? the sheepfold” (see Bauer 1933, pl. 49 and Novotny 2002,
249). Since the inscription is only partly preserved, the subject of the participle remains
unclear: the context suggests that it is the moon god, but the form is plural. Perhaps, in
this case, Sîn was named together with other deities.
1305
See e.g. K. 2813+, 21 (Bauer 1933, pl. 29 and Novotny 2003, 241). See also the dis-
cussion on p. 314ff. below.
1306
Šamaš and Ištar: Schaudig 2001, 2.12, II 39–40 (Ex. 11); Šamaš and Anunītu:
Schaudig 2001, 2.12, III 38–55 (Ex. 1).
1307
Šamaš: Schaudig 2001, 2.14, I 26’–27’ (Ex. 1); 2.14, II 17–18 (Ex. 2). Ištar of Akkad:
Schaudig 2001, 2.14, III 14–15 (Ex. 2). Anunītu: Schaudig 2001, 2.14, III 34 (Ex. 2); III
70 (Ex. 2).
1308
Schaudig 2001, 3.1, II 3–5 (Ex. 1).
234 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

This statement further underlines the celestial connotations of the moon god’s
role as a father in Nabonidus’ inscriptions: in addition to being the father of
Šamaš and Ištar/Anunītu, he is presented as the father of all the celestial gods.
To express Sîn’s authority in this way accords with the preceding passage in the
Ḫarrān Stele in which the “Theology of the Moon” associates Sîn with the gods
Anu, Ea, and Enlil, and therefore ascribes the highest powers in the cosmos to
him.1309 Sîn’s role as the father of gods in Ḫarrān is also reflected in the Eḫulḫul
Cylinder of Nabonidus in which not only the celestial deities but also the ter-
restrial ones are counted among his children.

Schaudig 2001, 2.12, II 30–32 (Ex. 1)

II 30 DINGIR.MEŠ a-ši-bu-tu ša AN-e ù KI-tì
II 31 li-ik-ta-ra-bu É d+EN.ZU a-bi ba-ni-šu-un
May the gods of the heavens and the earth continually bless the house of Sîn,
father, their creator!

This comment regarding the moon god’s status as the father of all the gods in
heaven and earth should most likely be interpreted as a reference to the local
theology of the moon god in Ḫarrān, where he enjoyed the highest position in
the pantheon.
While Sîn is presented as the father of the gods, his wife Ningal took a simil-
ar role as the mother of gods. In the context of Ningal’s cult in Ur, in the inscrip-
tion of Sîn-balāssu-iqbi that celebrates the rebuilding of the well in Ningal’s
temple, her status as the mother of the great gods is presented together with her
status as a supreme goddess.

RIMB, B.6.32.2015, 1–3

1 a-na dNin-gal GAŠAN ṣir-ti
2 šar-rat i-la-a-ti qa-rit-ti (var.: qa-rit-ti AMA1310)
3 DINGIR.MEŠ GAL.MEŠ
For Ningal, august lady, queen of the goddesses, the valiant of the great gods
(var. the valiant, the mother of the great gods)

The idea that Ningal was the mother of the great gods is also found in her other
cult city, Ḫarrān. In an inscription of Assurbanipal that was written for Ningal’s
carrying poles she is called ummi ilānī, “mother of gods”.1311 Similarly, Na-
bonidus called her “mother of the great gods” in the Eḫulḫul Cylinder.

1309
See the discussion on p. 136ff. above.
1310
This variant is found in one of the total of eight clay discs (IM 48414).
1311
Bu. 89-4-26, 209, 2: um-mi DINGIR.MEŠ (see p. 301 below).
 II.8. Sîn, Creation, Growth, and Animals 235

Schaudig 2001, 2.12, II 37–38 (Ex. 11)

d
II 37 Nin-gal AMA DINGIR GAL.GAL
II 38 i-na ma-ḫar d+EN.ZU na-ra-mi-šu li-iq-ba-a ba-ni-tu4
May Ningal, mother of the great gods speak well (for me) before Sîn, her
beloved one!

The epithet ummi ilānī rabûti, “mother of the great gods”, is also attested for
Ningal elsewhere: a fragmentary bilingual prayer to Ningal includes this as one
of her epithets.1312 The celestial connotation of her role as a mother is conveyed
by Sargon II’s hymn to Ningal, in which she is characterised as the one who has
given birth to the celestial Igigū gods (ālittat Igigī).1313
Outside his two cult cities, references to Sîn as a father are very sparse. One
can be found in the epithet “father of the gods” (abi ilānī) that is attested in the
šu’ila-prayer “Sîn 3”, in the line that praises the moon god as “king of the world,
father of the gods, lord of the [man]kind”.1314 The same epithet is also attested in
a Late Babylonian incantation that was recited before the gods of the night.1315

BM 38599, 15–181316
15 ÉN d30 AD DINGIR.MEŠ DU-ak ina ZAG-ia5
d
16 ⌈UTU⌉ ⌈SAG.KAL⌉ DINGIR.M[EŠ] ⌈DU⌉-ak GÙB-ia5
d
17 Iš-tar be-let KUR.KUR DU-ak ina IGI-ia5
d
18 U.GUR kaš-kaš DINGIR.MEŠ DU-ak ina EGIR-ia5
Incantation: Sîn, the father of the gods, is walking to my right! Šamaš, the
foremost of the gods, is walking to my left! Ištar, the mistress of the lands, is
walking before me! Nergal, the mightiest of the gods, is walking behind me!

Both of these instances have substantial celestial connotations, and therefore it is

plausible that the use of this epithet refers to the status of the moon among the
celestial deities: he is the father of the sun god Šamaš and the Venus goddess
Ištar.

1312
K. 4940+K. 5118+K. 6020, 7: [...] ama dìm-me-er gal-gal-e-⌈ne⌉ / [... t]i um-mi
DINGIR.MEŠ ra-bu-[ti]. K. 5118 was published in Meek 1913, no. 23, but the joined
fragments K. 4940 and K. 6020 remain unpublished. A photograph of the tablet is avail-
able online (CDLI P395798).
1313
ND 2480, 5: a-lit-ta-at dÍ-gì-gì (see p. 299 below).
1314
“Sîn 3”, 3. See the edition on p. 464ff. below.
1315
According to the colophon of the Late Babylonian manuscript, the text can be traced
back to the sage Lu-Nanna of Ur (BM 38599, r. 17–18; see Schwemer 2015, 220).
1316
Schwemer 2015, 218 and 221.
236 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

II.8.2. Fertility and Growth

The moon god’s status as creator and fatherly authority, mainly in connection
with his local cults, is complemented by the concepts of fertility, growth, and
abundance associated with him.1317 Likewise, these notions are most visible in
Ur and Ḫarrān, which affirms the observation that in Mesopotamia local deities
are described as fertility deities.1318 This association most likely belongs to the
earliest ideas about the moon and the moon god in Mesopotamia, shown by, for
example, the depictions of the moon god together with vegetation on Old Akka-
dian cylinder seals.1319 A further indication of the presence of such theological
notions is the strong association between the moon god and cattle, which will be
discussed below.1320
In addition to the tendency to give the power of fertility to local deities, the
nature of Nanna/Sîn as god of the moon becomes apparent in the references to
him in this respect: in Mesopotamia – as it was in many other cultures – the
moon was seen as a source of fertility because of its cycle and growth.1321 The
celestial element is particularly prominent in his appellation “Fruit” and its asso-
ciation with the first half of the lunar month, i.e. the waxing moon.1322 Similar to
this, both the growth of vegetation and the moon as a celestial phenomenon are
linked to the verb hanābu, “to grow abundantly”.1323 This is the verb from which
Sîn’s epithet muḫtanbu, literally “he who grows abundantly through himself”, is
derived.1324 In the single attestation of this epithet in one of the ikrib-prayers to
Sîn the celestial connotation is strongly present, and therefore the moon’s abund-
ant growth is juxtaposed with his luminosity.1325
On a few occasions, the moon god is portrayed as the provider of abundance.
In the god-list An = Anum, one of Sîn’s names is dMu-ḫé-ĝál-la, “Years of
Plenty”.1326 This idea that the moon god brought prosperity can be traced back at
least to Šu-Suen F, which praises Nanna/Suen as a god who establishes perman-

1317
Lunar mythology relating to this theme is presented in Tallqvist 1938b, 67–75 and
Tallqvist 1947, 272–283. See also the overview of epithets in Tallqvist 1938a, 446–447.
1318
Komoróczy 1976, 81.
1319
Braun-Holzinger 1993, 129.
1320
See Krebernik 1995, 366–367. This association is discussed on p. 240ff. below.
1321
For an overview of such notions in various cultures see Bram 1987, 83–91.
1322
See p. 54ff. above.
1323
CAD Ḫ, 75–76 (“to grow abundantly; to be radiant”); AHw, 319 (“üppig sprießen”).
1324
CAD M/2, 177 lists muḫtanbu as an adjective, and in AHw, 319 the single attestation
for it is emended to produce a Gtn participle mu-uḫ-ta-an-<ni>-bu. Whether such a cor-
rection is needed remains unclear since muḫtanbu can be interpreted as a participle of the
Gt stem with a reflexive meaning, i.e. a reference to moon’s self-regeneration.
1325
K. 2571+//, 28’: [d30? m]u-uḫ-ta-⌈an⌉-bu šu-pu-ú e-tel-[lu] (see p. 483ff. below).
1326
An = Anum III, 19 (see Litke 1998, 118 and Feliu 2006, 236).
 II.8. Sîn, Creation, Growth, and Animals 237

ent abundance.1327 Two epithets relating to this same idea are found in prayer
“Sîn 11”. Here the moon god is praised as nādin ḫegalli u mašrê, “giver of
abundance and wealth”, and nādin nuḫši ana nišī rapšāti, “giver of prosperity to
the wide-spread people”.1328 In relation to his cult in Ur, the moon god’s ability
to command copious vegetation and agricultural abundance is celebrated in 4 R2
9+//, a bilingual šu’ila-prayer to him.

4 R2 9+//, 28–301329
28 ⌈za⌉-e e-ne-èĝ-zu an-na IM-gin7 diri-ga-bi ú-a ka-naĝ-ĝá mu-un-lu-
lu
ka-a-tú a-mat-ka e-liš ki-ma šá-a-ri ina né-qel-pi[(-i?) ri]-i-tam u
maš-qí-tum ú-da-áš-šá
29 za-e e-ne-èĝ-zu ki-a ì-ma-al ú-šim ba-an-mú-mú
ka-a-tú a-mat-ka ina er-ṣe-ti ina šá-ka-ni ur-qí-tum ib-ba-an-ni
30 za-e e-ne-èĝ-zu tùr-ra amaš-da peš-e ši-ma-al mu-un-da-ma-al-la
ka-a-tú a-mat-ka tar-ba-ṣu u su-pu-ru ú-šam-ri šik-na-at na-piš-
ti ú-ra-pa-áš
(Sum.) You, when your word drifted like the wind in the heaven, it made food
and drink abundant in the land
(Akk.) Yours, when your word drifts above like the wind, it lets [the pa]sture
and the drinking place thrive
(Sum.) You, your word settled on the earth, it allowed grass and herb grow
abundantly
(Akk.) Yours, when your word settles on the earth, greenery will be created
(Sum.) You, your word, fattening the cattle pen and sheepfold, amplified the
living creatures
(Akk.) Yours, your word fattened the cattle pen and sheepfold fat, it makes
the living creatures abundant

It is likely that a similar idea regarding the moon god as the source of fertility
existed in his other cult city Ḫarrān, but, unfortunately, direct references to it do
not survive. In the inscription for Sîn’s akītu-house in Ḫarrān, Assurbanipal ap-
pears to have praised him (perhaps together with other deities) as “creator of
womb”, indicating an association between the moon god and fertility.1330 In this

1327
Šu-Suen F, 8–12 (ETCSL t.2.4.4.6); see also Hall 1985, 789 as well as Feliu 2006,
236 note 41. Note here Nanna/Suen’s role as the provider for his cult city.
1328
“Sîn 11”, 8–9 (see the edition on p. 477ff. below).
1329
See Shibata, HES (forthcoming) and Sjöberg 1960, 168 and 170.
1330
Sm. 671, 9: [...] x ba-nu-u ŠÀ.TÙR mu-rap-pi-šú su-pu-⌈ri⌉, “[...] ... creators? of the
womb, the ones? who extend? the sheepfold” (see Bauer 1933, pl. 49 and Novotny 2002,
249; see also the notes on p. 233 above).
238 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

case, Sîn’s creative power is also linked to his pastoral aspect, since the same
line praises him as “the one who extends the sheepfold” for him.1331 It is possible
that further references to the moon god’s ability to bring about prosperity existed
in Ḫarrān; it has been suggested that the epithet munaḫḫiš kala dadmē, “who
makes all inhabited regions prosperous”, should be reconstructed in one of the
fragmentary lines in Assurbanipal’s dedicatory inscription for Eḫulḫul.1332 How-
ever, based on the lack of direct parallels, the use of this epithet to describe Sîn
remains very uncertain. In addition to the written references, the non-textual ma-
terials from the area around Ḫarrān allow us to assume that the association of the
moon god with vegetation may have existed on a much wider scale throughout
the population. This is suggested by the seal motifs that present the crescent
moon together with plants. In one variation, the crescent standard of the moon
god is flanked by two trees,1333 and another type shows the anthropomorphic
moon god standing inside a crescent moon that floats above vegetation.1334
In the Akkadian prayers to Sîn, the theme of fertility and procreation is
prominent: he is celebrated as the source of offspring and giver of children on
multiple occasions. Such attestations, which are associated with a variety of con-
texts, demonstrate that this concept not only existed in connection with his home
cities, but was spread across Assyria and Babylonia. The prayer “Sîn 11”, which
is only attested in Assur as part of a therapeutic procedure against māmītu,
praises the moon god as nādin apli u zēri, “the giver of an heir and
offspring”.1335 The same epithet appears to also be attested in another fragment-
ary ritual text from Assur that contains a prayer to Sîn.1336 In the ikrib-prayer to
Sîn that was performed on the 15th day of the month this notion was taken furth-
er by ascribing the power to provide childless people with offspring and heirs.

K. 2751+//, 63’–66’1337
You let the one who is deprived of a child to have a name, to every single
one, who prays to you, you [g]ive a descendant and to the one, who is de-
prived, you [g]ive an heir, [yo]u call out his name!

This same theme is repeated in the prayers “Sîn 3” and “Sîn 14” which were
both associated with a therapy that aimed to cure a small child of epileptic dis-

1331
For this aspect see the discussion on p. 240ff. below.
1332
K. 8759+, 15: [ḫ]a?-⌈’i⌉?-[i]ṭ? lìb-bi UN.[MEŠ mu?-na?-ḫiš?] ka-la da-⌈ád⌉-⌈me⌉-[e ...]
(see the transliteration on p. 142ff. above).
1333
See Keel 1994, 159–162 and Theuer 2000, 349–350.
1334
See Kühne 1997, 375–382 and Fig. 11, p. 52 above.
1335
“Sîn 11”, 5 (see p. 477ff. below).
1336
KAL 4 no. 40, r.? 18’: [... nādin IB]ILA u [zēri].
1337
See the edition on p. 483ff. below. The same motif is also attested in the anti-witch-
craft ritual IM 148516, 10–12 (Fadhil 2018, 197–198).
 II.8. Sîn, Creation, Growth, and Animals 239

eases.1338 In the opening passage to the prayer “Sîn 14”, the moon god is emphat-
ically praised as a deity responsible for the continuation of the family line.

“Sîn 14”, 2–41339

O Sîn, you are the one who gives a name! O Sîn, you are the one who loves
life! O Sîn, you are the lord of offspring! O Sîn, you are the giver of off-
spring! O Sîn, you are the giver of offspring to the wide-spread people!

In prayer “Sîn 3” we have the opportunity to see Sîn’s powers from both male
and female perspectives. What Sîn could give to a man was an heir to continue
the family line, emphasising the social aspect of having a child. The female per-
spective was more focused on the conception and pregnancy itself, or more ac-
curately, the woman’s inability to become pregnant.

“Sîn 3”, 10–111340

The one who does not have an heir you endow with an heir; without you the
childless woman cannot conceive and become pregnant!

In fact, the importance of the moon god for women who experience difficulties
becoming pregnant is an important theme in this prayer. Line “Sîn 3”, 7 states
that, by Sîn’s command, even a barren woman can successfully deliver a child
(ašar attā taqabbû nadītum uštešš[er]). The same notion, with some modifica-
tions, is repeated in one of the versions of “Sîn 3”, 14: it is said that Sîn will
quickly provide offspring for the woman who is unable to give birth (lā ālittum
ar[ḫi]š tušaṣbat). These lines enforce the notion that Sîn provided fertility, as
has already been seen in the epithet “creator of the womb” in connection with
Ḫarrān. Moreover, they underline Sîn’s ability to aid pregnant woman, not only
during labour but also at the very beginning of the pregnancy.1341
Although there is no explicit evidence for this, the possibility that the time of
the full moon was associated with human fertility should be considered. Such an
association is suggested by a citation in a report sent to the Assyrian royal court:
the 15th day is described as beneficial for conception.1342

1338
In Stol 1993, 132 the fact that the moon god is invoked to heal the small child is ex-
plained by the power of rejuvenation that he possessed.
1339
See the edition on p. 479ff. below for the variants in the text.
1340
See the edition on p. 464ff. below.
1341
See the overview of Cow of Sîn on p. 241ff. below.
1342
This report and other sources related to the period of conception are briefly discussed
in Stol 2000, 91. For the ideal time and place for siring a child see also Volk 2004, 77.
240 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

SAA 8 no. 204, 1–8

1 DIŠ UD.15.KAM 30 u 20 [x x x x x]
2 un-ni-ni-ia li-qa-a [x x x x] bi
3 ina u4-mu šu-a-tu
4 u4-mu a-na dUTU i-kar-rab
5 u4-mu šu-a-tu
6 a-na MUNUS.BI TE-ḫi
7 MUNUS.BI ús-sa-ri
8 ŠE ù KÙ.BABBAR NU È
On the 15th day the moon and sun [....] accept my prayers [....]. On this day
he will pray a day (long) to Šamaš; on this day he will approach his woman,
and his woman will be made pregnant; he will not lose barley and silver.

In addition to this, the theme of having offspring is prominent in the ikrib-prayer

to Sîn that was performed on the 15th day of the month.1343 The same theme is
also found in the prayer to Sîn that was embedded in an anti-witchcraft ritual
and that was likely performed during the full moon.1344 Therefore, it is possible
that the performance of these prayers at the time of the full moon was linked to
praising the moon god as the provider of offspring.

II.8.3. Cattle
The last element of Sîn’s association with fertility is his affinity to cattle. In gen-
eral, in Mesopotamian mythology and iconography, the moon god is associated
with cattle and other horned animals.1345 A focal point for this association can be
found in Ur, where Nanna/Sîn’s family members had pronounced pastoral qual-
ities. His son, Ningublaga, was a bull god, whose spouse Nin(e)igara, “Lady of
the Butter and Cream (House)” shared this pastoral aspect.1346 Likewise, the god-
dess Ningal as the mother of Ningublaga bears the name dÁb-na-ar-BU1347 and a
letter to the Assyrian king sent from Ur spoke of a golden wild bull that was in-
cluded among Ningal’s cultic paraphernalia.1348 The motif of cattle was vividly
employed in Old Babylonian Sumerian hymns to Nanna/Suen that praise both
the god and his herds.1349 In these hymns, the moon god was portrayed as the

1343
K. 2751+//, 63’–66’ (see the edition on p. 483ff. below).
1344
IM 148516, 10–12 (Fadhil 2018, 197–198). For the performance of rituals on the 15th
day of the month see the discussion on p. 106ff. above.
1345
See Tallqvist 1938a, 445; Hall 1985, 615–624; Hall 1986, 153–154; Krebernik 1995,
366–367; and Rochberg 2010, 352–354.
1346
See the discussion on p. 317ff. below.
1347
See p. 317 below.
1348
See p. 339 below.
1349
Nanna A (ETCSL 4.13.01; see also Sjöberg 1960, 13–34) and Nanna F (ETCSL
4.13.06; see also Hall 1986, 152–166).
 II.8. Sîn, Creation, Growth, and Animals 241

provider of milk products for cultic offerings and a celestial shepherd of his
herds. Thus, the motif involves both a pastoral element related to breeding of
cows and a celestial element, which interpreted the stars as cattle living in the
heavenly cattle pen of the moon god.1350
The affinity of the moon god to cattle – more specifically to cows – is prom-
inently portrayed in the short mythological account Cow of Sîn.1351 The myth,
embedded within an incantation, tells how the moon god saw the shapely cow
Geme-Sîn and fell in love with her. Because of this, he appointed her the head of
the cow herd for the other cows and the shepherds to follow, and he pastured her
in fields with tender grass. The shepherds were unaware that a wild bull1352 had
mounted Geme-Sîn and, after the months of pregnancy, her labour began; she
screamed in pain and terrified her shepherds. The moon god in heaven heard her
cries and sent two lamassus from heaven to help her in her hour of distress.
They anointed her with oil and sprinkled her with water, helping the calf to
emerge easily and quickly. The incantation ends with a comparison between
Geme-Sîn, who survived her labour with the help of Sîn and his lamassus, and
the pregnant woman, who was now experiencing difficulties in labour.1353 There-
fore, the mythological motif of Sîn and the cow built a close connection between
the moon god, fertility, and childbirth. Sîn provided pasture for his beloved cow,
who later became pregnant and received help with her birth pangs from the di-
vine helpers sent by Sîn. In an Old Babylonian variation of this incantation, the
divine pair Sîn and Šamaš are depicted grieving over the distress experienced by
the woman enduring a difficult labour.1354 Sîn’s grief over the cow’s distress is
explained in a Late Babylonian commentary on the birth incantation in question:
he grieves because he is bēl lâti ellēti, “the lord of the pure cows”.1355
The connection between the moon god and cattle can also be seen in the way

1350
See Heimpel 1989, 249–252 and Rochberg 2010, 347–359. For further discussion
concerning the cattle pen (tarbaṣu) and sheepfold (supūru) see p. 246ff. below.
1351
The most recent edition of this text has been provided by N. Veldhuis (1991). For an
earlier score transliteration of the manuscripts see Röllig 1985, 260–272. See also the
discussion in Scurlock 1991, 145–147 and Stol 2000, 66–70 and the translations in
Farber 1987, 274–277 and Foster 2005, 1007–1008. For the compendium BAM 3 no.
248 (= KAR 196), in which the incantation is attested, see the edition of the text in Ebel-
ing 1923, 65–78 and the recent overview in Couto-Ferreira 2014, 289–315.
1352
It is plausible that this wild bull should be understood as an alter ego of Sîn, who had
the epithet būru ekdu in 4 R2 9+//, 10 (see p. 245 below).
1353
See also the discussion concerning the moon god’s aid in matters pertaining to child-
birth on p. 288 below.
1354
Van Dijk 1972, 343–345.
1355
11N-T3, 21: aš-šum ÁB-ia la alit-ti áš-šú d30 EN la-a-tum el-le-e-ti, “‘Because of my
cow (who is) not able to give birth’ (is said) on the account of Sîn, lord of the pure cows”
(see Civil 1974, 21 and Jiménez 2014c [CCP 4.2.A.a].
242 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

bovine motifs are associated with the moon god in the iconography of Mesopot-
amia and its neighbouring areas.1356 Depictions of bulls accompanied by the
crescent moon of Nanna/Sîn are attested from the Early Dynastic period onward.
A prominent example is the copper head of a bull with a crescent moon carved
on its forehead that was unearthed at Tell al-‘Ubaid near Ur.1357 For later periods,
similar examples of bulls bearing the crescent moon are found in the wall paint-
ings of the palace in Mari.1358 Bovine imagery in connection with the moon god
is well attested for the Old Babylonian period in general.1359 A good example of
the diffusion of the bull motif in association with the moon god is found on Old
Babylonian terracotta plaques, which depict two crossed rampant bulls with the
crescent moon mounted on a trunk-like pole above them.1360 This theme, which
is also attested in the iconography of cylinder seals, can be interpreted as an al-
lusion to the fertility that is associated with the moon god since the bulls are
rampant, standing on their hind legs.1361 In the 1st millennium BCE, clear depic-
tions of the bull in connection with the moon god in Mesopotamia grew rarer.
Attested examples are found on a Neo-Assyrian cylinder seal, which depicts the
head of a bull next to the standard of the moon god,1362 and in stamp seals that
appear to depict an animal, possibly a bull, standing below the crescent standard
of the moon god.1363
Despite the rarity of bull motifs in connection with Sîn in Neo-Assyrian and
Neo-Babylonian iconography, the association of the moon god with cattle re-
mains strong in his names and epithets during Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babyloni-
an times. As in the earlier periods, this pastoral aspect of the moon god was ulti-
mately built on the celestial nature of the moon.1364 When the order of Sîn’s
names in the god-list An = Anum is considered, the two names built with the ele-
ment “cow” receive celestial connotations: the names dÁb-kár, “Shining Cow”,
and dÁb-lu-lu, “The one who makes the cows abundant”, both follow the name
Ĝišnugal, “Great Light”, and precede the names that describe the moon as the

1356
Overviews of the use of bovine images in connection with the moon god can be found
in Bernett & Keel 1998, 34–40 and Ornan 2001, 1–26.
1357
BM 118015 (Hall & Woolley 1927, pl. VII [nos. 2–4]; see also Spycket 1981, 136–
137 and Ornan 2001, 4–5).
1358
Parrot 1958, 19–22 and pls. V–VI; see also Ornan 2001, 7.
1359
See Colbow 1997, 25–26 and Ornan 2001, 7–14.
1360
Ornan 2001, 10–12.
1361
Ornan 2001, 14.
1362
Keel 1994, 189 (Abb. 17); see also Bernett & Keel 1998, 39 (Abb. 60).
1363
Ornan 2001, 19–21. As noted by Ornan, there is also the possibility that this animal is
a horse, but other presentations of such a motif are not known. On the other hand, several
Neo-Assyrian penalty clauses impose the payment of a white horse to the moon god if
the contract has been broken (see p. 266ff. below).
1364
Noted already in Hall 1985, 616–617.
 II.8. Sîn, Creation, Growth, and Animals 243

crown of heaven.1365 In An = Anu ša amēli these names are further explained as

follows:

An = Anu ša amēli, 34–351366

34 [dÁb]-kár MIN šá su-pu-ri
d
35 [ Áb-lu]-lu MIN šá i-gi-se-e
[Ab]kar is ditto(= Sîn) of the sheepfold.
[Ablu]lu is ditto(= Sîn) of gifts.

The name Abkar is also discussed in the explanatory work i-NAM-ĝiš-ḫur-an-ki-

a which associates it with the half moon.1367 The main association here is based
on the homophone arḫu as “month”, “cow”, and “half brick”.1368 A further name
for Sîn utilising bovine imagery is dIdim-ḫuš, “Furious bison(?)”.1369 In the se-
quence of names in An = Anum, this name follows the name dMu-ḫé-ĝál-la
which denotes the fertility provided by the moon and precedes the names dUnkin
and dUnkin-uru16 which refer to Sîn’s power in the divine assembly.1370 Therefore
the astral connotation found in the names dÁb-kár and dÁb-lu-lu is not present
here. The basic meaning of the name remains ambiguous as well: it may refer to
the mythological kusarikku-bison or possibly to the Akkadian noun kabtu, “im-
portant; venerable”. This latter option seems unlikely due to the adjective attrib-
ute ḫuš, “furious”. On the other hand, the equation idim = kusarikku is attested
only in lexical lists.1371
The god Nindara, whose name should perhaps be translated as “Lord of the
Cock”, appears to have been associated with Sîn on certain occasions.1372 In the
section presenting the moon god’s household, the god-list An = Anum equates
Nindara with Sîn.1373 Moreover, the same equation was made in the Late Babylo-
nian commentary on the therapy intended to help a woman experiencing a diffi-

1365
An = Anum III, 6–7: dÁb-kár | MIN / dÁb-lu-lu | MIN (Litke 1998, 117 and Feliu
2006, 233). The translation for dÁb-kár is “der die Kuh rettet(?)” and for dÁb-lu-lu “der
die Kühe weidet” in Krebernik 1995, 363.
1366
Litke 1998, 231. See also Feliu 2006, 233.
1367
K. 170+, 2 (see the citation on p. 139 above).
1368
See Livingstone 1986, 45–46 as well as the etymologies for the latter two of these
nouns in AHw, 67.
1369
An = Anum III, 20: dIdimdím-ḫuš | MIN(=d30) (Litke 1998, 119; Feliu 2006, 236). The
translation proposed in Krebernik 1995, 363 is “feuriger Wisent(?)”.
1370
For these names see p. 236 and p. 150 above respectively.
1371
See CAD K, 584 and Feliu 2006, 236 note 42.
1372
See the overviews in Hall 1985, 752 and Edzard 2000, 338. This equation is noted
also in Krebernik 1995, 366.
1373
An = Anum III, 65: dNin-dar-a | d30 (Litke 1998, 124). The same equation is found
also in STT 400, 2: [dNin-d]ar-a | d30.
244 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

cult labour and the adjuration that is otherwise known from Udug-ḫul1374 re-
ceives an explanation concerning the invoked deity.

11N-T3, 22–231375
22 zi dNin-dar-a sipa udul10-lu-ú hé-pàd : niš dMIN SIPA
23 ú-tul-la-a-tú lu-ú ta-ma-at : dNin-dar-a : d30
d
“zi Nin-dar-a sipad udul10-lu-ú ḫé-pàd” (means) “Be adjured by ditto, the
shepherd of herdsmen!”. Nindara = Sîn.

Here the connection between Nindara and Sîn appears to be built on their shared
association with cattle. The link between them may be based on a graphic pun
involving udul10(ÁB.LU)-lu and one of the moon god’s names, dÁb-lu-lu.
Whether or not similar notions are also to be found in the equations in the god-
lists remains unknown.
In respect to cattle, the moon’s horns are the most important aspect of the ce-
lestial phenomenon. The noun qarnu (Sum. si) was used to refer both to the
horns of animals and to the horns of the moon and other celestial objects.1376 Ac-
cording to the creation epic Enūma eliš, the horns of the moon were seen in the
sky during the first days of the lunar cycle. Marduk’s command to the moon god
was: “In the very beginning of the month, as (you) light up above the land, you
will shine with horns to mark the calling of the days.”1377 A line in the bilingual
lamentation “The Honoured One Who Wanders About” (e-lum di-da-ra) equates
the Sumerian expression si mú kù an-na, “radiant growing horn of heaven”, with
the Akkadian line “radiant luminary of the heaven” (nannāru ellu ša šamê).1378
This equation reveals the link between moonlight and the moon’s growing horns
in this context. The horns of the moon – their size and form – were one of the
visual aspects of the moon that were observed for lunar divination, and the 5th
tablet of the astrological series EAE is devoted to the subject.1379 The protases in
this tablet include omens for cases when the moon’s horns are e.g. pointed
(eddā), crooked (kepât), symmetric (kilattān mitḫarā) or resemble a bow (kīma
qašti) or a barge (kīma makurri).1380
Horns are present also in the descriptive epithets used in Neo-Assyrian and
Neo-Babylonian sources. A prominent example of this is found in a bilingual
šu’ila-prayer to Sîn, which depicts him as a calf with very thick horns and per-

1374
Udug-ḫul 5, 59.
1375
Civil 1974, 332. See also the latest edition in Jiménez 2014c [CCP 4.2.A.a] and the
citation in Gabbay 2016, 161–162.
1376
CAD Q, 134–140.
1377
See Lambert 2013, 98–99 (see also the citation of this passage on p. 93 above).
1378
Cohen 1988, 179–180 and 183. See also p. 35 and p. 148 above.
1379
Verderame 2002b, 110–166; see also the overview of EAE in Koch 2015, 168.
1380
Verderame 2002b, 114–116.
 II.8. Sîn, Creation, Growth, and Animals 245

fect appearance, wearing a lapis lazuli beard.

4 R2 9+//, 10:1381
amar bàn-da si gur4-gur4-ra á-úr šu-du7 ⌈su6⌉ za-gìn-na sù-sù ḫi-li la-la ma-al-
la-ta
bu-ru ek-du šá qar-ni kab-ba-ru šá meš-re-ti ⌈šuk⌉-⌈lu⌉-lu4 ziq-ni uq-ni-i
zaq-nu ku-uz-⌈bu⌉ u la-la-a ma-lu-ú
(Sum.) Fierce calf of very thick horns, (with) perfected limbs, adorned with a
lapis lazuli beard, filled with luxuriance and plenty
(Akk.) Fierce calf of very thick horns, of perfected limbs, adorned with a
lapis lazuli beard, full of luxuriance and plenty.

This line is situated within a longer passage, which initially presents Sîn, lord of
the crown, in his power over kingship and then turns its attention to fertility and
creation.1382 Already in this line an allusion to fertility is made by referring to
luxuriance (Sum. ḫi-li; Akk. kuzbu) and plenty (Sum. la-la; Akk. lalû). In the
following lines the moon god is praised as the “Fruit” that creates itself again
and again each month1383 as well as the womb that gives birth to all the living be-
ings.1384 Like the moon as the “Fruit”, the depiction of Sîn as a “fierce calf of
very thick horns, of perfect limbs” functions on two levels. In the celestial sense,
it describes the appearance of the crescent moon with a bovine metaphor. Simul-
taneously it refers to the aspects of strength, virility, and fertility that are associ-
ated with bulls in Mesopotamia.1385 This multivalence can also be seen in vary-
ing degrees in other references to the lunar horns. In the context of official
inscriptions, the astral meaning of the moon’s horns appears to be dominant, as

1381
See Shibata, HES (forthcoming) and Sjöberg 1960, 167 and 169.
1382
The content of 4 R2 9+//, 7–14 is discussed in Jacobsen 1976, 7–9. In this discussion
he aptly describes this picture of the moon god as a ruler, who is “responsible for produ-
cing fertility and plenty for his subjects”; as a bull that is an “embodiment of power to
engender”; as the “Fruit” that is an “embodiment of the power in the orchards to grow,
ripen and yield a rich harvest”; as a womb that associates the moon with “the swelling
body of a pregnant woman”; and lastly an anthropomorphic father “responsible for his
family”. After this, however, he claims that these depictions of the moon god in non-an-
thropomorphic form – as a bull calf, fruit, and womb – are survivors from the oldest
traceable conceptions of deities in Mesopotamia, forms that had already been replaced
by the concept of the deities as anthropomorphic individuals. By doing so, he sees these
statements as literal statements about the moon god, not as figurative language describ-
ing his different qualities.
1383
See the citation of 4 R2 9+//, 11 on p. 54 above.
1384
See the citation of 4 R2 9+//, 12 on p. 231 above.
1385
For the meaning of bull metaphors in Mesopotamian literary sources see the discus-
sion offered by C. Watanabe (2002).
246 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

is shown by the epithets nāši qarnī ṣīrāti, “bearer of lofty horns”, used by Bēl-
Ḫarrān-bēlu-uṣur1386 and nāš qarnī gašrāti, “bearer of strong horns”, employed
by Esarhaddon.1387 The first of these epithets, naši qarnī ṣīrāti, is couched in the
description of Sîn as an astral deity: he is praised as the luminary of the heavens
and the earth, and as a god who is clad in awesome radiance. In the case of the
second epithet, naši qarnī gašrāti, the context is again celestial, but the main fo-
cus is on the role of Sîn as a divine decision-maker. In the setting of the ikrib-
prayers, Sîn is praised as bēl qarnī supūri, “lord of horns (and) the sheep-
fold”.1388 Here, as opposed to the epithets found in royal inscriptions, the associ-
ation with fertility and agriculture predominates, since the accompanying epithet
describes Sîn as muštēšir rīti u mašqīti, “the one who keeps the pasture and the
drinking place in order”.1389
Like the moon’s horns, the sheepfold (Akk. supūru; Sum. amaš) together
with tarbaṣu (Sum. tùr), “cattle pen”, has both celestial and pastoral connota-
tions.1390 As designations of physical locations, they denote the enclosed areas
where sheep and cattle were gathered together. On the other hand, they can have
two different celestial meanings. First, the term tarbaṣu, “cattle pen”, is used to
designate the circular, enclosed area of the heavens, in which the stars live like
cattle.1391 In astrological contexts, it is also a term for the halo around the
moon.1392 The term supūru is also attested as a designation of the lunar halo.1393
Therefore, as Lorenzo Verderame has noted, it often is not possible to ascertain
which of these meanings were actually at play when the moon god is portrayed
in connection with a sheepfold and cattle pen.1394 Both tarbaṣu and supūru are
attested in Sîn’s epithets. In addition to the epithet bēl qarnī supūri presented
above, he is called bēl tarbaṣi u supūri, “lord of the cattle pen and the sheep-
fold” in a fragmentary anti-witchcraft ritual.1395 This epithet may be interpreted

1386
RIMA 3, A.0.105.2, 6: d30 dŠEŠ.<KI> AN u KI na-ši SI.MEŠ MAḪ.MEŠ šá lit-bu-šú
nam-ri-ri.
1387
RINAP 3 no. 153, 7: d30 EN EŠ.BAR na-áš qar-ni gaš-ra-a-ti [...].
1388
K. 2751+//, 50’ and 68’ (see the edition on p. 483ff. below). This epithet can be found
also in a ritual against witchcraft that contains a prayer to Sîn, IM 148516, 14 (Fadhil
2018, 197–198).
1389
K. 2751+//, 50’ and 69’; see also IM 148516, r. 1 (Fadhil 2018, 197–198).
1390
See the attestations in CAD S, 396–398 and CAD T, 217–222.
1391
Rochberg 2010, 347–359. See also Reiner & Pingree 1981, 17.
1392
Verderame 2014, 91–104. The tablets 10–12 (together with parts of tablets 8 and 9) of
EAE deal with lunar halos (see the overview in Verderame 2002a, 449–450 and Koch
2015, 168–169).
1393
In SAA 8 no. 494, 7–9 supūru as a term for halo is described as meaning a “large
cattle pen”, i.e. a large halo (see Verderame 2014, 94–95).
1394
Verderame 2014, 93.
1395
K. 8183, 1’: d30 EN TÙR u su-p[u-ri] (Abusch & Schwemer 2016, no. 8.37).
 II.8. Sîn, Creation, Growth, and Animals 247

as reflecting Sîn’s authority over the fertility of sheep and cattle, especially in
their role as food for the human population and the gods. A prominent example
of this is found in relation to Sîn’s cult in Ur, as the bilingual šu’ila-prayer 4 R2
9+// praises him as the god whose word fattens the cattle pen and the sheep-
fold.1396 Therefore it is clear that cattle and sheep, who provide sustenance to hu-
manity, thrive with the aid of the city’s tutelary deity. It appears that this power
also included the authority to subjugate these animals: the incantation with the
incipit Ea bānû nišī u zēri presents Sîn as mukanniš supūrīšina, “the one who
subdues their (i.e. people’s) sheepfold”.1397
Lastly, two specific references to milk in prayers to Sîn, and in the ritual of-
ferings made to him, should be noted. First, an anti-ghost therapy preserved in a
manuscript from Assur prescribes a libation of milk before the full moon on the
morning of the 15th day.1398 The second reference is found in the ikrib-prayer to
Sîn, likewise performed on the 15th day of the month.1399 The line, in which the
reference is made, is only partly preserved, but it appears to refer to animals –
most likely cows – producing milk for the moon god. Since both of these refer-
ences are associated with the full moon, it is plausible that the white colour of
the milk had an affinity to the white radiance of the fully illuminated lunar disc.

II.8.4. Wild Animals

Due to Sîn’s nature as a celestial deity, his sphere of influence was not restricted
to the urban centres or rural villages, but he was present everywhere, also out-
side of the areas settled by humans. Like the sun, the moon can be seen from
anywhere and he can be sought out even in the midst of the wilderness. This is
exemplified by a dream that Gilgameš had in connection with his arrival in the
eastern mountains. In this dream, he arrived at the mountains during the night.
Seeing lions there he grew afraid and lifted his head towards the heavens, pray-
ing to Sîn and another celestial deity, perhaps Ištar.1400 Another example of the
moon god’s presence both in the human settlements and in the steppe inhabited
by wild animals can be found in the ikrib-prayers to him. Here both humans and

1396
4 R2 9+//, 28–30 (see the citation on p. 237 above). Note also the motif of the sheep-
fold in the akītu-house inscription of Assurbanipal, Sm. 671, 9: [... x] x ba-nu-u ŠÀ.TÙR
mu-rap-pi-šú su-pu-⌈ri⌉, “[...] ... creators? of the womb, the ones? who extend? the sheep-
fold” (see Bauer 1933, pl. 49 and Novotny 2002, 249). In this case Sîn perhaps belonged
to a group of deities (see the note on p. 233 above).
1397
CTMMA 2 no. 32//, 71g’–71h’: [d30 mu-kan-niš] / su-pu-ri-ši-na (Schuster-Brandis
2008, 226 and 233); SpTU 2 no. 22+, II 9: d30 mu-kan-niš su-pu-ru-ši-na (see Schuster-
Brandis 2008, 251 and 257).
1398
BAM 4 no. 323//, 96–99 (Scurlock 2006, no. 91; see p. 108 above).
1399
K. 2751+//, 70’: [... BABBA]R?.MEŠ na-šu-ka [š]i-iz-bu (see p. 483ff. below).
1400
Gilgameš IX, 8–14 (George 2003, 666–667); the identification of the second deity as
remains Ištar is proposed in Maul 2008, 120.
248 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

wild animals living on the steppe (nammaššû ša ṣēri) gather before the moon to
rejoice over his appearance in the sky and to revere him.

K. 2751+//, 48’–49’1401
The people, the humankind, pray to you, [they] all are convened before you,
the animals of the steppe are gathered before you, they are altogether gath-
ered be[fore you]!

The reference to the animals of the steppe creates a dichotomy between domest-
icated animals (cattle and sheep), mentioned elsewhere in connection with Sîn,
and the animals living in the wilderness, who also are associated with Sîn. It is
possible that both of these animals, the domesticated and the wild, were envi-
sioned as belonging under the rule of the moon god and the sun god. This is sug-
gested by the Offering Bread Hemerology, which informs us of the divine deci-
sions that Sîn and Šamaš made in the last days of Nisannu: the entry for 27th day
of Nisannu reveals that verdicts concerning (wild) animals (umāmu) were
thought to be decreed on this day.1402 This shows that the power of these two
gods was not restricted to matters concerning humankind or the land; they also
held power over the lives of the animals.
A particular connection appears to exist between Sîn and two kinds of wild
horned animals: the gazelle and the ibex. The first of these, the gazelle, appears
prominently in the royal hemerology Inbu bēl arḫi that instructs the king to
make a gazelle offering before the lunar crescent on the 1st day of each
month.1403 The theological conceptions behind this practice remain unknown, but
an offering of a wild horned animal to the moon god may very well reflect the
thin horns of the young lunar crescent as well as the association of Sîn to the an-
imals of the steppe.
Sîn’s affiliation with the other horned wild animal, the ibex, is reflected in
two of his names attested in the god-list An = Anum: dMen-dàra-an-na and
d
Men-dàra-diĝir-ra.1404 As already pointed out in connection with the crown of
the moon, there is more than one possible interpretation of these two names. The
most obvious of these possibilities is to read the Sumerian dàra in its most com-
mon meaning, the ibex (Akk. turāḫu). In this sense, the horns of the crescent
moon would be seen as horns of an ibex – a metaphor that is similar to the equa-
tion of the moon’s horns with the horns of a bull. In this connection, the bounti-
ful depictions of the ibex that represent its horns most prominently (as opposed

1401
See the edition on p. 483ff. below. A similar motif is also found in line 69’ of this col-
lection and in the prayer to Sîn in IM 148516, 13–14 (Fadhil 2018, 197–198).
1402
KAR 178//, III 9–10: Sîn u Šamaš dīnī umāmē idinnū. See also p. 119ff. above.
1403
See the discussion on p. 99ff. above.
1404
See the citation of An = Anum III, 9–10 on p. 60 above.
 II.9. Sîn, Oaths, Curses, and Punishments 249

to the rest of the animal) in South Arabian art should be noted: these depictions
have been associated with the South Arabian moon god.1405 The ibex’s qualities
that are highlighted in these depictions relate to its movement and its horns1406
and these characteristics are also prominent in depictions of the gazelle. How-
ever, outside the two names in the god-list An = Anum, an association between
the moon god and the ibex finds only scant textual evidence.1407 To my know-
ledge, such an association can only be found in one of the names of the moon
god’s sanctuaries in SBH no. 24//. Here the moon god is called umun (É-)dàra-
kù-ga, “lord of the (house of) pure ibex”.1408 The iconographic evidence appears,
however, to be more widespread and it corroborates the association found
between the divine names and the aforementioned name of a sanctuary. The mo-
tif of a wild goat or goat horns in connection with the moon god is already attes-
ted on Akkadian cylinder seals, where it accompanies the anthropomorphic
moon god.1409 The fact that in some cases only the horns of the animal are depic-
ted emphasises their importance in this context. A related association can be ob-
served in much later sources. A Neo-Assyrian cylinder seal found in one of the
queens’ tombs (Tomb I) in Kalḫu shows the tasselled crescent standard of the
moon god together with a human figure and a horned caprid.1410 In contrast to
the older Akkadian seals, the motif here appears not to have been focused on the
animal or its horns; the image instead evokes the pastoral life on the steppe.1411

II.9. Sîn, Oaths, Curses, and Punishments

In Mesopotamia the deities were active in assuring that moral order was upheld
in society: the gods observed the conduct of the people, and any infringement of
the set rules aroused their anger.1412 In the legal context, the gods were invoked
to establish the facts of a particular legal case or to establish a contract between

1405
See e.g. Robin 1997, 73, Scigliuzzo 2003, 629–647, and Avanzini 2005, 144–153.
The temple of the god Ilmaqah in Marib (ancient Saba in Yemen) is decorated with
numerous depictions of the ibex. Traditionally the deity Ilmaqah has been seen as a
moon god (see e.g. the overview of the moon god in Nielsen 1927, 213–224). This has,
however, been disputed by J. Ryckmans who sees this deity as a masculine form of the
sun deity Shams (see Ryckmans 1987, 111).
1406
Avanzini 2005, 144.
1407
A reference to ibex (dàra) in the temple hymn to Ekišnugal is found in Sjöberg 1960,
123 (line 3), but in the later edition of the text this reading was rejected (The Temple
Hymns, 103; see Sjöberg & Bergmann 1969, no. 8 and ETCSL 4.80.1).
1408
SBH no. 24//, 12 (see the citation on p. 333ff. below). See also George 1993, no. 146.
1409
Collon 1995, 373–374.
1410
IM 109007b (Hussein 2016, 64 and pl. 14b).
1411
A profound investigation of the association of caprids with the moon god in Mesopot-
amian iconography is not possible within the boundaries of the present study, and it must
remain as a topic that will hopefully be covered in later research.
1412
See the discussion in van der Toorn 1985, 40–55.
250 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

two parties. Therefore the oath taken by gods and the curse that was the result of
perjury were closely associated.1413 Like all the other major Assyro-Babylonian
deities, the moon god Sîn played his part in the context of legal procedures, and
evidence detailing his role has been found – especially for the earlier Old Baby-
lonian period. As legal documentation from several cities (especially Ur and Sip-
par) shows, oaths were sworn in the name of either Sîn or Nanna during this per-
iod.1414 In Sippar, the crescent standard of Sîn (šurinnu) is attested to have been
used along with the emblem of the sun god Šamaš in legal processes.1415 A strik-
ing depiction of an oath swearing in the temple Ekišnugal in Ur is found in an
Old Babylonian petition to Nanna to judge the case of a person who considered
himself to have been treated unjustly: here the petitioner details the oaths that
had been sworn by his wrongdoer in various locations within the temple area
and before a variety of deities belonging to the moon god’s household.1416 In
these cases deriving from the Old Babylonian period, the moon god acts in his
role as a local deity who possesses judiciary power in a city where he was vener-
ated either as the tutelary deity of the city (Ur) or as a family member of the
city’s main deity (Sippar). The same situation is also seen in later Neo-Assyrian
and Neo-Babylonian sources, which underline the judiciary aspect of Sîn in con-
nection with his local cults. As we will see, the majority of available references
are related to his northern cult city, Ḫarrān. The moon god of Ḫarrān acted as the
divine guarantor of border contracts throughout the area surrounding the city, he
meted out punishments for breaching oaths and contracts, and his temple func-
tioned as the receiver of fines that were paid either in money, horses or people.
In Babylonia, the situation is much less clear. Despite his widespread role in
curse formulae as the god who could afflict a person with leprosy, Sîn is only
rarely attested as a god, by whom oaths are sworn. This most likely reflects the
unevenly preserved sources rather than actual practice, especially in Ur where
Sîn must also have had a significant legislative status.

II.9.1. Oaths and Contracts

The moon god of Ḫarrān, as far as the available material allows us to judge, ap-
pears to have played a key role as a divine guarantor of contracts in the area
around the city. Although this has on occasion been taken to be the principal

1413
Van der Toorn 1985, 45.
1414
See the overview of attested deities in Dombardi 1996, 140–141.
1415
Myers 2002, 107–108.
1416
UET 6/2 no. 402, 16–27: “In the gardens opposite of Ekišnugal he swore: ‘I will not
wrong you!’, at the great gate below the weapon that you love he swore, (in) the middle
of the great court opposite of Ekišnugal, opposite of Ningal of É-GA-DI, before
Ninšubur, emblem? of the great court, before Alamuš, before Nanna-igidu and Nanna-a-
daḫ he swore to me: ‘I will not wrong you or your sons!’” (see the edition in Charpin
1986, 326–327).
 II.9. Sîn, Oaths, Curses, and Punishments 251

function of the Ḫarranian moon god,1417 it is better seen as a reflection of his role
as the head of the local pantheon rather than as connected to his celestial charac-
teristics. Already one of the earliest references to him and his temple is associ-
ated with making a contract,1418 and he is attested among the group of Mitannian
deities in the treaty between Šuppiluliuma and Šattiwaza.1419 This latter attesta-
tion suggests that the moon god of Ḫarrān was significant in this respect in the
Hurrian tradition.1420 Considering this background, it is not surprising to find
stone stelae acting as boundary stones that depict his crescent standard.1421 The
function of the stelae with crescent moon standard as markers of boundaries is
explicit in the case of the two stelae of Adad-nērārī III that were erected to mark
border contracts between Zakur of Ḫamat and Ataršumki of Arpad (Antakya
Stele),1422 and between Ušpilulume of Kummuḫites and Qalparuda of Gur-
gumites (Pazarcik Stele).1423 The second of these also bears an inscription of Šal-
maneser IV that confirms the continuation of the contract after the reign of
Adad-nērārī III.1424 Sîn of Ḫarrān is prominent in these stelae both visually and
textually. In the contract between Zakur and Ataršumki, an oath is sworn by Sîn
of Ḫarrān together with the gods Aššur, Adad, Bēr, Assyrian Enlil, and Assyrian
Mullissu, who as a group are designated the “great gods of Assyria”.1425 The
penalty clauses listed in the inscriptions on these stelae likewise invoke Sîn of
Ḫarrān, and even juxtapose him with the god Aššur.1426 Visually, the presence of
the Ḫarranian moon god is underlined even further since both of them depict his
crescent moon standard. The Antakya Stele is more revealing in this respect be-
cause it bears a relief that depicts two men flanking the tasselled crescent moon
standard.1427 This image most likely connoted two different actions: the venera-

1417
See Seidl 2000, 90–96.
1418
ARM 26/1 no. 24, 10–12 (Dossin 1939, 986); see also the citation on p. 385 below.
1419
CTH 51–52 (see the translation in Beckman 1996, nos. 6a and 6b).
1420
Wilhelm 1982, 75. The association of the moon god to oath-giving in the Hurrian and
Hittite tradition is also discussed in Laroche 1955, 316–317.
1421
For and overview of all the stelae depicting the crescent standard of Sîn see Keel
1994, 138–147.
1422
RIMA 3, A.0.104.2. See also Donbaz 1990, 5–24.
1423
RIMA 3, A.0.104.3. See also Donbaz 1990, 5–24.
1424
RIMA 3, A.0.105.1.
1425
RIMA 3, A.0.104.2, 11–13: MU Aš-šur dIŠKUR u dBe-er dBAD aš-šu-ru-ú /
[ NIN.LÍ]L aš-šur-tú MU d30 a-šib uruKASKAL-ni DINGIR.MEŠ GAL.MEŠ [šá K]UR
d

Aš-šur, “By Aššur, Adad and Bēr, Assyrian Enlil, Assyrian [Mullis]su, by Sîn who lives
in Ḫarrān, great gods of Assyria”.
1426
See the discussion on p. 395 below.
1427
See Donbaz 1990, Figs. 3–5; Börker-Klähn 1982, no. 167; and Keel 1994, 141 (no.
7). It is presumed in Siddall 2013, 175 that the two men depicted on the Antakya Stele
are Adad-nērārī III and his turtānu Šamšī-ilu, but according to Kohlmeyer 1992, 98, this
can be ruled out.
252 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

tion of the moon god by these men, who lift their hands in greeting/supplication
before the crescent standard, and the act of swearing an oath before the moon
god.1428 In the Pazarcik Stele the crescent standard is depicted alone and without
tassels, but it must have had the same function as the crescent standard in the
Antakya Stele.1429 Similar motifs of two individuals flanking the crescent stand-
ard of Sîn are found on stamp and cylinder seals, and it also is evident that in
these cases the motif pertains to the role of the moon god in legal contexts.1430

Fig. 13: A Neo-Assyrian cylinder seal with the crescent standard of Sîn
(Keel 1994, no. 16)

Since the stelae of Adad-nērārī III prove that the Ḫarranian moon god, as the
head of the local pantheon, was active as the divine guarantor of border con-
tracts, attention must be drawn to a similar function of the moon god in Babylo-
nian context. A comparable role is hinted at by Sin’s appellation Lugalkisura,
“King of the Boundary”, in the god-list An = Anum.1431 The context does not
provide much information concerning this name, but it is apparent from An =
Anum that under this name Sîn was a part of Enki/Ea’s household together with
his spouse dIg-an-na-kéš-da.1432 The association between Sîn and this divine

1428
This aspect is stressed in Kohlmeyer 1992, 98; Keel 1994, 146–147; and Seidl 2000,
91. For the use of divine emblems in the swearing of oaths in Neo-Assyrian context see
the overview in Faist 2015, 68–70. See also the similar motif on the stele found in Gök-
taçköyü (Fig. 8, p. 45 above).
1429
See Donbaz 1990, Figs. 7–8; Börker-Klähn 1982, no. 166; and Keel 1994, 139–140
(no. 3). For a differing viewpoint, S. Holloway has argued that these stelae with the cres-
cent moon standard were a fusion of traditional royal stele iconography and non-anthro-
pomorphic depictions of the moon god (Holloway 1995, 294–295 and Holloway 2002,
401–403). Therefore, according to him, they would have conveyed a message of pro-As-
syrian propaganda in the western parts of the empire.
1430
Keel 1994, 160–161 (see e.g. nos. 16 and 17) and Seidl 2000, 92–94.
1431
An = Anum II, 295: dLugal-ki-sur-ra | d30 (Litke 1998, 102). Ninurta is also referred to
by this name, but in this case, the connotation appears to be to a specific town named
Kisurra, thus the translation “Lord of Kisurra” in Lambert 1987d, 147.
1432
K. Tallqvist has given a celestial explanation for this name: according to him, it refers
 II.9. Sîn, Oaths, Curses, and Punishments 253

name is also supported by a Late Babylonian commentary, which explains that

Lugalkisura is Sîn.1433 It is also significant that this divine name appeared as the
theophoric element in the name I.dLugalkisura-nādin-aḫḫē that belonged to the
Late Babylonian scribe who owned the commentary tablet Si. 276.1434 In this
case, it is possible that this name should be understood as a variant of the more
common personal name Sîn-nādin-aḫḫē that belonged to a descendant of the
Nippurian scribal family Šū-Sîn/Lú-Dumu-nun-na.1435 Since the noun kisurrû
(Sum. kisura) has the meaning “boundary” or “territory”,1436 it is possible that
this name refers to the moon god’s role in establishing borders. Still, as previ-
ously discussed, the sources do not offer any insights into the aspects associated
with Lugalkisura, and therefore currently it is impossible to identify any pos-
sible other meanings for this name.
Despite the aforementioned association of the moon god with the swearing of
oaths in Neo-Assyrian iconography, textual evidence does not offer many attest-
ations of oaths sworn by him. An oft-cited example is found in the treaty of
Aššur-nērārī V with Mati’-ilu, in which Sîn and his spouse Ningal/Nikkal are in-
voked alongside the other great gods of the Assyrian pantheon.1437 No geograph-
ical identification for Sîn is given, but there is a strong association with the
western provinces of Assyria since the curse formula that follows invoked Sîn of
Ḫarrān, and other western deities are named in the oath formula.1438 Esarhad-
don’s succession treaty contains a detail that is perhaps significant: here Sîn is
invoked without a geographical specification at the same time as Šamaš, Adad,
and Marduk, and only later in the oath formula do we find an invocation to all
the gods of Ḫarrān.1439 The first reference can be interpreted as an indication of

to the “boundary of the lunar cycle”, which in his opinion was the phase when the moon
reached its full form and begins to wane (Tallqvist 1938b, 100: “Lugal-kisurra merkitsee
‘rajan ruhtinas’ ja viittaa luullakseni kuun kierroksen ja kasvamisen huippu- eli rajako-
htaan, josta lähtien se alakuuna lähenee näkymättömyyttään.” The same explanation is
also given in Tallqvist 1947, 235–236). Such an interpretation is, however, not supported
by Mesopotamian sources pertaining to kisurrû/kisura, which do not contain references
to celestial phenomena (see the attestations in CAD K, 433–434).
1433
BM 41623, 7’ (edited in Jiménez 2015a [CCP 3.7.2.K]).
1434
See Frahm 2011, 237. The handcopy of the tablet is published as BAM 4 no. 401.
1435
This has been suggested by E. Jiménez (personal communication).
1436
See CAD K, 433–434.
1437
SAA 2 no. 2, VI 8: d30 dNin-gal KI.MIN(= tùm-ma-tú-nu), “By Sîn and Ningal ditto(=
you are sworn)!”.
1438
The curse formula here involves leprosy as the punishment meted out by the moon
god (see the discussion on p. 255ff. below).
1439
SAA 2 no. 6, 27: d30 dŠá-maš dIŠKUR dAMAR.UTU MIN(= ti-tam-ma-a), “By Sîn,
Šamaš, Adad and Marduk ditto(= swear each individually)!”; 36: DINGIR.MEŠ DÙ-šu-
nu šá uruKASKAL MIN(=ti-tam-ma-a), “By all the gods of Ḫarrān ditto(= swear each
individually)!”.
254 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

the moon god’s position among the great gods, who were all venerated in the re-
ligious centre of the empire (Assur) as well as in the capital city at that time
(Nineveh). Only later is Sîn of Ḫarrān, a local deity, explicitly mentioned in a
list that encompasses all the major cultic centres within Assyria.
In contrast to the Ḫarranian moon god, the moon god of Ur is poorly attested
in Babylonian oaths from this period. Sîn appears as a local deity only in two
Neo-Babylonian documents from Ur, and in both of these documents he is in-
voked together with his son, the sun god Šamaš.1440 Sîn acts as the personal god
of an individual, and therefore the divine guarantor, in only a single Neo-Baby-
lonian promissory oath. The document in question derives from Babylon, and
the moon god is invoked in his status as the personal god of the slave, who
swears to deliver a turban to a member of the Egibi family.1441

II.9.2. Sîn and Forms of Punishment

In Mesopotamia, breaking an oath sworn by the gods was bound to have devast-
ating consequences, since the gods were expected to punish the perjurer. One
possible punishment was the illness māmītu which was the result of perjury
committed either by the afflicted individual himself or by a member of his fam-
ily.1442 In the texts that detail the process of healing from māmītu, the long lists
of possible oaths that need to be undone to allow the afflicted individual to re-
cuperate understandably also included oaths that had been sworn by the moon
god. Importantly, two different conceptions of Sîn are revealed in a list of this
type in Šurpu III. The first pertains to his role in relation to time, demonstrated
by his inclusion in the group of important days in the month, the night, and the
sun god Šamaš.1443 Later we find Sîn and his wife Ningal listed with the other
great divine couples of the Sumero-Babylonian pantheon.1444 The disease
māmītu was, however, only one of a large variety of repercussions that resulted
from acting against the contract that had been made before a divine guarantor, or
an oath that had been sworn by gods; several different curses and punishments
are detailed in Assyrian and Babylonian sources. Curse formulae derived from a
wide range of texts, from private contracts to royal inscriptions, present detailed
curse motifs that name deities as the authorities who punished any person who
broke their oaths.1445 Curse formulae present an important source for establishing

1440
Sandowicz 2012, 52 (BM 114028+ and UET 4 no. 102). As already noted, this is
most likely caused by a bias in the available sources.
1441
BM 31076, 6–7: ISi-lim–dEN / ina d30 DINGIR-šú it-te-me, “Silim-Bēl has sworn by
Sîn, his god” (Sandowicz 2012, 181–182). See also Sandowicz 2012, 54–55.
1442
An overview of the disease māmītu is given in Maul 2004, 79–95.
1443
Šurpu III, 104 (Reiner 1958, 22).
1444
Šurpu III, 154 (Reiner 1958, 23).
1445
For an overview of the content and context of curses in Mesopotamia see especially
Sommerfeld 1993, 447–463. The use of curses in Neo- and Late Babylonian private doc-
 II.9. Sîn, Oaths, Curses, and Punishments 255

the theological framework in which the deities were active since it was common
for particular deities to be associated with specific curses – providing support for
the assumption that these curses reflect a well-established system of theology.1446
In the case of Sîn, the most prominent curse involves him imposing the skin dis-
ease saḫaršubbû, “leprosy”, as the punishment for acting against the conditions
protected by the curse. However, leprosy is not the only punishment associated
with Sîn; a few others also emerge from the available sources. In addition to the
more general curse of blotting out a person’s future offspring, motifs related to
Sîn’s authority in the sphere of divination and jurisdiction are attested. It should
be noted that in the following discussion I have made a distinction between
curses and penalty clauses, although their use is similar: both curses and penalty
clauses are found in private documents to define the repercussions of failing to
meet the conditions of the contract. The main difference is the agency of the
deity or deities named: in curse formulae the deity is the agent imposing the
punishment, and in penalty clauses he/she is the receiver of a monetary fine or a
dedication of people/animals. Therefore, the first section, which is focused on
curses, involves the actions performed by Sîn himself, and the following
chapter, which deals with penalty clauses, outlines the penalties that were paid
to his temple. A further distinction is the conspicuous status of the moon god as
the tutelary deity of a particular city – in most cases Ḫarrān – both in curse for-
mulae and in penalty clauses, which therefore underline the actions related to the
local cult. The local character is notably related either to the legal context of the
city or the cult of the local temples. Contrary to such curses or penalty clauses,
the ability of the moon god to impose the skin disease šaḫaršubbû can be seen
as an extension of his celestial nature because it is not attached to any particular
geographical place, but is widely attested both in Assyria and Babylonia.

II.9.2.1. Curse Formulae

The most prominent motif found in the curses that name the moon god is pun-
ishment by the skin disease saḫaršubbû, commonly translated as leprosy.1447 As
shown by Kazuko Watanabe, this motif is widely attested from the Kassite era
onward, and it continued to be used in Neo-Assyrian treaties as well as in Neo-

uments is treated in Sandowicz 2012, 109–141.

1446
The association of particular deities to particular curses (e.g. the weather god Adad
imposes punishments involving climatic disasters) is noted in Hillers 1964, 17; see also
Sommerfeld 1993, 452.
1447
An overview of this curse formula has been presented in Watanabe 1984, 99–119. The
text BM 113927 that was listed “unpublished” in Watanabe’s list is now available as
Tarasewicz 2018, no. 2. Furthermore, the attestation in BM 130827 = ŠŠU 3, r. 5–7
(Paulus 2014, 741) can now be added to the list. For this curse formula in general see
also the recent discussion in Kitz 2014, 218–223. For other references to leprosy in con-
nection with the moon god see the discussion on p. 281ff. below.
256 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

Babylonian contracts.1448 Despite the fact that the overwhelming majority of at-
testations for this formula name Sîn as the divine agent who afflicts the cursed
person with leprosy, it should be noted that he was not the only deity associated
with this curse: attestations from Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian sources
show that this role was also at times taken by Ištar and Šamaš perhaps due to
their genealogical relationship to Sîn.1449 Moreover, a Middle Babylonian variant
of this curse formula adds the disease aganutillû to leprosy,1450 but no Neo-
Babylonian attestations for this variant are preserved.1451 The origins of the
moon god’s association with the divine punishment of leprosy may be rooted in
the Old Babylonian period since a prayer to Sîn deriving from Ur speaks of lep-
rosy (epqu) as one of the consequences of breaking an oath to Sîn and Šamaš.1452
It is also very likely that the “heavy punishment” and “severe punishment” of
the moon god that are listed among the curses in the epilogue of the Codex
Ḫammurapi refer to leprosy, because the relative clause defining these two
specifies that they will not disappear from the body of the transgressor.1453 The
curse that names Sîn in the Codex Ḫammurapi is repeated almost verbatim ap-

1448
Watanabe 1984, 99–119. For an overview of the curses used in kudurru-inscriptions
see Paulus 2014, 262–269.
1449
For Ištar of Arbela as the divine agent in Neo-Assyrian curse formulae see Watanabe
1984, nos. 26–27. A Neo-Babylonian example of Ištar’s role can be found in Weisberg
2003, no. 37 (line 20). The formula in a Kassite kudurru shows that Anunītu was also
perceived as capable of inflicting a person with leprosy (U 10, I’ 15’–17’ in Paulus 2014,
775). This demonstrates that this aspect of Ištar most likely is not merely a Neo-Assyrian
variant as has been suggested (Watanabe 1984, 106), but was more widespread than pre-
viously assumed. For the triad Sîn, Ištar, and Šamaš see Watanabe 1984, no. 17 (= MZŠ I
1, r. IV 6–10 in Paulus 2014, 668–669). Note also that in addition to Sîn, Šamaš, Ištar,
and Anunītu, the pair Anu and Enlil is also attested in this capacity in a curse formula
dating to the Isin II period (U 40, IV 11–17 in Paulus 2014, 847).
1450
See Watanabe 1984, 105. The passages in question are edited as MŠ 1, VI 41–VII 1
(Paulus 2014, 376–377) and MAI I 1, V 12–VI 26 (Paulus 2014, 434–435). In the latter
formula Sîn and Ningal appear only as part of a large group of deities (numbering 49 in
total), who collectively punish the wrongdoer. MŠ 1, VI 41–VII 1 is the only attestation
of Sîn imposing the punishment of both aganutillû and saḫaršubbû by himself.
1451
CAD A/1, 144 lists RT 36 no. 24, 11 (Scheil 1914, 189) together with TCL 12 no. 13,
11 as attestations for a curse naming Sîn as the cause of aganutillû, but the later copy of
the tablet in Durand 1982, pl. 86 (no. 144) suggests that the divine name should be read
d
En-líl not dEN.ZU (as copied in TCL 12 no. 13, 11).
1452
UET 6/2 no. 402, 36–38: ta-mi dNanna ù dUtu / e-ep-qá-am i-ma-al-la / i-la-pi-in ù
IBILA ú-la e-ra-aš-ši, “The perjurer of Nanna and Utu/Šamaš will be full of leprosy, he
will become poor and he will not have an heir!” (see the edition in Charpin 1986, 327).
The possibility that this is the earliest reference to leprosy as a punishment dealt by the
moon god is noted in Krebernik 1995, 367.
1453
CH, L 47–51. The full passage is cited in Watanabe 1984, 100.
 II.9. Sîn, Oaths, Curses, and Punishments 257

proximately a thousand years later in the treaty between Šamšī-Adad V and

Marduk-zākir-šumi I (SAA 2 no. 1) along with curses naming the other great
deities of the Sumero-Babylonian pantheon.1454

SAA 2 no. 1, r. 10–12

r. 10 [d30 EN AN-e šá] še-ret-su ina DINGIR.MEŠ šu-pa-a[t]
r. 11 [x x x x šer-t]a ra-bi-ta šá ina SU-šú la KÚR-ru [li-mid-su-ma]
r. 12 [UD.MEŠ ITI.MEŠ MU.MEŠ pa]-le-e-šú i-na ta-né-ḫi ⌈ù⌉ [dim-ma-
ti li-šaq-ti]
[May Sîn, lord of heaven whose] punishment is famo[us] among the gods,
[inflict] upon him [the grave sin and1455] severe [punish]ment that cannot be
removed from his body; [may he make the days, the months (and) the years
of] his [re]ign end in sighing and [moaning].

The precise nature of the punishment inflicted by the moon god is made clearer
by the formulae that name the disease saḫaršubbû together with the epithet
“great punishment”, like the one attested in a kudurru-inscription from Ur dating
to the Kassite or Isin II period.

UET 1 no. 165, II 23–271456

d
II 23 30 EN ⌈AGA⌉
II 24 a-bi DINGIR.MEŠ GAL.MEŠ SAḪAR.ŠUB.BA-⌈a⌉
II 25 šèr-ta-šu GAL-ta li-ša-áš-ši-⌈šu⌉-⌈ma⌉
II 26 GIN7 ANŠE.EDIN.NA i-na ka-[mat URU-šu]
II 27 li-ir-tap-pu-ud
May Sîn, lord of the crown, father of the great gods,1457 make him bear lep-
rosy, his great punishment and may he keep roaming outsi[de of his city] like
an onager!

1454
The similarities are pointed out in Borger 1965, 168–169. The relationship between
SAA 2 no. 1 and the curses containing a punishment by leprosy was observed in
Watanabe 1984, 117 note 9. Closely related formulae in Kassite or Isin II kudurru-in-
scriptions have also been found. These speak of a “severe punishment” without actually
naming leprosy: MŠ 3, ⑧ IV 15–19 (šēret lā piṭri; Paulus 2014, 396); MNA 4, IV 12–23
(annašu kabta šēressu rabīta; Paulus 2014, 556–557); MŠZ 1, II 8–10 (šēressu rabīta;
Paulus 2014, 577).
1455
The reconstruction [arna kabta u šērt]a rabīta is not included in SAA 2 no. 1, r. 11,
but due to the parallelism between this line and CH, L 47–48 such a reconstruction is
very plausible.
1456
See the edition in Paulus 2014, 800 (U 19). This text is Watanabe 1984, no. 14.
1457
Note this description of the moon god as a father figure in the context of his cult city
(for further discussion see p. 230ff. above).
258 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

This example, from the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, incorporates all the
primary components of the leprosy curse that are found in the later Neo-Babylo-
nian and Neo-Assyrian attestations of this curse: the punishment inflicted by the
moon god is leprosy (saḫaršubbû) that forces the cursed person to be exiled
from his home city and live in the uninhabited areas of the steppe.1458 The leper’s
social ostracism is further reflected in some of the Assyrian variants of the lep-
rosy curse that add lines pertaining to the social exclusion of the cursed person:
he will not be able to approach the gods or the king. The effects of the disease
involve not only the exclusion of the leper from his social group but also his in-
ability to approach any royal or divine authorities.1459 An example of this can be
found in the succession treaty of Esarhaddon (SAA 2 no. 6).1460

SAA 2 no. 6, 419–4211461

d
419 30 na-an-nar AN-e u KI-tim ina SAḪAR.ŠUB-bu
420 li-ḫal-lip-ku-nu ina IGI DINGIR.MEŠ u LUGAL e-rab-ku-nu a-a
iq-bi
421 ki-i sír-ri-me MAŠ.DÀ (ina) EDIN ru-up-da
May Sîn, luminary of the heaven and the earth, clothe you in leprosy; may he
not allow you to enter before the gods and the king! Roam (on) the steppe
like an onager and a gazelle!

A similar formula with a slightly different wording is also found in the treaty of
Sîn-šarru-iškun with his Babylonian allies (SAA 2 no. 11). Whereas the curse in
SAA 2 no. 6 speaks of the moon god forbidding access to the gods or the king,
here the intention is to destroy the person’s station in the temple or the palace.

SAA 2 no. 11, r. 10’–14’1462

r. 10’ d30 dNANNA A[N-e u KI-tim]
r. 11’ [SAḪAR].ŠUB-bu ki-ma na-aḫ-lap-ti lu-u-ḫal-lip-šú-[nu]
r. 12’ ma-za-sa-šu-nu TAv ŠÀ É.KUR É.GAL lu-ḫal-liq [ø]
r. 13’ NUMUN.MEŠ-šú-nu ṣa-lam-(a)-ni-šú-nu ina IZI i-kar-ru-r[u]
r. 14’ di-pa-ra-šú-nu i-na A.MEŠ ú-bal-⌈lu⌉-[ú]
May Sîn, luminary of the hea[ven and the earth] clothe the[m] in [lep]rosy as
in a cloak, may he destroy their stations from the temple and palace! Their
offspring (and) their images will be throw[n] into the fire (and) their torches
will be extinguish[ed] with water.

1458
See the overview in Watanabe 1984, 102–104.
1459
See the discussion in Watanabe 1984, 112–113.
1460
See also SAA 2 no. 9, r. 11’–12’.
1461
Watanabe 1984, no. 24, see also Lauinger 2012, 99.
1462
Watanabe 1984, no. 25.
 II.9. Sîn, Oaths, Curses, and Punishments 259

As shown by these examples, the epithet that accompanies the moon god in the
leprosy curse formula in Neo-Assyrian or Neo-Babylonian sources is typically
nannār šamê u erṣeti, “luminary of the heaven and the earth”, presenting him in
his celestial aspect.1463 Babylonian sources of this period do not include any geo-
graphical specifications for the moon god that signify him as the patron deity of
his home city, Ur.1464 Similarly, in the Assyrian context, only a single attestation
names Sîn as the one residing in Ḫarrān.1465 Perhaps, in this case, the fact that the
treaty was made between Aššur-nērārī V and Mati’-ilu, the Aramean king of
Arpad, influenced the identification of the moon god as Ḫarranian. Also related
to the moon god of Ḫarrān is the curse formula in Assurbanipal’s inscription for
Sîn’s akītu-house in the city. However, due to the fragmentary condition of this
text it remains uncertain whether leprosy was included in this curse or not.1466
The conspicuous lack of references to Sîn’s cult cities in leprosy curse formulae,
in combination with the description of him as a celestial luminary, suggests that
the ability to impose such an illness was associated with the moon god as a
supra-regional celestial deity.
The leprosy curse was by no means the only curse associated with the moon
god: other motifs appear both in Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian curses. One
group can be defined through the actions that are taken by Sîn’s family members
either in collaboration with him or alone. Thus Assurbanipal’s inscription for the
wooden carrying poles of Ningal/Nikkal in Ḫarrān names both Sîn and his wife
as the deities who impose divine punishment.

Bu. 89-4-26, 209, r. 19–21

d
r. 19 30 EN GAL-u ga-nun-šú lu-šag-lid-su-ma ⌈an⌉ ⌈kal⌉ ⌈ti⌉ li-ir-pu-
ud1467

1463
See the overview in Watanabe 1984, 102 with the addition of ŠŠU 3, r. 5–7 (Paulus
2014, 741).
1464
A direct connection to Ur via an epithet in the leprosy curse is attested only in the
Kassite kudurru from Larsa that presents Sîn as “lord of Ekišnugal” (KuE 1, III 38: d30
EN É-ĝiš-nu-gal; see Paulus 2014, 344).
1465
Watanabe 1984, no. 23 = SAA 2 no. 2, IV 4: d30 EN GAL-u a-šib uruKASKAL, “Sîn,
great lord, who dwells in Ḫarrān”.
1466
Sm. 671, r. 3’–4’: [d30 EN GAL-u ...] li-ir-pu-da ka-m[a-ti] / [... x] x NU u4-mu sa-
an-tak la ba-laṭ-su l[iq-bi], “[May Sîn, great lord, ...] may (they) roam in the open c[oun-
try, ...] ... may he constantly [command] his death!” (see Bauer 1933, pl. 49 and Novotny
2003, 250).
1467
Based on the use of the verbal form lirpud this formula, it has been seen as a variant
of the leprosy curse, and the reading AN.AŠ!.A!.AN-u li-ir-pu-ud for the latter half of the
line r. 19 is suggested in Watanabe 1984, 113–114; see also citations of kamâti lirpud in
CAD K, 123 and CAD R, 148. However, the accuracy of the copies of the tablet (Craig
1897, no. 2 and Meek 1918, 169) has been confirmed in Novotny 2003, 236, where the
260 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

d
r. 20 NIN.GAL GAŠAN GAL-tú ṣi-mit-ti gišni-ri-šú lip-ṭur-ma
r. 21 liš-bi-ra gišab-šá-an-šú
May Sîn, great lord, make his chamber terrifying to him and may he run ...!
May Nikkal, great lady, untie his yoke team and break his harness.

Another type of curse formulae belonging to this group present Sîn’s family
members as intermediaries between the moon god and humanity.1468 As the result
of these curses, either Ningal/Nikkal or Nusku would fail to perform their usual
task of interceding with Sîn for the benefit of the petitioner; instead they would
weaken his case before the moon god. The goddess Ningal/Nikkal also appears
in the reconstruction of Esarhaddon’s accession treaty, SAA 2 no. 4, but no par-
allels with definite attestations for such a formula exist.1469 Therefore the deity in
question may also have been the son of the Ḫarranian moon god, Nusku. Indeed,
curse formulae associating Nusku with this form of divine penalty are found in
inscriptions of Assurbanipal written for his temple in Ḫarrān.1470
The theme of losing the benevolence of Sîn’s family members is expanded to
include the displeasure of the moon god himself in the curse formula in the Ant-
akya Stele of Adad-nērārī III. Here the punishment for altering or taking away
the stele marking the border is that Aššur, Adad, Bēr, and Sîn of Ḫarrān would
cease to listen to the prayers of the person guilty of these offences.1471

RIMA 3, A.0.104.2, 17–19

17 [Aš-šur] dIŠKUR u dBe-er d30 a-šib uruKASKAL DINGIR.MEŠ
GAL.MEŠ šá KUR AŠ
18 [šá ina] NA.RÚ.A an-né-e MU-šú-nu zak-ru
19 [i]k-ri-bi-šú ul i-šá-mu-ú
[Aššur], Adad, Bēr, Sîn who lives in Ḫarrān, the great gods of Assyria,
[whose] names are given in this stele, will not hear his [p]rayers.

A further motif involving displeasure on the part of the gods and its effects is
linked to Sîn’s power in the context of divination, and it is attested in two in-
stances both of which are connected to Assurbanipal. The better-preserved ex-

signs are read dLAMMA TI li-ir-pu-ud.

1468
For this role see especially the discussion concerning Ningal on p. 296ff. below.
1469
SAA 2 no. 4, r. 24’–25’: [dNIN.GAL x x x x x x]-bi ina ma-ḫar d30 [ḫa-’i-ri-šá] / [ab-
bu-su a-a iṣ-bat a-mat]-su li-lam-mìn [x x x], “[May Nikkal ...] worsen his case [and not
intercede for him] in the presence of Sîn [her husband]. No commentary for the lines in
question is provided either in either SAA 2 or the earlier edition of the text (Parpola
1987b, 170–174)
1470
K. 2803+, r. 9’ (Novotny 2003, 239); K. 2822+, r. 16’ (Novotny 2003, 244); K. 9143,
r. 8’ (Novotny 2003, 245); Sm. 530+, r. 12 (Novotny 2003, 248).
1471
For the pairing of Adad and Bēr see Schwemer 2001, 208.
 II.9. Sîn, Oaths, Curses, and Punishments 261

ample is found in the text that records Assurbanipal’s donation of a village to the
moon god of Elumu.1472 In this instance, the curse was focused both on the moon
god’s luminous character and on lunar omens. Although a large part of the lines
is missing, it is clear that the person who disputed the ownership of the donated
lands or destroyed the stele on which the text was written would fall into Sîn’s
disfavour: the moon god would sent him only inauspicious portents. The phrase
that referred to the darkened face of the moon god suggests that the passage
most likely referred specifically to lunar eclipses.

SAA 12 no. 90 (K. 2564), r. 11–131473

d
r. 11 30 EN GAL-u mu-nam-⌈mir⌉ uk-[li ...]
r. 12 ek-le-tú pa-ni-šú pa-ni-šú li-kil-ma [...]
r. 13 ù GISKIM-šú li-lam-mìn-ma li-[...]
May Sîn, great lord, illuminator of dark[ness ...], may the darkness of his
face be dark1474 and [...] and may he make his portents evil and ... [...]

A related motif is also found in Assurbanipal’s inscription for Sîn’s temple in

Ḫarrān, but unfortunately, this attestation also is only partly preserved. It is
clear, however, that the curse deals with portents that the moon god will cause to
be inauspicious.1475 In both of these instances the use of a curse involving lunar
omens demonstrates that both of them – one in Elumu and one in Ḫarrān – were
aimed at any future and/or foreign rulers, who might act against the will of As-
surbanipal, the king of Assyria.1476
A group of Assyrian and Babylonian curses show that Sîn’s function in legal
contexts was a significant aspect of his divine persona in the local theological
framework of his cult city and the surrounding area. The curses that fall into this
group share a similar outcome which is expressed in two different ways: if a per-
son acts against the contract that has been made, the moon god will oppose him
in court, or the moon god will not support his legal case. It is important to note
that Sîn does not act alone in any of the attested cases, but is always presented
alongside (at least) the sun god Šamaš. The first of these formulations, the moon
god acting as the opponent in court, is attested in two Neo-Assyrian contracts.1477
Both of them derive from the western provinces, Ḫuzirīna and Carchemish. The
document from Ḫuzirīna names the triad Sîn, Ningal/Nikkal, and Adad, thus

1472
For the moon god of Elumu and this inscription see the discussion on p. 415ff. below.
1473
A copy of the text can be found in Bauer 1933, pl. 21.
1474
In SAA 12 no. 90, r. 12: “make his face ever darker and [...]”.
1475
K. 8759+, r. 13: ⌈d⌉⌈30⌉ ⌈EN⌉ [GAL]-⌈ú⌉ GISKIM.MEŠ ḪUL-šú [...].
1476
For lunar omens and their association with kingship see p. 156ff. above.
1477
For an overview of this kind of a curse as the penalty for breaching a contract and the
deities that are attested in connection with it see Radner 1997b, 126–128 and Faist 2012,
205–206. The deities that are most often named in this formula are Aššur and Šamaš.
262 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

reflecting the status of the prevalent deities in that area.

SU 51/44, 11–r. 21478

11 man-nu ša ⌈ina⌉ ⌈ur⌉-kiš
12 i-ba-⌈la⌉-kàt-u-ni
r. 1 ⌈d⌉30 dNIN.<GAL> dIŠKUR
r. 2 lu-u EN di-ni-šú
Whoever in the future contravenes, may Sîn, Nik<kal>1479 (and) Adad be his
opponents.

A similar clause has also been attested in connection with the village Elumu,
located in the vicinity of Carchemish. The fragmentary penalty clause in BM
116230 names Sîn, Šamaš, and (perhaps) a third deity as the gods who oppose
the person.1480 Also, in this case, the local cult most likely played a role, and the
veneration of the moon god in Elumu is supported by Assurbanipal’s aforemen-
tioned donation to the moon god residing there.1481
The motif of Sîn’s abandonment of a person in a legal context is likewise
found in the area of Ḫarrān in two border contracts recorded in the inscriptions
of Adad-nērārī III1482 and Šalmaneser IV,1483 mentioned above. Both of these
stelae refer to a group of five deities (Aššur, Marduk, Adad, Sîn, and Šamaš) as
those who will not support the cursed person in his court case. The stele of Šal-
maneser IV offers a more elaborate formula that adds to this abandonment, in
the legal context, an unwillingness on the part of these gods to hear the prayers
addressed to them and the destruction of the land.

RIMA 3, A.0.105.1, 13–20

13 man-nu šá TA ŠU-at IUš-pi-lu-lu-me
14 DUMU.MEŠ-šú DUMU.DUMU.MEŠ-šú e-ki-mu
15 Aš-šur dAMAR.UTU dIŠKUR d30 dUTU
16 a-na di-ni-šú lu la i-za-zu
17 pi-ti up-ni-šú la i-ša-me-u-šú
18 KUR-su ki-i SIG4 lu-šá-⌈bi⌉?-⌈ru⌉? ur-ru-uḫ
19 mim-ma ina UGU MAN la i-ma-lik

1478
See the copy of the tablet and the edition in Finkelstein 1957, 139–143.
1479
This divine name is read as Bēlit in Finkelstein 1957, 142. Since Ḫuzirīna was loc-
ated in the vicinity of Ḫarrān, it is likely that the goddess Nikkal was intended by this
name (this is also the assumption in Radner 1997b, 128).
1480
BM 116230, 44–45: d30 [dx x d]Šá-maš lu[(-u) E]N / de-n[i-šú] (see the edition in
Postgate 1974, 361).
1481
SAA 12 no. 90 (see the discussion on p. 415ff. below).
1482
RIMA 3, A.0.104.3, 19–23 (see also p. 250 above).
1483
RIMA 3, A.0.105.1, 13–20.
 II.9. Sîn, Oaths, Curses, and Punishments 263

20 ik-kib Aš-šur DINGIR-ia d30 a-šib uruKASKAL

Whoever takes it away from the possession of Ušpilulume, his sons, his
grandsons: may Aššur, Marduk, Adad, Sîn (and) Šamaš not stand (by him) in
his lawsuit; may they not heed his prayers; may they quickly smash his coun-
try like a brick! May he no longer give advice to the king! Taboo of Aššur,
my god, Sîn who lives in Ḫarrān.

Although both of these stelae name a group of deities, the role of the Ḫarranian
moon god is particularly highlighted in the stele of Adad-nērārī III: its depiction
of Sîn’s crescent moon standard most likely served as a visual reference to the
swearing of an oath before this very standard.1484 Moreover, the inscription on
both of these stelae ends with the line “Taboo of Aššur, my god, Sîn who lives in
Ḫarrān”.1485 This can only have meant that to act against this established contract
was an affront both to Aššur, the highest god in the Assyrian pantheon, and to
Sîn, who played a very significant role in the local cult of the region where these
stelae were erected. This juxtaposition of Aššur with Sîn reflects Sîn’s status in
the western provinces.1486 As opposed to the localised importance of the moon
god in the area of Ḫarrān, Sîn’s position among the most important gods of the
Assyrian pantheon is reflected in a document from Nineveh, which recorded the
donation of property a father to his daughter. Here the curse formula names
Aššur, Sîn, Šamaš, Bēl, and Nabû as “the gods of the king” (ilānū ša šarri), who
will call to account the person who dares to collect the king’s tax from the new
owner of the property.1487
In addition to these Assyrian attestations which all relate to the moon god of
Ḫarrān, one single Neo-Babylonian document containing a similar curse formula
exists. In this case, Sîn and the sun god Šamaš are presented side by side, as the
gods who, in court, will deny their support for the person who has breached the
contract.1488

Weisberg 2003, no. 37, 19

d
30 u dUTU ina di-in-ni-šú a-a iz-zi-zu
May Sîn and Šamaš not be present in his lawsuit!

1484
See the discussion on p. 250ff. above.
1485
For the meaning of ikkibu (Sum. níĝ-gig) see the overview in Geller 2012, 394–395.
1486
See the discussion on p. 395ff. below.
1487
SAA 14 no. 155, 18–r. 5: man-nu ša ina ur-kiš / ina ma-te-ma bi-lat LUGAL [TAv]
IGI munusBa-al-te–ia-a-ba-te / na-⌈šu⌉-u-ni / Aš-šur d30 dŠá-maš EN dPA / DINGIR.MEŠ
šá MAN ina ŠUII-šú / lu-ba-’u-ú, “Whoever in the future, at any time, wants to collect
the king’s tax [from] Balti-yabatu – may Aššur, Sîn, Šamaš, Bēl (and) Nabû, gods of the
king, call him to account!”
1488
See Sandowicz 2012, 126.
264 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

The document in question records the granting of the status of free citizens to a
woman and her sons, and it has an elaborate curse formula that names several
deities, either alone or in pairs.1489 Since Sîn and Šamaš are paired, it is possible
that their status as divine judges is associated with this formula.
Finally, there is a group of fragmentary Neo-Assyrian curse formulae that
name Sîn. In the first case, the topic of the curse is known, but the presence of
the moon god in it cannot be indisputably confirmed: a document recording the
donation of a son to the god Ninurta in Kalḫu, and the moon god most likely ap-
pears along with Aššur, [Šamaš], Bēl, [Nergal], Ninurta, and Gula.1490 According
to its curse, this group of deities would blot out the name and offspring of who-
ever took the donated individual away from Ninurta. The additional texts offer
only the name of the moon god in a curse formula, but the details concerning the
curse’s outcome remain unknown. In the treaty of Zakûtu (SAA 2 no. 8) both
Sîn and Šamaš likely appear as a part of a group consisting of Aššur and some
other celestial deities, but the curse itself has been obscured by damage to the
tablet.1491 Likewise, Assurbanipal’s treaty with the Qedar tribe (SAA 2 no. 10)
contains a curse that names Sîn among the other the great gods of the Assyrian
pantheon, but the rest of the curse formula has not survived.1492

II.9.2.2. Penalty Clauses

In the penalty clauses of Neo-Assyrian conveyance documents and contracts,
three different formulae relating to Sîn can be found. The two most distinct for-
mulae involve the dedication of an eldest son to the moon god of an unspecified
city, or the dedication of white horses to Ḫarranian Sîn.1493 In the third type of
penalty clause, a quantity of silver and gold is prescribed be paid to Sîn. The
naming of the moon god Sîn – either with or without a geographical specifica-
tion – in these penalty clauses has been seen as a proof for the specific role of
the moon god, together with his wife Ningal/Nikkal, as deities who guarantee
oaths and contracts.1494 The majority of the attestations are indeed related to Ḫar-
rān, or to places in its vicinity, suggesting that the function of the moon god in

1489
Interestingly, the same document names the goddess Ištar as the one who imposes the
punishment of leprosy, usually associated with Sîn (see p. 255 above).
1490
SAA 12 no. 93, r. 6–8: Aš-šur ⌈d⌉[30 dUTU] EN [dU.GUR] / dMAŠ [dG]u-la M[U]-šú
[NUMUN-šú] / [ina KUR–Aš-šur]ki lu-ḫal-li-qu, “May Aššur, [Sîn, Šamaš], Bēl, [Nergal]
Ninurta and Gula make his name and [his seed] disappear [from the land of Assyria].
1491
SAA 2 no. 8, 25–27. See also the commentary on these lines in Parpola 1987b, 170.
1492
SAA 2 no. 10, r. 8’–10’.
1493
It should be noted that these penalties, along with the large quantities of gold and sil-
ver paid as fines to deities, are understood as “nicht-realweltliche Strafen”, i.e. not real-
istic penalties, in Faist 2012, 208. Thus they had only a formal meaning, and were car-
ried out only in part or not at all in the legal practice.
1494
So e.g. Theuer 2000, 357.
 II.9. Sîn, Oaths, Curses, and Punishments 265

legal contexts can be tied to the local cult. Therefore, it should be stressed that
these aspects rather reflect the status of Sîn as the leading deity in the cult at
Ḫarrān than his persona as the moon god.
The first type of these penalties, the dedication of a first-born son to the
moon god in the case of breach of contract, is found in four documents from
Kalḫu (CTN 2 no. 17), Nineveh (SAA 6 nos. 101–102) and Assur (VAT 21000),
and they can be respectively dated to the reigns of Adad-nērarī III, Sennacherib
and Sîn-šarru-iškun.1495 All of them concern the “burning” of the first-born son
for Sîn together with the “burning” of the eldest daughter for the goddess Bēlet-
ṣēri. One of the two documents from Nineveh can be used here as an example of
the formula.

SAA 6 no. 102, r. 5–11

r. 7 IBILA-šú a-na d30 GÍBIL DUMU.MUNUS-su
r. 8 GAL-te TAv 2 BÁN MÚD ERIN a-na Be-let–dEDIN
r. 9 i-šar-rap
He shall “burn” his first-born son for Sîn, he shall “burn” his eldest daughter
together with two seahs of cedar resin for Bēlet-ṣēri.

Although the verbs that are used (qalû and šarāpu) in this clause denote burn-
ing, it has been established that they refer to the dedication of the children to the
named deities.1496 Another opinion has been expressed by Edward Lipiński, who
sees this formula as proof of sacrificial killing in honour of the moon god, furth-
er asserting that human sacrifice was practised in Ḫarrān until the Middle
Ages.1497 Therefore, for him, this penalty clause is directly linked to the local
moon cult in Ḫarrān. This literal reading of the formula by Lipiński is, however,
weak in light of the philological proof provided by parallel Neo-Assyrian pen-
alty clauses and the fact that there is no evidence for cultic human sacrifice in
Assyria.1498 Moreover, a particular connection with Ḫarrān cannot be established

1495
This penalty clause in general is discussed in Radner 1997a, 211–217 and Faist 2012,
206–207; the formulae involving the dedication of a child to the god Adad are treated in
Schwemer 2001, 606–607.
1496
In Deller 1965, 385 and Radner 1997a, 211–212 the act of burning is understood as
the burning of aromatic substances at the time of the dedication. This is accepted in May-
er & Sallaberger 2003, 99 and in Faist 2012, 206. A differing view is expressed by D.
Schwemer, who rather understands this as a transferred meaning deriving from the ana-
logy between the act of transferral and burning sacrificial materials (Schwemer 2001,
606–607 note 4900). In Menzel 1981, 29 the act is understood as symbolic.
1497
Lipiński 1994, 185. In Lipiński 1988, 155–157 the connection of these penalties with
the child sacrifice in Canaan is stressed. This view is adopted in Theuer 2000, 357.
1498
The substitute king who protects the actual king’s life by taking the inauspicious con-
sequences of an eclipse upon himself being an exception in the matter.
266 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

without doubt, since in each of these attestations the moon god is presented
without a reference to this cult city: it is thus plausible that the local moon gods
of Kalḫu, Nineveh, and Assur were intended to receive the dedicated ser-
vants.1499 Still, it is possible that this penalty formula originated in the region
around Ḫarrān: all the deities to whom similar dedications were made (Adad,
Sîn, Bēlet-ṣēri) were venerated in that area.1500 The reason for the pairing of Sîn
with the Netherworld goddess Bēlet-ṣēri instead of his wife Ningal/Nikkal can-
not be explained because such a pairing is not attested in any other source.1501
The second type of penalty clause involving a donation to the moon god
dealt with horses. The donation of an equid to a god in the case of breach of con-
tract is common in Neo-Assyrian documents. Such a penalty is attested 70 times
in connection with the god Aššur, 28 times in connection with Nergal, and seven
times in connection with Sîn.1502 It is significant that both Aššur and Sîn are
named as recipients of white horses (ANŠE.KUR.RA BABBAR/sisû paṣi’u)
while Nergal receives ḫarbakkannu-horses. In one example, CTN 2 no. 17, the
penalty for breaching the contract involved both the donation of equids to Aššur
and Nergal and the dedication of the eldest son and daughter to Sîn and Bēlet-
ṣēri.
All seven examples of a penalty requiring a horse donation to the moon god
specifically name Sîn of Ḫarrān.1503 In two documents, SAA 6 no. 140 and SAA
14 no. 146, the moon god appears alone.

SAA 6 no. 140, 9’–11’

9’ 10 MA.NA KÙ.BABBAR 5 MA.NA KÙ.GI 4
[ANŠE.KUR.RA.MEŠ]
10’ BABBAR.MEŠ a-na d30 a-šib uru[KASKAL]
11’ ⌈i⌉-dan
He shall pay ten minas of silver, five minas of gold (and) four white [horses]
to Sîn who lives in [Ḫarrān].

SAA 14 no. 146, r. 1’–12’

r. 1’ 2 ANŠE.KUR.RA.MEŠ BABBAR.MEŠ [ina GÌRII d30]
r. 2’ a-š[ib] uruKASKAL i-rak-kas
He shall tie two white horses [at the feet of Sîn] who li[ves] in Ḫarrān.

In three of the cases, Sîn’s wife Ningal/Nikkal is included in the formula as the

1499
For the cult of the moon god in these Assyrian cities see p. 416ff. below.
1500
Faist 2012, 206–207.
1501
See Radner 1997a, 214–215.
1502
Radner 1997a, 306–311. See also Menzel 1981, 61–62 and Faist 2012, 207.
1503
See the list in Menzel 1981, T 195 and Radner 1997a, 308–311.
 II.9. Sîn, Oaths, Curses, and Punishments 267

recipient of a donation of silver and gold (SAA 6 no. 98; SAA 14 no. 193 and
SAA 14 no. 344).

SAA 6 no. 98, r. 1–4

r. 1 ⌈2⌉ [M]A.NA KÙ.BABBAR 2 ⌈MA⌉.[NA KÙ.GI]
r. 2 ina bur-ki dNIN.GAL GAR-an
r. 3 4 ANŠE.KUR.RA.MEŠ BABBAR.MEŠ ina KI.TA
d
r. 4 30 a-šib uruKASKAL i-rak-kas
He shall place two minas of silver and two mi[nas of gold] in the lap of
Nikkal, he shall tie four white horses at the feet of Sîn who lives in Ḫarrān.

In a single conveyance document from Assur, the moon god of Ḫarrān is paired
with Adad of Guzāna, who is slated to receive the monetary fine instead of
Nikkal.1504

StAT 2 no. 53, 19–r. 3

19 10 MA.NA KÙ.BABBAR LUḪ-ú 1 M[A.NA]
20 KÙ.GI sak-ru ina bur-ki d10 š[a]
r. 1 a-šib i[na uruG]u-za-ni i-šá-kan
r. 2 4 ANŠE.KUR.RA BABBAR.MEŠ-te ina GÌRII d[30]
r. 3 a-šib uruKASKAL i-rak-kas
He shall place ten minas of purified silver (and) one m[ina] of refined gold in
the lap of Adad w[ho] lives i[n G]uzāna, he shall tie four white horses at the
feet of [Sîn] who lives in Ḫarrān.

The obvious explanation – and the only one that we have on the basis of the ma-
terial – for the pairing of Adad of Guzāna with Sîn of Ḫarrān is the geographical
closeness of the two places: they are both located in northern reaches of the Eu-
phrates, along the tributaries Ḫabur and Baliḫ, respectively.1505
The last example of this penalty formula, in SAA 6 no. 334, appears to differ
from the others by prescribing a donation of ḫarbakkannu-horses to Sîn.1506 Still,
we cannot be certain of the reading since only the end of the line has been pre-
served and there are no parallels for this formula in the available documentation.
Also unusual in this example is the identification of the god Aššur and the god-

1504
For the weather god of Guzāna (Tell Ḥalaf) see Schwemer 2001, 612–618.
1505
Note also e.g. the naming of Aššur, Sîn of Ḫarrān, and Adad in the treaty between
Aššur-nērārī V and Mati’-ilu of Arpad (SAA 2 no. 2, IV 1–16).
1506
SAA 6 no. 334, r. 15: [4 anšeḪUR-ba-kan-ni ina GÌRII d30 šá uruK]ASKAL ú-še-rab.
The reconstruction of the line is based on the use of the verbal form ušērab that is attes-
ted in formulae involving the donation of ḫarbakkannu-horses to Nergal (see the over-
view in Radner 1997a, 310–311). Also in Radner 1997a, 311 this case is thought to con-
cern ḫarbakkannu-horses.
268 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

dess Ištar as the other beneficiaries of the penalty. If one seeks an explanation
for this triad, it most likely involves the association of Sîn with Aššur during the
reigns of the Sargonid kings. The juxtaposition of Sîn and Aššur is a prevailing
feature in the penalty formulae of horse donation in general; only these two deit-
ies are attested as the recipients of white horses. Therefore, these formulae can
be seen as further evidence for the association between Sîn of Ḫarrān and the
god Aššur.1507 Furthermore, these white horses must have been intended to pull
the carriage of the Ḫarranian moon god at the akītu-festival in the city.1508
The third attested penalty clause associated with the moon god is found in
Neo-Assyrian documents which prescribe a payment of silver and gold to Sîn in
cases where the contract was contravened or breached. In the half of these attest-
ations (three documents out of a total of six), the moon god who will receive the
monetary fine is specified as Sîn of Ḫarrān (SAA 14 no. 213; VAT 8901 and
VAT 5394).

SAA 14 no. 213, 17’–18’

17’ 20 MA.NA [KÙ.BABBAR x MA.NA]
18’ KÙ.GI a-na d30 a-šib uruKAS[KAL SUM-an]
[He shall give] twenty minas of [silver (and) x minas] of gold to Sîn who
lives in Ḫar[rān].

VAT 8901, 13–161509

13 10 MA.NA KÙ.BABBAR LUḪ-i
14 5 MA.NA KÙ.GI [s]ak-rù
15 a-na d30 a-šib uruKASKAL
16 SUM-an
He shall give ten minas of pure silver (and) five minas of [r]efined gold to
Sîn who lives in Ḫarrān.

In both of these cases, the onomastic details in the contract point toward the area
of Ḫarrān. In SAA 14 no. 213, Sē’-immē is one of the owners of the people sold
and Sē’-yatê is the purchaser.1510 In VAT 8901 the owner of the slave woman be-
ing sold has a name with the Aramaic moon god as a theophoric element (Šēr-
nūrī).1511 More well-established conclusions can be made concerning the docu-

1507
See the discussion on p. 395ff. below.
1508
For the use of carriages of deities in the akītu-festival see Pongratz-Leisten 1994,
193–195. See also the overview of the use of horses in cultic contexts in Weszeli 2004,
477–478. For the the moon god’s akītu in Ḫarrān see p. 410 below.
1509
Edited as Deller, Fales & Jakob-Rost 1995, no. 124.
1510
For both of these names and individuals see PNA 3/I, 1101. For the western form for
Sē’/Sī’ for Sîn see the discussion on p. 30ff. above.
1511
This connection is noted already in Deller, Fales & Jakob-Rost 1995, 113.
 II.9. Sîn, Oaths, Curses, and Punishments 269

ment VAT 5394 that records the sale of a slave woman: here the owner of the
slave is unambiguously described as “Ḫarranian”.1512 Therefore, it is not surpris-
ing that the penalty clause prescribes a significant sum of silver and gold to be
paid to Sîn of Ḫarrān if the contract is ever contravened.

VAT 5394 (VS 1 no. 90), 15–161513

15 10 MA.NA KÙ.BABBAR 1 MA.NA
16 KÙ.GI d30 uruKASKAL SUM-an
He shall give ten minas of silver (and) one mina of gold to Sîn of Ḫarrān.

In a very significant exception among the available sources, one document refers
to Sîn of Dūr-Šarrukīn instead of the Ḫarranian moon god. This is the only direct
reference to the moon god of Dūr-Šarrukīn preserved: in all other references he
is merely called Sîn, which has led some Assyriologists to maintain that the
moon god in Dūr-Šarrukīn was actually the moon god of Ḫarrān.1514 In this pen-
alty clause, Sîn is the receiver of the monetary fine whereas the god Nergal –
who is not associated with any cult city – receives the ḫarbakkannu-horses.

SAA 14 no. 220, r. 2–5

r. 2 10 MA.NA KÙ.BABBAR LUḪ-ú
r. 3 1 MA.NA KÙ.GI sak-ru ina bur-ki d30
r. 4 a-šib uruBÀD–IMAN–GIN GAR-an 4 anšeḫar-bak-kan-ni
r. 5 KI.TA dMAŠ.MAŠ ú-še-rab
He shall place ten minas of pure silver (and) one mina of refined gold in the
lap of Sîn who lives in Dūr-Šarrukīn, he shall bring four ḫarbakkannu-horses
to the feet of Nergal.

The final two documents (SU 51/36 and SAA 14 no. 241) containing a penalty
clause specifying the payment of silver and gold to the moon god do not reveal
any specific information concerning his abode. Still, it is plausible that at least
one of them was associated with Sîn of Ḫarrān. This is a conveyance document
from Ḫuzirīna, which includes a payment of ten minas of gold to Sîn as a pen-
alty for contravening the contract.

SU 51/36, 5–61515
r. 5 10 MA.NA KÙ.GI a-na d⌈30⌉
r. 6 SUM-an

1512
VAT 5394 (VS 1 no. 90), 2: uruKASKAL-a-a.
1513
Edited as Kohler & Ungnad 1913, no. 214.
1514
So Uehlinger 1997, 316 (see also the discussion on p. 426ff. below).
1515
See the copy of the tablet and the edition in Finkelstein 1957, 138–141.
270 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

He shall give ten minas of gold to Sîn.

Since Ḫuzirīna was located very close to Ḫarrān and its local cult appears to
have been connected to the moon god’s cult in there, it is very feasible that the
Ḫarranian moon god was meant in this case.1516 Whether document SAA 14 no.
241, with its penalty clause of silver and gold to be paid to Sîn of undisclosed
origin, should be associated with Ḫarrān or not remains unclear, but it should be
noted that the witnesses bear personal names with the theophoric elements
Daddi, Nusku, and Sîn – a possible hint at a connection to the region of
Ḫarran.1517

II.10. Sîn, Illness, and Healing

The conceptions of illness and healing were part and parcel of the theological
framework in which the Mesopotamian deities existed. Gods and goddesses
were seen as sources of illness either directly or indirectly: they could either in-
flict an illness upon a person or allow demonic forces and human sorcerers to at-
tack an individual.1518 The incentive for this can be found in transgressions that
were committed by the individual unknowingly or deliberately.1519 The entries in
the diagnostic handbook Sa-gig illustrate the endeavour to identify the deity re-
sponsible for the sufferer’s symptoms by naming him or her in the phrase “hand
of DN” – a step in the process of healing needed to communicate with the
source of the illness.1520 These diagnoses were based on an elaborate system of
theological knowledge that is, to a considerable extent, inaccessible to us. Cer-
tain primary concepts, however, can be identified, although the reason why a
particular illness was connected to a particular deity often remains opaque. This
is also true in the case of the moon god, who is mainly associated with epileptic
symptoms and skin diseases – specifically leprosy, saḫaršubbû – in the Assyro-
Babylonian medical literature. As is shown by the way leprosy is considered a
divine punishment imposed by Sîn in Assyrian and Babylonian curse formulae,
human transgressions and divine anger were very significant in this respect.1521
Likewise, the moon god’s anger was viewed as the source of epileptic symp-

1516
See the discussion on p. 392ff. below.
1517
SAA 14 no. 241, 7’–8’: [X M]A.NA KÙ.BABBAR 1 MA.NA / [KÙ.GI ina bur-ki]
d
30 i-šak-kan, “He shall place [x m]inas of silver (and) 1 mina of [gold in the lap] of
Sîn.” The witnesses bear names with the theophoric elements Daddi, Nusku, and Sîn (for
the name Daddi as one of the names of the weather god see Schwemer 2001, 81–82).
1518
For overviews of the causes of illness and conceptions of illness and healing in Meso-
potamia see Stol 1991–1992, 44–47 and Maul 2004, 79–95.
1519
See van der Toorn 1985, 67–72.
1520
For “hands of deities” and Mesopotamia diagnostics see especially Avalos 1995, 128–
139; Heeßel 2000, 47–60; and Heeßel 2007, 120–130.
1521
See the overview of curse formulae involving leprosy on p. 255ff. above.
 II.10. Sîn, Illness, and Healing 271

toms.1522 The similarities between conceptions of epilepsy and leprosy inspired

Marten Stol to suggest that these two diseases should perhaps be considered as
two different manifestations of the same affliction: the one occurring externally
on the patient’s skin and the other internally in the form of the epileptic fits.1523
Moreover, Stol hypothesised that the moon’s influence can be seen in these two
diseases in two different ways.1524 Thus, a proposed aetiology for skin diseases is
exposure to the light of the moon, especially during the phase when its luminous
powers are greatest, i.e. during the full moon. On the other hand, according to
this hypothesis, epilepsy was associated with the absence of the moon when de-
monic forces were able to attack humans and cause epilepsy in the darkness of
moonless nights. Still, since no direct elucidation of the moon god’s association
with these two diseases is known from Assyrian or Babylonian sources, this hy-
pothesis cannot be confirmed. Setting aside the disadvantage of not truly under-
standing why the moon god was associated specifically with epilepsy and lep-
rosy, the relevant materials concerning these associations are discussed in the
following section. As will be seen, two prevailing features in the symptoms
caused by the moon god can be distinguished. First, involuntary movement in
the form of shaking and trembling is a common feature of epileptic symptoms
and fever induced by the “hand of Sîn”. Second, in the case of skin diseases, the
colour red marks the involvement of the moon god. Furthermore, it will be
shown that Sîn is only rarely portrayed as a healing god in his epithets or by oth-
er means. The few instances that a healing role for Sîn is underlined are connec-
ted either to aid in childbirth or to healing a patient suffering from māmītu, epi-
lepsy, or skin diseases.

II.10.1. Epilepsy and Fever

Akkadian terminology recognises two different names for illnesses that we
would recognise as being epileptic.1525 The first of them, bennu, appears both in
medical literature and in other sources such as legal contracts. The second name,
in Akkadian miqit šamê, “what has fallen from heaven” (written logographically
AN.TA.ŠUB.BA), is attested as a scholarly term for epilepsy. Only the first term
is directly associated with the moon god in Mesopotamian medical lore: the de-

1522
See the citation of STT 95+, I 35–41 on p. 275 below.
1523
Stol 1993, 147: “Thinking in more sophisticated terms, one might say that epilepsy
and leprosy (or any other severe skin disease) can be considered as internal and external
manifestations of the same affliction.” Note how epilepsy (bennu) and leprosy (epqu) are
juxtaposed as punishments that are ordained by Enlil and that affect the whole land in as-
tral omens (see Reiner & Pingree 1981, 48 [Text VI, 1’]; see also Stol 1993, 129).
1524
Stol 1993, 130. The argument of Stol is also based on the existing connection
between the moon deities and epilepsy and leprosy in Egypt and the Graeco-Roman
world (see Stol 1993, 123–130).
1525
For an overview see Stol 1993, 5–9.
272 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

mon Bennu as the source of epileptic symptoms is identified as the “deputy of

Sîn”.1526 The symptoms listed in BAM 3 no. 202// in connection with the prepar-
ation of therapeutic poultices include the patient constantly shaking and making
a variety of noises. According to the diagnosis, these symptoms are caused by
Bennu, who is further described as a demon (dALAD/šēdu) and a deputy of the
moon god (šanê Sîn).

BAM 3 no. 202//, r. 5’–7’1527

r. 5’ ⌈DIŠ⌉ [N]A ina KI.NÁ-šú Ḫ[ULUḪ.ḪU]LUḪ-ut GIN7 KA ÙZ GÙ-
si
r. 6’ i-ram-mu-um ⌈i⌉-par-ru-ud ma-gal DU11.DU11-ub
r. 7’ ŠU be-en-ni d[A]LAD šá-né-e d30
If a [m]an s[hakes all the t]ime in his bed, shouts like a goat, [roars], is
frightened, (and) talks much: the hand of Bennu, [d]emon, deputy of Sîn.

The same notion is found in Šammu šikinšu which describes the appearance of
medicinal plants and their uses. Here a plant that remains nameless is said to be
beneficial for use against Bennu. Like BAM 3 no. 202//, the entry specifies Ben-
nu to be a demon and a deputy of Sîn.1528

STT 93, 40’–41’1529

40’ Ú GAR-šú GIN7 úŠAKIR PA.MEŠ-šú ⌈TUR⌉.MEŠ SA5 Ú BI [x x x]
ši? ud MU.[NI]
41’ ana be-ni A.RÁ šá-nim d30 SIG1530 ḪÁD.A [S]ÚD ina Ì+GIŠ.MEŠ
ŠÉŠ.MEŠ
The plant (that has) the appearance of šakirû, its leaves are small, it is red:
this plant, its name is [...]; it is good against Bennu, demon, deputy of Sîn.
You dry (it and) [po]und it, use (it) in oil (for) anointing.

Marten Stol explained that the reason a demon was a “deputy” of a god was that

1526
On the other hand, bennu is also associated with Marduk’s planet Jupiter (Šulpae’a)
(see Stol 1993, 14–16 and the commentary VAT 9427, r. 24–26 in Hätinen 2020, 136–
150).
1527
//BAM 3 no. 311, 51’–52’. Cited in Dunham 1985, 253; see also Stol 1993, 6.
1528
A similar, albeit fragmentary, entry involving a plant that is good against Bennu, the
deputy of Sîn is found in BAM 4 no. 379, II 51’: ú[t]a?-x [Ú x x dALAD šá-né-e] ⌈d⌉30
SIG5 SÚD ina Ì.GIŠ ŠÉŠ-[su], “Plant ... [: plant (of) ... demon, deputy] of Sîn; you
pound it and use (it) in oil to anoint [him].” (see Stadhouders 2011, 35 and Stadhouders
2012, 16).
1529
See Stadhouders 2011, 9 and Stadhouders 2012, 3.
1530
The parallel expressions in the other parts of Šammu šikinšu show that this SIG must
stand for SIG5, “to be good” (see passim in Stadhouders 2011, 6–34).
 II.10. Sîn, Illness, and Healing 273

although demonic beings were perceived as belonging to the realm of divine

forces, they lacked the power to function on their own and were acting upon the
instruction of higher deities.1531 Consequently, the demon Bennu was thought to
be following Sîn’s orders when he caused a person to suffer from epileptic
seizures. The moon god’s power over Bennu becomes apparent also in its op-
posite sense: according to the prayer “Sîn 14”, the moon god who able to heal a
person suffering from epilepsy by removing Bennu from that person.1532 The
connection between Bennu and Sîn must also be the principle behind three re-
lated entries in the physiognomic handbook Alandimmû that present them side
by side.1533 Perhaps one reason for the association of Bennu with the moon god
was the periodic nature of the disease: chronic epileptic seizures caused by Ben-
nu appeared in intervals, and therefore it is possible that they were associated
with the disappearance and reappearance of the moon.1534 This may be the mean-
ing of the incipit “My? bennu has been renewed” in a catalogue of texts and their
authors found at Nineveh.1535
The other form of epilepsy, AN.TA.ŠUB.BA/miqit šamê, is not presented as
a demonic force under Sîn’s command. Nevertheless, this form of the disease
and the moon god were associated. This is exemplified by an entry in the diag-
nostic handbook, which gives the diagnosis AN.TA.ŠUB.BA for a set of epi-
leptic symptoms, further identifying it as the “hand of Sîn”.1536 Another entry
shows that the moon god was thought to cause this illness even in cases of chan-
ging symptoms.

Sa-gig 27, 111537

DIŠ ŠU.dINNIN ana AN.TA.ŠUB.BA GUR-šú ŠU d30 : ŠU d15

1531
Stol 1991–1992, 46 and Stol 1993, 6. In addition to Bennu being a šēdu (dALAD), his
divine nature is exemplified by the use of the determinative for divine beings to write his
name in Sa-gig 15, 23’: DIŠ KI.MIN-ma ŠUII-šú u [GÌRII-šú ...] ú-ḫar-ra-as ŠU dBe-en-
nu šá-né d30 GAM, “If ditto and his hands [and his feet ...] he scratches: the hand of Ben-
nu, deputy of Sîn; he will die.” (see Heeßel 2000, 151 and 157).
1532
“Sîn 14”, 9: “(O Sîn), may Bennu that has seized him not approach him; (O Sîn,)
drive it away from his body!” (see the edition on p. 479ff. below).
1533
Alandimmû III, 86–88: DIŠ EN : RI : ḪU LÚ BI be-en-nu x [...] / DIŠ UR : IB
ŠU.BI.AŠ.[ÀM] / DIŠ GÁN : UD LÚ BI šá d30 i-ma-[...], “If the sign EN, RI (or) ḪU (is
drawn on his forehead): that man, bennu [...]. If the sign UR (or) IB (is drawn on his
forehead): ditto. If the sign GÁN (or) UD (is drawn on his forehead): that man, (that) of
Sîn [...] ” (Böck 2000, 94–95).
1534
As suggested in Stol 1993, 7.
1535
Sm. 669, 7’: ú-te-ed-di-iš be-en-ni : TI.LA [...] (see Lambert 1962, 64–65 with the
translation “Epilepsy was renewed”).
1536
Sa-gig 10, 6: AN.TA.ŠUB.BA ŠU d30 (Labat 1951, 80–81).
1537
Heeßel 2000, 309 and 313. See also Stol 1993, 84.
274 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

If the “Hand of the Goddess” changes into AN.TA.ŠUB.BA-epilepsy: the

hand of Sîn : the hand of Ištar.

Aside from the diagnoses of epileptic symptoms caused by Bennu or

AN.TA.ŠUB.BA, the moon god himself is presented as their source by the ex-
pression “hand of Sîn”. One of the best examples for this can be found in the
text STT 89 which ends with a paragraph listing symptoms that were thought to
have been caused by the moon god.1538 These include changes in body temperat-
ure and involuntary movements of the eyes, jaw, and whole body.

STT 89, 205–2121539

205 [DIŠ G]IG SU-šu ⌈i⌉-mim SED DIB-su KÚR.KÚR ŠU d30
206 [DIŠ] IGIII-šú ma-aḫ-ḫa ŠU d30
207 ⌈DIŠ⌉ IGIII-šú it-te-[n]eq-lep-pa-a ŠU d30
208 ⌈DIŠ⌉ IGI-šú šá GÙB gá[p]-ṣa-at u i-sa-šú nu-uš ŠU d30
209 ⌈DIŠ⌉ ⌈SAG⌉.KI-su šá GÙB GU7-šú-ma u it-te-néq-lép-pu ŠU d30
210 [DIŠ LUḪ.LU]Ḫ-⌈ut⌉ LÙ.LÙ ŠU d30
211 [DIŠ ṣ]e-e-ti ana NITA u MUNUS 1-ma
212 [DIŠ I]R NU ⌈TUKU⌉ ŠU 30 AL.TI šá-niš ana
GAL u TUR ŠU-ma
[If] the body of [the s]ick man becomes hot (and) cold, his seizure changes:
the hand of Sîn.
[If] his eyes are suffused: the hand of Sîn.
If his eyes drift: the hand of Sîn.1540
If his left eye squints1541 and his jaw is in motion: the hand of Sîn.
If his left temple hurts and he feels dizzy all the time1542: the hand of Sîn.

1538
According to M. Stol, this manuscript represents a diagnostic tradition that was older
than the diagnostic handbook compiled by Esaĝil-kīn-apli (Stol 1991–1992, 43-44 and
Stol 1993, 91). See also similar entries concerning epileptic symptoms and the “hand of
Sîn” in the Middle Assyrian text VAT 10235 (KAR 211), I’ 21’–22’ (Heeßel 2010, 173
and 175). This manuscript from Assur suggests that the older tradition of diagnostic texts
was kept alive there after the compilation of the new canonical version (see the discus-
sion in Heeßel 2010, 157–159). For the textual history of the diagnostic handbook see
also Wee 2015, 247–287.
1539
See the edition in Stol 1993, 98.
1540
For the meaning of the verb neqelpû in this context see Fincke 2000, 146. See also
Sa-gig 33, 4: “[Wenn] sein [Ge]sicht und seine Augen geschwollen sind, die Sehkraft
schwer und unstetig?(DIRI) ist: ašû ist ihr Name.” (Heeßel 2000, 359).
1541
For the verb gabāṣu with the meaning “to squint (convulsively)”, see the discussion
in Fincke 2000, 104–107.
1542
For the meaning “to feel dizzy” for neqelpû see Sa-gig 22, 19: “Wenn ihm immer
wieder schwindlig wird([DI]RI.MEŠ-pú), seine Eingeweide geschwollen sind, seine Au-
 II.10. Sîn, Illness, and Healing 275

[If he shak]es [all the time] and is constantly confused: the hand of Sîn.
[If ... caused by h]eat: it is the same for a man and a woman.
[If ...] he is not [swe]ating: the hand of Sîn, he will recover. Secondly: it is
the same for the old and the young.

As is demonstrated by the instructions for a leather bag that was used to treat a
person suffering from similar symptoms, shaking – among other symptoms –
was considered to be a sign of the moon god’s wrath. To aid recovery, the patient
wore the leather bag containing the materia medica around his neck, and Sîn
needed to be appeased by means of a penitential prayer.1543

STT 95+295, I 35–411544

I 35 DIŠ NA ina KI.NÁ ḪULUḪ-ut UZU.MEŠ-šú ⌈ú⌉?- x x x [ki-mil-ti]
I 36 [d]30 UGU-šú GÁL-ši a-na BÚR-ri úNU.LUḪ ⌈an⌉-⌈ki⌉-nu-⌈te⌉
I 37 ESIR.ḪÁD?.⌈A⌉ gišMÁ?.GUR8 IM PIŠ10 ÍD SUḪUŠ gišš[ú-š]i šá
UGU ba-x-ti
I 38 ina KUŠ DÙ.DÙ ina GÚ-šú GAR me5-eli lat-ku ana d30 A BAL-qí
I 39 UR5.GIN7 [D]UG4.GA ⌈ÉN⌉ ú x x mir ud1545 ag-gu ŠÀ-ka ⌈li⌉-nu-ḫa
I 40 ka-bat-ta-ka lip-pa-áš-ra DUG4.GA-ma ina GÚ-šú GAR-ma ŠE.GA

I 41 ana ki-mil-ti d30 BÚR-ri úDILI na4ZÁLAG úLÁ SUḪUŠ giššú-ši ina
KUŠ
If a man shakes in his bed and his flesh [..., the wrath] of Sîn is upon him. In
order to undo (it), you wrap nuḫurtu-plant, ankinūte-plant, dried? pitch from
a barge?, clay from a riverbank, liquorice root from the top of ... in a leather
bag, you place it on his neck; a proved poultice. You libate water to Sîn, you
speak thus: “(Incantation:) ... may your angry heart quiet down for me, may
your mind relent for me!” You say (this) and place (the poultice) on his neck,
and it will be favourable.

For undoing the wrath of Sîn: the “lone plant”, zalāqu-stone, ašqulālu-plant,
liquorice root in a leather bag.

genränder geschwollen sind, die Schultern? seiner Füße geschwollen sind und Blut aus
seinem linken Nasenloch läuft: Hand eines Eides, er wird sterben.” (Heeßel 2000, 259).
See also the similar entry in Sa-gig 4, 24: “If his left temple hurts and he feels dizzy all
the time(DIRI.MEŠ-pú): the 5th day; the hand of Sîn [....]” (Labat 1951, 34–35).
1543
Cf. the prayers intended to appease the angered hearts of the deities (diĝir-šà-dab-ba)
that have been edited by W. G. Lambert (1974) and M. Jaques (2015).
1544
See Scurlock 2014, 653 and 659.
1545
The first part of the incipit is read ÉN ú-⌈šá!⌉-[an-nu] ⌈na!⌉-mir-tú in Scurlock 2014,
653. This is unlikely due to the space available for the restored signs and also due to the
otherwise unattested formulation ušannû namirtu (see the attestations in CAD N/1, 229).
276 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

The symptoms associated with the moon god appear to have been perceived in
the same way regardless of the age of the patient. This is demonstrated by a dia-
gnosis of “hand of Sîn” for constant shaking and confusion in a case in which
the patient was a small child. An example of such a case can be found among the
entries in Sa-gig which are parallel to STT 89, 205: the patient is described as
shaking, and being confused and frightened.1546

Sa-gig 40, 47–481547

47 DIŠ lúTUR ig-da-na-al-lut LÙ.LÙ-aḫ u MUD.MUD ŠU d30 u d15
48 DIŠ lúTUR ma-la GU7 i-ḫa-ḫu KI.MIN iṣ-ṣa-na-aḫ ŠUII-šú u GÌRII-
šú it-te-ṣi-la-šú qí-bít KA ana d30 TUKU-ši
If a small child shakes all the time, is constantly confused and frightened: the
hand of Sîn and Ištar.
If a small child vomits everything that he eats, ditto, he has constant diar-
rhoea, his hands and feet are paralysed: he will obtain? a prayer to Sîn.1548

Exceptionally, the latter entry contains no diagnosis-based identity of the dis-

ease, rather it states only that the moon god should be addressed. Although this
statement is terse and no more information is given, it clearly implies that Sîn
was perceived to have been connected to the symptoms and one prayed to him
as a part of their treatment. Moreover, for reasons that must remain unexplained,
Sîn and his daughter Ištar were typically partnered together in cases of illness in
young children. This is evident in the entries in the diagnostic handbook that
speak of the “hand of Sîn and Ištar” as well as of the “sceptre of Sîn and Ištar”.

Sa-gig 40, 55–571549

55 DIŠ lúTUR i-šá-as-si i-gal-lut LÙ.LÙ-aḫ ib-ta-nak-ki u MUD.MUD-
ud ṣer-ḫiš ma-la NAG ut-ta-nar-ra ŠU d30 u d15
56 DIŠ lúTUR ŠUII-šú u GÌRII-šú it-ta-na-an-pa-ḫa IGIII-šú uz-za-na-
qap gišGIDRU d30 u d15

1546
Note also the “blow of Sîn” (nikiptu Sîn) causing symptoms in the stomach/intestines
of a child in Sa-gig 40, 42 (Labat 1951, 222–223).
1547
See Labat 1951, 222–223. A similar entry is also found earlier in the same text, Sa-
gig 40, 35: DIŠ lúTUR ig-da-na-al-lut u LÙ.LÙ ŠU d30 AL.TI, “If a small child shakes
all the time and is constantly confused: the hand of Sîn, he will recover.” (Labat 1951,
220–221). See also Stol 1993, 37.
1548
The logographic spelling TUKU-ši is understood as Š-stem form of bašû in Labat
1951, 222–223, but according to MZL no. 827 this reading should be avoided. The cita-
tion of the passage in CAD Q, 247 is qibīt pî ana Sîn ibašši, “There will be a prayer to
Sîn”, which overlooks the sign TUKU that is clear in the copy of the tablet (BM 92690;
Labat 1951, pl. LIX). The exact meaning of this expression remains unclear.
1549
See Labat 1951, 224–225 and Stol 1993, 37.
 II.10. Sîn, Illness, and Healing 277

57 DIŠ lúTUR um-ma-šú mit-ḫar-ma tu-kul-ti qin-na-ti-šú u GEŠTUGII-

šú ka-ṣa-a gišGIDRU DUMU šip-ri šá d30
If a small child screams, shakes, is confused, cries all the time and is con-
stantly frightened, he throws up everything that he drinks while shouting1550:
the hand of Sîn and Ištar.
If the hands and the feet of a small child are constantly swollen (and) he pro-
trudes his eyes all the time: the sceptre of Sîn and Ištar.
If the fever of a small child is the same but the tukultu of his buttock1551 and
his ears are cold: the sceptre of Sîn’s messenger.

The last entry in this passage adds a new actor to Sîn’s sphere of influence in
this context. The diagnosis “sceptre of Sîn’s messenger” alone remains elusive,
but its meaning becomes clear through other entries in the diagnostic handbook.
A parallel entry which features the diagnosis “hand of Lamaštu”1552 provides a
clue to the identity of the messenger. This information is confirmed by the
entries in Sa-gig 19/20 that name Lamaštu as the “messenger of Sîn” (mār šipri
ša Sîn).1553 Why was the demoness Lamaštu associated with the moon god
through this designation?1554 Significantly, in Sa-gig 19/20 the night with its
three watches is the temporal frame for the attacks of fever(?) caused by
Lamaštu, who is specified as acting on the command of the moon god. For this
reason, the nocturnal element in these attacks may have been affiliated with the
moon god. Such an explanation, however, does not necessarily apply to the entry
that names the “sceptre of Sîn’s messenger” as the source of an infant’s fever,
since no temporal specification is given. Therefore, the logic behind Lamaštu’s
status as Sîn’s messenger cannot be completely understood.
As shown by the entries just cited, the “sceptre of Sîn” (ḫaṭṭu ša Sîn) was
used in a similar fashion as the “hand of Sîn” in connection with epileptic symp-
toms.1555 The exact meaning of this expression remains unclear, but its use in

1550
For the reading ṣer-ḫiš, “while shouting”, instead of ṣer-tú, “nipple; teat”, see AHw,
1091 and Stol 1993, 37.
1551
See Heeßel 2000, 242–243 for tukultu in this context. The meaning of this expression
remains unclear, but the parallel entry in Sa-gig 19/20, 45’ speaks of the right side of the
buttocks.
1552
Sa-gig 19/20, 45’ (Heeßel 2000, 229 and 236).
1553
Sa-gig 19/20, 112’–113’: “[Wenn es ihn während der ersten Nachtwache packt:] Hand
der Lamaštu, der Botin des Sîn : Wenn es ihn während der mittleren Nachwache packt:
Hand der Lamaštu, der Botin der Sîn. / [Wenn es ihn während der letzten Nachtwache
packt:] Hand der Lamaštu, der Botin des Sîn.” (Heeßel 2000, 239).
1554
This association remains overlooked in the discussions concerning Lamaštu in Farber
1980–1983, 439–446; Wiggermann apud Stol 2000, 217–249; Farber 2007, 137–145;
and Farber 2014, 1–6.
1555
For “sceptre of DN” in Mesopotamian diagnostics see the brief overview in Heeßel
278 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

diagnostic texts shows that it was something that was “wielded against” a person
by gods, as opposed to a demon who “seized” a person.1556 Moreover, the
“sceptre of Sîn” was clearly an expression for a specific set of symptoms, as
shown by its use in a description of an epileptic illness caused by a ghost (eṭem-
mu) in BAM 4 no. 385//.

BAM 4 no. 385//, I 15’–17’1557

I 15’ [DIŠ GIG] LÚ GIN7 gišGIDRU ša dEN.ZU GAR-šum-ma G[ÌR-šú i-
kap-pap]
I 16’ [u i-t]ar-ra-aṣ i-ra-am-mu-um u ru-’u-[tú]
I 17’ [ina KA-šú] DU-ak GIDIM mur-tap-pi-du ina EDIN [DAB-su]
[If an illness] is set upon a man like the sceptre of Sîn and [he bends his] l[eg
and st]reches (it) out, he roars, and saliva runs [out from his mouth]: a roving
ghost [has seized him] in the steppe.

In addition to the epileptic symptoms that include shaking, the diagnostic hand-
book associates Sîn with fever and the trembling that appears to be induced by
fever.1558 The 16th tablet of the diagnostic handbook specifies fever that is not ac-
companied by sweating is caused by the “hand of Sîn”.1559 In particular, changes
in body temperature during the day, and trembling, are thought to be caused by
the moon god.

2000, 55–56. This expression is attested in the Sa-gig 27, 32–36 (Heeßel 2000, 300 and
302). Contrary to the accepted interpretation, both Reynolds & Kinnier Wilson 2004, 600
and Kinnier Wilson & Reynolds 2007, 97 maintain that the “sceptre” (or “staff”) was, in
fact, an instrument of healing. Moreover, it is suggested that it may have been “a crutch
provided for the patient’s (paralysed) leg”. The connection to Sîn is given the explana-
tion that this crutch may have had a crescent shaped attachment to allow it fit the pa-
tient’s armpit. It should be noted, however, that Kinnier Wilson and Reynolds do not take
into consideration any occurrences of the phrase “sceptre of DN” in the diagnostic texts
(see e.g. Sa-gig 40, 56–57 cited above): these attestations clearly show that the designa-
tion is parallel to “hand of DN” as presented by Heeßel.
1556
However, one attestation in Sa-gig 27, 34 lacks a verbal form (LÚ GIN7 gišGIDRU šá
d
30 GÌRII-šú; see Heeßel 2000, 300 and 302 and Stol 1993, 80).
1557
See also the duplicate in BAM 5 no. 471, II 21’–22’. An edition of these texts is
found in Scurlock 2006, no. 224. This passage is also attested in Sa-gig 27, 35–36
(Heeßel 2000, 300 and 302). An alternative translation is provided in Kinnier Wilson &
Reynolds 2007, 90.
1558
These are listed as symptoms associated with “hand of Sîn” in Stol 1993, 130.
1559
Sa-gig 16, 56’: DIŠ UD.5.KÁM UD.10.KÁM GIG-ma KÚM u IR NU TUKU ŠU d30
GAM, “If he is ill five days, ten days, he is hot but does not sweat: the hand of Sîn, he
will die.” (Heeßel 2000, 177 and 183). See also Sa-gig 19/20, 11’ (Heeßel 2000, 227 and
235).
 II.10. Sîn, Illness, and Healing 279

Sa-gig 17, 90–941560

90 DIŠ ina šèr-ti KÚM-em ina li-lá-a-ti SED u i-ra-’u-ub ŠU d30
91 DIŠ ina šèr-ti KÚM-em ina li-lá-a-ti SED ina ⌈GI6⌉ ma-šil ù-’
DUG4.GA
92 ŠEŠ-šú ma-a-a-ta-nu KI-šú KEŠDA
93 DIŠ ina šèr-ti KÚM-ma ina li-lá-a-ti SED ŠU d30
94 DIŠ ina šèr-ti KÚM-ma ŠUII-šú u GÌRII-šú i-ra-’u-ú-ba ŠU d30
If he is hot in the morning, cold in the evening, and he trembles: the hand of
Sîn.
If he is hot in the morning, cold in the evening, at midnight he says “Ow!”:
his dying brother is bound to him.
If he is hot in the morning but cold in the evening: the hand of Sîn.
If he is hot in the morning and his hands and feet tremble: the hand of Sîn.

Still, the changes do not necessarily need to happen strictly at these points of
time: the changing character of fever and the patient’s “seizure” are diagnosed as
Sîn’s doing elsewhere in the diagnostic handbook1561 as well as in the earlier tra-
dition.1562 Contrary to the diagnoses given for adults, a lack of fever combined
with trembling in small children is caused by Sîn according to the diagnostic
handbook.

Sa-gig 40, 120–1221563

120 DIŠ lúTUR KÚM NU TUKU IGIII-šú bal-ṣa GÌRII-šú i-ra-’u-ba ŠU
d
30 TIN
121 DIŠ lúTUR KÚM NU TUKU u i-ra-’u-ub ŠU d30
122 DIŠ lúTUR KÚM NU TUKU ra-’i-i-bu DAB.DAB-su ŠU d30
If a small child does not have a fever, his eyes protrude, his feet tremble: the
hand of Sîn, he will recover.
If a small child does not have a fever, but he is trembling: the hand of Sîn.
If a small child does not have a fever, trembling constantly seizes him: the
hand of Sîn.

Sîn’s association with trembling, both in adults and children, enforces the notion
that he was associated with involuntary body movements like epileptic shaking,
feverish trembling, as well as trembling that is not accompanied by fever.

1560
Heeßel 2000, 204 and 210.
1561
Sa-gig 18, 1 (Heeßel 2000, 218 and 220); Sa-gig 19/20, 9’; 12’–13’ (Heeßel 2000,
227 and 235).
1562
STT 89, 205 (see the citation on p. 274 above). See also VAT 10235 (KAR 211), I’
10’–12’ (Heeßel 2010, 171–175).
1563
See Labat 1951, 230–231.
280 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

The available sources show that in addition to being the cause of epileptic
symptoms, Sîn played a role in healing patients suffering from this disease. In
fact, one of the Akkadian prayers to him (“Sîn 14”) focuses emphatically on his
power to help a patient suffering from epilepsy.1564 In addition to this, a few de-
scriptions of therapeutic procedures against epilepsy that took place either be-
fore the moon, or involved the moon’s invisibility, underline Sîn’s role in the
conceptions surrounding this disease. The description in STT 89 is badly pre-
served, but it is clear that at the very least the medicine should be prepared in the
presence of the moon.1565 Better preserved is a Late Babylonian text (BM
47509+) that describes a procedure for healing a patient suffering from
AN.TA.ŠUB.BA-epilepsy.1566 This instruction deals with the fashioning of an
amulet that consists of two bronze crescent moons, one larger and one smaller,
with a Sumerian incantation inscribed on them and three strings of stones. The
instruction specifies that the complete amulet is to be hung around the neck of
the patient.1567 In the accompanying ritual, which took place on the roof in the
presence of the moon, prayers “Sîn 14” and “Sîn 15”, which praise Sîn as a heal-
ing god, are recited.1568 The use of crescent-shaped amulets to ward off the
forces causing epilepsy underlines the moon god’s role as a source of epileptic
diseases: because he had caused the illness, he was also able to heal it. In this re-
spect, it should be noted that similar customs using the form of the crescent
moon as an amulet against epilepsy, a disease of the moon, are attested in clas-
sical antiquity and even in modern day Italy.1569 Another text that describes a
therapy against epilepsy (in this case for a baby suffering from AN.TA.ŠUB.BA-
epilepsy) does not specify that the procedure takes place before the moon. Still,
the recitation of the prayer “Sîn 14” makes clear that Sîn was the deity who was
addressed while a leather bag containing materia medica was prepared and hung
on the baby’s neck.1570
The aforementioned attestations show that therapeutic procedures that took
place before the moon were significant in the treatment of epilepsy. In addition,
the lunar invisibility was also significant in this respect.1571 As suggested by STT

1564
See the discussion on p. 286ff. below.
1565
STT 89, 159–166 (see the edition in Stol 1993, 95). Unfortunately, it remains unclear
whether the complete treatment of the patient should take place in the presence of the
moon or not since even the preserved passages are, to a large extent, unclear; see, how-
ever, lines 164 (ina IGI d30) and 165 (ina ⌈IGI⌉ d30 ḪE.ḪE).
1566
Edited in Schuster-Brandis 2008, 265–269 (Text 7).
1567
BM 47509+, 7’–21’ (Schuster-Brandis 2008, 267–268). See also the citation of the
passage concerning the crescent moons (ll. 7’–10’) on p. 40 above.
1568
BM 47509+, r. 1–22 (Schuster-Brandis 2008, 267–269).
1569
Stol 1993, 126.
1570
See Farber 1989, 116–121. For “Sîn 14” see p. 479ff. below.
1571
See the overview in Stol 1993, 115–117.
 II.10. Sîn, Illness, and Healing 281

300, the 28th day of Abu appears to have been especially significant in this re-
gard since it is defined as beneficial for rooting out AN.TA.ŠUB.BA, Bennu,
Lugalgira,1572 the “hand of god” and the “hand of ghost”.1573 This is likely to
have been the result of ghosts being, for their part, responsible for causing epi-
leptic seizures.1574 Moreover, the absence of the moon plays a prominent role in
the instructions given in the 29th tablet of the diagnostic handbook. This tablet
details therapies against epileptic symptoms in persons of different ages from in-
fancy to adulthood.1575 The most notable feature of these therapies is the use of
botanical or mineral substances that are associated with the moon’s invisibil-
ity.1576 The three-year-old patient should be anointed with šakirû-plant that has
been plucked on the 30th day of the month (i.e. during the moon’s invisibility)
and “ashes of an eclipse” are used for anointing the seven-year-old patient.1577 If
the patient is ten years old, the instruction is to treat him “on the day a [lunar?]
eclipse [takes place?]” and he should be facing the moon.1578 The next three in-
structions in the text do not mention Sîn, but he becomes relevant again at the
age of 30 years: the treatment, in this case, requires the patient to cross the river
seven times while the moon and the sun are not visible.1579 Therefore the absence
of both main celestial luminaries appears to have been essential for the therapy.

II.10.2. Skin Diseases

Another principal group of illnesses associated with Sîn were afflictions of the
skin. The main one of these is what is generally called leprosy in Assyriological
literature (Sum. saḫar-šub-ba; Akk. saḫaršubbû; epqu and garābu).1580 The case

1572
For the identity of Lugal-gìr-ra as Lugal-ùr-ra see Stol 1993, 16–19.
1573
STT 300, 15: UD.28.KÁM AN.[T]A.⌈ŠUB⌉.⌈BA⌉ be-en-nu d[Lu]gal-gìr-ra ŠU.DIN-
GIR.RA ŠU.GI[DI]M.MA ZI-ḫi, “28th day (is for) rooting out AN.[T]A.ŠUB.BA-epi-
lepsy, bennu-epilepsy, Lugalgira, “hand of god”, “hand of ghost” (pace Casaburi 2002–
2005, 66–67; see Stol 1993, 115).
1574
See Stol 1993, 115 and Scurlock 2005–2006, 133.
1575
Heeßel 2000, 318–327.
1576
For a brief overview see Reiner 1995, 134–135.
1577
Sa-gig 29, 5: úŠAKIRA šá ina UD.⌈30⌉.KÁM ZI; 6: DÈ AN.TA.LÙ (Heeßel 2000,
318). For a differing interpretation of these lines see Kinnier Wilson 2007, 62–66.
1578
Sa-gig 29, 8–9: u4-um AN.MI ⌈d⌉[30? GAR?-nu?] / mi-iḫ-⌈rit⌉ ⌈d⌉30 ŠUB-šú, “on the
day a [lunar?] eclipse [takes place?] you lay him down opposite to Sîn” (see Heeßel 2000,
319 and 324).
1579
Sa-gig 29, 19: ina UD.10.KÁM tu-še-ṣa-šum-ma 30 u 20 NU IGI x [... KA]L?-šú 7-šú
u 7-šú ÍD ib-bir-ma [NU GUR-šú], “on the 10th day you let him go out and (when) Sîn
and Šamaš are not seen [...] he crosses over the river seven times and seven times in his
[streng]th? and [it will not return to him]” (see Heeßel 2000, 320 and 324).
1580
See the overviews in Kinnier Wilson 1966, 47–58 and Stol 1987–1988, 22–31; the
skin lesions associated with garābu, epqu and saḫaršubbû are discussed in Scurlock &
Andersen 2005, 231–233. For the purposes of the present discussion, these three are all
282 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

of leprosy is notable for its conspicuous nature as a divine punishment or a res-

ult of divine anger.1581 The most telling sign of this is the widespread use of the
curse formula that features leprosy as a divine punishment for breaching an es-
tablished contract.1582 As already pointed out, the association between the divine
punishment of leprosy and the moon god appears to date back at least to the Old
Babylonian period.1583 The idea that the moon god’s anger was the cause of lep-
rosy is also made clear in sources other than curses: such a suggestion is found
in an entry in the teratomantic omen series Šumma izbu, according to which lep-
rosy was predicted by the scaly skin of the abnormal newborn.

Šumma izbu 17, 54’1584

BE iz-bu ki-ma SUḪURku6 ù [MUŠ qú-lip-tam] ḫa-li-ip uz-za-at dEN.ZU LÚ
ep-qa D[IR]
If an anomaly is covered in scales like a carp or a snake – the anger of Sîn: a
man will be fu[ll] of leprosy.

Despite the firmly established connection between the moon god and leprosy,
the reason for this association remains unclear.1585 Moreover, it should be noted
that Sîn was not the only deity able to impose a punishment of leprosy; his chil-
dren Ištar, Anunītu, and Šamaš also shared this ability.1586
In addition to or in connection with leprosy, a further aspect of skin disease is
associated with Sîn in the Mesopotamian diagnostic tradition: skin symptoms
that are red, more specifically red pustules or boils (bubu’tu sāmtu).1587 This is

broadly understood as “leprosy” despite the difficulties in identifying their exact nature.
1581
Leprosy is discussed as an example of a disease specifically associated with divine
anger and human transgression in van der Toorn 1985, 72–75. In the lexical list Malku
IV, 62–65 dropsy (etillû) and leprosy (saḫaršubbû) are listed directly before and after the
noun arnu, “transgression; guilt” (Hrůša 2010, 96–97).
1582
See the discussion on p. 255ff. above.
1583
UET 6/2 no. 402, 36–38 names epqu as the punishment for breaking an oath by Sîn
and Šamaš (Charpin 1986, 327; see also the citation on p. 256 above).
1584
de Zorzi 2014, 754. See also the commentary SpTU 2 no. 38, 21–22 in de Zorzi 2014,
747 and Jiménez 2015b (CCP 3.6.3.B).
1585
In van der Toorn 1985, 73 the whiteness of skin is put forth as the concept behind
Sîn’s association with leprosy. Such a principle would, however, oppose the apparent
connection between red skin pustules/boils/lesions and Sîn as it is attested in diagnostic
texts. One aspect that may have been significant in this respect is the association of the
moon god with the wilderness: the person afflicted with leprosy (as a punishment by Sîn)
was destined to leave his city, and like the wild animals, roam the steppe (see overview
of the curse formulae concerning saḫaršubbû on p. 255ff. above).
1586
See the discussion on p. 255ff. above.
1587
As noted in Stol 1993, 128 and Heeßel 2004, 109. It seems plausible that the identi-
fication of the bird nannāru as the bird of Sîn is based on its red-speckled appearance – a
 II.10. Sîn, Illness, and Healing 283

shown by the several attestations identifying such symptoms as the “hand of

Sîn” (qāt Sîn). As the entries show, the red pustules could cover either the entire
body of the patient1588 or only his face.1589 The section in the 33rd tablet of the
diagnostic handbook Sa-gig, which gives a list of particular symptoms and the
particular deities those symptoms are associated with, makes the general state-
ment “red boils = hand of Sîn”.1590 This generalised association was also signi-
ficant in the diagnosis of leprosy: a medical text from Emar specifically suggests
that a variant of leprosy (SAḪAR.ŠUB.BA/epqēnu) with green-yellow and red
skin lesions was considered to have been caused by the “hand of Sîn”.1591 The at-
testation from Emar also opposes the notion that leprosy was considered to be
incurable: the entries in this text describe the treatments for various kinds of lep-
rosy and end with the statement that the patient will recover.1592 A treatment for
garābu is also known from a collection of therapies for skin diseases, BAM 6
no. 580.1593 The existence of a white spot, further identified as garābu, on the
body of the patient requires a procedure of burning various materials and then
throwing the burned remains into the river. Although offerings or prayers to the
moon god are not mentioned, the fact that the patient is supposed to swear by
Sîn (nīš Sîn tazakkar) suggests that he was involved in the procedure.

notion similar to the identification of red boils/pustules as a symptom caused by the

moon god (K. 4001+ [CT 40, pl. 49], 41: na-an-na-ru MUŠEN d30 SU-šú SA5 u BAB-
BAR ḪE.ḪE, “nannāru, Sîn’s bird, whose body is speckled with red and white”; see
CAD N/1, 261).
1588
Sa-gig 3, 91–92: [DIŠ ištu SAG.D]U-šú EN GÌRII-šú UD.BU.BU.UL SA5 SA5 u SU-
šú BABBAR KI MUNUS ina KI.NÁ KUR ŠU d30, “[If] he is full of red boils [from] his
[he]ad to his feet and his body is white: he was caught with a woman in the bed; the hand
of Sîn.” (Labat 1951, 28–29; see the copy of the tablet MLC 2639 in Goetze 1948, 305–
308). See also Sa-gig 18, 22 (Labat 1951, 170–171; see the citation on p. 284 below) and
BAM 6 no. 584, II’ 25’–26’.
1589
Sa-gig 9, 47: DIŠ IGI.MEŠ-šú UD.BU.[BU.UL] SA5 SA5.MEŠ ŠU d30 TIN, “If his
face is full of red boils: the hand of Sîn; he will recover.” (Labat 1951, 74–75 and pl.
XIV; also quoted in Heeßel 2004, 109).
1590
Sa-gig 33, 114: Ù.BU.B[U.U]L [S]A5 ŠU d30 (Heeßel 2000, 358 and 363).
1591
KI.MIN SAḪAR.ŠUB.BA SIG7 SA5 ŠU d30 ana ZI-šú ni-il NAM.LÚ.U19.LU
UD.7.KÁM ŠÉ[Š-su-ma TI-uṭ], “Ditto (if) the leprosy is yellow-green (and) red: the
hand of Sîn; in order to remove it you should anoi[nt him] with human semen for seven
days [and he will recover].” (l. 60 in Tsukimoto 1999, 193 and 197; the tablet in question
belongs to a private collection in Japan). The following entry informs that the red, white
and black variant is caused by the personal god of the patient (l. 61).
1592
See ll. 41–84 in Tsukimoto 1999, 192–197.
1593
This text contains also the mythological passage of the moon god observing the suf-
fering of the diseased person (BAM 6 no. 580, II’ 1’–28’; see p. 289 below) as well as a
fragmentary instruction for a therapy that is to be performed during the invisibility of the
moon (BAM 6 no. 580, V’ 5’; see p. 123).
284 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

BAM 6 no. 580, V’ 17’–20’1594

V’ 17’ BE-ma ina SU NA pi-in-du-ú BABBAR ša ga-ra-bu i-qab-bu-š[u
...]
V 18’ udupu-ḫa-du BABBAR KÙ 7 NINDA ZÍZ.ÀM 2 SÌLA zìmaṣ-ḫa-ta ša
N[ITA i-ṭé-nu]
V 19’ 1 SÌLA MUN ŠIM.MEŠ DÙ-šú-nu gišḫu-pe-e ṣar-ba-te ina UGU ab-
ri te-ṣe-en U[ZU uduSILA4 an-ni-i]
V 20’ ta-ka-su-ma MU d30 MU-ár u[duSISKUR ta-na-qi tuš?-ken KEŠDA
DU8-ma GÍBIL ana ÍD ŠUB-di]
If a white spot that is called garābu is [found] in the body of a man [(...)] a
white pure lamb, 7 loaves of emmer bread, 2 qû of roasted flour [ground by
a] m[an], 1 qû of salt, all the aromatics, wood shavings of poplar you pile up
upon a brush pile, you bind the fl[esh of this lamb] and you swear by Sîn.
[You sacrifice a] l[amb, prostrate yourself?, undo the ritual arrangement and
then throw the burnt ritual material into the river.]

Aside from leprosy and skin diseases involving red boils, another aspect of
symptoms that manifest in the skin of the patient is associated with Sîn: black
colouration over parts of the body. This is attested in the entry of the diagnostic
handbook that describes the black colouration on the left arm combined with its
uncontrollable movement as the symptoms of the patient suffering from the
“stroke of Sîn” (miḫiṣ Sîn).1595

Sa-gig 15, 10’1596

DIŠ KI.MIN-ma Á-šú šá 150 GI6-át i-ṭa-mu [SÌG-i]ṣ d30 u uš-te-zeb [GAM]
If ditto and his left arm is black, it moves uncontrollably: [the strok]e of Sîn
and he will be rescued, [he will die].

The colour black in connection with the moon god is also relevant in ailments
related to sexual matters.

Sa-gig 18, 22:1597

[DIŠ ... SU-šú] ⌈GI6⌉ KI MUNUS ina KI.NÁ ka-šid ŠU 30 TIN

1594
This passage is duplicated by YBC 7127, 1’–7’ (Beckman & Foster 1988, no. 11; col-
lated from photographs kindly provided by M. Frazer and E. Jiménez) and KAL 4 no. 41,
1–8. A similar, but not identical, ritual instruction is found in KAR 25, III 13’–20’ (a ma-
nuscript containing the prayer “Sîn 9”; see the edition on p. 474ff. below).
1595
As noted above, the uncontrollable movements of the body (both epileptic shaking
and feverish trembling) appear to be associated with Sîn (see p. 271ff. above).
1596
See Heeßel 2000, 151 and 156.
1597
See Heeßel 2000, 219 and 221.
 II.10. Sîn, Illness, and Healing 285

[If ... his body] is black: he was seized with a woman in bed; the hand of Sîn;
he will recover.

It is worth noting that a Middle Assyrian diagnostic text includes an entry that
associates a body covered with boils with being seized with a woman in bed; the
diagnosis is the “hand of Sîn”.1598 Related also are the two entries in the diag-
nostic handbook that deal with a patient “stricken” either in the loins or the
testicles: these cases are diagnosed as caused by both the demon Šulak and
Sîn.1599

II.10.3. Blindness
A further category of diseases associated with the moon god consists of ailments
affecting the afflicted person’s vision.1600 Importantly, the disease with the name
Sîn-lurmā was not caused by Sîn, but its name contains a reference to the moon
as a celestial luminary. The description of Sîn-lurmā in the diagnostic series con-
cerning eye diseases shows that it most likely applied to both night-blindness
and day-blindness.1601

BAM 6 no. 516, II 30–31’

II 30’ DIŠ NA UD DÙ.A.BI NU IGI.DU8 GI6 DÙ.A.BI IGI.D[U8] d30-lu-
ur-ma-a
II 31’ DIŠ NA UD DÙ.A.BI IGI.DU8 GI6 DÙ.A.BI NU IGI.DU8 d30-lu-ur-
ma-a
If a man does not see anything during the day, (but) during the night he
se[es] everything: Sîn-lurmā.
If a man sees everything during the day, (but) during the night he sees noth-
ing: Sîn-lurmā.

1598
VAT 10235 (KAR 211), I’ 19’–20’: [DIŠ TA] SAG.DU-šú EN GÌRII-šú Ù.BU.BU.UL
[x] šá ma-⌈li⌉ u [zumuršu peṣi/ṣalim] / KI MUNUS ina KI.NÁ ka-⌈šid⌉ ŠU dE[N.ZU],
“[If] he is covered with ... boils from head to feet and [his body is white/black]: he was
seized with a woman in bed; the hand of S[în].” (see Heeßel 2010, 173 and 175).
1599
Sa-gig 12, 128 = TDP 108/17: “[If] he is stricken in his [lo]ins: hand of Šulak; he has
approached his sister (sexually); hand of Sîn; it will be prolonged and he will die” (Labat
1951, 108–109; see also Heeßel 2000, 58); Sa-gig 15, 41’: “Wenn dito und er an seinem
Becken geschlagen ist : an seinem Hoden: Hand des Sîn, er wird lange dauern und er
wird sterben.” (Heeßel 2000, 158). The first of these entries clearly involves sexual
transgressions because it specifies that incest has led to the condition.
1600
This nature of this disease associated with the moon god and the available sources are
discussed in Stol 1986, 295–299 and Fincke 2000, 200–202.
1601
An older form of the disease name is sí-nu-ri is attested in Akkadians texts from
Boğazköy (see Fincke 2000, 201).
286 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

Although these two definitions of Sîn-lurmā oppose each other, the inclusion of
the moon god in the name of the disease must be related to the light the moon
casts during the night. A person suffering from day-blindness may have been
thought to yearn for the moonlit night, and person afflicted with night-blindness
can be assumed to benefit from the moonlight.1602

II.10.4. The Role of Sîn in Healing

In general, Sîn’s role as a god who offers help to ill people is not widespread in
Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian sources.1603 In fact, depictions of the moon
god in this capacity are almost exclusively found in relation to the illnesses that
were theologically connected to him: as the source of a disease, Sîn was also the
deity able to promote the process of healing after his anger had been appeased.
As already shown, the therapeutic measures against epilepsy in particular were
an area of healing in which his presence is apparent. In the case of skin diseases,
a similar number of sources have not been preserved, but it is clear that Sîn was
approached when leprosy was treated.1604 Another context, in which the moon
god offered his aid, was childbirth, as the myth Cow of Sîn demonstrates.1605
Sîn’s favourable disposition towards the pregnant woman could also help her
avoid childbirth during an unfavourable month.1606 Human procreation and fertil-
ity were also areas where the moon god supported people.1607
A high concentration of epithets describing Sîn in the context of healing is
found in the prayer “Sîn 11”, which describes an unnamed illness that the moon
god must root out. Remarkably, the only manuscript containing this prayer is not
concerned with epilepsy or leprosy; it contains a therapy for healing a person
suffering from māmītu.1608 In the prayer “Sîn 11” the moon god is praised in
various ways as a god who takes an interest in the suffering of humans and mer-
cifully allows them to be healed. Sîn’s merciful abilities are praised in line
couplets, which are followed by the themes of prosperity, divine decision-mak-
ing, and celestial luminosity – motifs that are more commonly found in prayers
to Sîn. The first couplet simultaneously focuses on the regenerative powers of
the moon, Sîn’s love for renewal, and his mercy, by which the person in need
will receive help.

1602
See the discussion concerning the etymology of the name in Fincke 2000, 201–202.
1603
See the overview of the relevant epithets in Tallqvist 1938a, 447.
1604
See the discussion on p. 283ff. above.
1605
See p. 241ff. above.
1606
The procedure in VAT 8004// aims at avoiding childbirth in Nisannu through the help
of Sîn and Šamaš (see the edition on p. 507ff. below).
1607
See p. 236ff. above.
1608
See the transliteration and translation of “Sîn 11” on p. 477ff. below. For an overview
of māmītu see Maul 2004, 79–95.
 II.10. Sîn, Illness, and Healing 287

“Sîn 11”, 6–7

d
6 ⌈30⌉ ⌈i⌉-⌈de⌉-⌈šu⌉-u ša bu-⌈ul⌉-lu-ṭu i-ra-mu
d
7 30 DINGIR réme-nu-⌈u⌉ ⌈šá⌉ ⌈na⌉-⌈ás⌉-⌈ḫur⌉-šú DU10.GA
O Sîn, the one who continually renews himself, the one who loves to revive!
O Sîn, the merciful god whose attention is good!

The second couplet a few lines later stresses Sîn’s ability to free the afflicted
person of his illness and to give him a healthy life: this is expressed through the
epithets nāsiḫ murṣi, qā’iš balāṭi, nāsiḫ zīri, and šākin šulme.

“Sîn 11”, 10–11

d
10 30 na-si-ḫi GIG NÍG.BA TI.LA
d
11 30 ZI ḪUL.GIG GAR-nu šùl-me
O Sîn, the one who roots out the sickness, the one who endows health!
O Sîn, the one who roots out hate, the one who equips with wellness!

This same theme of removing the illness that afflicts the patient forms the basis
of the plea to Sîn at the end of the prayer.

“Sîn 11”, 16–17

d
16 30 ZI GIG šá ina SU-ia5 DÙ-u
d
17 30 ZI GIG TI.LA NÍG.BA
18 DINGIR-ut-ka GAL-tú qur-di-ka lu-IGI
19 ina GIG an-ne-e šu-zi-ba-ni-ma la ÚŠ
20 la-ḫa-bíl a-na UZU a-sak-ki ⌈lu⌉ la ŠID-nu
21 ZI GIG ša SU-ia5 TI.LA qi-⌈šá⌉
O Sîn, root out the illness that has been created in my body!
O Sîn, root out illness, equip with life!
May I see your great divinity, your heroic powers!
Save me from this illness so that I will not die,
so that I will not be treated unjustly, so that I will not be reckoned as belong-
ing to the asakku-demon!
Root this illness out of my body, equip with life!

The only other prayers that emphatically depict Sîn allowing patients to be
healed are “Sîn 14” and “Sîn 15”, which are found in therapies for epileptic dis-
eases.1609 “Sîn 14” asks him to drive away the Bennu-demon and to protect the
patient against it.1610 The prayer “Sîn 15” uses phraseology similar to the lines in

1609
See the editions on p. 479ff. below (“Sîn 14”) and Schuster-Brandis 2008, 265–269
(“Sîn 15”). Both of these prayers are found as a part of the therapy in BM 47509+.
1610
“Sîn 14”, 9: “(O Sîn), may Bennu that has seized him not approach him; (O Sîn,)
288 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

“Sîn 11” above: the moon god is begged to root the illness out of the body of the
patient.1611 Moreover, the line that precedes this plea declares the moon god to be
“the one who roots illness out of all the people” (nāsiḫ murṣi ša nišī kalāma).1612
The other major motifs representing Sîn as aiding suffering humans are
found in two mythological stories, one related to childbirth and the other to skin
diseases. These two myths are united by their depiction of Sîn as a celestial
deity, who is residing in the sky when he witnesses the complications or ill-
nesses that earthly creatures must endure. The best-known example of this is the
widely attested mythological story of a cow in birth pangs, Cow of Sîn.1613 The
cries of this cow that metaphorically depicts the woman in labour reach the
moon god Sîn in heaven.1614

BAM 3 no. 248, III 20–241615

III 20 UD.MEŠ-ša ina qu-ut-ti-i ár-ḫi-šá ina ga-ma-ri
III 21 ÁB ig-ta-lit ú-ga-al-lit
III 22 re-é-a-šá ap-pa-šu qá-di-is-su ka-par-ru ka-li-šú-nu sap-⌈du⌉-šú
III 23 ana ik-kil-li-šá ana ri-gim ḫa-li-šá ne-pal-saḫ dNanna-ru
III 24 d30 ina AN-e iš-tam-me ri-gim-šá iš-ši qa-as-su šá-ma-me
Her days being about to be finished, her months becoming complete, the cow
trembled and caused fear. Her herdsman was bowed down, all of the young
shepherds were mourning over her. At her cries, at the noise of her birth
pangs, Nannāru was fallen (in despair)1616, Sîn in heaven listened to her voice
and lifted his hand to the heavens.

The incantation continues with a description of how two lamassus descend from
heaven to aid the cow. This most likely occurs on Sîn’s command, although this
is not explicitly expressed in the text. It should also be noted that the sadness of
the moon god connotes the darkening of the moon according to a medical com-

drive it away from his body!” (see p. 479ff. below).

1611
“Sîn 15”, 4: [...] x x u-suḫ GIG šá SU-MU, “[...] ... root the illness out of my body”
(see Schuster-Brandis 2008, 268).
1612
“Sîn 15”, 3: [d3]0 na-si-iḫ [G]IG šá UN.MEŠ DÙ.A.BI at-ta, “[O S]în, you are the
one who roots [i]llness out of all the people!” (see Schuster-Brandis 2008, 268).
1613
See the overview on p. 241 above.
1614
In an Old Babylonian variant of this motif in VS 17 no. 34 both Sîn and Šamaš hear
the cries of the cow (van Dijk 1972, 343–345). The cries of the woman giving birth
reaching the heaven is a motif attested already in the Sumerian birth incantations (see
e.g. UM 29-15-367, 10–11 in van Dijk 1975, 55).
1615
See the transliterations in Röllig 1985, 262–263 and Veldhuis 1991, 61–62. See
Veldhuis 1991, 8–9 for a different understanding of the structure in the lines III 21–22.
1616
This expression undoubtedly refers to a lunar eclipse. For the metaphorical expres-
sions of the mourning moon god in relation to lunar eclipses see p. 167ff. above.
 II.11. The Family and Household of Sîn 289

mentary on the therapeutic measures taken for a difficult childbirth.1617

A mythological passage depicting Sîn as a god who notices human suffering
can also be found in an incantation against illnesses with visible symptoms on
the patient’s body (simmu).1618 In this case, as opposed to hearing the wailing of
a woman in labour, Sîn sees the person who thrashes about on his or her bed due
to the fever caused by the illness. After this has caught Sîn’s attention, he speaks
to the Enlil, Ea, and Bēlet-ilī.1619

CTN 4 no. 116//, r. 10’–15’1620

r. 10’ [GURUŠ na-di i-dam]-mu-um KI.SIKIL ⌈na⌉-da-at it-tap-pa-a[ṣ]
r. 11’ [i-mur-š]u ⌈d+EN⌉.⌈ZU⌉ ⌈e⌉-da-n[u-uš-šú]
r. 12’ [dEn-líl dÉ]-⌈a⌉ u DINGIR.MAḪ ul-te-eḫ-sí-su ina UGU-š[u]
r. 13’ [dEN.ZU pa-a-š]u [D]Ù-uš-ma i-qab-b[i]
r. 14’ [ana dEn-líl dÉ-a u] ⌈DINGIR⌉.MAḪ i-[za-k]ar : niš-ku-un-⌈ma⌉ i-na
ma-a-ti sim-mi
r. 15’ [TA a-me-lu-ti ni-i]b-na-a mu-ta [b]a-lá-ṭa ni-ir-ku-sa it-ti-š[ú]
[The young man is lying there, he mo]ans; the young woman is lying there,
she thrash[es] about. Sîn [saw h]im in [his] lonelin[ess], [Enlil, E]a, and
Bēlet-ilī became worried about hi[m]. [Sîn op]ened hi[s mouth] and spok[e],
he s[ai]d [to Enlil, Ea and] Bēlet-ilī: “We have indeed established simmus in
the land! [After we cr]eated [the mankind], we bound death (and) [l]ife to
i[t]!”

These two motifs – both reflecting the established theological association of Sîn
with pregnancy and skin afflictions – show that the moon god was thought to
have been interested in the life of the people when he was visible in the night
sky: he either saw or heard the suffering below.

II.11. The Family and Household of Sîn

For the final part of this section that focuses on the theologies of the moon god
in Assyria and Babylonia, the following chapters will present the deities that
were associated with Sîn during the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods.
The family and household structures are an especially important element in local

1617
See the discussion on p. 170 above.
1618
The Akkadian term simmu is often translated as “wound” (so in AHw, 1045; in CAD
S, 276–278: “carbuncle, skin eruption; general term for a disease”). The definition
offered by Marten Stol is that simmu is a designation for “a disease with immediately
visible symptoms” (Stol 1993, 11; see also Stol 1991–1992, 63) and this is followed
here.
1619
This must be a reference to the creation of man followed by the creation of the means
to restrict the number of people in Atraḫasīs.
1620
Duplicated by BAM 6 no. 580, II 1’–28’; see the edition in Geller 2000, 336–339.
290 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

theologies, but they also have significance in the supra-regional mythologies

that reflect the genealogical relationships of the deities.1621 As a result of the in-
termingling of different traditions, contradictory concepts are occasionally found
in the sources from these periods. This is exemplified by the three separate tradi-
tions connected to Sîn’s son. In Ur, the heir of the moon god was Ningublaga, a
deity associated with cattle, whereas in Ḫarrān, the son of Sîn was Nusku, a god
of light. In addition, the sun god Šamaš was thought to be the first-born son of
the moon god – a tradition that was found throughout Babylonia and Assyria.
Likewise, although Ištar was generally portrayed as Sîn’s daughter, the moon
god had two other daughters in Ur, namely the goddesses Amarazu and Am-
araḫea. The one notion that did not change was the moon god’s marriage with
Ningal, the goddess who stood at his side in Sumero-Babylonian tradition as
well as in the traditions of northern Mesopotamia and North Syria.
The following chapters will discuss the most important deities in Sîn’s family
and household through their relationship to him. We will begin with the parents
of Nanna/Sîn and proceed to his wife, children, and vizier. It should be noted
that it is not the purpose to include every member of the moon god’s household
attested in the god-list An = Anum in this discussion: only the deities that have a
relationship with Sîn in sources other than lexical lists are discussed here. This
means that the lesser deities in Sîn’s household – the guards, the balaĝ-gods, and
the shepherd – must go unremarked.1622 As for the other deities – the divine
couple Nindara and Nanše together with their servants – their character in the
moon god’s household is not sufficiently explicated in available sources, and
therefore they will not be discussed in the following chapters.1623 An overview of
the household of the moon god as it is presented in the god-list An = Anum is
given in the tables 14–16 (p. 327–329).1624

1621
For the different cult places of Sîn in Assyria and Babylonia during the Neo-Assyrian
and Neo-Babylonian periods see the discussion on p. 330ff. below. For an insight into the
relationship between cult practice, myth, and the various deities housed in a single
temple see Meinhold 2013, 325–334.
1622
An overview of these deities can be found in Krebernik 1995, 365–366. See also the
overview of courtiers in divine households in Renger 1972–1975, 435–437. The balaĝ-
deities (GU4.BALAĜ) have recently been discussed in Gabbay 2014a, 103–114 as well
as in Heimpel apud Franklin 2015, 584–589 and 628–629.
1623
The god Nindara(a), who is equated with Sîn in An = Anum III, 65 is briefly dis-
cussed on p. 243 above. For an overview of his wife Nanše, a goddess affiliated with
birds, see Heimpel 1998, 152–160. Of the deities associated with them in the moon god’s
household the goddess Nin-MAR.KI deserves a special mention since her inclusion in
the list is plausibly due to her affiliation with cattle (see Sallaberger 2001, 463–468).
1624
These tables are based on the edition of the text in Litke 1998, 116–128 and Feliu
2006, 232–238. Improvements to the readings of the names are based on Krebernik
1995, 363–366 and Heimpel apud Franklin 2015, 628–629. The names of Nin-MAR.KI’s
 II.11. The Family and Household of Sîn 291

II.11.1. Enlil and Ninlil

According to the prevailing Sumero-Babylonian tradition, the moon god Sîn was
the first-born son of the deities Enlil and Ninlil.1625 The most explicit testimony
of this is the Nippurian myth Enlil and Ninlil which recounts how Nanna/Sîn
and his brothers Nergal/Meslamtae’a, Ninazu, and Enbilulu came into being.1626
In the story, the god Enlil takes the goddess Ninlil forcibly as she is bathing in
the river, planting the seed of Sîn-Dilimbabbar in her womb. As a consequence
of this rape, the gods banish him, and he leaves the city. As he is making his way
towards the Netherworld, the pregnant goddess Ninlil follows him, asking the
gate-keeper, the man of the River of the Netherworld, and the man of the ferry if
they have seen Enlil. In the guise of these three men, Enlil again has sex with
Ninlil, promising that the first seed, the seed for the moon god, will rise into the
heavens, and the three younger deities who are the results of the later sexual acts
will go down to the Netherworld, presumably as a substitute for Enlil himself,
Ninlil, and the first-born Sîn-Dilimbabbar.1627
The genealogical relationship between Enlil and Nanna in the myth Enlil and
Ninlil is based on a concept that can be traced back to the earliest texts treating
mythological themes: among the Early Dynastic texts from Tell Abu Ṣalābīḫ,
one attestation clearly names the gods Enlil and Ninlil as the parents of the
moon god Nanna.1628 Since this attestation shows that Enlil was considered the
moon god’s father already during the Early Dynastic period, the suggestion that
the emergence of their mythological relationship should be dated to the Ur III
period – more specifically to the reign of Ur-Namma – loses any credibility.1629

and Ga’u’s children are left out of this table. For these names see Litke 1998, 125–128;
Krebernik 1995, 365–366 as well as SpTU 3 no. 107+, 64–76 and 80–87.
1625
See Hall 1985, 726–728.
1626
Enlil and Ninlil has been edited by H. Behrens (1978). See also the translation in
Cooper 1980, 184–188 and the edition available online in ETCSL 1.2.1. Its celestial con-
notations, namely in explaining how the moon as a celestial object came to be, are dis-
cussed in Cooley 2013, 111–113. Although this myth is known from manuscripts that are
mostly Old Babylonian, the existence of a bilingual Neo-Babylonian manuscript for the
text reveals that it was transmitted still in the 1st millennium BCE (see Behrens 1978, 8
[Ms C: 80-11-12, 484]). It has also been suggested that also the manuscript D (N 2234)
in Behrens’ edition is, in fact, Neo-Babylonian, not Old Babylonian (Cooper 1980, 176).
1627
For this interpretation see Afanasieva 1980, 165–166. In Cooper 1980, 179 the three
deities are understood as a substitute for only Enlil.
1628
IAS no. 114, I 14–16: UDNanna ama a UDKIŠ-NUN UDNin-líl, “Nanna – (his) parents
Enlil and Ninlil” (Krebernik 1995, 364 and Krebernik 1998, 322 note 806). This attesta-
tion is left unnoticed in Klein 2001, 290.
1629
The emergence of the mythological relationship between Enlil and Nanna/Suen dur-
ing the reign of Ur-Namma, replacing the older tradition of the moon god as a son of An,
the sky god, is proposed in Klein 2001, 279–301.
292 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

Still, the possibility that this father-son relationship of Nanna/Suen and Enlil
was perhaps emphasised by the rulers of the Ur III dynasty, in order to
strengthen the bond between Nippur and Ur, seems likely.1630 The sky god An/
Anu, who is connected with the moon god by the geographical proximity of
Uruk to Ur and the celestial nature of these both gods, is also portrayed as the
father of the moon god in Sumerian literary sources.1631 It should, however, be
noted that both Anu and Enlil appear as his fathers in an Old Babylonian adab-
composition to Nanna.1632 Despite the references to Anu being the father of the
moon god, Sîn is most often described as the first-born son of Enlil in Neo-As-
syrian and Neo-Babylonian sources. This certainly applies to the broader
Sumero-Babylonian tradition, including the local cult in Ur, but the situation in
the local cult in Ḫarrān remains less clear due to the lack of material. Still, it
should be noted that the epithet mār rubê, “son of the prince”, given to Sîn of
Ḫarrān in an inscription of Assurbanipal, hints at the possibility that the moon
god of Ḫarrān was also thought to be Enlil’s son.1633 The suggestion that the sky
god Anu was considered the father of Sîn in Ḫarrān can now be rejected, since
the one supposed attestation of this genealogical relationship in the Eḫulḫul in-
scription of Assurbanipal is, in reality, a reference to the “Theology of the
Moon”, which associates the moon god with the gods Anu, Ea, and Enlil during
the first half of the lunar cycle.1634
Sîn’s status as the son of the king of the gods is underlined in some of his
names and epithets that are found in textual sources from the 1st millennium
BCE. Although there is a spatial separation between the names of the moon god
Sîn and his father Enlil in the god-list An = Anum,1635 the status of Sîn as the son
(of Enlil) is established in two of his appellations: dDumu-nun-na, “Son of the

1630
The cult of Nanna was introduced to Nippur during the reign of Šulgi (see the discus-
sion on p. 368ff. below).
1631
The epithet “son of An/heaven” (dumu an-na) is used in Nanna K (VS 2 no. 68), r. 26
(Sjöberg 1960, 80–82; see also ETCSL 4.13.11). See also Tallqvist 1938a, 119.
1632
Nanna H (see the editions in Sjöberg 1960, 35–43 and ETCSL 4.13.08). Note also the
existence of a similar phenomenon for the two other principal celestial luminaries,
Šamaš and Ištar: they are depicted as having both Anu and Sîn as their fathers (see p.
305ff. below).
1633
Sm. 671, 18: [... dNi]n-gal ḫi-rat DUMU NUN-e dN[anna-ri], “[... Ni]ngal, spouse of
the son of the prince, N[annāru]” (see Bauer 1933, Pl. 49 and Novotny 2003, 249). Enlil
in the role of Sîn’s father is in keeping with the supposed Sumerian origin of the Ḫarrani-
an cult of the moon god (see p. 387ff. below).
1634
The sky god Anu as the father of Sîn in Ḫarrān (on the basis of K. 8759+, 11) is noted
in Groß 2014, 149. See, however, the new reading of this line on p. 142 above.
1635
The fact that Sîn is separated from Enlil in An =Anum and its Old Babylonian precur-
sor is presented in Klein 2001, 291 note 61 as possible evidence for an earlier tradition,
in which An was the moon god’s father.
 II.11. The Family and Household of Sîn 293

Prince” and dDumu-gi7, “Noble Son”.1636 A similar epithet for the moon god is
well-attested in Sumerian literary sources: “princely son” (dumu nun).1637 The
appellation “Son of the Prince” is even found as a theophoric element in the
name of Lú-Dumu-nun-na, an ancestor of a famous Nippurian scribal family.1638
The Sumerian epithet and appellation “Son of the Prince” for Sîn finds its Akka-
dian counterpart in the aforementioned epithet mār rubê.1639 This epithet is most
notably found in a god-list fragment that lists deities belonging to Enlil’s house-
hold: the moon god, named Egi and Sîn, receives the further designation mār
rubê, “son of the prince”.1640 It is, therefore, clear that the epithet describes Sîn
as Enlil’s son.
The source that offers perhaps the most abundant references to the father-son
relationship of Enlil and Sîn within a single text is one the ikrib-prayers to
Sîn.1641 This prayer contains a direct reference to Enlil as Sîn’s father, in addition
to other epithets that reflect this relationship. Sîn is not only called the “heir of
Enlil” (apil Enlil),1642 but also the “true heir” (aplu kunnû),1643 the “beloved son”
(māru rāmu),1644 and the “[splen]did one of E[kur]” ([šūp]û ša E[kur]).1645 In the
šu’ila-prayers to Sîn, the epithets šūpû ša Ekur, “splendid one of Ekur”,1646 and
aplu ašarēdu, “supreme heir”,1647 are used to address the moon god. Even if the
god Enlil himself is not mentioned in these sources, the epithets clearly present
Sîn as his first-born son. Bilingual incantations, especially in the series Udug-
ḫul, bring forth Sîn and Enlil’s genealogical relationship: the eclipsing moon god

1636
An = Anum III, 15–16 (see Litke 1998, 118 and Feliu 2006, 235); see also Krebernik
1995, 363 and Tallqvist 1938a, 444.
1637
See Sjöberg 1960, 142 and Hall 1985, 646–647.
1638
See the overviews of Lú-Dumu-nun-na in George 2009, 135 and 145 and Frahm
2011, 302. Some of the colophons containing his name designate him as “Sumerian”, see
e.g. the medical commentary 11N-T3 in Civil 1974, 331–336. This name is considered to
be a Sumerian translation of the Akkadian name Awīl-Sîn.
1639
See e.g. the attestations in Nabonidus’ inscriptions (Schaudig 2001, 2.5, I 11: dNanna-
ri DUMU ru-bé-e ú-ṣab-ba-a nab-ni-it-su, “Nannāru, the son of the prince, supervised
his creation”; Schaudig 2001, 2.7, I 2: DUMU ru-bé-e gi-is-ki-im-ma-šu ú-kal-li-im ad-
na-a-tì, “the son of the prince showed his sign to the whole world”).
1640
K. 1451 (CT 25, pl. 49), r. 6: dE4-gi7 | d30 DUMU ru-[bé-e], “Egi = Sîn, son of the
prince”. The colophon of the tablet states that it was copied from an original from
Babylon. Note that this appellation is parallel to dDumu-gi7 in An = Anum III, 16 – only
the element dumu is replaced with e4.
1641
See ll. 23’–56’ in the edition of K. 2751+// on p. 483ff. below.
1642
K. 2751+ //, 24’.
1643
K. 2751+ //, 37’.
1644
K. 2751+ //, 37’.
1645
K. 2751+ //, 24’. See also the incompletely preserved reference to Ekur in line 43’.
1646
“Sîn 1”, 14 (see the edition on p. 452ff. below).
1647
“Sîn 14”, 1 (see the edition on p. 479ff. below).
294 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

is called the “son of the prince” (dumu nun-na/mār rubê) in the lunar eclipse
myth included in the series.

Udug-ḫul 16, 581648

dumu nun-na u4-sakar dSuen-na an-na su-mu-ug-ga-bi gig-ga
mar ru-bé-e na-an-na-ri d30 šá ina AN-e mar-ṣi-iš i’-ad-ru
son of the prince, luminary Sîn, who is being cruelly darkened in the heaven

Elsewhere in the series Sîn is portrayed as the “first-born son of Enlil”, and he is
presented among the other members of Enlil’s family (Ninlil, Ninurta, and
Nusku).1649 A similar formulation can be found in an adjuration in a manuscript
of ḫul-ba-zi-zi incantations: also here the moon god is portrayed as the first son
of Enlil (dumu-saĝ dEn-líl-lá/māru rēštû ša dEnlil) while his celestial luminosity
and power over divine decisions are also described.1650
Similar to these attestations in prayers, Sîn is often referred to as the son of
Enlil in Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions. A peculiar formulation referring to this
father-son relationship can be found in the cylinder inscription of Sargon II, in
which the epithet bin Daragal, “son of Daragal”, is used to describe him.

Sg Zyl, 571651
i-na itiṢi-i-taš ITI bi-in dDàra-gal KU5-is EŠ.BAR mu-šak-lim ṣa-ad-di
d
NANNA AN-e KI-tim qar-rad DINGIR.MEŠ dEN.ZU
In the month of the sunrise,1652 the month of the son of Daragal, the maker of
decisions, the revealer of signals, luminary of the heavens (and) the earth, the
hero of the gods, Sîn

This unique epithet finds an explanation in dDàra-gal, one of Enlil’s names in the
god-list An = Anum.1653 In a similar vein, a citation of the menology Iqqur īpuš is

1648
Geller 2007, 180 and 253 as well as Geller 2016, 515.
1649
Udug-ḫul 5, 118: zi dSuen-na dumu-saĝ dEn-líl-lá-ke4 ḫé-pà, “Be adjured by Sîn, the
first-born son of Enlil!” (see Geller 2007, 123 and 211 as well as Geller 2016, 199).
1650
LKA 77//, II 35–36: zi dSuen-n[a | niš d30] / dumu-sa[ĝ dEn-líl-lá | ma-ri-reš-ti-i šá
d
En-líl] (see Ebeling 1953b, 366–367; the whole section concerning Sîn is LKA 77//, II
35–47). A copy of the duplicate K. 2725 is published in Meek 1920, 125–126, but new
unpublished joins to the tablet have been since made. An edition of the ḫul-ba-zi-zi in-
cantations has been announced by Irving Finkel.
1651
Fuchs 1994, 41 and 294.
1652
The month Ṣītaš is equated with the month Simānu (see CAD Ṣ, 215).
1653
An = Anum I, 163: dDàra-gal | MIN(=Enlil) (see Litke 1998, 39 and Feliu 2006, 244).
Cf. the names dMen-dàra-an-na and dMen-dàra-dingir-ra for Sîn in An = Anum (see the
discussion on p. 60ff. above). Note also the names of Ea built around the element dàra in
An = Anum II, 143–147 (Litke 1998, 84). The similarity between the names of Enlil and
 II.11. The Family and Household of Sîn 295

included in the description of Assurbanipal’s campaign against Elam: the cam-

paign is described as having begun “in Simānu, the month of Sîn, lord of the
decisions, first and foremost son of Enlil (māru rēštû ašārēdu ša Enlil)”.1654 This
is clearly a reference to Iqqur īpuš in which Simānu, the third month of the year,
is associated with Sîn, “the first-born son of Enlil” (Simānu ša Sîn māri rēštî ša
Enlil).1655 Sîn’s status as the son of Enlil appears to have been significant in the
context of menologies since a second tradition, which names Nisannu, the first
month of the Babylonian year, as the month of Sîn, also uses the same epi-
thet.1656 And again, the same epithet, mārû rēštû ša Enlil, is also used in the ex-
planatory text i-NAM-giš-ḫur-an-ki-a, in the section concerning the meaning of
the logogram UD.NÁ.ÀM and the renewal of the moon.1657
It is possible to find a connecting factor between the aforementioned depic-
tions of Sîn as Enlil’s son despite their different contexts: most of them are con-
nected to the moon god in his aspect as a divine decision-maker. In the ikrib-
prayer that forcefully highlights Sîn’s status as the foremost son of Enlil, he is
expected to act as a judge and give a verdict in the extispicy case. In the šu’ila
“Sîn 1”, the use of the epithet šūpû ša Ekur is in the context of a divine as-
sembly, in which the other great gods ask the moon god and he provides an an-
swer that is later made manifest either in celestial signs or in a dream. Likewise,
Sîn’s ability to make decisions as the son of Enlil is plausibly the reason for
naming him the first-born son of Enlil in the explanation for his disappearance
and renewal in i-NAM-giš-ḫur-an-ki-a. Celestial divination is also the context
for the lunar eclipse myth in the 16th tablet of Udug-ḫul: the moon is here de-
scribed as a celestial sign-giver that is darkened by demons. In the royal inscrip-
tions of Sargon II and Assurbanipal, the epithets pāris purussê and bēl purussê,
“maker of decisions” and “lord of decisions”, are used in connection with Sîn as
the son of Enlil, thereby associating their genealogical relationship with divine
decision-making. The description of the moon god as mār rubê, “son of the
prince”, in the En-niĝaldi-Nanna Cylinder of Nabonidus is likewise connected
to the divine will that Sîn makes manifest through a lunar eclipse. Moreover,

Ea appears to have caused the false identification of Dàra-gal as Ea in Cohen 2015, 413.
1654
Assurbanipal Prism A, IV 110–111; Prism F, III 33–34: ina itiSIG4 ITI dSîn EN
EŠ.BAR DUMU reš-tu-u a-šá-re-du šá dEn-líl (Borger 1996, 45 and 237; see also
RINAP 5/I nos. 11 and 9, respectively).
1655
Labat 1965, 196 (§ 105, 3).
1656
Nisannu is identified as Sîn’s month in the Astrolabe B (KAV 218; see the edition in
Reiner & Pingree 1981, 81). The Sumerian part of the section describing Nisannu ends
with the lines [it]i dNanna dumu-saĝ / dEn-líl-lá-ke4 (I 5–6), and the following Akkadian
part ends with the lines ITI dEN.ZU / DUMU reš-ti-i šá d+En-líl (I 10–11). The month
list attested in Astrolabe B can also be found in EAE 51, Text X 24–35 (Reiner & Pingree
1981, 62) with the same formulations.
1657
K. 2164+, r. 14’ (see the citation on p. 123 above).
296 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

Sîn’s appearance as Enlil’s first-born son in the ḫul-ba-zi-zi incantation is also

connected to his power over divine decisions: lines that appear later in the adjur-
ation highlight the unchangeability of his word.1658 This shared theme of divine
decision-making in the references to Sîn as the son of Enlil suggests that his
abilities in this respect should perhaps be seen as a reflection of Enlil’s own
powers in divine decision-making.1659

II.11.2. Ningal
According to Sumerian tradition, which also spread to northern Mesopotamia
and Syria, the goddess Ningal was the moon god’s spouse.1660 As the city god-
dess of Ur, Ningal was closely connected to that city: in an inscription of Amar-
Suen she is presented as the “mother of Ur” along with her husband Nanna, the
“lord of Ur”.1661 Still, despite the fundamental connection between Nanna, Nin-
gal, and Ur, the divine couple was also venerated in other cities in Mesopotamia.
Due to her status as the wife of Nanna/Sîn, Ningal was housed either in a temple
of her own or in a sanctuary inside the moon god’s temple. In Ur, the temple of
Ningal was called Agrun-kù, “Pure Bed-chamber”,1662 and in Ḫarrān her sanctu-
ary was called É-ĝi6-pàr.1663 Exceptionally, Ningal’s sanctuary formed a promin-
ent part of the temple complex of Sîn and Šamaš in Dūr-Šarrukīn.1664 No similar
situation is attested in either Assur or in any other cities housing the cult of the
moon god, where Ningal, as expected, is included among the deities of Sîn’s
household.1665 This was also the case in Nippur, as the Nippur Compendium,
which positions Ningal in Sîn’s household demonstrates.1666 The situation in the
cities Uruk and Sippar, where the moon god was also worshipped during the 1st

1658
LKA 77//, II 41–42: ka-ta-è-da nu-kàm-me-da / ṣ[i-it pi-i-šu] l[a] ut-tak-ka-[ru], “his
utterance cannot be altered” (Ebeling 1953b, 367).
1659
For an overview of the city Nippur as a place of decision-making, with the god Enlil
as the supreme deity in charge of divine decisions, see Lieberman 1992, 127–136 and
Sallaberger 1997, 147–168.
1660
See the overview of the goddess Ningal in Hall 1985, 730–731 and especially in
Zgoll 2000, 352–356. For a study of the cult of Ningal in Ur during the Old Babylonian
period see Richter 2004, 433–441. For the Hittite and Hurrian sources concerning Nin-
gal/Nikkal see Imparati 2000, 356–357. The moon god yrḫ and his spouse nkl in Ugarit
have been studied in Theuer 2000, 5–296.
1661
RIME 3/2, E3/2.1.3.10, 18–21: dNanna / lugal-uri5ki-ma-ke4 / dNin-gal / ama-uri5ki-ma-
ke4. The epithet “mother” is used mainly for city-goddesses in the Sumerian tradition
(see Westenholz 2013, 58).
1662
See the discussion on p. 349ff. below.
1663
See the discussion on p. 403ff. below.
1664
For the special attention given to Ningal by Sargon II, see p. 297ff. below. See also
the discussion concerning the Sîn-Šamaš temple in Dūr-Šarrukīn on p. 426ff. below.
1665
See the discussion on p. 416ff. below.
1666
See the discussion on p. 368ff. below.
 II.11. The Family and Household of Sîn 297

millennium BCE, is somewhat unclear. According to the Eana archive, there are
no traces of a cult of Ningal in Neo-Babylonian Uruk.1667 In Sippar, the northern
Babylonian cult city of the sun god, Ningal enjoyed a cult along side Sîn during
the Old Babylonian period, but she is absent in the later Kassite, Neo-Babyloni-
an, and Late Babylonian sources.1668
Ningal’s background as a goddess in the Sumero-Babylonian pantheon is
hazy. Mythological sources providing information about her genealogy are
scarce: only a couple of possible references to her mother are known from
Sumerian literature.1669 Based on these few references, Ningal’s mother was pos-
sibly Nin-gi-kù-ga, who otherwise appears as Enki’s spouse in the god-list An =
Anum and its Old Babylonian precursor.1670 Simultaneously, Nin-gi-kù-ga is one
of the names of Ningal herself.1671 The mythological background of the relation-
ship between Nanna/Sîn and Ningal is also clouded by the lack of sources: only
a brief reference to the courting of Ningal by Sîn is made in a fragmentary Old
Babylonian myth concerning the adolescence of the gods Sîn and Išum.1672
Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian sources depict the goddess Ningal mainly
as the spouse of Sîn and the mother of their children, Šamaš and Ištar.1673 As in
the earlier Sumerian tradition, Ningal’s role during this period was that of a
compassionate mother and a supportive spouse.1674 This conforms to the general
notion of Mesopotamian goddesses as merciful and compassionate intermediar-
ies between humankind and stern male deities.1675 However, the reverse situation
is also attested: in a fragmentary eršaḫuĝa-prayer, the pacification of Ningal’s
mind is sought with her son, Utu/Šamaš, acting as the mediator.1676 Only a very
few prayers, hymns, or dedicatory inscriptions to Ningal alone are known to us,
which stresses her marginal role in the wider religious context of Assyria and

1667
See the list of the deities found in the archive in Beaulieu 2003, 369–371. For the
situation in Old Babylonian Uruk, see the discussion in Richter 2004, 316–318: although
the moon god Nanna/Sîn was venerated in Uruk at least from the Ur III period onward,
only one possible reference to a cult of Ningal in a year name alludes to her cult in Uruk.
1668
See the diachronic overview of the Sippar pantheon in Myers 2002, 379.
1669
See e.g. the love dialogue between Nanna and Ningal (TuM NF 4, 7 ii 7–iii 6) in
Westenholz 1989, 550–552 (ll. 88 and 98).
1670
An = Anum II, 178 (see Litke 1998, 88) and TCL 15 no. 10, 87.
1671
An = Anum III, 28 (see Litke 1998, 120). This is also the name given to Ištar in con-
nection with Ur in the syncretistic hymn KAR 109+ (see the citation on p. 80 above).
1672
See BM 87521 (CT 15, pls. 5–6), II 5–9 in Römer 1966, 138–139.
1673
An overview of Ningal’s epithets can be found in Tallqvist 1938a, 403–404.
1674
Ningal’s passivity is noted in Westenholz 2013, 49.
1675
According to J. G. Westenholz, this aspect for the Mesopotamian goddesses should be
seen as a development caused by the same traumatic events that generated the lamenta-
tions over the destroyed Sumerian cities and the notion of the city goddess as a grieving
mother, mater dolorosa (Westenholz 2013, 134).
1676
VS 24 no. 31 (see the edition in Maul 1991, 70–72).
298 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

Babylonia during the 1st millennium BCE, in contrast to her local importance in
Ur and Ḫarrān. The few sources that are preserved imply that Ningal – and
therefore by extension Sîn, since Ningal’s main significance was as the wife of
Sîn – received special veneration during the reign of Sargon II who is connected
to the goddess on two special occasions. First, a dedicatory inscription for the
temple of Ningal in Dūr-Šarrukīn, the newly built capital city, was written on the
threshold of this temple.

OIP 38, 133 no. 71677

1 ka-bi[t]-ti be-le-e-ti ⌈šá⌉-qu-tu dNin-ga[l]
2 a-na IMAN–GIN MAN ŠÚ MAN KUR Aš+š[u]rki ŠAKKAN6
KÁ.DINGIR.RAki
3 MAN KUR E[M]E.GI7 ù URIk[i] ba-nu-⌈ú⌉ ku-mi-i-ki
4 i-na ma-ḫar d30 ḫa-’i-ri na-ra-[mi-k]a ab-bu-su
5 a-mat MUNUS.S[IG5]-šú ti-iz-⌈ka⌉-ri [šá du-u]n-ni BALA-šú
6 ba-laṭ na-piš-ti UD.MEŠ GÍD.MEŠ li-š[i-i]m ši-ma-tuš
7 li-pu-šú a-na ar-kat u4-me li-be-lu ⌈kal⌉ da-ad-me
O hono[ur]ed one among the mistresses, exalted Ninga[l]! Intercede before
Sîn, yo[ur] belo[ved] husband for Sargon, king of the world, king of
Ass[y]ria, governor of Babylon, king of Su[m]er and Akkad, builder of your
chamber! Speak a word of kin[dness] on behalf of him [concerning the
soli]dness of his reign! May he de[c]ree good health and long days as his
fate! May his descendants rule the inhabited world to the end of days!

According to this inscription, Ningal’s two chief characteristics are her supreme
position among the other female deities – designated as “mistresses” (Akk.
bēltu) – and her ability to intercede with her husband Sîn in favour of the Assyri-
an king. It also reflects her importance in the topography of the temple complex
in Dūr-Šarrukīn.1678 In this temple complex, in which the moon god Sîn and his
son Šamaš were the main deities, Ningal had her own sanctuary with a separate
courtyard in front of its entrance. No similar examples are known from other As-
syrian temples, and it demonstrates that her status was comparable to that of Sîn
and Šamaš. The topographical evidence is supported by the references to the
building of the temples in Dūr-Šarrukīn in Sargon II’s other inscriptions: Ningal
is the only goddess mentioned by name among the male deities who were also
housed in the complex.1679 The fact, be it coincidental or not, that the only attes-

1677
Fuchs 1994, 281 and 369–370. See also Jacobsen apud Loud 1936, 133.
1678
For the temple complex of Sîn, Šamaš, and Ningal in Dūr-Šarrukīn see p. 426ff.
below.
1679
See e.g. the inscription on the bull colossi, Sg Stier, 57–59: pa-rak-ki ra-áš-bu-ti / ša
ki-ma ki-ṣir ge-né-e šur-šu-du a-na dÉ-a / dSîn dNin-gal dŠamaš dNabû dAdad dNinurta e-
 II.11. The Family and Household of Sîn 299

ted Akkadian hymn to Ningal names Sargon II further suggests that he held her
in very high esteem.1680 This short hymn is written on a tablet found in Kalḫu,
and it praises Ningal as the supreme goddess, the mother of the Igigū-gods, and
an adviser of the gods.

ND 2480, 1–r. 51681

1 šit-ra-aḫ-tu dNin-gal e-tel-lu-tu lu na-a’-d[i]
2 kab-ta-at a-na DINGIR.MEŠ a-na dIŠ.TAR.MEŠ šu-tú-rat!1682
d
3 Nin-gal šar-ra-tu e-tel-lu-tu lu na-a’-di
4 kab-ta-at a-na DINGIR.MEŠ ⌈a⌉-na dIŠ.TAR.MEŠ šu-tú-ra[t]
5 a-lit-ta-at dÍ-gì-gì mu-ḫa-i-ṭa-at šá-ma-m[i]
6 ma-li-kàt a-na DINGIR.MEŠ ša-’i-lat te-ne-še-ti
7 x at e-tel-let šur-ru-ḫa-at ṣi-rat
8 x ⌈ti⌉? šá-ma-mi da-a’-ma-a-ti i-ba-ri zu-x-ru1683
9 [ ] x x muš-te-še-rat ba-’u-l[a-ti]
10 [ ] x ILUGAL–GI.NA ru-bu-u ⌈dan⌉-⌈nu⌉ [(x)]
r. 1 x [x] x x tak ba a bi qa ma sag me i-le-’[i]1684
r. 2 li-i[n]-ṣi ma-al lìb-bi li-pu-uš qab-lu
r. 3 ma-[a]l-ki ša kib-rat á[r]-bi-ti li-pu-uš x [(x)]
r. 4 i-⌈piš⌉ pi-šu li-iš-mu-ma li-ši-qu GÌRI[I!?-šú?]1685

pu-šá, “I built awe-inspiring sanctuaries that are as firmly established as the mountain
rock for Ea, Sîn, Ningal, Šamaš, Nabû, Adad, (and) Ninurta” (Fuchs 1994, 68 and 305).
See also the index of god names in Fuchs 1994, 472–475.
1680
As suggested in Saggs 2000, 906–907.
1681
Edited in Saggs 2000, 905–912.
1682
In Saggs 2000, 907 the end of line 2 is read dIŠ.TAR.MEŠ šu-ut AN-⌈e⌉, “goddesses
of heaven”. Likewise, he suggests that the end of line 4 involved the earth (translitera-
tion: dIŠ.TAR.MEŠ šu-ut ...; translation: “goddesses of the lower world”). I deem the
reading šu-tú-rat – allowed by the copy – more likely for the both lines. This would cre-
ate a structure, in which the stative form at the beginning of the line is mirrored by an-
other stative at the end of the line.
1683
Transliterated ZALAG?[a]t šá-ma-mi da-a’-ma-a-ti i-ba-ri zu-x-ru in Saggs 2000, 907.
According to the copy, there are traces of two signs visible at the beginning of the line.
The second of these signs could be ti (as also Saggs notes), but that remains unclear. The
first signs should probably be a logogram because a participle is expected here, but on
the other hand, the rest of the text is written syllabically apart from DINGIR.MEŠ,
d
IŠ.TAR.MEŠ and the name of Sargon II.
1684
No transliteration is given for this line in Saggs 2000, 908, but the various possibilit-
ies for reading the signs are discussed (Saggs 2000, 909).
1685
The verb at the end of the line is read li-ši?-qu?-šu?-m[a] in Saggs 2000, 908. Since the
signs li, ši and qu are very clear in the copy, I suggest reading the wedges that Saggs
transliterated as šú and ma as GÌRI[I] with probably the 3. sg. possessive suffix -šu ap-
pended to the end. This would provide more sense to the content of the line, the main
300 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

r. 5 e-nu-ma an-na-a za-ma-ru dNin-gal šar-ra-t[u]

r. 6 (empty) [l]u na-a’-di la a-ni-ḫi
Splendid Ningal, may the lordship be praised!
She is honoured to the gods, to the goddesses she is supreme!
Ningal, queen, may the lordship be praised!
She is honoured to the gods, to the goddesses she [is] supreme!
She is the one who gave birth to the Igigū-gods, she is the one who surveys
the heavens!
She is adviser to the gods, she is the one who asks questions (for) the
humankind,1686
she is ..., she is sovereign, she is magnificent, she is noble,
... of the dark skies, she inspects ...
[ ] ... she is the one who guides the population!
[ ] ... Sargon, the strong prince,
... he is abl[e].
May he attain wishes, may he do battle,
may he ... the kings of the four corners of the world!
May they hear what he says and kiss [his?] fee[t?!]
When this hymn (is sung), queen Ningal is indeed praised without ceasing!

Despite the lines that are only partly preserved or remain unclear, the underlying
concepts in this hymn are transparent: here Ningal, who otherwise takes only a
passive role, is elevated to the position of an active, supreme goddess. Not only
is she the mother of the Igigū-gods, but she has a role as an adviser to the gods
and as an advocate for humankind. She certainly appears to have a celestial as-
pect, but it remains unknown if this involved being a celestial luminary herself.
The idea of military prowess, found in the closing lines of this hymn, is other-
wise not connected to Ningal – the entire idea is very different from the moth-
erly quality normally applied to her – and this anomaly must be connected not
only to her husband Sîn’s close connection to kingship,1687 but also to her status
as a supreme goddess in this context. For this reason, she is depicted as a power-
ful supporter of the Assyrian king.1688
The veneration of Ningal is naturally highlighted in the northern cult city of

theme being the victory of Sargon II over the other kings. “Kissing the feet” as a gesture
of submission is well attested in the Assyrian royal inscriptions (see CAD N/2, 58).
1686
šā’ilat was understood differently by Saggs, who translates the end of the line as “she
is concerned for the mankind”. This would, however, require the combination šulma
šâlu, “to ask after someone’s health; to be concerned about someone; to pay attention to
someone” (see CAD Š/1, 279).
1687
For the moon god’s importance in relation to kingship, see p. 196ff. above.
1688
The importance of goddesses in the political sphere and in relation to royal power is
noted in Scurlock 2009, 66.
 II.11. The Family and Household of Sîn 301

the moon god, Ḫarrān, where Sîn and Ningal/Nikkal, together with their son
Nusku, were the main tutelary deities. For this reason, they are ubiquitous in
personal names, letter formulae, and the few references to the cult in the city.1689
Ḫarrān is also the context for the only other preserved Neo-Assyrian dedicatory
inscription to Ningal/Nikkal. The text that is known to us only from a copy that
was kept in Nineveh was written on the wooden carrying poles (gištallu) that
were dedicated to the goddess by Assurbanipal in connection with the rebuilding
of the temples in Ḫarrān. Most notably, it contains the only known reference to
the sanctuary of Ningal/Nikkal in Ḫarrān by its name, É-ĝi6-pàr.1690

Bu. 89-4-26, 209, 1–111691

1 [a-na dN]in-gal DU10-bát TI i-lat ta-na-d[a-ti]
2 [(empty)] um-mi DINGIR.MEŠ qa-rit-[ti]
3 [ri-i]m-tum da-mì-iq-tum šá bu-un-ni na[m-rat?]1692
4 [šá G]IN7 u4-me it-tan-bi-ṭu zi-m[u-šá]
5 ⌈ḫi⌉-[rat] dNanna-ri EN a-šá-re-di šu-pu-u ZÁLAG AN-e né-su-u-
t[i]
6 a-lid-da-at dUTU-ši ZÁLAG kib-ra-a-ti šá šip-ṭu u EŠ.BAR gúm-
mu-ru ŠÚ ur [x]
7 ṣa-bi-ta-at ab-bu-ti a-na na-an-⌈nar⌉ DINGIR.MEŠ na-ra-mì-i-šá
d
[30]
8 ma-⌈li⌉-kàt GALGA qa-ba-at SIG5-tim a-na dUTU bu-uk-ri-[šá]
9 mu-dam-mì-qat a-mat un-nu-né mu-ad-d[a]-⌈a⌉-[t]a LUGAL pa-li-
ḫi-i-šá
10 ru-ba-a-⌈tu⌉ réme-ni-tum ma-ḫi-rat tés-li-ti a-ši-bat É-ĝi6-pàr
11 šá ⌈qé⌉-reb uruḪar-ra-na GAŠAN GAL-ti GAŠAN-šú
[To N]ingal, the one who makes life sweet, goddess of glory, valiant mother
of gods, kind [wild c]ow who is br[ight?] (in) appearance, [who]se feat[ures]
are shining [li]ke the day, spo[us]e of Nannāru, the foremost lord, the splen-

1689
See the discussion on p. 384ff. below.
1690
For Ningal’s sanctuary in Ḫarrān, see the discussion on p. 403ff. below.
1691
See the new transliteration of this inscription in Novotny 2003, 233–236. A copy of
the tablet was published in Craig 1897, Pl. 1–2 and also in Meek 1918, 167–175. Other
editions of the tablet are found in Streck 1916, 286–293 (no. 13) and Luckenbill 1927,
386–387 (§§ 1007–1009). The text is also mentioned in Bauer 1933, 42–43.
1692
Transliterated bu-un-ni na[m-ru] in Novotny 2003, 234 and listed so also in Tallqvist
1938a, 403. The attestations for this formulation in CAD B, 320–321 and AHw, 138
show, however, that a plural adjective is required for bunnū in the meaning “face”. Since,
according to the copy, there is not enough space for na[m-ru-tim] at the end of the line, I
suggest a formulation with a feminine stative form and “Akkusativ des Zustandes”
(GAG § 147): ša bunnī na[mrat], literally “who is bright relating to the face”. Since no
photograph of the tablet is available, this suggestion remains tentative.
302 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

did one, the light of the distan[t] heavens, the one who gave birth to Šamaš,
the light of the universe, whose verdict and decision are final ... [...], the one
who intercedes with the luminary of the gods, her beloved [Sîn], the one who
advises, the one who speaks well to Šamaš, [her] first-born son, the one who
makes the words of a petition acceptable, the one who appoi[nt]s the king
who worships her, the merciful princess, the one who receives prayers, the
one who lives in Eĝipar in the midst of Ḫarrān, the great lady, his mistress

Ningal/Nikkal’s qualities in this inscription are similar to the those attested for
her elsewhere. First and foremost she is a wife and a mother, and in a manner
that is typical of Mesopotamian goddesses, she acts as an adviser to her husband
and her son, while simultaneously acting as a merciful intermediary between
them and humankind.1693 Importantly, with respect to ideas about royal power,
this inscription goes further than the hymn of Sargon II to her: here she is
presented as able to endow kingship herself. This power was of course closely
associated with her husband, Sîn of Ḫarrān, during the reign of the Sargonid
dynasty, as exemplified by the coronation of Esarhaddon in Ḫarrān on his way to
Egypt.1694
Ningal’s roles as a spouse-advisor and as a mother goddess are both associ-
ated with her residence, the bed-chamber (Sum. agrun, Akk. kummu or agar-
unnu).1695 As is obvious, the bed-chamber generally was the place where the
gods rested.1696 In the case of the moon god Nanna/Sîn, especially in the Sumeri-
an literary tradition, the bed-chamber was the particular domain of his wife, Nin-
gal. According to a Sumerian hymn to Utu, the heavenly bed-chamber (agrun
an-na) was the place were Ningal gave birth to the sun god,1697 and in the Lam-
entation over the Destruction of Sumer and Ur the bed-chamber is presented as
a place of refreshment for Ningal.1698 The longevity and transmission of theolo-
gical ideas over centuries are illustrated by Ningal’s epithets pertaining to the
bed-chamber. In one of the Šulgi hymns, Ningal’s epithet is “lady of the bed-
chamber” (nin agrun-na),1699 and this same epithet can be found later in the 1st

1693
It should be noted that in the inscriptions of Nabonidus Ningal/Nikkal’s characterist-
ics are limited to only this: she is depicted solely as the wife of Sîn and the mother of
Šamaš and Ištar.
1694
See the citation of SAA 10 no. 174 on p. 209ff. above. For a further discussion of the
moon god and kingship, see p. 196ff. above.
1695
See Caplice 1973, 299–305 and Charpin 1986, 212–213.
1696
A celestial deity’s rest in his bed-chamber is best exemplified by the sun god Šamaš’
sojourn in his chamber, where he is greeted by his wife during the night (see Heimpel
1986, 128–129).
1697
NBC 7915, 9 (see the edition in Kutscher 1976, 305–309).
1698
Lamentation over the Destruction of Sumer and Ur, 477 (Michalowski 1989, 66–67).
1699
Šulgi X, 139 (Klein 1981, 144–145, see also the newer edition in ETCSL 2.4.2.24).
 II.11. The Family and Household of Sîn 303

millennium BCE, in the fourth tablet of the series Udug-ḫul, in which the moon
god and the members of his household are presented.

Udug-ḫul 4, 94’1700
zi dNin-gal nin agrun-na-ke4 [ḫé-pà]
niš dMIN be-let a-ga-ru-un-ni [lu ta-ma-ta]
[Be adjured] by Ningal, lady of the bed-chamber!

As the “lady of the exalted bed-chamber” (nin agrun maḫ), Ningal is also found
in a ḫul-ba-zi-zi incantation attested in manuscripts from Nineveh and Assur.1701
“Lady of the exalted bed-chamber” appears to also be one of Ningal’s epithets in
the fragmentary eršaḫuĝa-prayer addressed to her.1702 Ningal’s bed-chamber, her
sanctuary, was an actual part of the topography of the temple complex
Ekišnugal. First, in Old Babylonian sources, the sanctuary of Ningal, that was
located in the giparu, was called Agrun-kù, “Pure Bed-chamber”.1703 This sanc-
tuary that was later transferred to the ziqqurrat enclosure does not, however,
bear this name or any other in the Neo-Babylonian sources.1704 A similar name is
known to us from this period: Agrun-maḫ, “Exalted Bed-chamber” (also translit-
erated É-nun-maḫ).1705 This name corresponds to the epithet “lady of the exalted
bed-chamber” that Ningal bears in the aforementioned bilingual texts. The
building called Agrunmaḫ was located northeast of the Edublamaḫ and giparu of
Nabonidus, in the same place that a storehouse called Ĝá-nun-maḫ, “Exalted
Storehouse”, had been located during an earlier period.1706 It is clear that it was
remodelled during the renovation work commissioned by Nebuchadnezzar II:

1700
See Geller 2007, 113 and 205 and Geller 2016, 150. In his edition of the text, Geller
notes that a similar line is found in LKA 77//, V 45–46. These lines do not, however,
concern Ningal, but Nin(e)igara, the spouse of Ningublaga (see p. 317ff. below).
1701
LKA 77//, II 51–52: nin-agrun-maḫ dirig [x (x)] (see Ebeling 1953b, 367–368). Only
a few traces of the Akkadian part of the line are preserved.
1702
VS 24 no. 31, 3’: [gašan É.NU]N-maḫ-àm [...] / [be]-let É.MIN [...] (Maul 1991, 71).
1703
See p. 349ff. below. See also the references in George 1993, no. 345.
1704
In RIMB, B.6.32.2014, 7 the only name given to Ningal’s house is ĝi6-pàr.
1705
The transliteration É-nun-maḫ, “House of the Exalted Prince”, is used in George
1993, no. 916, but based on the attestations in bilingual texts, it is plausible that É.NUN
should have the reading agrun.
1706
For Ĝá-nun-maḫ, see George 1993, no. 303. The “Exalted Storehouse” appears to
have belonged to the cultic sphere of Ningal, since most of the provisions recorded in the
documents found there were destined for her temple for regular offerings and festivals
(see Figulla 1953a, 88–122; Figulla 1953b, 171–192; and Charpin 1986, 207–208). Per-
haps the name Agrun-maḫ was a reinterpretation of the earlier name Ĝá-nun-maḫ: at
least in the Middle Assyrian text VAT 10035 (KAR 91) deriving from Assur, the spelling
agrunx(ĜÁ.NUN) appears to be used as a variant for agrun(É.NUN). For this variation
see the line 14’ and its commentary in Maul 2013b, 24 and 30.
304 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

the archaeological evidence points to a conversion of a former storehouse into a

sanctuary with a place for a cult image.1707 The only written reference to Agrun-
maḫ’s purpose can be found in a brick inscription of Nabonidus, who restored
the building during his 16th or 17th regnal year.1708

Schaudig 2001, 1.6.a

d
1 NÀ–na-’i-id LUGAL ŠÁR
2 LUGAL KÁ.DINGIR.RAki
3 ša Agrun-maḫ1709 É ḫi-il-ṣi
4 qé-reb É-ĝiš-nu-ĝál
5 a-na dNin-gal GAŠAN-šu i-pú-šu
Nabonidus, king of the world, king of Babylon, who built Agrunmaḫ, the
house for (oil) pressing, in Ekišnugal for Ningal, his lady.

According to records from Neo- and Late Babylonian Uruk, bīt ḫilṣi was the
place in which oil was prepared and pharmaceutical substances were distrib-
uted.1710 A similar function for Ningal’s bīt ḫilṣi in Ur must be assumed. The ex-
istence of this institution in connection with Ningal reveals that she had tasks in
the sphere of healing – a trait shared by all the major Babylonian goddesses dur-
ing the Neo-Babylonian period.1711
Lastly, the goddess Ningal is given the appellation Ninmena, “Lady of the
Crown”, in two Babylonian sources. First, this is Ningal’s epithet in the inscrip-
tion of the governor Sîn-balāssu-iqbi that was written on clay nails found in her
temple.1712 The opening lines of this inscription are: “For Ningal, queen of
Ekišnugal, Ninmena, beloved of Ur”. This creates a strong connection between
Ningal as Ninmena and her home city. The second attestation of Ninmena as a
name for Ningal is also connected to Ur: Ninmena is used as Ningal’s name in
LKU 43, an Akkadian composition that describes the destruction of the city.1713
In this case she is presented side by side with her husband, who is called Nam-

1707
See Woolley 1962, 23ff. and Pl. 66, and Heinrich 1982, 325–326. C. J. Gadd saw in
this change an attempt by Nebuchadnezzar II to introduce a new cultic order with the di-
vine cult image open for all the people to see (Gadd 1929, 231) and his view was also ac-
cepted in Woolley 1962, 24–25.
1708
Beaulieu 1989, 37–38 and 42.
1709
This name is read É-nun-maḫ in Schaudig’s edition.
1710
See Joannès 2006, 75–81. The available evidence demonstrates that the bīt ḫilṣi re-
ceived shipments of not only aromatic substances for oil pressing but also of legumes,
wool, and sesame. Moreover, the bīt ḫilṣi had its own pharmaceutical garden.
1711
Westenholz 2013, 120.
1712
RIMB, B.6.32.2014 (see the citation on p. 350 below).
1713
LKU 43, 11 (see the citation on p. 76 above).
 II.11. The Family and Household of Sîn 305

raṣīt.1714 The theological implications of the name Ninmena remain vague be-
cause there are several possible interpretations. First, if the name is taken lit-
erally, it can be seen as a reference to the power Ningal wielded over the royal
insignia.1715 Second, since Ninmena is one of the names of Bēlet-ilī, it could be a
reference to Ningal as a mother goddess.1716 In addition to these options, it is
possible to interpret the name Ninmena for Ningal as a reference to the names of
the moon god that include the element “crown” and to him as bēl agê, “lord of
the crown”.1717 Three different levels of interpretation therefore emerge: Ningal
as a goddess with power over royal insignia; as a mother goddess, and as the
wife of the moon god Sîn.

II.11.3. Šamaš
The father-son relationship between the moon god and the sun god is ubiquitous
in Sumerian and Akkadian sources from the 2nd and 1st millenniums BCE.1718
This notion is expressed through epithets that bear on the genealogical status of
Šamaš as the son of Sîn and Ningal, and it is also present in the concepts of the
moon’s seniority and size in comparison to the sun. According to the cultic com-
mentary from Assur, KAR 307, the size of the moon’s disc is 60 double hours
whereas the sun’s size is merely 40 double hours.1719 The notion that the moon
was larger than the sun is also reflected in the pairs of names for Sîn and Šamaš
in the god-list An = Anum. Whereas the moon god bears the names dMá-gu-la-
an-na, “Great Boat of Heaven”, and dGiš-nu11-gal, “Great Light”,1720 the sun god
is named dMá-bàn-da-an-na, “Small Boat of Heaven”, and dGiš-nu11, “Light”.1721
Likewise, Sîn and Šamaš’ relative positions within the genealogical hierarchy is
revealed in the way Šamaš, as Sîn’s son, is said to carry out the command of his
father in the Ḫarrān Stele of Nabonidus.1722

1714
LKU 43, 10 (see the citation on p. 76 above).
1715
This is the view expressed in Zgoll 2000, 354. See also Krebernik 1997, 506.
1716
An = Anum II, 21: d⌈Nin⌉-men(mi)-na | MIN be-let me-a-am-mi (see Litke 1998, 68).
See also Krebernik 1997, 506.
1717
See the discussion on p. 60ff. above.
1718
See the overview of the family of the sun god Utu/Šamaš in Tallqvist 1938a, 454–455
and Krebernik 2011, 602–603.
1719
KAR 307, r. 4: 40 DANNA NÍGIN-rat dUTU 60 DANNA NÍGIN-rat d30. See the
editions in Livingstone 1986, 82–83 and SAA 3 no. 39, r. 4.
1720
An = Anum III, 14: dMá-gu-la-an-na; III, 4: dGiš-nu11-gal (see Litke 1998, 117–118
and Feliu 2006, 235). For the moon god as a celestial light and as a boat, see p. 78ff. and
45ff. above.
1721
An = Anum III, 106: dMá-bàn-da-an-na; III, 102: dGiš-nu11 (see Litke 1998, 128–129
and Feliu 2006, 239 [lines III, 100 and III, 96]).
1722
Schaudig 2001, 3.1, II 5 (Ex. 1): mu-šal-lim qí-bit dNanna-ri AD ⌈ba-ni-šú⌉, “he who
carries out the command of his father, Nannāru”.
306 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

Epithets that directly refer to the genealogical relationship between Nanna/

Sîn and Utu/Šamaš are frequently attested in various literary sources from the Ur
III period onward.1723 In Sumerian literary sources especially the mother-son re-
lationship of Utu and Ningal, the moon god’s wife, is often found. In mythology,
Ningal is described giving birth to Utu in her bed-chamber,1724 and the sun god is
also frequently called “son of Ningal” (dumu dNin-gal-la).1725 King Sîn-iddin-
am’s letter to the sun god Utu – in a copy found in the library of Assurbanipal –
also clearly describes the sun god Utu as Ningal’s son, and not as the son of
Nanna/Sîn.1726 This notion is very much present also in later Sumerian lamenta-
tions such as the bilingual eršaḫuĝa to Utu/Šamaš, in which he is characterised
as the son of Ningal.1727 The Akkadian epithets alluding to the genealogical rela-
tionship between the moon god and the sun god tend to refer to Šamaš as the son
of Sîn, or of both Sîn and Ningal.1728 These epithets, which are not only found in
the prayers addressed to Šamaš himself, or to his father Sîn, but other sources
such as royal inscriptions call Šamaš the first-born son (bukru),1729 the offspring
(littu1730 and ṣīt libbi1731), or the heir (aplu)1732 of the moon god. It is worth noting
that in his role as Šamaš’s father, the moon god’s name is not infrequently given
as Dilimbabbar/Namraṣīt.1733 A prominent example of this is the opening line of
the Akkadian šu’ila-prayer “Šamaš 1” which includes the epithet apil Namraṣīt,
“heir of Namraṣīt”, for Šamaš. A bilingual prayer that is attested in manuscripts
from Boghazköy, Sultantepe (Ḫuzirīna), and Nineveh contains lines that name
both the father and the mother of the sun god: Dilimbabbar/Namraṣīt and

1723
For the references to the Sumerian sources see especially Hall 1985, 740–742.
1724
According to NBC 7915, 9 Ningal gave birth to Utu in the heavenly bed-chamber
(agrun an-na; see Kutscher 1976, 305–309).
1725
E.g. Šulgi B, 193: igi dUtu dumu dNin-gal-la-ka-šè, “before Utu, son of Ningal” (see
the editions in Castellino 1972, 50–51 and ETCSL 2.4.2.02). See also the discussion on
the role of Ningal as the mother of gods on p. 296ff. above.
1726
For editions of this letter see Hallo 1982, 95–109 and Borger 1991, 58–81. The epi-
thet dumu dNin-gal for Utu is present in the lines 6 and 9 of the letter.
1727
See Maul 1988, n14–n16, 4.
1728
See Tallqvist 1938a, 454.
1729
See e.g. “Sîn 1”, 10: šūturat ṣētka kīma Šamaš bukrīka, “your light is supreme like
Šamaš, [your] first-born son”. See the edition below on p. 452ff.
1730
See e.g. “Šamaš 78”, 7: littu ṣīrtu ša bēli Namraṣīt, “exalted offspring of lord Nam-
raṣīt”. See edition in Schollmeyer 1912, 96–100 and the translation in Falkenstein & von
Soden 1953, 321–323. For Dilimbabbar/Namraṣīt see p. 71ff. above.
1731
See e.g. Schaudig 2001, 2.12, III 12: ṣi-it ŠÀ-bi ša d+EN.ZU ù dNin-gal, “offspring of
Sîn and Ningal”.
1732
See e.g. “Šamaš 1”, 1: šurbû gitmālu apil Namraṣīt. “Supreme, perfect one, heir of
Namraṣīt!”. For an edition see Mayer 1976, 503–509; for up-to-date bibliographical in-
formation see also Frechette 2012, 271.
1733
See the discussion of this appellation of the moon god on p. 71ff. above.
 II.11. The Family and Household of Sîn 307

Ningal.1734

STT 197, 9–111735

9 a-ri-a kù-ga-a-ta im-⌈dili⌉-bábbar
10 ri-ḫu-u-tú el-le-tú šá be-⌈el⌉ Nam-⌈ra⌉-[ṣ]i-it

11 dumu ⌈ù⌉-tu-ud-da ama dNin-gal-ke4 : ma-ru i-lit-⌈ti⌉ ⌈d⌉Nin-gal

Pure progeny of Lord Namraṣīt

Son born by mother Ningal (Akk. son born by Ningal)

A second tradition concerning the sun gods’s genealogical background presents

Utu/Šamaš as the son of the sky god Anu.1736 This concept is found in the lines
attested in the context of a namburbi-ritual, which states that Šamaš’ utterance is
“sublime like (the one of) Anu, your father”.1737 This did not, however, rule out
the father-son relationship between Sîn and Šamaš, as can be seen in a bilingual
incantation that was used to ensure a safe childbirth: here the sun god is depicted
as the son of both Anu and Sîn.

BA 10 no. 1, 1–61738
1 ÉN dUtu dumu-an-na-k[e4 ]
d
2 UTU DUMU dA-nim e-t[el(-) ]
d
3 Utu ibila zálag an-ki-bi-[da-ke4]
d
4 UTU ap-lu muš-na-mir [šamê u erṣeti]
5 peš-bànda-zi dSuen-na dNi[n-gal-la-le4]
6 lìb-líb-bi šá d30 u dNi[n-gal]
Incantation: Utu/Šamaš, son of An/Anu, lord [(of?) ...]!
Utu/Šamaš, the heir who illuminates the heaven [and] the earth [...],
the descendant of Sîn and Ni[ngal]!

The simultaneous presence of Anu and Sîn as fathers of the sun god Utu/Šamaš
in these lines suggests that they refer to three generations of deities: Anu is the
grandfather, Sîn and Ningal are the parents, and Utu/Šamaš is their son. There-

1734
See the edition of this prayer in Cooper 1972, 65–81.
1735
Cooper 1972, 70. The manuscript from Ḫuzirīna is cited here since it is the best pre-
served. The manuscripts from Nineveh (K. 9235+; 4 R 23 no. 3+ and 4 R 13 no. 2+) of-
fer some variants, such as the spelling den-dili-ím-babbar-ra for “lord Namraṣīt” and the
addition of the epithet “mother” (ummu) for Ningal also in the Akkadian line.
1736
See Tallqvist 1938a, 454 and Krebernik 2011, 602.
1737
Maul 1994, 307 (ll. 30’–31’): kīma dAnim abīka / qibītka ṣīrat. The prayer in question
is the šu’ila prayer “Šamaš 7” (Mayer 1976, 411).
1738
See the edition in Borger 1985, 14–18.
308 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

fore, these lines also provide evidence for the tradition in which the moon god
was not the son of Enlil but that of the sky god An/Anu. Moreover, this passage
parallels the notion that both Anu and Sîn were the fathers of Inanna/Ištar.1739 For
this reason, one can argue that in this strand of tradition the sky god was the
progenitor of the principal heavenly bodies: the moon, the sun and the planet
Venus.
The genealogical relationship between Sîn and Šamaš becomes more prom-
inent in Nabonidus’ inscriptions concerning his building activities in Ḫarrān
(temple of Sîn) and Sippar (temples of Šamaš and Anunītu).1740 In these inscrip-
tions, the moon god is portrayed as the “biological father” (abu ālidu) of the sun
god and Venus on several occasions. This triad of the moon, the sun, and the
planet Venus is also found in the iconography of Nabonidus, in which these
three deities are present in the form of their symbols.1741 Their celestial nature is
highlighted by the wording of the Eḫulḫul Cylinder which builds a connection
between the luminosity of the moon god and his children Šamaš and Ištar, who
are regarded as the “offspring of his luminous body”.

Schaudig 2001, 2.12, II 40–41 (Ex. 1)

d
II 40 UTU ù dIš-tar ṣi-it ŠÀ-šú na-am-ra
II 41 a-na d+EN.ZU a-bi ba-ni-šu-nu li-iq-bu-ú SIG5-tì
May Šamaš and Ištar, the offspring of his luminous body, speak well on be-
half of me to their father who created them.

The juxtaposition of Šamaš and Ištar as two children of Sîn, as found in the in-
scriptions of Nabonidus, and the iconography on his stelae corresponds to the
juxtaposition of these two deities in earlier Assyro-Babylonian tradition, in
which Šamaš and Ištar were portrayed as twins.1742 This notion is present in the
šu’ila-prayer “Ištar 1” in which the goddess Ištar is referred to as Šamaš’ twin
sister (tū’amtu).1743 Likewise, in one of the incantations belonging to the ritual
Muššu’u, Šamaš and Ištar are presented as twins, māšu and māštu.1744 Through

1739
See the discussion on p. 309ff. below.
1740
Schaudig 2001, 2.12 (Eḫulḫul Cylinder) and 2.14 (“Zylinder und Tafel, Stelenab-
schriften”).
1741
See the depiction of the triad Sîn, Šamaš, and Ištar in the relief of Nabonidus’ Ḫarrān
Stele H2.B (Fig. 5, p. 41 above).
1742
See the overview of epithets in Tallqvist 1938a, 332–333 and 454–455.
1743
“Ištar 1”, 4: tū’amti ṭarri šūpê qurādi dŠamaš, twin sister of the bearded one, the
splendid warrior Šamaš” (see Zgoll 2003, 192 and p. 310 below). For further attestations
see CAD T, 443.
1744
For an attestation of Šamaš and Ištar as the twin gods Māšu and Māštu, see Muššu’u
IV, 13 (Böck 2007, 152 and 170). The character of the twin gods Māšu and Māštu as the
children of Sîn was noted already in Combe 1908, 18–19.
 II.11. The Family and Household of Sîn 309

the syncretism of Ištar and Nanaya, Nanaya is also at times described as the twin
sister of Šamaš.1745
It has been argued that at least by the time of Nabonidus the gods Šamaš and
Nusku, as sons of Sîn, were equated with each other in the Ḫarranian context.1746
Such an equation is certainly possible not only because both were thought to be
sons of the moon god, but also because of their shared nature as gods of light:
the sun god brought daylight to the world, and Nusku was the lamp that illumin-
ated the dark hours of the night. Further proof that Šamaš was perceived as hav-
ing a status similar to that of Nusku in Ḫarrān is found in the reference to him as
Ningal/Nikkal’s son in the inscription of Assurbanipal that was written on Nin-
gal/Nikkal’s wooden carrying poles.1747 It is worth noting that the sun god Šamaš
is virtually non-existent in the available textual record concerning the cults in
Ḫarrān. Nevertheless, there are some indications that suggest that he was also
present in this northern cult city of the moon god, although not necessarily in the
capacity of the first-born son.1748

II.11.4. Ištar
According to the common Sumero-Babylonian tradition, Sîn’s daughter was the
goddess Ištar, whose celestial form was the planet Venus.1749 The roots of this
genealogical relationship can already be found in the Early Dynastic period in a
reference to the goddess Inanna emerging from within the moon god Nanna.1750
Although Ištar was also thought to be the daughter of the sky god Anu,1751 the
prevailing tradition in the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian sources identifies
her as Sîn’s daughter. In the first line of the myth Ištar’s Descent to the Nether-
world, Ištar’s epithet is mārat Sîn, “daughter of Sîn”;1752 this epithet is also re-

1745
See p. 312 below.
1746
Schaudig 2002, 633–634. See also the discussion on p. 316 below.
1747
See the citation on Bu. 89-4-26, 209, 1–11 on p. 301 above.
1748
See the discussion on p. 391 below.
1749
For short discussions of this relationship see Wilcke 1976–1980, 80, Beaulieu 2003,
111, and Meinhold 2009, 220–221. See also Tallqvist 1938a, 332 where Enlil is listed as
her father.
1750
IAS no. 388, IV’ 3: (Inanna) šà dNanna-ta è (Krebernik 1998, 322 note 807).
1751
This tradition is considered to have originated in Uruk, where both Anu and Ištar
were venerated (see Edzard 1965, 82). Attestations of Ištar as a daughter of Anu can be
found e.g. in “Ištar 31”, 7 (Zgoll 2003, 100).
1752
Ištar’s Descent to the Netherworld, 1–3: a-na ⌈KUR⌉.NU.GI4.A qaq-qa-ri l[a ta-a-ri]
/ d+INNIN DUMU.MUNUS d30 ú-zu-un-šá [iš-kun] / iš-kun-ma DUMU.MUNUS d30 ú-
zu-u[n-šá], “To the Netherworld, the land of n[o return], Ištar, daughter of Sîn, set her
mind. Indeed, the daughter of Sîn set her mind” (see ll. 1–3 in the edition in Lapinkivi
2010, 15 and 29). It should be noted that in this myth the god Papsukkal is depicted as a
son of Sîn (see ll. 81–84 in Lapinkivi 2010, 11 and 31): this is a genealogical relationship
that is otherwise not attested (see Wiggermann 2001, 493).
310 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

peated in the context of prayers.1753 Moreover, under the name Mārat-Sîn, Ištar is
found as a resident of the moon god’s house in Nippur.1754 The epithets bukrat
Sîn, “first-born daughter of Sîn”, ilitti Ningal, “born by Ningal”, and tū’amti
Šamaš, “twin sister of Šamaš”, are found in turn in the šu’ila-prayer “Ištar 1” in
two lines that identify her entire core family (father Sîn, mother Ningal and
brother Šamaš).1755 This genealogical relationship and Ištar’s celestial nature are
highlighted in the šu’ila-prayer “Ištar 2” in which she is not only described as
Sîn’s daughter but she is also likened to him by the use of the epithet nannārat
šamê u erṣeti, “luminary of heaven and earth”.1756 In the šu’ila “Ištar 23”, before
the wish that Sîn may make her name pure, she is praised with the expression
“you are luminary!” (nannarāti).1757 In this case, the connection between Ištar
and Sîn is present on two levels: the explicit reference to Sîn at the end of the
line is accompanied by the use of the element dnanna to write the stative nan-
narāti.1758 Through the association of the Bow Star (qaštu) with Ištar, the refer-
ence in the annals of Assurbanipal to the month Abu belonging to “the Bow Star,
the valiant daughter of Sîn” serves as a further reminder of the genealogical rela-
tionship between the moon god and Ištar.1759
It has been argued that the goddess Ištar as the daughter of Sîn in the Neo-
Assyrian sources should to be identified with the local cult in Ḫarrān.1760 Such an

1753
Note e.g. the Late Babylonian syncretistic prayer to Ištar (BM 65454+) which opens
with the appellation dMārat-dSîn (see the edition in Lambert 2003–2004, 21–27).
1754
See the discussion on p. 368ff. below.
1755
“Ištar 1”, 3–4: dInninni bukrat dSîn ilitti dNingal / tū’amti ṭarri šūpê qurādi dŠamaš,
“Inninni, first-born daughter of Sîn, born by Ningal, twin sister of the bearded one, the
splendid warrior Šamaš!” (see Zgoll 2003, 192. The epithet bukrat Sîn is also found in
the prayer “Ištar 6”, but this prayer is unfortunately known only from its catch-line (see
Mayer 1976, 389 and Zgoll 2003, 213). For Šamaš and Ištar as twins, see p. 308 above.
1756
“Ištar 2”, 5: at-ti-ma na-an-na-rat AN-e u KI-tim ma-rat d30 qa-rit-ti, “You, you are
the luminary of heaven and earth, the valiant daughter of Sîn”; 105: dIr-ni-ni ma-rat d30
qa-rit-ti ma-ḫi-ri NU TUKU, “Irnini, valiant daughter of Sîn, has no rivals”. For an edi-
tion of the prayer see Zgoll 2003, 41–54.
1757
“Ištar 23”, 3: dnanna-ra-ti el-lu MU-ki d30 lil-lil, “You are luminary! The pure, your
name may Sîn make pure!” (see Farber 1977, 70–71 and Zgoll 2003, 156).
1758
The use of this writing is also noted in Zgoll 2003, 167.
1759
Streck 1916, 72–73, ll. IX 9–10: ina itiNE ITI mulBAN /ma-rat d30 qa-rit-tu, “In the
month Abu, month of the Bow Star, the valiant daughter of Sîn”. For an overview of the
Bow Star, see Krebernik 2006, 157.
1760
The identification of Ištar with the city of Ḫarrān in Neo-Assyrian sources is pro-
pounded by J. Scurlock in her recent publications. In Scurlock & Andersen 2005, 523 the
following is said about Ištar’s abilities to cause diseases: “Ištar of Ḫarran was the daugh-
ter of the moon-god Sîn and the twin sister of the sun-god Šamaš with whom she cooper-
ated in causing fevers and variously colored skin lesions.” In Scurlock 2009, 67–68, the
syncretism between Nanaya and Ištar is first noted and the influence of the local cults on
 II.11. The Family and Household of Sîn 311

identification is, however, not supported by the available Neo-Assyrian or Neo-

Babylonian evidence. Still, it should be pointed out that Ištar was certainly ven-
erated in Ḫuzirīna (Sultantepe), located in the vicinity of Ḫarrān, and the daugh-
ter of Sîn is prominent in the later Graeco-Roman and Islamic sources.1761 The
Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian sources that attest to the goddess Ištar as the
daughter of Sîn are not explicitly connected to any local manifestation of either
of the two deities, but rather appear to reflect a supra-regional tradition. The
only possible indication of a relationship between Ištar and specifically Sîn of
Ḫarrān is the composition Psalm in Praise of Uruk.1762 The opening section of
this hymn declares love for the various cities that apparently house a sanctuary
of a goddess who should be identified as Ištar, or perhaps more likely as the syn-
cretistic goddess Ištar-Nanaya.1763 After the various Babylonian cities with their
patron deities are mentioned, the Assyrian cities Nineveh, Arbela, Kalḫu, and
Ḫarrān are listed along with the deities Mullissu (who is connected to both
Nineveh and Arbela), Ninurta, and Sîn, respectively. The line concerning Ḫar-
rān, which also ends this section of the text, is translated by Alasdair Liv-
ingstone as “Ditto; I love Harran, along with Sîn!”.1764 Whether this line ex-
presses any actual relationship between the goddess and the moon god of Ḫarrān
or if it merely gives a list of the main cult centres in Assyria remains unclear.1765
Therefore, connecting the goddess Ištar strictly to the Ḫarranian moon god
should be avoided.

the genealogical background of Ištar is described: “Not only was Uruk still obsessed
with the return of the original statue of their goddess several centuries on but, having
been syncretized with Ištar of Ḫarrān by the Sargonids, then aligned with Anahita by
Artaxerxes, then promoted to moon goddess in the Hellenistic era, Nannaya became a
superstar goddess whose cult stretched all the way from Ḫarrān across Elamaeus into
Central Asia. [...] Ištar-goddesses are usually the daughter of the city god of the city with
which they are associated, which makes for a great deal of confusion when, as happens,
two or more of them are syncretized. So, for example, Ištar of Uruk is daughter of the
skygod Anu, Ištar of Ḫarrān is the daughter of the moon god Sîn, and Ištar of Nippur is
daughter of Enlil.”
1761
See the discussion on p. 391ff. below.
1762
SAA 3 no. 9 (K. 1354). See also the earlier edition by A. R. George (1987).
1763
As noted in George 1987, 38.
1764
SAA 3 no. 9, 17: KI.MIN ÁG uruKASKAL a-⌈di⌉ ⌈d30⌉. The translation suggested by
A. R. George leaves the reading of the logogram ÁG open, but based on the possibility
that the opening line of the first section and the second section had a parallel structure,
he considers the imperative form rāmī likely (George 1987, 34).
1765
The view expressed in George 1987, 37 is that the temples listed in this hymn merely
represent the main Assyrian cult centres, not the cult cities of the goddess Ištar/Nanaya.
312 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

II.11.4.1. Nanaya
Nanaya, the goddess of erotic love from Uruk, was also considered to be a
daughter of the moon god during the Neo-Assyrian period.1766 This idea differs
from the prevailing tradition in which Nanaya was the daughter of the sky god
Anu or the goddess Ištar.1767 The moon god Sîn as Nanaya’s father appears to ex-
ist only in Neo-Assyrian sources – a plausible indication of the syncretism
between Ištar and Nanaya. Perhaps the best example of this phenomenon is the
hymn to Nanaya that immediately in its opening line identifies her as “very
competent daughter of Sîn, favourite/twin sister of Šamaš”.1768 This line, there-
fore, doubly identifies Nanaya – much like the goddess Ištar – as both the
daughter of Sîn1769 and (twin) sister of Šamaš.1770 A similar reference to Nanaya
as both the daughter of Sîn and the sister of Šamaš is also made in the fragment-
ary hymn K. 9480 that calls the goddess “da[ughter] of august Sîn, favourite sis-
ter of Šamaš, light of the great heavens”.1771 Moreover, the Nanaya Hymn of Sar-
gon II addresses her as the moon god’s daughter with the line “Calm down,
daughter of Sîn, settle in your abode!”.1772 The hymn praising Arbela includes
the goddess Nanaya, “daughter of Sîn”, amongst the inhabitants of the city.1773
In the Sumero-Babylonian god-lists, Nanaya is typically linked to the god-
dess Inanna/Ištar.1774 One exceptional tablet from Nineveh, which according to
its colophon was copied from an original from Babylon, includes Nanaya in a
group of deities that belong to the household of Enlil. Here Nanaya is the last of
the deities mentioned, and she is listed after Sîn, who bears the name dE4-gi.

K. 1451 (CT 25, Pl. 49), r. 6–7

d
r. 6 E4-gi7 | d30 DUMU ru-[be-e]

1766
For an overview of the goddess Nanaya see Stol 1998, 146–151 as well as the mono-
graph by O. Drewnowska-Rymarz (2008). For a discussion of Nanaya’a cult in Old
Babylonian Uruk see Richter 2004, 303–307, and for her cult there during the Neo-
Babylonian period see Beaulieu 2003, 182–216.
1767
See Tallqvist 1938a, 385 and Drewnowska-Rymarz 2008, 30. In Uruk, Nanaya was
considered a daughter of the sky god Anu (see the overview in Beaulieu 2003, 182–183).
1768
K. 3933, 2 (Ms A): ma-rat dSin te-li-tú a-ḫat dŠá-m[aš t]a-lim-tú / LKA 37, 2 (Ms C)
ma-rat dSin te-li-tu a-ḫat dUTU maš-ši-tu (see the edition in Reiner 1974, 221–236). For
a discussion of the hymns to Nanaya, see Drewnowska-Rymarz 2008, 111–116.
1769
The epithet mārat Sîn telītu finds a parallel in the Boǧazköy manuscript for Great
Prayer to Ištar, 5 (Reiner & Güterbock 1967, 258).
1770
For the deities Šamaš and Ištar as twins, see p. 308 above.
1771
K. 9480, 3: bi-[in-ti] d30 ti-iš-qa-ri ta-li-mat dŠá-maš nu-úr AN-e GAL.MEŠ (see
Macmillan 1906, no. 22 and Drewnowska-Rymarz 2008, 115).
1772
SAA 3 no. 4, r. 17’: nu-ḫi ma-rat d30 ri-mì-i šub-tuk-ki.
1773
SAA 3 no. 8, 20: d15 ina lìb-bi uš-bat dNa-na-a DUMU.MUNUS d30 x [x x ].
1774
See the references in Stol 1998, 146–147.
 II.11. The Family and Household of Sîn 313

d
r. 7 Nin-zíl-zíl | dNa-na-a DUMU.MUNUS [x x (x)]
| šá man-za-as-su šá-qu-u be-let tak-né-⌈e⌉-[ti x x]
Egi = Sîn, son of the pri[nce].
Ninzilzil = Nanaya, daughter of [...], whose station is high, lady of loving
car[e ...].

Based on this source, it is possible that the moon god was considered the father
of Nanaya within Enlil’s household.1775
In addition to the references to the mythological relationship between Sîn
and Nanaya in the Neo-Assyrian literary sources, there are some indications that
these two deities may also have been connected in a cultic context. In the city of
the moon god, Ur, Nanaya was venerated as Ištar’s daughter at least during the
Old Babylonian period.1776 Her role in the city appears to have been modest, but
on the other hand, she had her own sanctuary called É-itu-da, “House of the
Month”.1777 Whether she continued to also be venerated in Ur in the 1st millenni-
um BCE remains unclear. However, a possible connection between Sîn and
Nanaya during this period can be found in Borsippa, where Nanaya was vener-
ated as Nabû’s wife. The details of the moon god’s veneration there are not
known to us, but we do know that Sîn and Ningal accompanied Nanaya as she
travelled to Babylon.1778

II.11.4.2. Anunītu
In addition to Nanaya, the goddess Anunītu – another Ištar-figure in Mesopot-
amia – is also attested as a daughter of the moon god.1779 In her case, however,
references to their genealogical relationship are much more restricted: they oc-
cur only in connection with Nabonidus’ building work in E’ulmaš, the temple of
Anunītu in Sippar.1780 A peculiar aspect of these references in the Eḫulḫul Cylin-

1775
The identification of Nanaya as Sîn’s daughter in this context has also been noted in
Drewnowska-Rymarz 2008, 29.
1776
See Charpin 1986, 254 and 410; Richter 2004, 470–471; and Drewnowska-Rymarz
2008, 54.
1777
George 1993, no. 540.
1778
See BM 32516//BM 41239, 1–9 (George 2000, 289–299) and Waerzeggers 2010, 31.
See also the discussion concerning the moon god’s cult in Borsippa on p. 383ff. below.
1779
For an overview of Anunītu see Gödecken 1973, 141–163 and Meinhold 2009, 176–
179. Anunītu appears to have been presented as a goddess who embodies the martial as-
pect of Ištar. Although her main cult city was Akkad, her cult also existed in other Meso-
potamian cities, including Ur during the Ur III era.
1780
E.g. Schaudig 2001, 2.14, III 33–34 (Ex. 2): dA-nu-ni-tu4 GAŠAN GAL-tu4 GAŠAN-
ia a-ši-bat É-ul-maš / ina qí-bit d30 LUGAL DINGIR.MEŠ AD a-li-di-šú, “Anunītu,
great mistress, my lady, who dwells in E’ulmaš, by the command of Sîn, king of the
gods, the father who begot her”.
314 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

der is the equation of Sîn and Enlil as fathers of Anunītu.1781 Both are mentioned
twice as the goddess’ fathers, but using different epithets: whereas Enlil is
merely a father (abu),1782 Sîn bears the epithet “biological father” (abu ālidu).1783
Structurally, Enlil is Anunītu’s father at the beginning of this section, and by the
end of the inscription, this role is taken over by Sîn. The wish expressed by Na-
bonidus that Anunītu will act as a mediator between the king and her father, the
moon god.

Schaudig 2001, 2.12, III 41–45 (Ex. 11)

III 41 at-ta dA-nu-ni-tum GAŠAN ra-bi-ti
III 42 a-na É šu-a-ti ḫa-di-iš i-na e-re-bi-ka
III 43 ép-še-tu-ú-a SIG5.MEŠ ḫa-di-iš na-ap-li-si-ma
III 44 ár-ḫi-šam-ma i-na dUTU.È ù dUTU.ŠÚ.A
III 45 a-na d+EN.ZU a-bi a-li-di-ka šu-uq-ri-ba SIG5-tì
You, Anunītu, great lady, as you joyfully enter this temple, look joyfully at
my good deeds and present monthly at the sunrise and sunset a petition for
my favour to Sîn, the father who begot you!

Sîn’s association with Enlil in the Eḫulḫul Cylinder is not unprecedented since,
by the time of the Sargonid dynasty at the latest, the moon god began to be asso-
ciated with the gods Anu, Ea, and Enlil in the so-called “Theology of the
Moon”.1784 Therefore, it is plausible that these concepts are also reflected in the
juxtaposition of Enlil and Sîn as the fathers of Anunītu. In addition, because
Anunītu is an additional Ištar-figure, Sîn’s genealogical relationship with Ištar
must have been significant for him to be named as Anunītu’s father.

II.11.5. Nusku
In Sumero-Babylonian tradition, the god Nusku was a member of Enlil’s house-
hold: he was not only his vizier but also his son.1785 In the god-list An = Anum,
Nusku is listed as Enlil’s grand vizier,1786 and the epithets used in prayers portray

1781
This was noted already in Ebeling 1932, 111.
1782
Schaudig 2001, 2.12, III 24 and III 35 (Ex. 11): mu-šal-li-ma-at qí-bi-it d+En-líl a-bi-
šu.
1783
Schaudig 2001, 2.12, III 45 and III 55 (Ex. 11).
1784
For this association see the discussion on p. 136ff. above.
1785
For an overview of the god Nusku see Streck 2001, 629–633. See also the list of
Nusku’s epithets in Tallqvist 1938a, 432–434. The name Nusku instead of Nuska is ad-
opted here in accordance with the evidence presented in Streck 2001, 630.
1786
An = Anum I, 252: dNusku sukkal-maḫ | dEn-líl-lá-ke4 (Litke 1998, 50). See also K.
1451 (CT 25, pl. 49), r. 4–5, in which Nusku and Sadarnuna are included in a list of deit-
ies belonging to the household of Enlil. Also the moon god, with the name dE4-gi7,
“Noble son”, is present in this list (see the discussion on p. 291ff. above).
 II.11. The Family and Household of Sîn 315

him either as the son of Enlil1787 or refer to his important role in Enlil’s
temple.1788 Probably through his association with the fire god Gira, Nusku is also
presented as the son of the sky god Anu.1789 In Assur, Nusku was worshipped in
Aššur’s temple – a situation that reflects the position Nusku held in the cult of
Enlil, who in Assyria was associated with the supreme god Aššur from the 2nd
millennium BCE onwards.1790
In Ḫarrān, however, Nusku was the son and the vizier of the moon god, thus
playing the same double role that he had in Enlil’s household in Nippur.1791 Fur-
thermore, as in Nippur, Nusku was married to the goddess Sadarnuna also in
Ḫarrān.1792 Although the evidence for the veneration of Nusku in Ḫarrān is
abundant, ranging from personal names and introductory formulae of letters to
the royal inscriptions of Assurbanipal and Nabonidus, the number of direct refer-
ences to the father-son relationship between Sîn and Nusku is scarce: this rela-
tionship can be established mainly on the basis of the inscriptions of Assurban-
ipal that were written for Emelamana, the temple of Nusku in Ḫarrān.1793 The
text in which such references are best preserved is inscription K. 2813+; in this
inscription, the moon god is referred to as the “biological father” of Nusku (abu
ālidu).1794

1787
Maqlû I, 123: tam-šil a-bi bu-kur dEn-líl, “effigy of the father, first-born son of Enlil”
(Meier 1937, 11; Abusch 2016, 45 and 291).
1788
See e.g. the incipit of “Nusku 6”: ÉN dNusku IBILA É-kur ša te-ret DINGIR.MEŠ
GAL.MEŠ, “Nusku, heir of Ekur, (the house) of the decrees of the great gods!” Mayer
1976, 486–488).
1789
See Streck 2001, 630. In Maqlû I, 122–124 (Meier 1937, 11; Abusch 2016, 45 and
291) Nusku is presented in connection with all three major cosmic deities, Anu, Enlil,
and Ea.
1790
See the overview in Menzel 1981, 80. Especially noteworthy is the attestation of
Nusku in Götteradressbuch, 1–18: he is found in the side wing, to the left of bīt ḫilāni in
the Aššur temple (Meinhold 2009, 430 and 440). The presence of Nusku in Aššur’s
temple is noted also in Tallqvist 1932, 24. For the association of Aššur with Enlil see
Tallqvist 1932, 9–14; Lambert 1983, 82–86 and Mayer 1995, 62. The parallelism of
Nusku as the son of Aššur and Sîn of Ḫarrān – both being thus represented as Enlil-fig-
ures – is briefly discussed also in Schaudig 2002, 633 and 637.
1791
The local aspects of the moon god’s cult in Ḫarrān are discussed on p. 387ff. below.
For a description of Nusku as the vizier of the moon god see e.g. the inscription for
Anzû-birds of Eḫulḫul, K. 8759+, r. 7: dNusku SUKKAL ṣi-⌈i⌉-ru mu-ma-’i-ir É-ḫúl-ḫ[úl
...], “Nusku, sublime vizier, who governs Eḫulḫ[ul ...]” (see Pongratz-Leisten 1995, 552–
553 and Novotny 2003, 232).
1792
For an overview of the goddess Sadarnuna see Cohen & Krebernik 2007, 481–483.
1793
For Emelamana in Ḫarrān see the discussion on p. 404ff. below.
1794
K. 2813+, r. 7: dDILI.ÍM.BABBAR a-bi a-li-di-ka, “Dilimbabbar/Namraṣīt, the father
(who) begot you” (see Bauer 1933, pl. 30 and Novotny 2003, 239–241). This epithet oc-
curs also in the other Emelamana inscriptions of Assurbanipal, see e.g. K. 2803+, r. 9’
316 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

We can assume that similarly to the prevailing Sumero-Babylonian tradition,

in Ḫarrān Nusku was considered to be a god of fire, a lamp that illuminates the
darkness of the night. The view that Nusku would have been worshipped as a
god of the lunar crescent there, based on the association between him and the
30th day in mythological explanatory texts, is not confirmed by the sources.1795
The main argument against such an identification is the fact that Nusku acts as
mār šelāšē, “son of the 30th day”, in the context of Enlil’s household, not Sîn’s.
For this reason, Nusku’s association with the 30th day of the month emphasises
his role as a god of light, who brings light to the moonless nights at the end of
the month, rather than his relationship with the moon god.1796
No concrete information is available for determining whether Nusku was re-
cognised as one of the children of the moon god by Nabonidus. Contrary to the
inscriptions of Assurbanipal, the inscriptions of Nabonidus never refer to Nusku
as a son of Sîn, although he certainly was presented as one of the major deities
of Ḫarrān.1797 The lines in the Eḫulḫul Cylinder that name Nusku separately from
Šamaš and Ištar, the principal children of Sîn, speaks against Nusku’s identifica-
tion as a son of Sîn: here he is described only as the vizier of the moon god.1798
Moreover, one can claim that the light god Nusku was, at least to some extent,
associated with the sun god Šamaš in the Ḫarrān inscriptions of Nabonidus.1799
This association is based on a line in the Ḫarrān Stele of Nabonidus, which lists
the deities Šamaš, Ištar, Adad, and Nergal as gods who have carried out the com-
mand of the moon god. In this list, Šamaš’ name is followed by a relative clause
stating that he is also known by the name Nusku.1800 Therefore, the sentence ap-
pears to combine two distinct theological traditions, a Babylonian one (Šamaš as
the son of Sîn) and the Ḫarranian one (Nusku as the son of Sîn).1801 As previ-

(Novotny 2003, 239 and Bauer 1933, 36 [Rs. 12]).

1795
Parpola 1983, 101. Parpola’s view is based on AO 6471, III 13–14: dA-bar-ra-laḫ5
dumu ud-30-kám u4-ná-àm / dNusku mār še-la-še-e bu-um-bu-li, “Abaralaḫ (Nusku), son
of the 30th day, the day of the invisibility of the moon” (see Livingstone 1986, 200–201).
The same identification can be found also in An = Anum I, 145 (Litke 1998, 36) in con-
nection with Enlil’s divine household in Nippur.
1796
See Streck 2001, 631 with reference to Thureau-Dangin 1919, 152.
1797
See e.g. Eḫulḫul Cylinder of Nabonidus and the episode in which the king recounts
how he “took the hands” of Sîn, Ningal, Nusku and Sadarnuna, and led them away from
Babylon to Ḫarrān (Schaudig 2001, 2.12, II 16–19 [Ex. 11]).
1798
Schaudig 2001, 2.12, II 42 (Ex. 1): dNusku SUKKAL ṣi-i-ri su-pe-e-a li-iš-me-e-ma /
li-iṣ-ba-at a-bu-tu, “May Nusku, the sublime vizier hear my prayers and intercede (for
me)!”.
1799
For this suggestion see Schaudig 2002, 633–634.
1800
Schaudig 2001, 3.1, III 41–42 (Ex. 2): dUTU šá ni-bu-šú / dNusku, “Šamaš whose
name (also) is Nusku”.
1801
In this sense, the syncretism of Šamaš with Nusku can be compared to the divine im-
age of the moon god created by Nabonidus, because it also combined the two traditions
 II.11. The Family and Household of Sîn 317

ously noted, it is likely that the possible syncretism of Šamaš and Nusku was
based on their qualities as luminaries, the one illuminating the day and the other
the night.1802

II.11.6. Ningublaga and Nin(e)igara

In the cultic context of Ur the son of Nanna/Sîn was Ningublaga.1803 Due to his
local character, Ningublaga is not as widely attested as the moon god’s son as
Šamaš was, who held that status in the prevalent tradition of the 1st millennium
BCE. The cult of Ningublaga originated in Ki’abrig and then spread into Ur.1804
References to him in Ur are already found in the sources of the Presargonic peri-
od, and his cult continued to be well-attested in the later Ur III and Old Babylo-
nian periods.1805 Ningublaga appears to have also belonged to the household of
the moon god in Nippur1806 and Larsa1807 during the Old Babylonian period. The
presence of Ningublaga in Babylonian cities during later periods remains un-
clear due to the lack of sources,1808 but one attestation proves that he was still
venerated in the moon god’s household in Hellenistic Uruk.1809
Ningublaga plays a prominent role among the deities belonging to the moon
god’s household in the god-list An = Anum: he is listed directly after Ningal
who, as Ningublaga’s mother, bears the name dÁb-na-ar-BU.1810 He is not expli-
citly referred to as the son of the moon god, but his genealogical relationship is
clear from other sources. In the hymn to Ningublaga’s temple in Ki’abrig, for

(Schaudig 2002, 634; for the image of the moon god see also p. 24ff. above).
1802
See the discussion on p. 309 above.
1803
For overviews of Ningublaga and his cult see Tallqvist 1938a, 321; Hall 1985, 737–
740; Krebernik 1995, 365; Cavigneaux & Krebernik 2000b, 374–376; and Richter 2004,
441–444. Note that in early Assyriological publications his name was transliterated Nin-
ḫarru or Ḫarra (see e.g. Tallqvist 1938a, 321). The reading Ningublaga for dNin-
EZEN×GU4 is established in Diri VII, 59 (see Cavigneaux & Krebernik 2000b, 374).
1804
The temple of Ningublaga in Ki’abrig was called Ĝá-bur-ra, “House of bur-jars”
(George 1993, no. 294). This name was also adopted for his sanctuary in Ur (George
1993, no. 295). For an overview of Ki’abrig see Edzard 1976–1980, 586.
1805
See Hall 1985, 737–740 and Richter 2004, 441–444. Charpin 1986, 222 maintains
that the cult of Ningublaga had perhaps permanently moved to Ur after the destruction
that followed the downfall of the Ur III dynasty. See also Michalowski 1989, 90–91.
1806
Richter 2004, 148–150.
1807
Renger 1967, 147.
1808
A temple of Ningublaga with no ceremonial name is mentioned in the list of female
deities deriving from Nabû-ša-ḫarê-temple in Babylon (79.B.1./20, 7 in Cavigneaux
1981, 138). The location of this temple remains, unfortunately, unknown.
1809
AO 6451, 41 (Linssen 2004, 175 and 179; see also the discussion on p. 371ff. below).
1810
SpTU 3 no. 107+, 27: [dÁb-na-ar]-BU | ama dNin-gublaga-ke4 / [ dNin-gub]laga | ŠU
(as opposed to ama d⌈En⌉-⌈zu⌉-[na]-⌈ke4⌉ for line III 30 in Litke 1998, 120).
318 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

example, he is already called the son of Nanna.1811 Since the earliest times, Nin-
gublaga was affiliated with herds and cattle. This is shown by his praise in
Sumerian literary sources1812 and the ban on serving beef to Ningublaga in Sîn’s
temple in Uruk,1813 as well as by the five names given to him in the god-list An =
Anum which for the most part were constructed with the element gu4, “ox”.1814
Outside the context of An = Anum, the name dLugalgudgaz, “King Butcher”, for
Ningublaga is found in a Late Babylonian tablet that provided meanings for di-
vine names.1815

S 3, 6–8
6 [dNin-g]ublaga EN šá i-sin-ni-šú [ ]1816
7 [dLugal-g]ud-gaz al-pi x [ ]
8 [GU]4 mulGU4.AN.NA ki-⌈i⌉ [qabû]1817
[Ning]ublaga means “the lord whose festival is [...].
[Lugalg]udgaz means “ox [...].
[Bul]l is the Bull of Heaven, as [it is said].

Because the text is not completely preserved, it is impossible to read the full ex-
planation, but the association of Ningublaga and Lugalgudgaz with oxen – both
as real animals and in the constellation “Bull of Heaven” – is firmly established.
A further celestial aspect is found in Ningublaga’s manifestation in the constella-

1811
The Temple Hymns, 155: dNin-gublagax(EZEN) dumu dNanna-a-ke4 (see Sjöberg &
Bergmann 1969, no. 11 and ETCSL 4.80.1).
1812
See Hall 1985, 739–740. For example, in the adab-song to Ningublaga, he is said to
organise the oxen in the temple of Suen (SLTNi 85, 25; edited in Römer 2001, 35–54).
1813
AO 6451, 41: ina É d30 UZU GU4 a-na dNin-gublaga ul i-qar-ru-ub, “In the temple
of Sîn beef will not be served to Ningublaga” (Linssen 2004, 175 and 179).
1814
The names in An = Anum III, 31–35 are dNin-[(x)]-DUB; dSÚN-si; dLugal-
báḫar(GU4); dLugal-gudgaz and dḪár(GU4) (see Krebernik 1995, 365 and Cavigneaux &
Krebernik 2000b, 374).
1815
The tablet in question, S 3, was published as Gordon 1952, no. 110, and it has been
most notably discussed in Livingstone 1986, 64–66. In Livingstone’s edition, which is
based on the copy by C. Gordon, the identity of the deity in question remains unknown.
After a collation of the tablet, W. G. Lambert prepared a new copy and an edition of the
text that allowed the deity to be identified as Ningublaga (Lambert 1989, 215–221).
1816
In Lambert 1989, 217 the end of this line [la-lu-ú?] (“the lord whose festival is [joy]”)
is restored on the basis of the older writing (EZEN×LA) for the element
gublaga(EZEN×GU4). It is clear that the interpretative method here involves breaking the
name and the signs into their components, and, for this reason, a noun corresponding to
GU4 is expected.
1817
The line is read [al-pi] mulGU4.AN.NA ki-[i DUG4.GA-ú] in Livingstone 1986, 64 and
[x] x mulGUD.AN.NA ki-⌈i⌉ [iqbû/qabû] in Lambert 1989, 217.
 II.11. The Family and Household of Sîn 319

tion “Little Twins”, in which the other twin is Alamuš, Sîn’s vizier.1818 The pair-
ing of Ningublaga with Alamuš is not restricted to the astral context since they
also appear together in curse formulae, litanies, and as actors in rituals. In fact,
attestations of the Ningublaga-Alamuš pairing form the majority of references to
Ningublaga in the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian sources.1819 In addition to
these brief references, longer descriptions of Ningublaga’s qualities as a deity
are almost non-existent. An exception is found in the adjurations by Ningublaga
and his wife Nin(e)igara found in the ḫul-ba-zi-zi incantations. These adjura-
tions, which are preserved in Neo-Assyrian manuscripts from Assur and Ninev-
eh, enforce Ningublaga’s status as the son of Nanna/Sîn and the close affiliation
he and his wife had with the cult in Ur.

LKA 77//, V 8–461820

V8 zi dNin-gublaga | niš ⌈d⌉N[in]-⌈gublaga⌉
V9 en dumu-saĝ | EN D[UMU rēštû]
d
V 10 Nanna | šá d[30]
V 11 peš-tur-zi | lìb-lìb-[(bi) muttalli]
V 12 kìri-zal maḫ | ṣi-[ri]
V 13 Úriki-ke4 | š[á? Ú]-⌈ri⌉
V 14 u18-lu | [me-ḫe]-⌈e⌉
V 15 šúr-dù | š[á šamriš il]-la-ku
V 16 gaba nu-gi4 [ | ina ]⌈É⌉-ĝiš-nu-ĝál
V 17 É-ĝiš-nu-ĝál-[la-ke4 |] la im-maḫ-ḫa-ru
V 18 maš-maš a[n-ki]-a | maš-maš AN-e u KI-tim
V 19 [ ] | muš-te-šir
V 20 [ | (x) l]i-šá-nu
V 21 si-⌈sá⌉ [ | mit-ḫ]ur-ti
V 22 ur5-⌈ša4⌉ | r[a]-mi-im
V 23 za-pa-áĝ | rig-me GAL.MEŠ
V 24 gal-gal-la | (empty)
V 25 ĝi6-ĝi6-ga | mu-uk-kil
V 26 dalḫamun | a-šam-šu-tú
V 27 šeĝx(IM.A.AN) | mu-šá-az-nin

1818
MUL.APIN I, i 6: DIŠ mulMAŠ.TAB.BA.TUR.TUR dAlamuš ù dNin-gublaga (Hunger
& Pingree 1989, 19). See also the discussion on p. 324ff. below.
1819
For the attestations of Ningublaga together with Alamuš see p. 323ff. below.
1820
This part of LKA 77 is duplicated by K. 7605, 1’–5’; K. 7606, IV 5’–14’ (published
in Meek 1920, 151–152, photographs also available in CDLI P373821 and P373822 re-
spectively) and KAR 48,2: 6’–16’. An edition of the text is found in Ebeling 1953b, 374–
375; see also the short description of this incantation in Meissner 1930–1931, 110–111.
Note that this attestation of Ningublaga and Nin(e)igara is absent in Cavigneaux &
Krebernik 2000b, 374–376 and Cavigneaux & Krebernik 2000a, 348.
320 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

V 28 šeĝx-šeĝx | šá-a-ri
V 29 an-na-ta è-dè | u zu-un-nu ina AN-e
V 30 ĝiškim-ti maḫ | ḫa-a-i-ṭu ur-ti
V 31 lú Úriki-ke4 | ṣir-ti šá Ú-ri
V 32 AN-úsan gal | na-qí-di GAL-i
V 33 an-ki-ke4 ḫé-pàd | šá AN-e u KI-tim

V 34 zi níta-dam-a-ni | niš ḫi-ir-ti-šú

d 1821
V 35 Nin-ì-gá[ra](“SA-[NI]”) | dMIN
V 36 munus-zi | sin-niš-tú kit-tú
V 37 Eriduki-ga | šá ina Eri-dù10
V 38 mí-zi-dè-eš | ki-niš kun-n[a-t]ú
V 39 ⌈du11⌉-ga | ṭup-šar-ra-tú
V 40 dub-sa[r]-maḫ | ṣir-tum
!
V 41 nin-erìm (copy: gu7)-[m]a | be-let i-⌈šit⌉-ti
V 42 ⌈má⌉-gur8 dSuen-na-k[e4] | ma-ak-ku-ri šá d⌈30⌉
V 43 munus-agrig | [ab-rak-k]a-tú
V 44 šu-dim4-ma | s[a-niq]-tú
V 45 nin-agrun-kù-ga | be-l[et] ⌈a⌉-⌈ga⌉-ru-nu
V 46 ḫé-pàd | KÙ lu-ú (ta-ma-tam)
Be adjured by Ningublaga, lord, the eldest son of Sîn, the august noble off-
spring of Ur, storm that moves furiously, the one who cannot be confronted
in Ekišnugal, the incantation priest of the heaven and the earth, the one who
sets right [confl]icting [la]nguages, the one who roars with great noise, the
one who darkens the dust storm, the one who lets wind and rain come down
from heaven, (Sum.) the exalted mainstay of the people of Ur/(Akk.) the
watcher of the noble command of Ur, (Sum.) the great evening of the heaven
and the earth/(Akk.) the great shepherd of the heaven and the earth!

Be adjured by his spouse, Nin(e)iga[ra], true woman, cherished in Eridu, the

august scribe, the lady of the treasury, (Sum.) the barge of Sîn1822/(Akk.) the
storehouse of Sîn, the obedient housekeeper, the lady of the pure bed-
chamber!

The genealogical relationship between the moon god and Ningublaga is con-
firmed here by the epithet “eldest son of Nanna/Sîn” (dumu-saĝ dNanna/māru
rēštû ša dSîn), and his close connection to Ur and the temple Ekišnugal is also

1821
The name of Nin(e)igara is also written without the element é in An = Anum III, 36
(see Litke 1998, 121 and Cavigneaux & Krebernik 2000a, 348).
1822
In Ebeling 1953b, 376 the Sumerian line is considered erroneous. For the moon as a
barge see the discussion on p. 45ff. above.
 II.11. The Family and Household of Sîn 321

underlined by the epithets “the august princely offspring of Ur” and “the one
who cannot be confronted in Ekišnugal”. The text also reveals an aspect of Nin-
gublaga as an “incantation priest of the heaven and the earth” which is combined
with demonic attributes – Ningublaga is a furious storm and has other character-
istics of a demonic wind – that are connected to deities who assume such a
role.1823 It is remarkable that this description of him as an exorcist is, in its fun-
damental parts, parallel to a section in the Sumerian hymn to Ĝá-bur-ra, the
temple of Ningublaga in Ki’abrig, in which Ningublaga of Ki’abrig is depicted
as an exorcist, as well as a god who sets conflicting tongues in order, and as a
god related to meteorological phenomena.1824 These parallels demonstrate that
theological notions similar to the ones attached to Ningublaga in his cult in
Ki’abrig were still current during the Neo-Assyrian period. The apotropaic char-
acter of Ningublaga is also found in a short reference to him in the bīt mēseri
ritual: here he carries the goat that was used to dispel evil forces from the
house.1825 It is likely that Ningublaga in his apotropaic aspect also appears in the
fourth tablet of the Udug-ḫul, in which the deities in the moon god’s household
are listed with their attributes. Although the deity following Alamuš in this pas-
sage, according to the manuscript, is Nin-asilal, it has to be assumed that he is
actually Ningublaga,1826 and his protective character is here expressed by the epi-
thet “unsubmissive weapon/weapon bearer”.1827
The adjuration by Nin-(é-)ì-gára, “Lady of the Butter and Cream (House)”,
that is present in LKA 77// is even more unique than the one by Ningublaga. Al-
though she and her cult are well-represented in earlier administrative and literary
sources,1828 in the sources of the 1st millennium BCE, she remains extremely elu-
sive. In the god-list An = Anum Nin(e)igara is present as Ningublaga’s wife, and

1823
For the tendency to depict a deity who takes the role of an exorcist as a demonic wind
see Jiménez 2013a, 29–139.
1824
The Temple Hymns, 153–154: maš-maš eme-ḫa-mun dungu an-na bí-DU / ud an-na
gù mur ak ud-dè ki šu ra-ra šúm-mu, “The incantation priest of opposed languages who
puts clouds in the sky, the storm which roars in the sky, as the sunlight giving ... to the
earth” (see Sjöberg & Bergmann 1969, no. 11 and ETCSL 4.80.1).
1825
Bīt mēseri, II 119: mašḫulduppâ šá pānū-šú lem-nu na-ši dNin-gublaga (see Meier
1941–1944, 146–147). For the goat máš-ḫul-dúb-ba, see Cavigneaux 1995, 53–67.
1826
In Geller 2007, 113 and in Geller 2016, 151 the identity of Nin-asilal is left without
comment, but it is noted in Cavigneaux & Krebernik 2000b, 375 that the manuscript
SpTU 3 no. 64, III 7–8 appears to have the writing dNin-EZEN×A.LÁ for Ningublaga.
Thus is perhaps reflects the older sign form used to write Ningublaga’s name (Nin-
EZEN×LÁ instead of Nin-EZEN×GU4). The affiliation to Alamuš, who is often paired
with Ningublaga, supports this interpretation.
1827
Udug-ḫul 4, 96’: gištukul nu-še-g[a] / na-[áš kak-ki] la ma-gi-ri (see Geller 2007, 113
and Geller 2016, 151).
1828
For overviews of Nin(e)igara see Hall 1985, 746 and Cavigneaux & Krebernik 2000a,
348.
322 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

she shares his affiliation to cattle on the basis of her connection with dairy
products.1829 The epithets used to describe her in the adjuration in LKA 77// also
depict her as Ningublaga’s wife. She is explicitly called his spouse (ḫīrtu), and,
like Ningal, she is associated with the realm of the goddesses, the bed-cham-
ber.1830 According to the further epithets employed in LKA 77//, Nin(e)igara had
administrative tasks in the household of Nanna/Sîn: she is the “lady of the treas-
ury” (nin-èrim/bēlet išitti) and the “obedient housekeeper” (munus-agrig šu-
dim4-ma/abarakkatu saniqtu). These epithets conform with her image in the La-
mentation over the Destruction of Sumer and Ur, in which it is said that as a res-
ult of the destruction by the enemy, Nine’igara, “exalted housekeeper” (agrig-
maḫ) abandoned the treasury (èrim).1831

II.11.7. Alamuš
Like Ningublaga, the god Alamuš belonged to the household of Nanna/Sîn in
Ur.1832 The worship of Alamuš as a minor deity in this city appears to go back to
a very early period since the personal name Ur-dAlamuš can be found in an ar-
chaic text from this site.1833 His local character and close affiliation to Ur is un-
derlined by his wife’s name: Nin-Urima, “Lady of Ur”.1834 Alamuš’ position in
the moon god’s household is that of his vizier (Sum. sukkal, Akk. sukkallu), as
exemplified by the entry in the god-list An = Anum.1835 The role of Alamuš as the
vizier of Sîn is also reflected in his epithets. For example, in the fourth tablet of

1829
An = Anum III, 36 (see Litke 1998, 121).
1830
This similarity in the epithets of Nin(e)igara and Ningal is noted in Charpin 1986,
221.
1831
Lamentation over the Destruction of Sumer and Ur, 409 (Michalowski 1989, 62–63).
See also Hall 1985, 746. It has recently been suggested that this passage describes the
destruction of the divine image of Nine’igara in her sanctuary, which was a “treasury”
for storing dairy products (Dahl 2011, 55–65). According to this suggestion, the actual
physical appearance of Nine’igara’s cult image in Ur is depicted by the destroyed ob-
jects: she was probably seated on a stool or a throne, had the horns of a cow, was holding
emblems in the form of cattle and sheep, and some of the parts of the image would have
been in the form of vegetation.
1832
An overview of the Akkadian sources mentioning Alamuš (dLÀL) can be found in
Tallqvist 1938a, 347. Alamuš has also been recently discussed in Simons 2016, 8–10.
1833
UET 2 Supp. 14, o. I 1 (Hall 1985, 745–746).
1834
An = Anum III, 38: dNin-Úriki (Litke 1998, 122). According to Cavigneaux &
Krebernik 2001, 511 and Richter 2004, 447, this goddess is found in the sources of the
Ur III period, but after that, her attestations almost completely vanish.
1835
An = Anum III, 37: dAlamuš | sukkal dEn-zu-ke4. The entry in manuscript YBC 2401,
V 13 writes the name with a gloss: d.a-⌈la⌉-⌈muš⌉LÁL (Litke 1998, 121). The entry of Alamuš
follows the entry naming Ningublaga, the son of Sîn in Ur. Moreover, Alamuš had a viz-
ier of his own, Uru-gal (An = Anum III, 40: dUru16ú-ru-gal | sukkal dAlamuš-ke4 (Litke
1998, 122).
 II.11. The Family and Household of Sîn 323

Udug-ḫul he bears the epithet “grand vizier” (sukkal maḫ/sukkallu ṣīru) of

Sîn.1836 His activity as a messenger between humans and the moon god is exhib-
ited in the ikrib-prayers to Sîn, in which he is asked to communicate the case to
Sîn.1837 In the temple Ekišnugal in Ur, at least in earlier times, Alamuš appears to
have been associated especially with the courtyard: in a Sumerian hymn to the
moon god Nanna, Alamuš has the epithet “lord of the courtyard”1838 and in an
Old Babylonian petition to the moon god, he is mentioned among the deities
whose place was in the courtyard.1839 In the Lamentation over the Destruction of
Sumer and Ur, Alamuš, who throws down his sceptre, appears after the line de-
scribing the absence of judicial verdicts in Dublamaḫ.1840 These attestations led
Mark G. Hall to associate Alamuš primarily with justice.1841 Another aspect of
Alamuš, suggested by Hall and based on sources from the Ur III period, is an af-
finity with vegetation and animals. This may be the reason why Alamuš, togeth-
er his vizier Urugal and Nine’igara, Ningublaga’s wife, were among the deities
who received offerings in the temple of Ningublaga, who was associated with
cattle.1842 The connection between Alamuš and Ningublaga remains apparent in
later sources, in which these two deities appear as a pair.1843 Thus, Alamuš and
Ningublaga are presented together in the curse formula in the Middle Babyloni-
an kudurru of Marduk-apla-iddina I.1844 They also appear together amongst the

1836
Udug-ḫul 4, 95’: dÁlamuš(INNIN.LÀL) sukkal maḫ dSuen-n[a] / dMIN suk-kal-lu4 ṣi-
i-ru šá [d30] (see Geller 2007, 113 and Geller 2016, 151). Despite the evidence referred
to in MZL no. 170, the identification of the spelling dINNIN.LÀL with Alamuš appears
to be still doubted in Geller’s edition.
1837
K. 2751+//, 19’ and 53’ (see the edition on p. 483ff. below).
1838
UM 29-15-570, r. 24: ù-mu-un-kisal-lá kìri-zal dAlamuš-ra, “to the lord of the court-
yard, noble Alamuš” (see Sjöberg 1977, 8–13 and ETCSL 4.13.15 [Nanna O]).
1839
UET 6/2 no. 402, 24 (see the citation on p. 250 above as well as the edition in
Charpin 1986, 326–327).
1840
Lamentation over the Destruction of Sumer and Ur, 438–440 (Michalowski 1989,
64–65).
1841
Hall 1985, 745–746.
1842
For an overview of the offerings see Richter 2004, 443–448.
1843
See Cavigneaux & Krebernik 2000b, 375. In Geller 2016, 151 the god Ningublaga
(referred to as dNIN.EZEN×GUD) is understood as the spouse of Alamuš (referred to as
d
INNIN.LÀL and apparently taken to be a female deity) – a misunderstanding that
prompted the short overview of Alamuš in Simons 2016, 8–10.
1844
MDP 6 38, IV 4: dAlamuš dNin-gublaga dTišpak dKA.DI, “Alamuš, Ningublaga,
Tišpak, Ištaran”. A new edition of the text is found in Paulus 2014, 430–440. As noted in
Simons 2016, 9, the name that is written dLÀL is read Kabta by Paulus, but the logogram
must stand for Alamuš (for the reading of the logogram LÀL see MZL no. 170). Further-
more, F. Simons suggests that since Alamuš and Ningublaga are surrounded by chthonic
deities in this context, they too may have been associated with the Netherworld.
324 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

gods who are begged for absolution in Šurpu.1845 In KAR 132, which describes
the akītu-festival of Anu in Uruk, Alamuš and Ningublaga belong to the same
group of deities as Sîn, Šulpae’a, Ninurta, Mīšaru, and Nusku, in the procession
of Anu’s statue to the akītu-house outside the city.1846 Since we know that Nin-
gublaga was worshipped in the temple of Sîn in Uruk, it plausible that Alamuš
also belonged to this household.1847 Unfortunately, these brief references do not
provide any information about the character of Alamuš in these contexts. Else-
where, however, a significant detail concerning Alamuš and Ningublaga is re-
vealed by the astronomical compendium MUL.APIN: Alamuš and Ningublaga
are identified with the constellation “Little Twins” that sits in Enlil’s path.1848
Ningublaga had further astral connotations, as the Late Babylonian expository
text associating him with the constellation “Bull of Heaven” explains,1849 but in
the case of Alamuš, no such associations are known. No explanation is provided
by the Mesopotamian sources for why Alamuš and Ningublaga are partnered to-
gether in curse formulae, litanies, and in the astral sphere, but the close connec-
tion between these deities certainly extends at least as far back as the 3rd millen-
nium BCE, when Alamuš was venerated in Ningublaga’s temple. One suggested
reason for presenting them as a pair is that they both were sons of the moon god
in Ur.1850 However, no explicit evidence that Alamuš was considered a son of
Nanna/Sîn is available, and therefore the matter remains uncertain.

II.11.8. Amarazu and Amaraḫea

In the tradition of Babylonian god-lists, the goddesses dAma-ra-a-zu and dAma-
ra-ḫé-è-a were identified as Sîn’s daughters. In the Weidner God-list, these two
goddesses are paired together directly after the gods Alamuš and Ningublaga,1851
and in An = Anum, they are further identified as daughters of Sîn.1852 References

1845
Šurpu VIII, 25 (see Reiner 1958, 40 and Borger 2000, 79).
1846
KAR 132, I 9–11; II 1–2 and III 12 (see the edition in Linssen 2004, 201–208, where
the identity of dINNIN.LÀL/dMÙŠ.LÀL as Alamuš is not recognised). The text is also
translated in Cohen 1993, 434–435, where the identity of neither Alamuš nor Ningublaga
is acknowledged.
1847
For the cult of the moon god in Uruk see p. 371ff. below; see also p. 317 above.
1848
MUL.APIN I, i 6: DIŠ mulMAŠ.TAB.BA.TUR.TUR dAlamuš ù dNin-gublaga (Hunger
& Pingree 1989, 19).
1849
See p. 318 above.
1850
“Darin könnte sich eine Tradition manifestieren, nach der beide Söhne des Mond-
gottes waren. So ergäbe sich auch ein symmetrisches Bild hinsichtlich der zwei in An =
Anum nach Ningublag und Alammuš angeführten Töchter des Mondgottes, dAmar-ra-
(a)zu und dA-mar-ra-ḫé-è-a [...]” (Krebernik 1995, 365). This possibility seems plausible
on the basis of the Weidner God-list, in which Alamuš and Ningublaga appear to form a
pair parallel to the daughters of Sîn (see Weidner 1924–1925, 10 and Richter 2004, 455).
1851
Weidner God-list, I 15–16 (Weidner 1924–1925, 10).
1852
An = Anum III, 41–43: dAmar-ra-a-zu | ŠU / dAmar-ra-ḫé-è-a | ŠU / 2 dumu-munus
 II.11. The Family and Household of Sîn 325

to Amarazu and Amarḫaea in other sources are very scarce, and there is no evid-
ence of their cult in Ur even in the 3rd and 2nd millenniums BCE.1853 However, a
few attestations from the Ur III and Old Babylonian periods reveal that Amarazu
enjoyed a cult in Nippur.1854 In the 1st millennium BCE, there is no evidence
providing information about Amarazu’s or Amaraḫea’s cult. These two god-
desses are, however, attested as members of the moon god’s household in the
fourth tablet of the series Udug-ḫul.

Udug-ḫul 4, 98’–99’1855
98’ zi dAmar-ra-è-a dumu-munus dSue[n-na ḫé-pà]
niš dMIN ma-rat d30 lu ta-[ma-ta]
99’ zi dAmar-ra-a-zu šùd agrun-n[a ḫé-pà]
[ni]š d[MIN ka-ri-bat] a-ga-[ru-un-ni lu ta-ma-ta]
[Be adjured] by Amaraea, daughter of Sîn!
[Be adjured] by Amarazu, the blesser o[f] the bed-chamber!

In these lines, the goddess Amaraḫea (here written Amaraea) is straightfor-

wardly portrayed as a daughter of Sîn, but by her association with the bed-cham-
ber, the goddess Amarazu is linked to the goddess Ningal.1856

II.11.9. Bēlet-ilī
The final deity, whose relationship to the moon god is discussed here, is the
mother goddess Bēlet-ilī.1857 The main reason to add her to the group of deities
in Sîn’s household is her conspicuous role in the royal hemerology Inbu bēl arḫi,
where she is consistently paired with Sîn. An example of the way, in which Sîn
and Bēlet-ilī are presented side by side throughout text, can be found in the entry
for the 13th day of the intercalary Elūlu, in which offerings to the divine pairs
Šamaš–Bēlet-mātāti and Sîn–Bēlet-ilī are prescribed.1858 The reason for pairing
the moon god with Bēlet-ilī in this context is not explained within the text or
elsewhere: although Inbu bēl arḫi was a result of combining prognoses from
other hemerological works – mainly Iqqur īpuš, Prostration Hemerology and

d
En-zu-ke4 (Litke 1998, 122). In the precursor of An = Anum, the name Ama-ra-ḫé-è-a is
replaced by the variant Ama-ra-ḫá-áĝ-e (see Hall 1985, 744; Krebernik 1995, 365 and
Richter 2004, 451–455).
1853
See Hall 1985, 744–745.
1854
See Richter 2004, 100–101 and Such-Gutiérrez 2003, 313.
1855
See Geller 2007, 113 and 205 as well as Geller 2016, 151.
1856
For Ningal’s connection to bed-chamber see p. 302ff. above.
1857
For an overview of the mother goddess in Mesopotamia, see Krebernik 1997, 502–
516.
1858
K. 4231, II 8–12 (Livingstone 2013, 214; see the citation on p. 67 above).
326 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

Babylonian Almanac1859 – no similar formulations are otherwise found in the

hemerological tradition. Furthermore, the pattern of lunar phases in the text does
not elucidate the function of this divine pair since Bēlet-ilī accompanies Sîn al-
most every time he is mentioned in Inbu bēl arḫi.1860 There are several possible
ways to interpret this connection between Sîn and Bēlet-ilī. First, the association
of the moon with the mother goddess can be seen as a reference to the moon
god’s aspect as a god of fertility.1861 A further possibility is syncretism between
the mother goddess and Ningal in her role as the mother of the celestial deities
in particular.1862 Another link between Sîn and Bēlet-ilī, which plausibly also
played a role in their pairing in Inbu bēl arḫi, is found in the 12th tablet of the
series Udug-ḫul. Here, Bēlet-ilī’s epithet explicitly describes her as the moon
god’s sister – a notion that is apparent in the Sumerian line despite the use of
two different Akkadian equivalents (rubātu, “princess”,1863 and aḫat r[abītu],
“e[lder] sister”) of the Sumerian nin-gal, “elder sister”.1864

Udug-ḫul 12, 441865

d
Nin-maḫ nin-gal dSuen-n[a] ama-gal Kèški-ke4
d
Be-let-ì-lí ru-ba-tum (var.: a-ḫat r[a-bi-tum]1866) šá d30 um-mi GAL-ti šá Ke-eš
(Sum.) Ninmaḫ, elder sister of Sîn, great mother of Keš
(Akk.) Bēlet-ilī, princess (var.: e[lder] sister) of Sîn, great mother of Keš

Thus the main factor connecting Sîn to the mother goddess appears to have been
a genealogical one: Sîn was one of Belēt-ilī’s brothers together with the gods
Enlil, Ea/Enki, and Adad.1867 Unfortunately, no further information concerning
this sibling relationship survives.

1859
See Jiménez 2016, 201–204.
1860
See the overview of the days connected to Sîn in Tables 6–13 on p. 129ff. above as
well as the discussion on p. 98ff. above.
1861
For a discussion concerning the moon god’s influence on fertility see p. 229ff. above.
1862
See the discussion on p. 296ff. above.
1863
Note that this epithet for Bēlet-ilī was used especially in the context of anti-witchcraft
rituals in the formula ina qibīt Ea Šamaš Marduk u rubāti Bēlet-ilī (see the list of attesta-
tions in Abusch & Schwemer 2011, 195).
1864
The Sumerian epithet nin-gal may have been equated with the name Ningal, therefore
underlining the possible association between the goddesses Ninmaḫ/Bēlet-ilī and Ningal.
1865
Geller 2007, 159 and 237; see also Geller 2016, 408.
1866
MMA 86.11.379B+, 44: dNin-maḫ nin-gal dSuen-n[a ama-gal Kèški] / dBe-let-DIN-
GIR.MEŠ a-ḫat r[a-bi-tu4 šá dSîn um-mi GAL-ti šá Ki-i-ši], “O Bēlet-ilī, elder sister of
Sîn, [great mother of Keš!] (see Geller 2005, 143 and 148).
1867
Krebernik 1997, 507.
 II.11. The Family and Household of Sîn 327

Deity Name Lines in An =

Anum
d
Sîn Nanna III, 1–26
d
Suen
d
MIN-30
d
Ĝiš-nu11-gal
d
BU.NIR
d
Áb-kára
d
Áb-lu-lu
d
Men-šu-du7
d
Men-dàra-an-na
d
Men-dàra-diĝir-ra
d
Men-zalag-búr
d
Gi16-sa-an-na
d
Gi16-sa-a
d
Má-gu-la-an-na
d
Dumu-nun-na
d
Dumu-gi7
d
Lugal
d
Umun
d
Mu-ḫé-ĝál-la
d
Idim-ḫuš
d
Unkin
d
Unkin-uru16
d
Nannāru U4-sakar III, 23–25
d
Má
d
Má-gur8
d
Namraṣīt Dili-ím-babbar III, 26
d
Ningal Nin-gal III, 27–29
d
(wife of Sîn) Nin-gi-kù-ga
d
Áb-na-ar-BU

Table 14: Overview of An = Anum III, 1–29

328 II. Theologies of the Moon God in Assyria and Babylonia

Deity Name Lines in An =

Anum
d
Ningublaga Nin-gublaga III, 30–35
d
(son of Sîn) Nin-báḫar
d
SÚN-si
d
Lugal-báḫar
d
Lugal-gud-gaz
d
Ḫár
d
Nin(e)igara Nin-ì-gara III, 36
(wife of Ningublaga)
d
Alamuš Alamuš III, 37
(vizier of Sîn)
d
Nin-Uri Nin-Úriki III, 38
(wife of Alamuš)
d
Kaka MEkà-kà.ME III, 39
(vizier of Ningal)
d
Urugal Uru16-gal III, 40
(vizier of Alamuš)
d
Amarazu & Amaraḫea Amar-ra-a-zu III, 41–43
d
(daughters of Sîn) Amar-ra-ḫé-è-a
d
4 guards (diĝir-gub-ba) of Nin-kù-nun-na III, 44–48
d
Sîn Ninnu-tab-ba
d
Níĝ-ga-ba
d
Il-la-bu-un-du
8 balaĝ-gods (gu4-balaĝ) of dḪI.A.MU-an-na (var. dŠà-an-ba) III, 49–57
d
Sîn Úriki-kìri-zal
d
Amar-dSuen
d
Nanna-ušum-maḫ(-mu) (var.
[dNanna-BA]LAĜ-maḫ)
d
U4-me-an-na
d
U4-kìri-zal-an-na
d
U4-é-zi-an-na
d
An(-na)-ḫi-li-ba

Table 15: Overview of An = Anum III, 30–57

 II.11. The Family and Household of Sîn 329

Deity Name Lines in An = Anum

d
overseer of Sîn’s seal Nanna-balaĝ-an-ki III, 58
d
2 guards (diĝir-gub-ba) Nin-da-gal-zu III, 59–61
d
of Ningal Nin-da-maḫ-di
d.ĝiš
2 balaĝ-gods (gu4-balaĝ) Tukul-diĝir-ra III, 62–64
d
of Ningublaga Á-maḫ-tuku
d
Nindara Nin-dar-a III, 65
(Sîn)
d
Ninmetenten Nin-me-te-en-te-en III, 66
(maid of Sîn)
d
Nanše Nanše (var.: III, 67
d.na-zi
ENGUR)
d
Nazi Na-zi III, 68
d
Enšalulua En-šà-lu-lu-a III, 69
(great housekeeper of
Nanše)
d
Nin-MAR.KI Nin-MAR.KI III, 70
13 (or 10) children of III, 71–84
Nin-MAR.KI
d
balaĝ-god (gu4-balaĝ) of Nin-dAnzumušen III, 85
Nin-MAR.KI
d
Ga’u Ga-a(-a)-ú III, 86–87
d
(shepherd of Sîn) Laḫar(la)
8 children of Ga’u III, 88–96

Table 16: Overview of An = Anum III, 58–96

III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria
The cult of the Sumero-Babylonian moon god Sîn was spread across the Meso-
potamian cultural area. In the south, the focal point of his cult was the city of Ur,
where the moon god was most likely venerated as early as in pre-historic period.
Moreover, his sphere of influence included not only the city area of Ur itself, but
also a variety of locations surrounding it. Sîn’s other main cult centre, perhaps
also since the pre-historic past, was Ḫarrān, located at the opposite end of the
geographical area under the cultural influence of Mesopotamia. This northern
city was the focal point for the cult of the moon god in the area that corresponds
to modern northern Syria and southern Turkey, on the upper reaches of the Eu-
phrates, along the river Baliḫ. Naturally, Ur and Ḫarrān were not the only places
where the moon god was venerated. In Babylonia, Sîn had a place in the cultic
life of the cities of Nippur, Uruk, Sippar, Larsa, Babylon, and Borsippa. In As-
syria, a temple for the moon god can be found not only in the city of Assur but
also in the capital cities of the Neo-Assyrian period: Kalḫu, Dūr-Šarrukīn, and
Nineveh. Although the existence of a sanctuary or a temple of the moon god in
each of these Babylonian and Assyrian cities during the 1st millennium BCE can
be established, the lack of documentation from the temple administration often
leaves us without information concerning their daily cultic practises. This also
explains why in most of the cases here the existence of these cult places is
treated from the viewpoint of the building activities of certain rulers or kings,
and not the temple administration. Despite the lack of information concerning
daily worship or details about the structure of temple households, it is still pos-
sible to distinguish certain aspects that are specific to the Babylonian and Assyr-
ian temples of the moon god. The main difference can be seen in the distribution
of Sîn’s temples in Babylonia and Assyria. In the Babylonian cities, excluding
Ur and the town of Kissik that was located in the vicinity of Ur, the presence of
the moon god appears to be connected to the relationship between Sîn and the
primary deity of each city’s pantheon. Thus, while in Nippur, Sîn was venerated
as Enlil’s son, in Uruk, he was present as the father of Ištar. Even in Babylon,
where there was an independent temple to the moon god bearing the same name
as the temple in Ur, evidence suggesting Sîn’s presence in connection with the
cult of his daughter Ištar is found. The mythological genealogical relationships
between the deities undoubtedly also played a role in the moon god’s temples in
Assyria, but the underlying structure of the cult appears to differ from its Baby-
lonian equivalent. This is illustrated by the fact that Sîn and Šamaš, the moon
and the sun, shared a temple in Assur, Dūr-Šarrukīn, and Nineveh. Moreover,
excluding Ḫarrān and its vicinity, attestations for the moon god’s cult in Assyria
are focused on the capital cities, which underlines his role in the official religion
of the state.
 III.1. Ur and the Neighbouring Area 331

III.1. Ur and the Neighbouring Area

The city of Ur belonged to the moon god since time immemorial: as far back as
its history can be traced, the moon god Nanna/Suen was the city’s patron god.1868
This connection pervades the different branches of textual sources. Therefore,
the line “I am a man from Ur of Sîn!” is found in a Kultmittelbeschwörung to al-
kali from Neo-Assyrian Assur.1869 Similarly, a passage in a love spell from Assur
relates to the cult cities of Sîn, Šamaš, and Ištar: “Just as bitumen clung to a
boat, just as Sîn took over Ur, as Šamaš took over Larsa, as Ištar took over Ekur,
I have taken hold of you and will not let you go!”1870 One of the first attestations
(ca. 2500 BCE) of the connection between the moon god Nanna and his city can
be found in the zà-mì hymns of Tell Abū Ṣalābīḫ.1871 However, Ur was not the
moon god’s only cult city, since Pre-Sargonic dedicatory inscriptions reveal that
the moon god also enjoyed a cult in several other Sumerian cities such as Tutub
and Girsu. During the Sargonic period (2334–2112 BCE) the number of the
moon god’s cult cities seems to have declined however, and the cult of the moon
god Nanna became more and more concentrated within Ur, where Sargon in-
stalled his daughter Enḫeduana as the en-priestess of the moon god.1872
Ur’s apex was reached as the Neo-Sumerian Ur III dynasty rose to power,
and because of the wealth and political power of the regime, the cult of the pat-
ron deity of the city, Nanna, also flourished.1873 This can be seen in both the ar-
cheological record of the temple complex as well as in the numerous dedicatory
inscriptions that were left behind by the rulers of the Ur III dynasty. Prior to this,
no ziqqurrat, only terraced temple buildings, existed in Ur, but now an imposing
three-tiered ziqqurrat was built by Ur-Namma.1874 The pantheon and cultic calen-
dar of this period can be reconstructed with the help of the documentation con-
cerning offerings.1875 For the Old Babylonian period information can be gleaned
from administrative sources and letters, and also from the royal inscriptions that
were written in connection with the extensive rebuilding of the temple complex
and the city after the fall of the Ur III dynasty.1876 Following the Old Babylonian

1868
For an overview of the cult of the moon god in Ur in the earlier periods (Pre-Sargon-
ic, Sargonic, Ur III, Isin-Larsa, and Old Babylonian) see especially Hall 1985, 93–371;
Charpin 1986, 231–302; and Richter 2004, 410–506. A useful overview of the archeolo-
gical remains at Ur has been recently presented by H. Crawford (2015).
1869
KAR 43, 24 // KAR 63, 22: DUMU Úriki šá d30 a-na-ku (see Ebeling 1931a, 16–20).
1870
KAR 69, r. 11–14 (Biggs 1967, 77).
1871
Biggs 1974, 47 ll. 35–36: úri šim-kur / lugal dNanna zà-me.
1872
Hall 1985, 93–112.
1873
See Hall 1985, 127–143.
1874
See Woolley 1939, 24–39 and 98–121 and Crawford 2015, 84.
1875
For discussions concerning the cult and pantheon in Ur during this period see Hall
1985, 256–350; Sallaberger 1993, 69–80 and 159–208 as well as Richter 2004, 413–416.
1876
The majority of this documentation is concentrated on the Isin-Larsa period. For an
332 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

period, written sources in Ur disappear, and is not until the reign of the Kassite
king Kurigalzu, who rebuilt the temple complex, that light is shed on
Ekišnugal.1877 One of the results of these building activities was the relocation of
the Ningal temple from the giparu to the ziqqurrat enclosure.1878 Towards the
end of the Kassite dynasty the sources concerning the temple at Ur grow sporad-
ic: there is some archaeological evidence for building activity, but textual refer-
ences are extremely scarce. For the era that started with the Isin II dynasty and
continued until Sîn-balāssu-iqbi was the governor of the city, only little evidence
for building activities and royal donations to temples is known; the whole era is
characterized by its lack of documentation.1879 In contrast to the Ur III and Old
Babylonian periods, the cultic practices at Ekišnugal during the Neo- and Late
Babylonian periods are virtually unknown to us due to the lack of administrative
texts: no temple archive similar to the ones connected to Eana in Uruk or Ebab-
bar in Sippar has been found in Ur, and the moon god’s temple is only sporadic-
ally referred to in private documents deriving from the Persian period.1880 Be-
cause the main sources concerning the temple Ekišnugal in this period are
inscriptions reporting building activities at the site, the discussion in this chapter
is largely concentrated on this aspect, and not on the cultic reality in the main
temple of the Sumero-Babylonian moon god.

overview of the materials and the political history connected to the temple and the city
see van de Mieroop 1992, 45–71; for the cult of the moon god and other deities in Ur see
Richter 2004, 416–506. An overview of the architecture of Old Babylonian temple com-
plex Ekišnugal is given in van de Mieroop 1992, 38–43.
1877
See Brinkman 1969, 327–328 and van de Mieroop 1992, 69–70. The disruption in
written sources is reflected in the archaeological evidence, which shows discontinuity,
decline, and disintegration despite the continued habitation in the area (Wright 1981,
330–334). This decline, which was temporarily stopped during the Kassite reign, contin-
ued during the post-Kassite era when another low point in the history of Ur was reached
(around 900 BCE).
1878
For an overview of the archeological remains from the Kassite period see Crawford
2015, 113–118.
1879
See Brinkman 1965, 241–242 and Brinkman 1969, 333–335.
1880
See the overviews of the archives of Ur in Pedersén 1998, 201–204 and Jursa 2005,
133–137. Remains of a temple archive – a few fragmentary tablets from the Persian peri-
od mentioned in Woolley 1962, 49 – are referred to in Pedersén 1998, 201, but he further
notes that these texts do not appear in any text publications. The Neo-Babylonian Re-
cords from the Hall Collection recently published by R. Tarasewicz include only a few
fragmentary references to the Ekišnugal temple (Tarasewicz 2018, no. 46 [BM 113966+,
3’]), tithes of Sîn from dates (Tarasewicz 2018, nos. 19 and 20; reign of Darius), and the
property of Sîn (Tarasewicz 2018, no. 62 [BM 114151, 1’]).
 III.1. Ur and the Neighbouring Area 333

III.1.1. The Temple Complex Ekišnugal

The temple of the moon god in Ur was named Ekišnugal.1881 This name was first
attested in a fragment of diorite stele of Utuḫeĝal that was found in the Ningal
temple at Ur,1882 but it is possible that the name was also given in the Stele of
Vultures of Eanatum of Lagaš.1883 That the name Ekišnugal was used for the
temple during the Sargonic period at the latest is also suggested by the Sumerian
temple hymn to Ekišnugal in the collection said to have been composed by En-
ḫeduana, Sargon’s daughter.1884 This principal sanctuary of the moon god Nanna/
Sîn in southern Mesopotamia was the embodiment of the Sumero-Babylonian
moon god’s cult to the extent that sanctuaries with the same name also existed in
Nippur and Babylon, undoubtedly signifying a cultic contact with the city of
Ur.1885 In the sections in Sumerian litanies that name temples/sanctuaries, the
status of Ekišnugal as the foremost abode of the moon god is emphasised by list-
ing it before any of his other sanctuaries. For example, in the balaĝ-composition
“The Honoured One of Heaven” (an-na e-lum-e), the temple name Ekišnugal
opens the litany of different sanctuaries of the moon god.

SBH no. 24, 3–14 // VS 17 no. 57, 2–14 // K. 18725+Sm. 1361, 2’–13’1886
3 a-a dNanna umun An-[šár]
4 umun dNanna umun dDili-ím-[babbar]
d
5 a-a Nanna umun Uríki-[ma]
6 umun dNanna umun É-kiš-nu-ĝál
7 a-a dNanna umun É-ní-te-en-du10
8 umun dNanna umun É-dim-an-na1887
9 a-a dNanna umun É-dim-gal-an-na
10 umun dNanna umun iti6-kù-ga1888

1881
George 1993, no. 653. The name of this temple was written either É-kiš-nu-ĝál or É-
ĝiš-nu11-gal. For the sake of convenience, the spelling Ekišnugal is used here in general.
For the meaning of this name see p. 79ff. above.
1882
UET 1 no. 30, II 4 (see Steible 1991, 329–330 [Utuḫegal 6]).
1883
RIME 1, E1.9.3.1, xxi 17–xxii 6. This section speaks of Sîn’s (dEN.ZU) dwelling in
Ur, which makes it likely that the temple name was included here.
1884
The Temple Hymns, 101–118 (see Sjöberg & Bergmann 1969, no. 8 and ETCSL
4.80.1; also edited in Sjöberg 1960, 123–131).
1885
For Nippur see p. 368ff. below, and for Babylon see p. 378ff. below.
1886
SBH no. 24 is edited in Cohen 1988, 210–211 and 216–217 (ll. a+73–84). VS 17 no.
57, 2–14 (Cohen 1988, 219) and K. 18725+Sm. 1361, 2’–13’ (unpubl.; CDLI P403847)
duplicate this litany (see Black 1987, 41 no. 9 and Borger 1990, 22). Earlier editions of
only SBH no. 24 can be found in Perry 1907, no. 8 and Combe 1908, no. 5.
1887
VS 17 no. 57, 7: umun É-⌈dim⌉-ma-a[n-na] (see Cohen 1988, 219).
1888
VS 17 no. 57, 9: umun É-ta-é-kù-ga x (see Cohen 1988, 219).
334 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

11 a-a dNanna umun É-dub-lá-maḫ-a1889

d
12 umun Nanna umun dàra-kù-ga1890
13 a-a dNanna dumu-saĝ d+En-líl-lá
d
14 umun Nanna dumu-nun É-kur-ra1891
Father Nanna, lord An[šar],1892
lord Nanna, lord Dili[mbabbar],
father Nanna, lord of Ur,
lord Nanna, lord of Ekišnugal,
father Nanna, lord of Enitendu,
lord Nanna, lord of Edimana,
father Nanna, lord of Edimgalana,
lord Nanna, lord of (the House of) Pure Moonlight,
father Nanna, lord of Edublamaḫ,
lord Nanna, lord of (the House of) Pure Ibex,
father Nanna, first-born son of Enlil,
lord Nanna, princely son of Ekur

This litany’s connection to the city of Ur is evident by the epithet “lord of Ur”
that directly precedes the list of temple names (line 5). In addition, the epithet
“father” refers to the role of Nanna/Sîn in the local cult of Ur.1893 The temple of
the moon god, Ekišnugal, appears as the first temple in the litany, followed by
the sanctuaries Enitendu, Edimana, Edimgalana, (E)itikuga, Edublamaḫ and
(E)darakuga. It is plausible that all the sanctuaries named in this litany existed in
Ur, since both Ekišnugal and Edublamaḫ – temple names tightly connected to
the cult of the moon god specifically in Ur – are mentioned. If this is the case,
the litany in SBH no. 24// reveals the names of the different sanctuaries of the
moon god, some of which do not appear in other textual sources, in his home

1889
VS 17 no. 57, 8: umun É-dub-saĝ?-l[á?]-⌈maḫ⌉-[a?] (Cohen 1988, 219: umun-é-DUB-
SAG?-[x]-a-(x)). The reading given by Cohen is found also in George 1993, no. 206. The
temple name present in this line has been taken to be É-di-ku5-maḫ on the basis of SBH
no. 24, 11 (see Perry 1907, no. 8, Combe 1908, no. 5, and Cohen 1988, 211). In this form
it is listed also in George 1993, no. 154. Because the corresponding line is preserved in
the unpublished fragment from Nineveh (K. 18725+, 10’: umun ⌈É⌉-dub-lá-maḫ-a), it is
clear that this line refers to the sanctuary É-dub-lá-maḫ in Ur (SBH no. 24, 11: a-a
d
Nanna umun ⌈É⌉-[du]b-lá!-maḫ-a). Therefore the name É-di-ku5-maḫ for a sanctuary of
the moon god should now be discarded.
1890
VS 17 no. 57, 12: umun É-dàra-kù-ga (see Cohen 1988, 219).
1891
SBH no. 24, 14: ⌈dumu⌉-nun kur-ra (see Cohen 1988, 211). VS 17 no. 57, 14 and K.
18725+, 13’ read dumu-nun É-kur-ra (see Cohen 1988, 219 and CDLI P403847).
1892
For this name, “the totality of heavens”, for the moon god see p. 148ff. above.
1893
The depictions of the moon god as a father figure are, to a large extent, associated
with his role as the pater familias in his cult city (see the discussion on p. 230ff. above).
 III.1. Ur and the Neighbouring Area 335

city. On the other hand, the existence of the temples Enitendu in Babylon and
Edimana in Borsippa is attested, raising questions about whether the litany
should be seen as a list of the moon god’s temples and sanctuaries in the city of
Ur, throughout Babylonia, or in Babylon itself.1894 The fact that Enitendu is at-
tested in direct connection to Ekiškugal and Ur in some of the litanies in
Sumerian lamentations does, however, suggest that there was indeed a sanctuary
of the moon god called by this name in Ur itself, but this cannot be con-
firmed.1895 The temples Edimgalana, (E)itikuga, and (E)darakuga are not found
in any other textual sources and therefore cannot be identified as names of par-
ticular temples or sanctuaries of Nanna/Sîn. Still, they coherently reflect some of
the theological notions connected to the Mesopotamian moon god. É-dim-gal-
an-na, “House, Great Mooring Pole of the Heavens”, is a variation of the temple
name É-dim-an-na, “House, Mooring Pole of the Heavens”,1896 which must be
understood in astral terms although the exact meaning eludes us. (É-)iti6-kù-ga,
“(House of) the Pure Moonlight”,1897 connotes the celestial luminosity that is the
essence of the moon god.1898 The temple name (É-)dàra-kù-ga, “(House of) Pure
Ibex”,1899 on the other hand, can be associated with the divine names Men-dàra-
an-na, “Crown, Ibex of the Heavens”, and Men-dàra-dingir-ra, “Crown, Ibex of
the Gods”, that are found in the god-list An = Anum and that stand in connection
with the moon’s celestial appearance as well as his affinity to the wilderness.1900
The Ekišnugal temple in Ur was unearthed during the extensive excavations
at the site by Leonard Woolley: it is a complex that housed not only the sanc-
tuaries of the moon god Nanna/Sîn, but also the dwellings of other deities be-
longing to his household (see Fig. 15, p. 366). In general, the name Ekišnugal is
used to denote the whole of this enclosed temenos area. For example, the Baby-

1894
A. R. George originally suggested that this litany does not concern the temples of the
moon god in Ur, but rather in Babylon (George 1992, 308). According to him, this is im-
plied by the presence of the temple name Edimana, Sîn’ temple in Borsippa, directly
after the names Ekišnugal and Enitendu, the sanctuaries of the moon god in Babylon.
Later, in George 1993, no. 159, he connects the attestation of the temple Edimana in this
litany to the city of Ur. The connection of Edimana to Ur is suggested by the appearance
of this temple name in the lexical list Kagal from Boghazköy, where it directly follows
the temple name Edublamaḫ (MSL 13, 152: l. I 20). For Enitendu of Sîn in Babylon see
p. 378ff. below, and for Edimana of Sîn in Borsippa see the p. 383ff. below.
1895
u4-dam ki àm-ús, 197 (Cohen 1988, 149); mu-tin nu-nuz dím-ma, c+376 (Cohen
1988, 242) and e-lum gu4-sún, c+250 (Cohen 1988, 311).
1896
For Edimgalana as a name of other sanctuaries or temples in Mesopotamia see
George 1993, nos. 161–165.
1897
See George 1993, no. 538.
1898
See the discussion on p. 78ff. above.
1899
George 1993, no. 146.
1900
See the discussion on p. 60ff. and p. 247ff. above.
336 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

lonian king Nebuchadnezzar II often recounts how he rebuilt the Ekišnugal of

Sîn in Ur, which must be seen as a reference to the renovation of the whole
group of buildings.1901 Still, this name must also stand for the main sanctuary of
Sîn that was located within the complex.1902 However, attempts to find its loca-
tion there have not yielded reliable results. The search for the main sanctuary of
Nanna/Sîn is complicated by the fact that the temenos area appears not to have
housed a structure that would be suitable in size and grandeur as the temple of
the main deity of the city during any of its developmental stages.1903 The absence
of archeological remains for such a “Tieftempel” for the moon god has led to the
conclusion that in all the attested periods, the main sanctuary of the moon god
was located at the top of the ziqqurrat.1904 Such a temple may have been comple-
mented by several smaller sanctuaries, located on the different levels of the
ziqqurrat and each with specific cultic functions: in order to reach the topmost
level, one would have entered a series of such structures.1905 On the other hand,
Leonard Woolley and Dominique Charpin both concluded that the sanctuary of
the moon god may have been located in the northwest side of the ziqqurrat dur-
ing the Ur III and Old Babylonian periods.1906 The Neo-Babylonian layer on the
northwest side of the ziqqurrat is badly damaged, but traces of double walls and
a double gate can be identified.1907 These remains appear to correspond to the
structures on the southeastern side of the ziqqurrat, thus making the area around

1901
For the building activities of Nebuchadnezzar II see the discussion on p. 340ff. below.
1902
That Ekišnugal was a specific part inside the larger temple complex in Ur is exempli-
fied by the text UET 6/2 no. 402, which clearly sees it as a topographical focal point: the
“great courtyard” (kisal-maḫ) is described to be located “opposite to Ekišnugal” (UET
6/2 no. 402, 21: ŠÀ KISAL.MAḪ me-eḫ-re-et É-kiš-nu-ĝál; see Charpin 1986, 326–
327). This use of the temple name to designate a specific part of the general temple com-
plex is noted in Charpin 1986, 336.
1903
See Heinrich 1982, 298, who further judged that the main temple of the moon god
stood on top of the ziqqurrat and that it was not necessary for a corresponding temple to
have existed on the ground level. See also Hall 1985, 313.
1904
Heinrich 1982, 298.
1905
Thus the ziqqurrat would have to be understood as a temple in itself with the smaller
cellas typical of the temples on the ground level scattered across the ziqqurrat’s plat-
forms (see Allinger-Csollich 2013, 10–17). Evidence for such a sanctuary atop the first
level of the ziqqurrat in Ur was found by Woolley (Allinger-Csollich 2013, 12).
1906
Woolley’s conclusion was drawn on the existence of kitchen facilities and a wall
niche at the site (Woolley 1939, 31 and Pl. 68). Charpin also based his suggestion on the
kitchen facilities necessary for a temple, but he supplemented the archeological informa-
tion with the description of Ekišnugal’s topography in UET 6/2 no. 402 (Charpin 1986,
325–340).
1907
Woolley first thought that it had been an open space, extending from the ziqqurrat to
the wall of the ziqqurrat platform, but further investigation revealed remains of the walls
and the gate (Woolley 1939, 70–71 and Pl. 75).
 III.1. Ur and the Neighbouring Area 337

the ziqqurrat a symmetric whole. On the basis of this proposed symmetry, it is

possible that the southeastern side of the ziqqurrat was the domain of the god-
dess Ningal – her temple being located in the south-eastern side of the ziqqurrat
during this period1908 – and that the northwestern side belonged to Sîn.1909 Unfor-
tunately, there is no archeological information that can confirm this hypothesis.
For the Neo-Babylonian period, Leonard Woolley proposed the existence of the
“Nannar Shrine” or “Sanctuary of Nannar” in the northern side of the ziqqurrat,
opposite the building that he called the “Boat Shrine”.1910 This building, how-
ever, shows no signs typical of sacral buildings, and it, therefore, must have
served some other purpose, such storage for cultic equipment.1911
As already discussed, the history of the city and the temple Ekišnugal are
shrouded by the lack of both textual and archeological sources following the
reign of the Kassite dynasty.1912 The long period of darkness was brought to an
end by the renaissance of the city under the control of the pro-Assyrian dynasty
of governors, most notably Ningal-iddin and his son Sîn-balāssu-iqbi.1913 Around
the middle of the 7th century BCE, a supposed short-lived economic boom en-
abled Sîn-balāssu-iqbi, who was the successor of his father Ningal-iddin as the
governor of Ur, to carry out extensive renovation work in the temple area. As the
governor of Ur he had sufficient local power to execute – apparently under his
own command – the most extensive renovation programme in the area for hun-
dreds of years.1914 Traces of his work are found in the material remains at the site

1908
For further discussion concerning the Ningal temple see p. 349ff. below.
1909
This division of the ziqqurrat area already for the Ur III period is suggested in Hall
1985, 316–317. In earlier periods the temple of Ningal was located in connection with
the Eĝipar that also was situated in the southeastern side, but outside the ziqqurrat
enclosure.
1910
See Woolley 1925, 362 and Woolley 1939, 69–70 and Pl. 75. This identification was
made on the basis of the fact that the Neo-Babylonian evidence for the temple of Sîn in
the northwest side of the ziqqurrat was practically non-existent, and this “Sanctuary of
Nannar” originated in the Neo-Babylonian period. Therefore, Woolley assumed that the
new sanctuary had replaced the older one. For the “Boat Shrine”, located opposite the
“Sanctuary of Nannar”, see the discussion on p. 46 above.
1911
Heinrich 1982, 298–299.
1912
See Brinkman 1965, 241–242 and Brinkman 1969, 333–335.
1913
For a brief description of Sîn-balāssu-iqbi see PNA 3/I, 1129–1130. See also Brink-
man 1965, 248–253 and Dietrich 1970, 38–39, as well as Frame 1992, 98–101 and 125–
126. Sîn-balāssu-iqbi was the son of the governor Ningal-iddin, and the brother of Sîn-
tabni-uṣur and Sîn-šarru-uṣur, both of whom succeeded him as governors of Ur. There
are no attestations of his governorship earlier than 658 BCE, but it is possible that he was
appointed the successor of Ningal-iddin as early as during the reign of Esarhaddon (680–
669 BCE).
1914
The fact that Sîn-balāssu-iqbi was able to carry out such a building programme under
his own name indicates the lack of centralised rule in Babylonia for this period (see
338 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

and also in the several inscriptions (mostly written in Sumerian) that he issued
on the occasion of this building work.1915 Despite the fact that some of the in-
scriptions reveal that the work was done “in order to ensure the good health of
Assurbanipal, mighty king (and) the king of the world”,1916 Sîn-balāssu-iqbi gen-
erally presented himself as the patron of the Ekišnugal temple.1917 He rebuilt sev-
eral different sections of the temenos area, and his inscriptions record his work
on the ziqqurrat and its enclosure,1918 the Edublamaḫ temple,1919 and the temple
of Ningal.1920 One of his inscriptions also contains a copy of a Sumerian inscrip-
tion of Amar-Suen that had been found while searching for Ekišnugal’s ground-
plan.1921 These references also reveal the main difference between the inscrip-
tions of Sîn-balāssu-iqbi and the next builder, Nebuchadnezzar II: whereas Neb-
uchadnezzar II spoke of rebuilding Ekišnugal as a temple complex, Sîn-balāssu-
iqbi’s inscriptions were dedications composed for individual locations within the
temple complex at Ur.
It is difficult to ascertain why Ur experienced prosperity at exactly this point
of time in the Neo-Babylonian period, thus allowing Sîn-balāssu-iqbi to execute
his extensive building project. In the 7th century BCE, the cities in southern
Babylonia benefited from being located on the major trade routes, but the im-
portance of the religious traditions in cities like Ur must also have played a
part.1922 The question that cannot be fully answered is how much Assyrian influ-
ence and royal support on the part of Sargonid kings was present in Ur and other

Brinkman 1984, 18). The renovation and construction of temples in Babylonia was a roy-
al prerogative with both religious and political implications: it was a sacred duty, which
maintained the relationship between humanity and the deities, and it was used by Neo-
Babylonian kings to legitimise their claims to power (see Talon 1993, 423 and Schaudig
2010, 142–143).
1915
For an overview of the archaeological evidence see Brinkman 1969, 336–339 and
Crawford 2015, 119.
1916
The sympathy Sîn-balāssu-iqbi had for the Assyrian king Assurbanipal, and not for
Šamaš-šumu-ukīn who as the ruler of Babylonia was his actual overlord (see Brinkman
1965, 252–253; Brinkman 1984, 88; and Frame 1992, 126), is shown in the three inscrip-
tions that mention Assurbanipal. RIMB, B.6.32.2003, 3–4 (see the citation on p. 345 be-
low) and B.6.32.2004, 2–3 both concern the rebuilding of the ziqqurrat, and RIMB,
B.6.32.2015, 4–6 commemorates the building of the well in the temple of Ningal.
1917
This title is found in the inscriptions RIMB, B.6.32.2001, 9 (ú-a É-kíš-nu6-gal) and
B.6.32.2003, 8 (ú-a É-ĝiš-nu11-gal). Sîn-balāssu-iqbi uses also the title ú-a Eriduki-ga,
“the provider of Eridu” (e.g. RIMB, B.6.32.2006, 5).
1918
See the discussion on p. 343ff. below.
1919
For the temple Edublamaḫ see the discussion on p. 356ff. below.
1920
The works of Sîn-balāssu-iqbi in the Ningal temple are discussed on p. 349ff. below.
1921
See RIMB, B.6.32.2016, IV 32–33. For the inscription of Amar-Suen see Steible
1991, 221–225 (Amarsuen 3).
1922
As noted in Frame 1992, 249.
 III.1. Ur and the Neighbouring Area 339

cities of southern Mesopotamia.1923 There was an interest in this area at least on

the behalf of Sargon II, who established freedom from debts (andurāru) in Ur,
Uruk, Eridu, Larsa, Kissik, and Nēmed-Laguda, brought the stolen deities back
to their cult places there, and also re-established regular offerings, which had
been interrupted.1924 This was done in order to broaden the support base for the
Assyrian presence in Babylonia. The same cannot be said for the other kings of
the Sargonid dynasty, who make no references to the city in their inscriptions. In
general, the city of Ur and its cult must not have been especially significant from
the viewpoint of the Assyrian regime.
Apart from the aforementioned inscriptions of Sargon II, two references to
the cult of Sîn in Ur are found in the Neo-Assyrian royal correspondence. The
first of these is in the letter ABL 1241+CT 54 no. 112 to Assurbanipal, written
by a person loyal to the Assyrian king.1925 This letter dealt with the political situ-
ation in the southern reaches of Babylonia: the author feared the rebels who had
already gained control over Eridu, Kullab, and the Gurasimmu, and therefore
pleads with the king to send help to the Assyrian loyalists at Ur, Kissik, and Šāt-
iddin. One of his arguments for receiving assistance is that the possessions of the
temple of Sîn should not end up in the hands of the enemy.

ABL 1241+CT 54 no. 112, r. 10–12

10 LUGAL EN-a-ni e-mu-qu a-na ki-tir ša É–DINGIR.MEŠ-šú
11 [liš]-pur NÍG.KA9 šá LUGAL.MEŠ AD.MEŠ-ka a-na d30
12 id-di-nu ŠUII lúKÚR la ta-kaš-šad
[May] the king, our lord, [s]end forces to help the houses of his gods (so that)
the enemy will not lay his hand on the property that the kings, your fathers,
gave to Sîn.

The identity of the kings who had given the said property to Sîn remains un-
known, but this reference serves as evidence for direct contact of the Assyrian
king with the cult of Sîn in Ur.1926 It has been suggested that it was Esarhaddon
who made these donations,1927 but they may also have been donated by Sargon II
in connection with the establishment of andurāru for Ur. Another similar letter
to Assurbanipal, ABL 1246+CT 54 no. 486, speaks of cultic paraphernalia

1923
The possibility that Sîn-balāssu-iqbi’s building project was supported by Assyrian re-
sources is suggested in Brinkman 1984, 88–89.
1924
See Fuchs 1994, 169 and 335 (Ann. 373–378); Brinkman 1984, 22–23; and Frame
1992, 35.
1925
See Dietrich 1970, 200–203 (nos. 155–156) and Frame 1992, 164–165.
1926
Brinkman 1965, 252.
1927
See Holloway 2002, 368. Esarhaddon certainly was politically active in the area,
since he helped to relieve the city of Ur from a siege by the Elamite-Chaldean alliance
(see Brinkman 1984, 72).
340 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

donated to the goddess Ningal, Sîn’s spouse. The enemies of Assyria threaten to
take these items away, but the citizens of Ur refuse to give them into their
hands.1928 The objects included a table (gišBANŠUR), a golden wild bull (re-e-mu
KÙ.GI),1929 and a mirror of gold (na-ma-ri KÙ.GI).1930 Whether these cultic ob-
jects were of interest to the Assyrian king because they were donated by the As-
syrians, or because by taking these possessions away the enemies were committ-
ing a grave misdeed towards Sîn, Ningal, and the city of Ur while under
Assyrian protection, remains unknown.
After the end of the pro-Assyrian gubernatorial dynasty at Ur, the sources
concerning the temple of the moon god fall silent until the Babylonian king
Nebuchadnezzar II (604–562 BCE) renovated the temple complex. The textual
sources for his building activities are less detailed and informative than the ones
left behind by Sîn-balāssu-iqbi and Nabonidus, and it is understandable that he
did not show as great an interest in the renovations at Ur as the aforementioned
rulers: the rebuilding of the city and its temples was merely one part of his ex-
tensive building projects in Babylonia. The place of Ur and Ekišnugal in the
building programme of Nebuchadnezzar II is reflected in the frequent references
to them in his inscriptions which reported the building work that had been done
in the temple complexes of important Babylonian cities. In these lists of temples
and the cities in which they are located, Ekišnugal and Ur are always situated at
the end, most probably due to the geographical location of the city, set in the fur-
thest reaches of the southern Babylonian territory.

5 R 34, II 28–381931
28 É-babbar-ra É dUTU ša ZIMBIRki
29 É-dúr-gi-na É dLUGAL-ÁSAL
30 ša uruBa-aṣki
31 É-i-bí-dA-num É dUraš
32 ša Dil-batki
33 É-an-na É dIš-tar ša UNUGki

1928
For a partial edition of ABL 1246+ see Dietrich 1970, 186–187 (nos. 122–123). See
also Holloway 2002, 316–317 (no. 35). This letter was sent between 652–648 BCE.
1929
Dietrich 1970, 186–187 reads [gišpa]ššūr rēmu, “Tisch der Erbarmung”. The more
likely translation of rēmu is “wild bull” (see the attestations of rīmu/rēmu in AHw, 986).
A cultic object in the form of a bull is most suitable for the spouse of the moon god, who
was closely associated with cattle.
1930
ABL 1246+CT 54 no. 486, 3’–11’.
1931
Langdon 1912, Nr. 1 II 28–38. For this inscription see also Berger 1973, 285–286
(Nebukadnezar Zylinder III, 3) and Da Riva 2008, 121 (C33). See also the similar ac-
counts of building work in Langdon 1912, Nr. 13 II 59–71 (= Berger 1973, 292 [Neb-
ukadnezar Zylinder III/7]; Da Riva 2008, 121 [C37]); and Langdon 1912, Nr. 20 III 4–22
(= Berger 1973, 293–294 [Nebukadnezar Zylinder III, 8]; Da Riva 2008, 121 [C38]).
 III.1. Ur and the Neighbouring Area 341

34 É-babbar-ra É dUTU ša ARARMAki

35 É-kiš-nu-ĝál É d+EN.ZU ša Úriki
36 e-eš-re-e-ti DINGIR.GAL.GAL
37 e-eš-še-iš e-pú-uš-ma
38 ú-ša-ak-li-il ši-pí-ir-ši-in
I built anew Ebabbar, the house of Šamaš in Sippar; Edurgina, the house of
Bēl-ṣarbi in Baṣ; E-ibbi-Anum, the house of Uraš in Dilbat; Eana, the house
of Ištar in Uruk; Ebabbara, the house of Šamaš in Larsa (and) Ekišnugal, the
house of Sîn in Ur, the sanctuaries of the great gods, and I completed their
(construction) work.

In addition to the references to Ur and Ekišnugal in these inscriptions, there is

also one brick inscription found at Ur that commemorated the rebuilding of
Ekišnugal by Nebuchadnezzar II.

UET 1 no. 1841932

d
1 AG–NÍG.DU–ÙRU LUGAL KÁ.DINGIR.RAki
2 za-nin É-saĝ-íl ù É-zi-da
3 IBILA SAG.KAL ša dAG–IBILA–ÙRU
4 LUGAL KÁ.MINki É-kiš-nu-ĝál
5 É d30 šá qé-reb Úriki
6 a-na d30 EN-ia lu e!-pu-uš
I, Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, the provider of Esaĝil and Ezida,
the foremost heir of Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, verily built Ekišnugal,
the house of Sîn in Ur for Sîn, my lord.

These references to Sîn’s Ekišnugal temple by Nebuchadnezzar II are minimal

and do not offer any details about the different parts of the temple complex des-
pite the extensive restorations and alterations that can be seen in the archeologic-
al remains there. What Nebuchadnezzar II left behind was a temenos area that
measured approximately 400×240 meters, with six gates altogether, and housed
the ziqqurrat of the moon god.1933 From the magnitude of the archeological re-
cord, it is clear that Nebuchadnezzar II indeed built the temple complex in Ur
anew – like the other Babylonian temples listed in the inscriptions – after it had
fallen into decay only a few decades after the renovations executed by the local

1932
Langdon 1912, Nr. 35. See also Berger 1973, 204 (Nebukadnezar Backstein B I, 2),
Walker 1981, 78–79 (No. 97), and Da Riva 2008, 117 (B10).
1933
See Woolley 1962, 1 and 3–4 and Crawford 2015, 120–126. Among the alterations to
the temenos area by Nebuchadnezzar II was also the remodelling of the temple Agrun-
maḫ of Ningal (see p. 304ff. above).
342 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

governor Sîn-balāssu-iqbi.1934 Among the aforementioned laconic references to

the renovation work, the temple Ekišnugal and the moon god are presented in
two inscriptions in a way that is highly significant for understanding the possible
theological framework for the activities of the Babylonian king at Ur. First, in
the account of building activities in the Wadi Brissa rock inscription of Neb-
uchadnezzar II, the moon god of Ur is portrayed as a god responsible for the for-
tuitous character of omens.

Da Riva 2012, WBC VIII 14–161935

14 a-na d30 EN mu-dam-mi-i[q Á].MEŠ-ia
15 É-ĝiš-nu11-gal É-su i-na ⌈qé⌉-⌈reb⌉ ⌈Úri⌉⌈ki⌉
16 e-eš-ši-iš e-pu-uš
For Sîn, the Lord, who makes my omens propitious, I built anew Ekišnugal,
his house at Ur.

There is no misinterpreting this description: the power over the divine decisions
made manifest in lunar omens was one of the central traits of Sîn.1936 Further-
more, because of to the significance of lunar omens, especially lunar eclipses,
for the Mesopotamian king this aspect of the moon god was directly linked to
the exercise of kingship and royal ideology.1937 A further reference to Ekišnugal
and Sîn in a cylinder inscription of Nebuchaznezzar II indeed depicts the moon
god as a divine protector of kingship.

1 R 65, II 44–451938
44 É-kiš-nu-ĝál ša Úriki a-na d+EN.ZU EN
45 na-ra-am šar-ru4-ti-ia e-eš-ši-iš e-pú-uš
I built anew Ekišnugal of Ur for Sîn, the Lord, who loves my kingship.

Therefore, Nebuchadnezzar II’s acknowledgement of Sîn’s sovereignty over

propitious signs sent by the gods to the king and description of him as a god
“who loves my kingship” is a clear reference to the moon god’s significance in
Mesopotamian royal ideology.
Shortly after the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, king Nabonidus (555–539

1934
The archeological data shows that the walls surrounding the temple area were in a
state of decay when Nebuchadnezzar II started working at the site, but there were also
traces of possible restoration work done by Sîn-balāssu-iqbi (Woolley 1962, 3–4).
1935
For the previous edition see Langdon 1912, Nr. 19 VIII 14–16. See also Berger 1973,
316–318 and Da Riva 2008, 122 (WBC).
1936
See the discussion on p. 150ff. above.
1937
For the moon god’s significance for the Mesopotamian kings see p. 196ff. above.
1938
Langdon 1912, Nr. 9 II 44–45. See also Berger 1973, 287–288 (Nebukadnezar Zylin-
der III, 4) and Da Riva 2008, 121 (C34).
 III.1. Ur and the Neighbouring Area 343

BCE) rose to the throne of Babylonia. Despite the relatively short period of time
that had passed since Nebuchadnezzar II’s renovation project, Nabonidus too ex-
ecuted building work in the temple complex Ekišnugal. Not only did he leave a
permanent mark in the city by his building programme, but he was also the last
native Mesopotamian ruler to do work in the Ekišnugal. After him, the Persian
king Cyrus followed the tradition of rebuilding temples, but only a little evid-
ence of his work survives in Ur.1939 According to the account given in his in-
scriptions, Nabonidus had already directed his attention towards Ur during the
second year of his reign by reinstalling the entu-priestess for the cult of Sîn and
simultaneously rebuilding the giparu.1940 The veneration of Sîn on Nabonidus’
part and the benefits that it brought to the Ekišnugal temple are illustrated by the
short passage in the E’igikalama Cylinder in connection with the consecration of
En-niĝaldi-Nanna as the entu-priestess of the moon god.

Schaudig 2001, 2.5, II 8–12

II 8 a-na d30 EN GAL-ú a-ši-ib É-kiš-nu-ĝál šá qé-reb Úriki
II 9 sa-at-tuk-ki-šu ú-ṭa-aḫ-ḫi-id-ma ú-šar-ri-ḫu ni-id-bé-e-šú
II 10 aš-te-né-’e-e-ma aš-ri-šu a-ba-lu be-lu-ut-su
II 11 a-na e-ri-iš-ti i-ri-ša-an-ni ap-làḫ at-ta-’i-id-ma
II 12 e-ri-iš-ta-šu la ak-la-am-ma am-gu-ru qí-bit-su
For Sîn, great lord who lives in Ekišnugal in Ur, I made his regular offerings
copious and I made his cereal offerings splendid. I visit assiduously his
place, I supplicate to his lordship. I revered and heeded the wish he ex-
pressed to me, and I did not deny his desire but complied with his order.

This was the first phase of Nabonidus’ building activities at Ur. The second
phase, during which he restored the ziqqurrat and Agrunmaḫ, took place after his
return from Tayma, probably during the 16th or 17th year of his reign.1941 Other-
wise his inscriptions do not name any actions carried out in Ekišnugal, although
the archaeological evidence for his building activities is abundant on the site.

III.1.2. The Ziqqurrat Elugalĝalgasisa

The dominating element of the Ekišnugal complex was the ziqqurrat of the
moon god which rose upward into the heavens in the western part of the
temenos area.1942 This ziqqurrat and its restoration received considerable atten-

1939
For the archaeological remains of the Persian period see Woolley 1962, 2 and 49–51
as well as Crawford 2015, 129–130.
1940
See the discussion on p. 360ff. below.
1941
Beaulieu 1989, 42.
1942
The ziqqurrat in Ur can be traced back to the reign of Ur-Namma (2112–2095 BCE),
the first ruler of the Ur III dynasty. For an overview of the ziqqurrat during this early per-
iod see Heinrich 1982, 154–155 and Crawford 2015, 83–87.
344 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

tion in the inscriptions of the local governor Sîn-balāssu-iqbi and the Babylonian
king Nabonidus. Although Nabonidus did not acknowledge Sîn-balāssu-iqbi as a
former builder of the ziqqurrat in his inscriptions, but rather referred to the
prestigious Sumerian rulers Ur-Namma and Šulgi,1943 a connection between
these two Babylonian builders can be established through the name that they
both used for the rebuilt ziqqurrat. In the earlier sources, deriving from the 3rd
and 2nd millennium BCE, the name of the moon god’s ziqqurrat in Ur is É-
temen-ní-gùr-(ru), “House, Foundation Platform Clad in Terror”.1944 Whether
this name stood for the complete ziqqurrat or only the ziqqurrat terrace remains
unclear, although the absence of other names for the ziqqurrat in connection
with the building activities of Ur III kings or later rulers in Ur can be taken as an
indication that this name designated the ziqqurrat itself.1945 It is, however, pos-
sible that the ziqqurrat in Ur already had a name other than Etemenniguru before
it was renovated by Sîn-balāssu-iqbi and Nabonidus: É-aga-du7-du7, “House of
the Butting Crown”.1946 This name is attested in a litany of sanctuaries of the
moon god, however it does not reveal the nature of the building it designated.1947
That this may have been the name of the ziqqurrat is suggested by the appear-
ance of the name É-šu-gán-du7-du7 – perhaps a corrupted form of the name É-
aga-du7-du7 due to the similarity of the signs – in a lexical list deriving from
Nineveh.1948 Still, this name does not appear in any of the building inscriptions
left behind the various rulers who rebuilt the ziqqurrat.
Considering that the two names for the temple already existed, it is remark-
able that a completely new appellation emerges in the inscriptions of Sîn-
balāssu-iqbi, who was the first to use the name É-lugal-ĝalga-si-sá, “House of

1943
See Schaudig 2001, 2.2, I 1–II 2 and Schaudig 2003, 478–482.
1944
George 1993, no. 1090.
1945
The name Etemenniguru is interpreted as the name of the ziqqurrat in Charpin 1986,
333. In George 1993, no. 1090 the name Etemenniguru is taken to only refer to the
ziqqurrat platform on which the ziqqurrat Elugalĝalgasisa, or E’agadudu, stood. See also
Schaudig 2003, 479 note 177 for detailed references for the use of the name Etemenni-
guru and how it has been understood by different scholars.
1946
George 1993, no. 47. In this connection it should be noted that the Akkadian equival-
ent nakāpu for the verb du7, “to thrust; gore”, is used in transferred meaning to describe a
plant with branches that “butt” the sky, i.e. they reach towards the heavens (see CAD N/
1, 157). A similar expression is also attested in the context of lunar eclipses (see Roch-
berg-Halton 1988, 205 line 5). For a discussion of the crown in connection with the
moon and the moon god see p. 60ff. above.
1947
BL 27, 8’: [É]-aga-du7-du7. The sanctuaries listed here appear to be connected to Ur.
1948
K. 2053a+K. 4337, IV 18: É-šu-gán-du7-du7 MIN(= ziqqurratum) Úriki (see George
1993, 46 and no. 1057). The existence of this second name for the ziqqurrat in Ur was
already noted in Combe 1908, 70. Due to the prominent position of the city Dūr-Kur-
igalzu in this list, A. R. George has suggested that the text may have been composed dur-
ing the Kassite period (George 1993, 45).
 III.1. Ur and the Neighbouring Area 345

the King of Righteous Counsel”.1949 Two different inscriptions of Sîn-balāssu-

iqbi containing this name for the ziqqurrat were found stamped on bricks in
Ur.1950

RIMB, B.6.32.2003
d
1 Nanna lugal an-ki-a
2 zi nam-ti-la-šè
3 AN.ŠÁR–DÙ–IBILA-šè
4 lugal lugal-e-ne lugal-a-ni
d
5 30–TIN-su–iq-bi
6 šakkan6 Úriki-ma
7 Eriduki-ga-ke4
8 ú-a É-ĝiš-nu11-gal
9 èš abzu zálag-ga-ke4
10 É-lugal-ĝalga-si-sá
11 é ki-áĝ-ĝá-ni
12 gibil-bi mu-un-na-dù
For Nanna, king of heaven and earth, in order to ensure the good health of
Assurbanipal, king of kings, his lord, Sîn-balāssu-iqbi, viceroy of Ur and
Eridu, the provider of Ekišnugal, the shining shrine of the apsû, built anew
Elugalĝalgasisa, his beloved house.

As the phrase “I built anew for him” (line 12) indicates, the work done by Sîn-
balāssu-iqbi included the rebuilding of the ziqqurrat, as opposed to mere restora-
tion work.1951 The reference to a structure with the name Elugalĝalgasisa here is
still ambiguous: it does not identify the nature of the building other than desig-
nating it the “beloved house” of the moon god. This remains unclear until five
lines of a brick inscription of Nabonidus are taken into consideration: in this in-
scription Elugalĝalgasisa is outlined very clearly as the ziqqurrat of Ekišnugal.

Schaudig 2001, 1.7, 1–5

d
1 NÀ–I LUGAL Eki
2 za-nin Úriki
3 É-lugal-ĝalga-si-sá

1949
This translation is in line with the German translation “Haus des Königs des
recht(leitend)en Rates” in Schaudig 2002, 637–638. The translation given in George
1993, no. 706 is “House of the King who Lets Counsel Flourish”.
1950
In addition to RIMB, B.6.32.2003 cited here, inscription B.3.32.2004 also relates to
the matter. It should be noted that both of these inscriptions include the phrase that refers
to the well-being of Assurbanipal, the overlord of Sîn-balāssu-iqbi.
1951
Pointed out already in Schaudig 2003, 480 note 181.
346 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

4 ziq-qur-rat É-ĝiš-nu-ĝál
5 ud-diš-ma ana KI-šú GUR
Nabonidus, king of Babylon, provider of Ur: I have renewed and restored
Elugalĝalgasisa, the ziqqurrat of Ekišnugal.

This definition is repeated in an inscription of Nabonidus found on several cyl-

inders among the ruins of the ziqqurrat (Elugalĝalgasisa Cylinder).1952 Despite
the way in which the glorious past of the ziqqurrat is brought forward by Na-
bonidus through references to the prestigious rulers of the Ur III dynasty, the
age-old name of the ziqqurrat, Etemenniguru, is not used in this context.1953
Since the earliest, and only, attestations for the name Elugalĝalgasisa derive
from this Neo-Babylonian context, it is reasonable to postulate a Neo-Babyloni-
an origin for it. This name was adopted by Sîn-balāssu-iqbi, perhaps to distin-
guish the actual ziqqurrat from the platform area and the walled enclosure sur-
rounding it.1954 This hypothesis is supported by his two inscriptions that report
the rebuilding of the structure called by the name Etemenniguru.1955 Both of
these inscriptions were found in situ in the area outside the ziqqurrat enclosure,
which in itself indicates that the entity called Etemenniguru was unlikely to be
the ziqqurrat itself. The inscription found in Edublamaḫ speaks of the “forgotten
gates” of Etemenniguru, referring to Edublamaḫ’s former function as the gate
leading to the ziqqurrat enclosure.1956 The second inscription, commemorating
the building of Etemenniguru, is written on a foundation cone found against the
wall of the gateway to the ziqqurrat enclosure in the courtyard located between
the main gate of the temple complex and the ziqqurrat enclosure.1957

RIMB, B.6.32.2002
d
1 Suen an-na
2 piriĝ diĝir-re-⌈e⌉-ne

1952
Edited in Schaudig 2001, 2.2.
1953
That the name Etemenniguru used by the Neo-Sumerian rulers is not repeated by Na-
bonidus shows that this inscription of his cannot have been based on inscriptions left be-
hind by them (Schaudig 2003, 479–480). See Schaudig 2001, 2.2, I 1–9: “Nabû-na’id,
der König von Babil, der Versorger von Esangil und Ezida, der die großen Götter
fürchtet, bin ich. Elugalmalgasisa, den Stufenturm von Egišnugal, welches in Ur (gele-
gen), den Urnammu, ein König früherer Zeit, gebaut, aber nicht vollendet hat, – Šulgi,
sein Sohn, hat die Arbeit daran vollendet.”
1954
As suggested in Schaudig 2003, 480 note 181.
1955
RIMB, B.6.32.2001 and B.6.32.2002.
1956
See the citation of the inscription RIMB, B.6.32.2001 on p. 358 below.
1957
So-called “Court of Nannar” (see Fig. 15 on p. 366 above). The presence of this cone
led Woolley to note that perhaps this courtyard also was a part of the area called Etemen-
niguru (Woolley 1939, 95).
 III.1. Ur and the Neighbouring Area 347

3 lugal dEn-líl-e-ne
4 lugal-a-ni-ir
I.d
5 EN.ZU–TI.LA.BI–DU11.GA
6 šakkan6
7 Úriki-ma
8 dumu I.dNin-gal–SUM.MA
9 šakkan6
10 Úriki-ma
11 É-temen-ní-gùr-ru
12 é ki-áĝ-ĝá-na
13 gibil-bi
14 in-na-dù
For Sîn of heaven, the lion of the gods, the king of the Enlil-gods, his king,
Sîn-balāssu-iqbi, viceroy of Ur, son of Ningal-iddin, viceroy of Ur, built
anew Etemenniguru, his beloved house.

Contrary to the evidence preserved in Sîn-balāssu-iqbi’s inscriptions, the name

Etemenniguru is not known to have been used by Nabonidus.
What led to the renaming of the ziqqurrat, presumably during the middle
point of the 7th century BCE? Why was the ziqqurrat no longer called by the
name Etemenniguru, as it had been by its first builder Ur-Namma, or by the
name E’agadudu which was used in the liturgical and lexical tradition? Although
an exact reason cannot, of course, be given, the theological framework found in
the inscriptions of Sîn-balāssu-iqbi and the broader scope of theological ideas
about the moon god allow an interpretation to be made of the possible develop-
ment that took place around this time in Ur. The picture painted by the inscrip-
tions of Sîn-balāssu-iqbi clearly presents the moon god as a king: not only is the
moon god the “king of heaven and earth”, but also the “king of the Enlil(-
god)s”.1958 These epithets contain the twofold message that the moon god was
the most significant cosmic deity and also was the supreme head of the pan-
theon. The way that the moon god takes over the role of Enlil as the king of the
gods in Sîn-balāssu-iqbi’s inscriptions is conspicuous, and the same phenomen-
on can also be later seen in the inscriptions of Nabonidus.1959 This appropriation

1958
The moon god is addressed as the king of heaven and earth in RIMB, B.6.32.2003, 1
(see the citation on p. 345 above). The epithet “king of the Enlil-gods” for the moon god
is present in almost every single inscription of Sîn-balāssi-iqbi: RIMB, B.6.32.2001, 3;
B.6.32.2002, 3; B.6.32.2006, 1; B.6.32.2007, 1; B.6.32.2008, 1; B.6.32.2009, 1;
B.6.32.2010, 1; B.6.32.2011, 1; B.6.32.2012, 1; and B.6.32.2013, 1. See also the sum-
mary of these epithets in Schaudig 2002, 630.
1959
This development was already noted in Frame 1995, 235 and (although sceptically) in
George 1997, 69. The theological implications of renaming the ziqqurrat by Sîn-balāssu-
iqbi and the adoption of this name by Nabonidus have been discussed – with the same
348 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

is not only apparent in the use of this epithet, but also in the presence of Nip-
purian deities in the temple of Ningal, and the equation of Ningal herself with
Ninlil, Enlil’s wife.1960 Therefore, the moon god as the divine king was likely the
king referred to in ziqqurrat’s new name: “House of the King of Righteous
Counsel”. The connection between the ziqqurrat in Ur and the cult of Enlil in
Nippur is also delicately expressed by Sîn-balāssu-iqbi. In the inscription written
on the door socket of Edublamaḫ, Sîn-balāssu-iqbi utters the wish that the doors
he had made may stand forever there in the “doorway of Esaĝdili”.1961 Since, in
this context, this doorway is clearly understood to be the old gateway to the
ziqqurrat enclosure, it is possible to see the name É-saĝ-dili as an epithet of the
ziqqurrat (enclosure) itself, not of the sanctuary Edublamaḫ in which the door
was standing. This is a crucial point for the possible interpretation of the use of
this name, since É-saĝ-dili is not just any “house of secrets”, but it is the name
of the ziqqurrat of Enlil in Nippur.1962 By using this name in addition to the
newly introduced name Elugalĝalgasisa to designate the ziqqurrat in Ur, Sîn-
balāssu-iqbi once again brought forth the central theological notion found in his
texts: in Ur, the moon god is Enlil, the king of the gods and the cosmos.1963
In the name Elugalĝalgasisa, reference to the righteous counsel that is given
by the king, i.e. the moon god, must be primarily understood in terms of the ce-
lestial omens. The significance of astral knowledge in the form of divination in
Mesopotamia in the 1st millennium BCE was inarguably immense.1964 In partic-
ular, lunar omens were directly linked to kingship; they revealed matters that
were of significance to the king and his country. The advice given by the king of
the night sky, the moon god, to the earthly king in Assyria or in Babylonia was
essential for planning the future according to the will of the gods. The moon
god’s importance can be observed especially in connection with the last Neo-As-
syrian rulers, who demonstrated an interest in the Ḫarranian moon god.1965 Be-
cause of the moon god’s to the importance in Assyria during this period, it has
also been suggested that the development seen in Sîn-balāssu-iqbi’s inscriptions
was the result of an undeniable Assyrian presence in Ur.1966 This suggestion re-

conclusions as here – in Schaudig 2002, 637–638. See also p. 196ff. above.

1960
See the discussion on p. 349ff. below.
1961
RIMB, B.6.32.2001, 29 (see the citation of the text on p. 358 below).
1962
George 1993, no. 956.
1963
Similar exaltations of the city god can be observed e.g. in Sippar, the cult city of the
sun god Šamaš (see Maul 1999b, 285–316 for liturgical evidence and Da Riva 2010, 45–
61 for Neo-Babylonian royal inscriptions).
1964
See the discussion concerning the moon god as a sign-giver on p. 156ff. above.
1965
The attention the Sargonid kings showed towards the moon god of Ḫarrān was
closely associated with the notion of kingship (see the discussion on p. 196ff. above).
1966
This local phenomenon is considered to be the result of Assyrian influence in
Schaudig 2002, 638.
 III.1. Ur and the Neighbouring Area 349

mains plausible, but it cannot be confirmed. It is more likely that the theological
notion of the moon god as Enlil, the king of the gods, was a local phenomenon,
tied to the status of the moon god as the “local Enlil”. This is also connected to
his aspect as a father-figure in his role as the tutelary deity of the city. On the
other hand, the association of the moon god with Enlil may also have been con-
nected to the theological notion equating the moon god with the deities Anu, Ea,
and Enlil during the first half of the lunar cycle (equation to Enlil during the full
moon).1967 In this context the association of the moon with the aforementioned
deities is connected to their role as divine decision makers as well as deities re-
sponsible for the three different cosmic regions.

III.1.3. The Temple of Ningal

The spouse of the moon god, the goddess Ningal, occupied her own sphere in
the temple complex Ekišnugal. This was the temple known by the name Agrun-
kù, “Sacred Bed-chamber”.1968 In the Lamentation over the Destruction of Ur,
the Agrunku of Ningal appears side by side with the Ekišnugal temple of Nanna/
Sîn,1969 and Ningal herself spoke of it, calling it the “house of my queenship”.1970
During the 1st millennium BCE, Ningal’s temple was located on the southeastern
side of the ziqqurrat, directly adjacent to the wall that formed the temenos en-
closure (see Fig. 15, p. 366 above), where it had been relocated by the Kassite
king Kurigalzu.1971 According to the archaeological evidence, this Kassite temple
was levelled by Sîn-balāssu-iqbi, who then proceeded to build a new temple

1967
For the association of the moon god with not only Enlil, but also with Anu and Ea,
see the discussion on p. 136ff. above.
1968
See George 1993, no. 345 with the transliteration É-gar6-kù. Whether this temple
name should be read É-gar6-kù or Agrun-kù has been a topic of discussion (Caplice
1973, 300 note 5, Weadock 1975, 117–118, Charpin 1986, 212–213; and Michalowski
1989, 106). I have chosen to use the reading Agrun-kù based on the attestations of the
epithet nin-agrun-na, “lady of the bed-chamber”, in bilingual texts, which have the Akka-
dian equivalent bēlet agarunni. Also another sanctuary of Ningal in the giparu is known
from Old Babylonian sources: É-íd-lú-ru-gú-kalam-ma, “House of the River Ordeal of
the Land” (see George 1993, no. 509). It is suspected that this sanctuary was connected
to the sacred marriage ritual, because the name is attested also in the context of the sac-
red marriage ritual between Inanna and Dumuzi (see Weadock 1975, 118 and Charpin
1986, 213). The earliest discussion concerning the temple of Ningal in Ur can be found
in Combe 1908, 67–69.
1969
Lamentation over the Destruction of Ur, 13–16 (Samet 2014, 54–55).
1970
Lamentation over the Destruction of Ur, 113: nu-nuz-ĝen agrun-kù é na-áĝ-ga-šan-
an-na-ĝu10, “To me, the woman in Agrunkug, my house of queenship” (Samet 2014, 60–
61).
1971
For an overview see Heinrich 1982, 319–321. During the earlier periods (Early Dyn-
astic, Ur III, Isin-Larsa, and Old Babylonian) the Ningal temple had been a part of the gi-
paru-building outside the ziqqurrat enclosure (Weadock 1975, 111).
350 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

with a modified ground plan.1972 This temple was later renovated by Nabonidus,
who, however, does not mention it in his inscriptions.
Although the Sumerian literary tradition provides many attestations of the
“pure bed-chamber” of Ningal as an actual location and there are many records
of its reconstruction by rulers of earlier periods,1973 this temple of the goddess is
rarely mentioned in the textual record of the Neo-Babylonian period. A reference
to the temple is made only once in an inscription celebrating the fashioning of a
statue of Ningal – an event that likely took place in connection with the modific-
ations made to the temple by the governor Sîn-balāssu-iqbi.

RIMB, B.6.32.2014, 1–17

d
1 Nin-gal un-gal
2 É-ĝiš-nu11-gal
d
3 Nin-men-na ki-áĝ-ĝá
4 Úriki-ma nin-a-ni-ir
I.d
5 EN.ZU–TIN-su–iq-bi
6 šakkan6 Úriki-ma
7 ĝi6-pàr é dNin-líl-le
8 ĝidlam ki-áĝ-ĝá
d
9 EN.ZU
10 gibil-bi mu-na-dù
11 alam níĝ-dím-dím-ma
d
12 Nin-gal-ke4 u-me-ni-dím
13 šà é diĝir ḪU-dù-šè
14 u-mu-un-ku4-ku4
15 agrun-ta
16 ki-tuš nam-en-na-ni dù
17 bí-in-ri-a
For Ningal, queen of Ekišnugal, Lady of the Crown, beloved of Ur, his lady,
Sîn-balāssu-iqbi, viceroy of Ur, built anew the giparu, the house of Ninlil,
beloved wife of Sîn. After he constructed a statue, an image of Ningal, and
brought it into the house of the wise god, she took up residence in the bed-
chamber, (which was) built (to be) her lordly abode.

Even this inscription, which was written on 13 clay nails deposited below the
walls and the pavement of the Ningal temple,1974 refrains from using the temple

1972
Woolley 1939, 60; Heinrich 1982, 320; and Crawford 2015, 123.
1973
See the attestations listed in George 1993, no. 345.
1974
Woolley 1939, 63–64 (Fig. 4.). The clay nails had been laid along the regular wall and
the U-shaped wall that apparently surrounded the statue of the goddess Ningal. For the
deposit of these nails see Ellis 1968, 83 note 237. The clay nail as a medium for an in-
 III.1. Ur and the Neighbouring Area 351

name that is known from literary sources: the noun ĝi6-pàr (Akk. giparu) for the
temple of Ningal is used here instead of the name Agrun-kù.1975 A sanctuary of
Ningal with the name Ĝi6-pàr-kù, “Pure Giparu-House”, is known from the in-
scriptions of Ur-Namma and Amar-Suen, and it is therefore possible to see the
use of the ĝi6-pàr as a reference to the past when Ningal’s temple was still loc-
ated in connection with the residence of the entu-priestess.1976 Still, the exact im-
plications for its use in this context remain unclear. Due to the absence of a gi-
paru for the priestess in Ur in this period, it is unlikely that the noun designated
the actual giparu as it had in the past, leading us to conclude that ĝi6-pàr is used
here as a general term for a dwelling place of deities.1977 It should, however, be
noted that this could also be a reflection of the Ḫarranian cult of the moon god,
transmitted to Ur by the Assyrian overlords of Sîn-balāssu-iqbi: the É-ĝi6-pàr of
Ningal in Ḫarrān is the only contemporary sanctuary bearing this name. This
kind of syncretism between Ningal of Ur and Ningal of Ḫarrān is possible and it
does not necessarily conflict with the local theological tradition in the city.
A significant element in the clay nail inscription of Sîn-balāssu-iqbi is the
obvious syncretism between Ningal and Ninlil, Enlil’s wife. Although in earlier
studies the use of this name was understood to be an epithet meaning “a supreme
goddess”,1978 the association between the moon god and Enlil in the other in-
scriptions of Sîn-balāssu-iqbi allows us to take this name literally: in Ur, Sîn was
the king of gods, Enlil, and consequently his wife Ningal was Ninlil, Enlil’s
wife.1979 This notion is also supported by the clay cylinder inscription of Sîn-
balāssu-iqbi, in which the goddess Ningal is described as the mother of the gods,
as well as the dedicatory inscriptions left behind by Sargon II, Assurbanipal, and
Nabonidus.1980
In addition to her own sanctuary, Ningal’s temple contained several shrines.
This is evident on the basis of a fragmentary excerpt of a list that may describe

scription is anachronistic in the Neo-Babylonian period, and it certainly is a consciously

archaising feature. As pointed out by J. Taylor in his presentation at the 62nd Rencontre
Assyriologique Internationale (Philadelphia, 2016), the way the cones were deposited
suggests that they were likened to cylinder inscriptions as objects.
1975
For a discussion of the set of problems concerning this inscription see Brinkman
1969, 337–338 note 2 and Frame 1995, 243–244.
1976
Steible 1991, 112–113 (Urnammu 19) and Steible 1991, 242–243 (Amarsuen 13). See
also George 1993, no. 385. Note also the use of the Akkadian epithet kummu ellu for the
Eĝipar of En-niĝaldi-Nanna (Schaudig 2001, 2.7, I 39: i-nu-šu É-ĝi6-pàr ku-um-mi el-lu
a-šar pa-ra-aṣ e-nu-tì uš-tak-la-lu qé-reb-šu, “At that time: Eĝipar, the sacred bed-cham-
ber, the place in which the cultic ordinances of the entu-priestess are fulfilled”).
1977
See the examples for this use of the noun given in Brinkman 1969, 337–338 note 2.
1978
Brinkman 1969, 337 note 2.
1979
Noted already in Frame 1995, 243–244.
1980
See the nature of the goddess Ningal in these sources is discussed on p. 296ff. above.
352 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

the shrines in the temple area of Ekišnugal.1981 In this list, the “seats” (šubtu)
bearing names Ki-du10-ga, “Lovely Place”, and É-en-nu-ĝá-ĝá, “House which
Appoints the Watch”, are mentioned, the latter one being located in the Agrun-
kù of Ningal. The existence of several shrines within the temple is also sugges-
ted by the bricks found in its well and commemorating the building of a number
of shrines for the moon god and for Nippurian deities by the governor Sîn-
balāssu-iqbi. Unfortunately, the exact location, size, or form of these shrines is
unknown since these bricks constitute their only remaining archaeological evid-
ence. Their inscriptions refer to seats (ki-tuš) or stations (ki-gub) of the deit-
ies.1982 Likewise, the brick inscriptions offer the only information regarding the
deities who were connected to these shrines and who, therefore, most likely
resided in the temple of Ningal.1983 Two of the shrines were dedicated to the
moon god himself: É-an-šár, “House of all Heaven”,1984 and É-šà-du10-ga,
“House which Pleases the Heart”.1985

RIMB, B.6.32.2011, 1–8

d
1 Nanna lugal dEn-líl-e-ne
2 lugal-a-ni
I.d
3 EN.ZU–TI.LA.BI–DU11.GA
4 šakkan6 Úriki-ma
5 ú-a Eriduki-ga
6 É-an-šár
7 ki-tuš nam-lugal-la-ni
8 mu-na-dù

1981
UET 7 no. 136, 4’–8’. See George 1992, 202–203 as well as George 1993, no. 590
and George 1993, no. 246 respectively.
1982
For differing opinions concerning the form of these shrines, see e.g. George 1993, no.
81 where these bricks are taken to be representations of seats and socles for the deities
named, and Schaudig 2002, 630 note 49 where it is presumed that these bricks were ac-
tually used as part of the shrines for the deities mentioned in the inscriptions. It is clear
that the bricks themselves had not been used as building material for the shrines present
in the Ningal temple, but they were laid in the well to symbolise the presence of these
deities there. This is suggested by the presence of only a single brick to each minor deity
in this group, and three to five bricks with the dedication to the gods Enlil and Nanna/Sîn
(see the catalogue of the exemplars in connection with the text editions in RIMB). A case
that bears resemblance to this one is known from Kalḫu, where bricks bearing an inscrip-
tion of Assurnaṣirpal II were found in the well of the Sebettu temple (see Wiseman 1953,
149 and Hibbert 1982, 256). The exact reason for this action and the meaning of the
presence of the deities in the well needs further investigation.
1983
This conclusion was presented already in Woolley 1925, 368.
1984
George 1993, no. 81.
1985
George 1993, no. 1013.
 III.1. Ur and the Neighbouring Area 353

For Nanna, king of the Enlil-gods, his lord, Sîn-balāssu-iqbi, viceroy of Ur

(and) provider of Eridu, built E’anšar, the abode of his kingship.

RIMB, B.6.32.2012, 1–8

d
1 Nanna lugal dEn-líl-e-ne
2 lugal-a-ni
I.d
3 EN.ZU–TI.LA.BI–DU11.GA
4 šakkan6 Úriki-ma
5 ú-a Eriduki-ga
6 É-šà-du10-ga
7 ki-tuš nam-den-líl-a-ni
8 mu-na-dù
For Nanna, king of the Enlil-gods, his lord, Sîn-balāssu-iqbi, viceroy of Ur
(and) provider of Eridu, built Ešaduga, the abode of his Enlil-ship.

While the temple name Ešaduga does not bear any conspicuous connection to
the theological notions of the moon god, the name E’anšar can certainly be at-
tached to the appellation “lord Anšar”, attested for the moon god in Sumerian
prayers and lamentations.1986 The existence of this appellation in the Sumerian
liturgical texts also suggests that its meaning here should be taken literally, rep-
resenting the moon god as the lord of the entire heaven. It is certainly possible to
see this name as a reference to the Assyrian main god Aššur,1987 but its basic
meaning underlines the function of the moon god as the supreme celestial deity
and the moon as the supreme celestial body ruling all of the heavens. In a cos-
mic sense, the entirety of the heavens is a counterpart of the earth, for which En-
lil, or the moon god as Enlil, is responsible.1988
In addition to these two shrines of the moon god himself, shrines of seven
other deities are named:
É-ušumgal-an-na, “House of the Dragon of Heaven”,1989 the station of
Ninkasi1990

1986
This appellation is attested in the bilingual šu’ila-prayer 4 R2 9+//, 2 (see the citation
on p. 147 above) as well as in the lamentations e-lum di-da-ra (Cohen 1988, 180: line
b+88; see also the citation on p. 148 above) and an-na e-lum-e (SBH no. 24, 3; see the
transliteration with further bibliographical information on p. 333 above).
1987
This name has been seen as proof for the possible Assyrian influence behind Sîn-
balāssu-iqbi’s innovations in Schaudig 2002, 630.
1988
See the discussion on p. 136ff. above.
1989
RIMB, B.6.32.2005, 6–7: É-ušumgal-an-na / ⌈ki⌉-gub dNin-ka-si-ke4. See also George
1993, no. 1214. This brick was not found in the well, but in a wall in the Ningal temple.
It should be noted that dUšum-gal-an-na is one of the moon god’s names in the god-list
fragment K. 4559 (CT 25, pl. 42), 6’.
1990
For an overview of Ninkasi, the goddess of beer and brewery, see Krebernik 2000,
354 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

É-èš-bàn-da, “House, Little Chamber”,1991 the seat of Šuziana1992

É-an-ki-kù-ga, “House of Pure Heaven and Underworld”,1993 the station of
Kusu1994
É-ad-gi4-gi4, “House of the Counsellor”,1995 the seat of Nusku1996
É-kišib-gal-é-kur-ra, “House, Keeper of the Seal of Ekur,1997 the seat of
Ninimma1998
[É...]ga?-kù-ga, “House of Pure ...”,1999 the seat/station of Ennugi2000
É-AŠ-AN-AMAR,2001 the abode of Enlil

442–444.
1991
RIMB, B.6.32.2006, 6–7: É-èš-bàn-da / ki-tuš dŠu-zi-an-na. See also George 1993,
no. 265.
1992
See Krebernik 2012, 377–379 for an overview of the goddess Šuziana. According to
An = Anum I, 184 she was Enlil’s concubine (dam-bàn-da dEn-líl-lá-ke4), but an alternate
version also calls her Sîn’s wet nurse (um-me-ga-lá dEn-zu-na-ke4; see Litke 1998, 41).
This role as the moon god’s wet nurse of is also repeated in other literature (see
Krebernik 2012, 378). Šuziana is one of the deities residing in the temple of Sîn in Nip-
pur (see p. 370 below).
1993
RIMB, B.6.32.2007, 6–7: É-an-ki-kù-ga / ki-gub dKù-sù-ke4. See also George 1993,
no. 71.
1994
For a brief discussion about the goddess Kusu, who represented the censer (NÍG.NA,
nignakku), see Michalowski 1993, 158–159. In the Enlil-cycle of the god-list An = Anum
Kusu is one of the names of the grain goddess Nisaba (I, 298; see Litke 1998, 54–55),
but she also has her own entry, in which she is called sáĝa-maḫ dEn-líl-lá-ke4, “the great
purifier of Enlil” (I, 324; see Litke 1998, 59).
1995
RIMB, B.6.32.2008, 6–7: É-ad-gi4-gi4 / ki-tuš dNusku. See also George 1993, no. 42.
1996
For an overview of Nusku see Streck 2001, 629–633. In the Babylonian context
Nusku belonged to Enlil’s circle at Nippur as his vizier (An = Anum I, 252: sukkal-maḫ
d
En-líl-la-ke4, “grand vizier of Enlil”; see Litke 1998, 50). For the adoption of Nusku as
the son of Sîn in the cult of Ḫarrān see the discussion on p. 314ff. above.
1997
RIMB, B.6.32.2009, 6–7: É-kišib-gal-é-kur-ra / ki-tuš dNin-ìmma-ke4. Another pos-
sibility for interpreting this name would be to make an emendation É-DUB-<sar>-gal-é-
kur-ra, “House of the Great Scribe of the Ekur”, as suggested in George 1993, no. 202.
1998
The goddess Ninimma is one of Enlil’s children (Focke 2000, 384–386). According to
An = Anum I, 306 (Litke 1998, 56), she is the expert of Enlil (um-mi-a dEn-líl-lá-ke4), the
registry official of Ekur (dub-sar-zà-ga É-kur-ra-ke4). In one variant she is Sîn’s wet
nurse, like the goddess Šuziana mentioned above. For Sîn’s presence in the temple of
Ninimma in Nippur see p. 370 below.
1999
RIMB, B.6.32.2010, 6–7: [É-x]-x-ga?-kù-ga / [ki-tuš/gub] dEn-nu-gi-ke4. In George
1993, no. 1255 this sanctuary name is read [É-x]-gú?-kù-ga.
2000
The god Ennugi is Enlil’s throne-bearer (gu-za-lá dEn-líl-lá-ke4) according to An =
Anum I, 318–319 as well as other sources (see e.g. the lipšur-litany KAL 10 no. 34–37, 4
where Ennugi is mentioned directly after Enlil and Ninlil).
2001
RIMB, B.6.32.2013, 6–7: É-AŠ-AN-AMAR / ki-tuš dEn-líl-lá-ke4. George 1993, no.
91 suggests a provisional reading é-tillax-maḫ!, “House, Exalted Open Place”, which
 III.1. Ur and the Neighbouring Area 355

The common denominator between these deities is their presence in the court of
Enlil, who is also mentioned, in Nippur.2002 Moreover, the six minor deities
named in Sîn-balāssu-iqbi’s brick inscriptions are known to be part of a specific
group, namely the seven children of Enmešara.2003 Each of these deities were
active in attending rituals in Nippur, where they were known as “divine attend-
ants” (DINGIR.GUB.BA), possibly of Ekur.2004 Beyond this connection to the
cult of Enlil, these minor deities were also connected to the cult of the moon god
in Nippur either mythologically or via other connections. In the Nippur Com-
pendium, the divine directory of the temples in the city of Enlil, the deities
Ninkasi, Sîn, Ninimma, Ninšar, Šuziana, Kusu, and Nusku are listed among the
21 gods of the “outer Court of the Sceptre”.2005 Sîn was also one of the nine gods
listed as belonging to the temple of Ninimma.2006 We also know from this text
that Šuziana, Sîn’s wet nurse, was housed in the temple of the moon god in Nip-
pur.2007 The the god Ninšar’s absence from the group of deities to whom the
shrines were dedicated is curious, but it is possible that the brick representing
his shrine was simply not found in the excavations.2008 This absence has led to
speculation that the brick inscription dedicating the sanctuary Ešaduga to the
moon god, represents Ninšar instead of Nanna/Sîn, but there is no evidence to
confirm such an assumption.2009 The existence of these shrines in the Ningal

would link it to Enlil’s sanctuary with the same name at Nippur (George 1993, no. 1101).
Due to the connection to Nippur this cannot be ruled out, but the spelling
AŠ.AN.AMAR.UTU for the name Dilimbabbar/Namraṣīt in one of the manuscripts for
the prayer “Šamaš 1” (K. 5780+ [BMS 10], 7’) speaks against such a correction. There-
fore, a possible reading of this name is É-dili-damar, “House of the Unique Divine Calf”
(see the discussion on p. 73 above).
2002
See the Middle Babylonian list of temples at Nippur, in which the “houses” of Nusku,
Kusu, Ninkasi, Ennugi, Šuziana, and Ninimma are listed among the “houses of several
deities” (é-ḫi-a diĝir-didli) (Bernhardt & Kramer 1975, 98).
2003
Noted already in Gadd & Legrain 1928, 56, where the absence of Ninšar is also poin-
ted out. The seven children of Enmešara are discussed in Lambert 2013, 209–217 (see
especially Lambert 2013, 215–216 where the inscriptions of Sîn-balāssu-iqbi are briefly
analysed). The equation of Ninimma, Šuziana, Ennugi, Kusu, Ninkasi, and Nusku with
these seven deities is confirmed in Late Babylonian ritual commentaries (Livingstone
1986, 187–204; see especially AO 6479, III 1–14 in Livingstone 1986, 200) and also in
the god-list An = Anum I, 139–146 (Litke 1998, 34–36). For an overview of the Sebettu
see van Buren 1939–1941, 277–289 and Wiggermann 2010, 459–466.
2004
Nippur Compendium, § 14 iv 14–18 (George 1992, 156–157 and 450).
2005
Nippur Compendium, § 14 v 2–6 (George 1992, 156–159). See also p. 370 below.
2006
Nippur Compendium, § 14 v 11–13 (George 1992, 158–159).
2007
Nippur Compendium, § 14 v 7–8 (George 1992, 158–159). See also p. 370 below.
2008
Only one brick for each of the minor deities has been found (see the catalogue in con-
nection with the text editions in RIMB).
2009
This is suggested in Gadd & Legrain 1928, 56 and Focke 1999–2000, 102. See the
356 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

temple underlines the notion put forth by Sîn-balāssu-iqbi through the renaming
of the ziqqurrat and the use of the divine name Ninlil in connection with Ningal:
the veneration of Nippurian deities, including Enlil himself, in Ur, as well as the
conspicuous use of the term “Enlil-ship” to describe the status of the moon god,
speak for association between Sîn and Enlil (and Ningal and Ninlil) in this
context.

III.1.4. Edublamaḫ
The remains of a sanctuary of the moon god with the name Edublamaḫ still
stand among the remains of the city of Ur. Perhaps rightfully, Leonard Woolley
described it as one of the most important buildings on the site, and also one of
the buildings that boasts the longest history.2010 The location of the building later
known by the name Edublamaḫ had once been the main entrance to the ziqqurrat
enclosure. This gate structure is known by its name dub-lá-maḫ (“Massive Pi-
lasters”), in the sources of the Ur III period. Later, the back door of this gate that
lead to the ziqqurrat was walled up – a change made by king Sîn-iddinam of
Larsa, according to Woolley – and thus an enclosed building was created.2011 Its
fundamental character as a large gateway nevertheless persisted after this altera-
tion: architecturally, the façade of the building remained that of a large gate.
This was also inherent in the name of the building, which remained the same: É-
dub-lá-maḫ, “House of Massive Pilasters”.2012 Moreover, the Kassite king Kur-
igalzu, who rebuilt Edublamaḫ, refers to it as “the great main gate” (ká-gal-
maḫ),2013 a designation that underlines the building’s former function as a gate-
way. One of the architectural elements added by Kurigalzu was a platform in
front of the entrance, which also created a narrow passage to the actual gate to
the ziqqurrat enclosure.2014 In a way, the building thus became an extension of
the newer ziqqurrat gate, perhaps functioning as a reminder of its former charac-
ter. A reconstruction of this newly created building was offered in the excavation
report by Woolley (Fig. 14).

citation of this inscription (UET 1 no. 178 = RIMB, B.6.32.2012) on p. 353 above.
2010
Woolley 1965, 9.
2011
In his preliminary report on the excavations at Ur, Woolley credited the changes to
Išme-Dagan of Isin (Woolley 1925, 397); later he corrected this to Sîn-iddinam (Woolley
1965, 13).
2012
For the discussion of the meaning of dub-lá/dublû see George 1995, 185–186 with the
definition “the pilaster mass commonly found at the side of a monumental gateway”. Ac-
cording to George, the term dublû, “projection”, together with ḫibšu, “niche”, is used to
describe the pattern that particularly decorated gate structures in Mesopotamia.
2013
This inscription of Kurigalzu, UET 1 no. 159, was found on bricks of Edublamaḫ.
2014
Heinrich 1982, 210.
 III.1. Ur and the Neighbouring Area 357

Fig. 14: Edublamaḫ’s courtyard during the reign of Kurigalzu

(Woolley 1965, pl. 51)

Because of its former function as a gate, the building history of the sanctuary
Edublamaḫ in Ur is unique, but two other sanctuaries of the moon god with the
same name were located elsewhere. For the Old Babylonian period, a temple
with the name Edublamaḫ is attested in Urum.2015 During the 1st millennium
BCE, a sanctuary with this name was located in the vicinity of Nippur.2016 Here,
in the Nippurian context, Edublamaḫ was clearly connected to Sîn’s Ekišnugal
sanctuary, according to the Nippur Compendium, and it therefore seems likely
that both these sanctuaries of the moon god in Nippur were associated with
Ur.2017 This is also supported by the development of Edublamaḫ in Ur, which
resulted in a temple bearing the name of a gate. Based on the Akkadian transla-
tion of the name given in the Nippur Compendium, (“House which bears a fu-
nerary tablet”), it seems unlikely that the character of Edublamaḫ in Ur as a
former gateway was understood in Nippur.
In Ur, however, the fact that Edublamaḫ had been a gate in the ziqqurrat en-
closure was still remembered in the 7th century BCE when Sîn-balāssu-iqbi
renovated the building. Edublamaḫ’s name is not mentioned here, but because
this inscription was written on a door socket in Edublamaḫ2018 and because it
makes a reference to the old gate of Etemenniguru, it is clear that this temple can
only have been the building that housed the door fashioned by Sîn-balāssu-iqbi.

2015
For references see George 1993, no. 205. A temple hymn to the sanctuary of the moon
god in Urum has been edited in Sjöberg 1960, 137–139.
2016
Nippur Compendium, § 6 ii 14’: É-dub-lá-maḫ bi-tu na-áš ṭup-pi q[u]-bu-ru, “E-
dubla-maḫ, House which bears a funerary tablet (George 1992, 150–151). See also
George 1993, no. 204.
2017
See also the discussion p. 368ff. below.
2018
Found in situ (see Woolley 1925, 384–385).
358 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

UET 1 no. 169 (RIMB, B.6.32.2001), 10–31

10 É-temen-ní-gùr-ru
11 níĝ-u4-ul-lí-a-ta
12 é-gar8 diri-ga-bi
13 te-me-en-bi a-ri-a
14 uš8-bi bí-in-šú-šú
15 ká-bi ḫa-lam-me-e-ne
16 ki-bi bí-in-kin-kin
17 šà dub te-me-en-bi
18 u-me-ni-dù
19 saĝ-bi ba-ni-íl
ĝiš
20 ig ĝištaškarin ĝiš saĝ
21 kur-bi-ta sù-ud-da
22 gag urudu bí-in-dù-a
23 kéš-da-bi kala-ga
24 uš kù-sig17-a-ke4
25 si-ĝar kù-babbar zálag-zálag
26 aškud nu-kúš-ù
27 urudu kala-ga
28 kù-babbar u-me-ni-dab-dab
29 ká É-saĝ-dili
30 é-ḫal-la-ta dù-a
31 da-rí-šè gub-bu-dè
Etemenniguru, whose collapsed wall (and) foundation were waste land since
the distant past, I (un?)covered its foundations and sought the location of its
destroyed gates. After I had made the tablet (that is in?) its foundation de-
posit, I raised its (i.e. Etemenniguru’s) top. A door of boxwood, wood of
finest quality from a distant mountain, made with with copper nails (and)
whose bands are strong, (whose) foundation is of gold, (whose) door-bolt is
of shining silver, (and whose) bar (and) fitting is of strong copper: I inlaid
(it) with silver so that it would stand forever at the gate of Esaĝdili, the house
built in secret.2019

It is important to note that this inscription reflects theological notions that are

2019
The translation for the lines 29–31 in RIMB, B.6.32.2001 is: “in order that is might
stand forever fixed in the doorway of the ‘secret house’, the house of divination”. The
translation “house built in secret” employed here is given in George 1993, no. 958. It
should be noted that the name É-saĝ-dili is the same as one of the names of Enlil’s
ziqqurrat in Nippur (see George 1993, no. 956). This name is translated as “House of
Secrets” by A. R. George, but perhaps a translation based on the Sumerian noun saĝ-dili,
“lone, single; noble” (Akk. gitmalu; ēdēnû) would also be possible in this connection.
 III.1. Ur and the Neighbouring Area 359

also found in other inscriptions of Sîn-balāssu-iqbi by referring to one of the

names of Enlil’s ziqqurrat in Nippur, É-saĝ-dili.2020 According to the archeolo-
gical context this inscription, the doorway of Esaĝdili was Edublamaḫ which in-
deed had been one of the gates to the ziqqurrat in the past. The implication is
that the ziqqurrat and its enclosure Etemenniguru is associated here with the
Nippurian ziqqurrat of Enlil, underlining the equation of Sîn and Enlil found
elsewhere in Sîn-balāssu-iqbi’s inscriptions.
There are no other known references to Edublamaḫ in the Neo-Babylonian
inscriptions. Although after Sîn-balāssu-iqbi both Nebuchadnezzar II and Na-
bonidus made renovations that are visible in the archaeological remains at the
site,2021 the building does not appear to have been important enough to be men-
tioned in their inscriptions. Still, Edublamaḫ appears in the litanies of temple
names in Sumerian lamentations among other temples of the moon god, and on
occasion the moon god is called “lord of Edublamaḫ”.2022 These few attestations
are not enough to evaluate the meaning of this temple and its role in the cult of
the moon god at Ur in the 1st millennium BCE. A hint at Edublamaḫ’s function
in the older periods can be found in the Lamentation over the Destruction of
Sumer and Ur as well as in the royal inscriptions of Amar-Suen of the Ur III
dynasty and Šu-ilīšu of Isin. Both Amar-Suen and Šu-ilīšu refer to (E)dublamaḫ
with the epithet “the place of his (i.e. Nanna’s) judgement”.2023 This epithet de-
scribes (E)dublamaḫ as a location – the gate to the ziqqurrat complex – where
the moon god gives his judgements, implying that this building had a judicial
role.2024 A similar function for (E)dublamaḫ is found in the description of the de-
struction of the city of Ur and its temples.

Lamentation over the Destruction of Sumer and Ur, 4382025

dub-lá-maḫ ki nam-ku5-re-dè ki-inim-ma nu-ĝál

2020
See also the discussion concerning the renaming of the ziqqurrat of the moon god and
its theological implications on p. 343ff. above.
2021
Woolley 1962, 15.
2022
An unpublished duplicate to SBH no. 24 reveals that Edublamaḫ is included in this
litany amongst the other sanctuaries of the moon god (see the transliteration of the relev-
ant passage on p. 333). See also CT 42 no. 9, I 26: ù-mu-u[n] dNanna ù-mu-un É-dub-lá-
maḫ-a, “Lord Nanna, lord of Edublamaḫ”. This temple name can also be found in BL 27,
7’: še-eb É-dub-lá-[maḫ], “brickwork of Edublamaḫ”.
2023
For Amar-Suen see Steible 1991, 238–242 (Amarsuen 12), ll. 19–21: dub-lá-maḫ / é-
u6-di-kalam-ma / ki di-ku5-da-ni. For Šu-ilīšu see RIME 4, E.4.1.2.1, 12–13: dub-lá-maḫ
/ ki di-ku5-da-ni.
2024
See also the Old Babylonian attestation of Dublamaḫ as a place for taking an oath in
Dombardi 1996, 324.
2025
Michalowski 1989, 64–65.
360 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

Verdicts were not given at the Dublamaḫ, the place where oaths used to be
taken.

These attestations suggest that (E)dublamaḫ, which was still a gate to the ziqqur-
rat enclosure and not yet an enclosed building, was a place where legal proceed-
ings in the form of the decree of verdicts and the taking of oaths took place – a
function well attested for gates in ancient Mesopotamia.2026 We can assume that
a similar association of the place with the judicial sphere continued after its
transformation from gate to enclosed building. It has even been suggested that
the platform, built in front of the entrance to Edublamaḫ by Kurigalzu, served as
a location for a court.2027 Unfortunately no conclusive evidence from the 1st mil-
lennium BCE concerning the nature of this sanctuary is available. It is plausible
that Edublamaḫ was still perceived as a place of judgement, where either earthly
or divine decisions were made. A hymn of Ur-Namma to the moon god hints at a
connection to the latter in the Ur III period, naming Dublamaḫ as a place where
divine decisions over destinies are made.2028

III.1.5. Eĝipar and the Consecration of En-niĝaldi-Nanna

One of the most visible changes made by king Nabonidus to the cultic scene in
Ur was the reinstatement of the entu-priestess of the moon god, which required
the reconstruction of the giparu and the erection of a residential palace for the
high priestess. Nabonidus’ inscriptions provide a justification for his reintroduc-
tion of the entu-priestess and, in addition, give us a glimpse into the spectrum of
cultic personnel (possibly) active in Ekišnugal at the time of this renewal.2029
According to the report in Nabonidus’ inscription, the reason for re-establish-
ing the institution of the entu-priestess was a direct wish on the part of the moon
god Sîn in the second year of Nabonidus’ reign. This wish had been delivered by
the lunar eclipse which occurred on the 13th day of Elūlu: the moon, called here
“the divine Fruit”, had become dark and set while in the state of darkness.2030

2026
For the various functions of gates in Mesopotamia and Israel see May 2014, 77–122.
2027
Heinrich 1982, 210.
2028
Ur-Namma EF, 21–22: dub-lá-maḫ ki nam tar-re-za / diĝir gal-gal-e-ne nam mi-ni-ib-
tar-re-ne, “At your Dublamaḫ, the place where the fates are determined, all the great
gods determine the fates.” (Flückiger-Hawker 1999, 278–279). See also Hall 1985, 405.
For a discussion of the moon god as a divine decision maker see p. 150ff. above.
2029
For a description of this episode in Ekišnugal’s history see the report in En-niĝaldi-
Nanna Cylinder (Schaudig 2001, 2.7; see also Reiner 1985, 1–16). The installation of
En-niĝaldi-Nanna as the high priestess is also mentioned in E’igikalama Cylinder
(Schaudig 2001, 2.5, II 13–14).
2030
Schaudig 2001, 2.7, I 1–10. See also the citation of the lines concerning the eclipse on
p. 59 above in connection with the appellation Fruit for the moon. This lunar eclipse can
be identified with the nearly total eclipse that took place on September 26th, 554 BCE
 III.1. Ur and the Neighbouring Area 361

The implication of such an eclipse, as stated in the inscription, was that “Sîn de-
sires an entu-priestess”2031 – a wish that was also expressed in an entry in the as-
trological series EAE.2032

EAE 17, § VI 42033

DIŠ ina itiKIN AN.MI EN.NUN U4.ZAL.LI GAR d30 NIN.DINGIR.[RA
URU4-eš]
If an eclipse occurs in Elūlu in the morning watch, Sîn [will request] an entu-
priestess.

The moon god’s wish was fulfilled, and the most visible aspect of this reforma-
tion in the cultic life of Ur was the rebuilding of the giparu of the entu-priestess
on the southwest side of the ziqqurrat enclosure (see Fig. 15, p. 366).2034 Accord-
ing to Nabonidus’ account, the location of this building had been abandoned and
filled with date palms and other trees by this time, and he needed to clear the
area that had housed the giparu of old before the new building work could be
started.2035 In addition to the giparu, Nabonidus built a house for his daughter

(Lewy 1949, 50 and Beaulieu 1989, 127–128).

2031
Schaudig 2001, 2.7, I 10: dEN.ZU NIN.DINGIR.RA i-ri-iš ki-a-am it-ta-šu ù pu-ru-
us-su-šu, “Sîn desires an entu-priestess, that was the sign and its decision.”
2032
See Lewy 1949, 50; Reiner 1985, 8; Beaulieu 1989, 128; and Reiner 1995, 76–77.
Despite the undeniable connection between the eclipse and the actions taken by Na-
bonidus, Beaulieu doubted the king’s motives. He considered it possible that Nabonidus
had decided to install his daughter as a priestess at Ur before the eclipse occured, since
he had cancelled the office held by his daughter at Eana in Uruk during the previous year
(555 BCE), and the governor of Ur (Sîn-nādin-aḫi) had also visited Uruk only few
months later. By the time the eclipse actually occurred – a phenomenon that could be
predicted by the astrologers working in the Babylonian court at the time – Nabonidus
would then have used it as divine justification to bolster his own plans (Beaulieu 1989,
121–122 and 129).
2033
Rochberg-Halton 1988, 133.
2034
P. N. Weadock has throughly studied the giparu of Nanna at Ur in her dissertation
(1958), and her results are summarized in Weadock 1975, 101–128. For this institution
during the Old Babylonian period see Charpin 1986, 192–220; see also the short over-
view of the archeological remains in Crawford 2015, 124–127. During the Ur III and Old
Babylonian period, this building included the temple of the goddess Ningal. This was
moved inside the ziqqurrat enclosure during the Kassite era.
2035
Schaudig 2001, 2.7, I 39–43. It is difficult to determine the use of this site during the
preceding centuries, but there are some remains there that can be dated to the time of
Sîn-balāssu-iqbi. Any traces of the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian building phases
have mostly eroded, making the archeological evidence for this period scant (Weadock
1975, 111–114). It is noted in Woolley 1962, 19 that the monuments of Nabonidus were
systematically destroyed by the Persians after their victory over the Babylonians, which
362 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

En-niĝaldi-Nanna next to that building.2036 This extension of the giparu can be

identified with the building complex located on its southeast side, opposite the
Edublamaḫ. Also connected to this new part of the Eĝipar was the Agrun-maḫ
(or É-nun-maḫ) temple of Ningal which Nabonidus also restored.2037 Bricks
commemorating the construction of the giparu were also found in the so-called
“Palace of En-niĝaldi-Nanna” (“Palace of Bel-shalṭi-Nannar” in earlier publica-
tions), located outside the temple area by the harbour, and this has led to the
identification of this palace as the house for the entu-priestess.2038 This connec-
tion is however dubious, because Nabonidus himself referred to a different loca-
tion for the house of En-niĝaldi-Nanna.2039 Connected to this palace is a temple
that was named the “Harbour Temple” by its excavators, but its ancient name
and its function remain unknown.2040 The one aspect that can be ascertained is
that a functional connection between this temple and the palace existed, as is
shown by a road of burned bricks that links them.
Because the tradition of a high priestess in the cult had come to an end dur-
ing the Old Babylonian period in southern Mesopotamia,2041 Nabonidus was
forced to tie the re-introduction of the priestess to the older tradition in order to
lend credibility to the cultic changes made with her installation. This is likely to

probably also explains the lack of archaeological evidence at the site of the giparu.
2036
Schaudig 2001, 2.7, II 7: a-na i-te-e É-ĝi6-pàr É En-níĝ-al-di-dNanna DUMU.
MUNUS-ia NIN.DINGIR.RA d30 e-eš-ši-iš e-pú-uš, “I build anew the house of En-
niĝaldi-Nanna, my daughter, the entu-priestess of Sîn next to the Eĝipar ”. The identific-
ation of this site as the house of the high priestess is confirmed by the inscribed bricks of
Nabonidus that were found at the site (see See Woolley 1925, 378 and Weadock 1975,
113). The inscription written on these bricks is edited in Schaudig 2001, 1.8.
2037
See the discussion on p. 304 above.
2038
See Mallowan apud Woolley 1931, 376–381; Mallowan apud Woolley 1962, 41–43;
and Heinrich 1982, 323–324.
2039
The bricks containing the inscription may simply have been left over from the con-
struction of Eĝipar and then used to build the palace by the harbour (Weadock 1958, 30
and Weadock 1975, 113). Moreover, it is likely that this palace was built as a residence
for the royal representatives at Ur and for use by the king when he was visiting the city: a
parallel for this can be found in Neo- and Late Babylonian Uruk, where the royal palace
was located directly outside the temple complex Eana (Kessler 1999, 165–172 and
Schaudig 2001, 341).
2040
Woolley 1962, 35–40 and Heinrich 1982, 324–325. This temple was clearly built by
Nabonidus since Nebuchadnezzar II’s bricks found at the site were only re-used as build-
ing material.
2041
The custom of having a high priestess ceased after the shift of political power to
Babylon in southern Mesopotamia (Reiner 1985, 5; see also the overview of the high
priestess in Mesopotamian tradition in Sallaberger & Huber Vulliet 2005, 626–628).
However, installation of entu-priestesses is still attested in Assur in the late Middle As-
syrian period (S. M. Maul, personal communication).
 III.1. Ur and the Neighbouring Area 363

have been the purpose for the description of the discovery of an old stele of
Nebuchadnezzar I (1131–1126 BCE), detailing the proper attire for the high
priestess, which was found during the construction work of the giparu.2042 Na-
bonidus also refers to an inscription of the last high priestess of the moon god
known by name, Enanedu, sister of Rīm-Sîn (1822–1763 BCE).2043 It has been
suggested that the re-introduction of ancient cult practises in Ur was part of Na-
bonidus’ attempt to bring about a renaissance of the moon god’s cult there after
centuries of decline.2044 Sîn’s cult in Ekišnugal was certainly endorsed by the
king in connection with this event: Nabonidus’ inscriptions speak of an increase
in regular offerings to Sîn and Ningal as well as the establishment of privileged
status for the cultic personnel of Ekišnugal.2045 Detailed information about the
offerings and cultic personnel is given in the En-niĝaldi-Nanna Cylinder.2046

Schaudig 2001, 2.7, II 15–28

II 15 ì-nu-šu ša dEN.ZU ù dNin-gal EN.MEŠ-e-a
II 16 sa-at-tuk-ki-šu-nu e-li ša pa-na ú-ṭa-aḫ-ḫi-id
II 17 mi-im-ma šum-šu in É-kiš-nu-ĝál ú-da-aš-ši
II 18 ša u4-mi 3 UDU.NÍTA e-le-⌈en⌉ UDU.NÍTA gi-na-a la-bi-ri a-na d30
ù dNin-gal EN.MEŠ-e-a lu ú-ki-in
II 19 bu-ša-a ma-ak-ku-ru qé-re-eb É-kiš-nu-ĝál ú-da-aš-ši
II 20 aš-šum BUR.SAG-ge-e ul-lu-li-im-ma ḫi-ṭi-ti la ra-še-e
II 21 ra-am-ku-ut É-kiš-nu-ĝál ù É.MEŠ DINGIR.MEŠ
II 22 e-nu i-šip-pi ZABAR.DAB.BA lúKUL.LUM lúen-gi-ṣu
lú
II 23 a-ri-ru lúGAL.DÙ lúŠITIM lúKISAL.LUḪ-ḫa (lú)Ì.DU8.GAL-lu4
lú
II 24 ti-ir É lúla-ga-ru šá-ki-nu taq-ri-ib-ti
lú
II 25 NAR.MEŠ mu-ḫa-ad-du-ú ŠÀ-bi DINGIR.MEŠ
lú
II 26 ki-ni-iš-tu4 šu-ut na-bu-ú šu-ma-an-šu-un
II 27 i-li-ik-šu-nu ap-ṭu-ur-ma ŠU.BAR.RA-šu-nu ⌈aš⌉-ku-un ub-bi-⌈ib-
šu⌉-nu-ti-ma
II 28 a-na dEN.ZU ù dNin-gal EN.MEŠ-e-a ú-zak-ki-šu-nu-ti
At that time I made the regular offerings of Sîn and Ningal, my lords, more
copious than before, I supplied everything abundantly to Ekišnugal. I estab-

2042
See Reiner 1985, 12 and Schaudig 2003, 485–488. It is reasonable to assume that
such a stele did not actually exist, but the story was fabricated in order to legitimate the
installation of the high priestess and to establish the proper cultic actions after such a
long gap in the existence of the office (so in in Powell 1991, 30).
2043
See Schaudig 2003, 482–485.
2044
Reiner 1985, 14.
2045
In addition to En-niĝaldi-Nanna Cylinder cited here, see the gate socket inscription
that gives a summary of the building of the Eĝipar and the establishment of a special
status for the cultic personnel at Ekišnugal (Schaudig 2001, 1.12.a).
2046
See also the citation and discussion of this passage in Beaulieu 1989, 131–132.
364 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

lished daily (an offering of) three sheep more than the one sheep of the previ-
ous regular offering for Sîn and Ningal, my lords; I made goods and property
abundant in Ekišnugal. In order to keep the bursangû-offering pure and not
to make any mistakes, I released the ‘bathed ones’ of Ekišnugal and the tem-
ples – the high priest, the purification priest, the bronze bowl holder, the di-
viner, the temple cook, the miller, the orchard keeper,2047 the builder, the
courtyard sweeper, the head doorkeeper, the courtier, the lagar-priest who
performs the taqribtu-ritual, the singers who delight the hearts of the gods,
the council of priests, those whose names are mentioned (here) – from their
service and I set them free; I purified them and I freed them to Sîn and Nin-
gal, my lords.

It is possible that the increase in daily offerings and temple property was ordered
in connection with a larger religious reformation, but due to the lack of adminis-
trative material the extent of the changes in the cultic life cannot be evalu-
ated.2048 Nabonidus’ list of temple personnel represents the complete hierarchical
structure of the people involved in the cult, ranging from the enu-priest to the
prebendaries who played their part in the upkeep of the temple cult. This list is
extraordinary, because in addition to the actual prebends also found in other
Neo-Babylonian temples, it also gives the titles of cultic functionaries who had
disappeared from the administrative sources after the Old Babylonian era, or the
ancient forms of titles still in use during the Neo-Babylonian times.2049 The king
first named the high priest (Sum. en, Akk. enum), who was the most important
cultic functionary in the cult of the temple’s main deity, but is not attested in the
post-Old Babylonian administrative documents.2050 Therefore, the reference to
the “high priest” here is anachronistic, but can be explained by the installation of
the entu-priestess for Sîn. The second cultic functionary, išippu, was also associ-
ated with the past, because during the 1st millennium BCE this purification priest
was called āšipu in Akkadian sources.2051 The occurrences of the zabardabbû-

2047
Here the meaning “orchard keep” for rab banê is adopted in accordance to Jursa
1995, 57–58 and Bongenaar 1997, 142.
2048
The possibility of a religious reformation is noted in Beaulieu 1989, 131–132.
2049
The anachronistic character of this list of temple personnel is already noted in Reiner
1985, 13. For a comparison see the lists of the prebends of other Neo-Babylonian
temples in Bongenaar 1997, 141–142 and Beaulieu 2003, 34–35.
2050
Sallaberger & Huber Vulliet 2005, 626–628.
2051
Sallaberger & Huber Vulliet 2005, 631. See, however, also the few attestations from
1st millennium BCE that name both išippu and āšipu side by side (CAD I, 242–243).
 III.1. Ur and the Neighbouring Area 365

functionary2052 and the temple cook engiṣu2053 are unusual in comparison to the
other Neo- or Late Babylonian sources. Like the references to the kings of the
past, the use of archaic titles for temple functionaries attests to an attempt to
build a connection with the past in order to lend credibility to the revival of
long-dead cultic practises. Whether this list attests to a larger reformation associ-
ated with the re-introduction of the entu-priestess must remain unsolved. It has
been suggested that the religious reform of consecrating a high priestess for the
moon god met opposition in the Babylonian population and that this is reflected
in the Royal Chronicle, which describes the consecration of En-niĝaldi-Nanna as
well as the building of the temple Ebabbar in Sippar.2054 However, this view has
been opposed due to the positive tone of the chronicle that instead depicts Na-
bonidus as an expert on scholarly lore, using his knowledge of astrology, extis-
picy, and cult to interpret the wish that he had received from the moon god.2055
In addition to the list of cultic personnel given by Nabonidus, very few other
attestations of cultic personnel working in the moon god’s temple in Ur are pre-
served. In a kudurru of Esarhaddon, two persons bearing the title nêšakku of Sîn
(lúNU.ÈŠ d30) are named as witnesses,2056 but unfortunately nothing more of
them is known. A kalû of Sîn, Nabû-šumu-iddin, is also attested as having made
a copy of an inscription of Amar-Suen for Sîn-balāssu-iqbi.2057 In addition, isol-
ated references to the prebend of a doorkeeper are attested in the Gallābu
archive in the Persian period.2058

2052
During the Ur III period, zabar-dab5 was a functionary responsible for the royal liba-
tions (see Sallaberger & Huber Vulliet 2005, 635). In the Neo-Babylonian sources this
functionary is attested only in the list concerning distribution of meat in Eana (Ash.
1922.256, 13; 37 and 63; see McEwan 1983, 188–195). For the presence of the title za-
bardabbû in Assur during the Neo-Assyrian period see Menzel 1981, 247.
2053
According to the attestations listed in CAD E, 167, the only other attestation of en-
giṣu can be found in an Old Babylonian document (UET 5 no. 249, 1).
2054
See the edition of the text in Schaudig 2001, P4, II 1’–III 16’. The negative tone for
this chronicle is suggested in Beaulieu 1989, 131.
2055
Machinist & Tadmor 1993, 150–151.
2056
YBC 18182, r. 4’–5’ (see Paulus 2014, 724–726 [Ash 1]). For the cultic profession
nêšakku see Sallaberger & Huber Vulliet 2005, 630–631.
2057
RIMB, B.6.32.2016, IV 29–38. For Nabû-šumu-iddin’s activities and family see
Nielsen 2009, 171–182.
2058
See Jursa 2007, 134.
366 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

Fig. 15: The Neo-Babylonian temple complex in Ur (Woolley 1962, pl. 60)
 III.1. Ur and the Neighbouring Area 367

III.1.6. Kissik
The city of Ur was the main cult centre of the moon god in southern Mesopot-
amia, but there were also local cults with the moon god and his wife Ningal as
their central deities in its vicinity. In 1st millennium BCE, such a cult for Sîn and
Ningal was found in Kissik, a city located in the proximity of Ur, and it is attes-
ted mainly through sporadic references to the goddess Ningal in sources dating
to Neo-Babylonian period.2059 Most importantly, a reference to the temple of
Ningal in Kissik is preserved in a cylinder inscription of Nabonidus, in which
the rebuilding of the É-amaš-kù-ga, “House of the Pure Sheepfold”, of Ningal in
this city is commemorated.2060

Schaudig 2001, 2.6, I 36–39

I 36 i-nu-šú É-⌈amaš⌉-kù-ga
I 37 É dNin-gal be-let gi-mir el-le-ti
I 38 su-pu-ru e-⌈el⌉-li
I 39 šá qé-er-ba URU KISIG!.ki
At that time: E’amaškuga, the temple of Ningal, pure goddess of the whole
world, the pure sheepfold that is in the city Kissik2061

The adherence to the moon god is also portrayed in a few of the letters belong-
ing to the Neo-Assyrian royal correspondence, which show that the city Kissik,
like the neighbouring city Ur, was an Assyrian ally in Babylonia.2062 In two let-
ters that were written to Assurbanipal by the Kissikeans, the divine pair Sîn and
Ningal are presented as tutelary deities of Kissik in the introductory formulae.

ABL 210, 3–72063

d
3 30 u dNin-gal a-na
4 LUGAL KUR.KUR EN-i-ni lik-ru-bu u4-mu-us-su
d
5 30 u dNin-gal a-na TIN ZI.MEŠ ù
6 a-ra-ku UD.MEŠ šá LUGAL KUR.KUR EN-i-ni
7 nu-ṣal-li
May Sîn and Ningal bless the king of the lands, our lord! We beseech Sîn and
Ningal daily to preserve the life and to prolong the days of the king of the
lands, our lord!

2059
See the overviews in Röllig 1976–1980, 620–622 and Beaulieu 1992, 400–424.
2060
A temple with the same name belonged to the goddess Inanna in earlier times (see
George 1993, nos. 60 and 61).
2061
In Beaulieu 1989, 28 no. 10 this location is identified by the name Dūrum.
2062
See Frame 1992, 40 and 162.
2063
The same formula is found also in ABL 736, 3–6.
368 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

Also pertaining to the cult of Ningal is the reference to a Kissikean šatammu of

Ningal, mentioned in the letter ABL 1000,2064 but this isolated reference does not
offer any further information concerning the cult of the moon god and his wife
in Kissik. Overall, the situation in Kissik is not well-documented: only a small
number of texts have been unearthed by the Iraqi excavations there, and among
those only a few documents are associated with the temple of Ningal.2065 Perhaps
these still unpublished documents will, in the future, reveal more details of the
moon god’s cult in this city.

III.2. Other Cult Places of Sîn in Babylonia

The city of Ur and its surrounding area were not the only places in Babylonia,
where the cult of Sîn is attested in some form. On the contrary, the moon god is
known to have enjoyed a cult in all of the major Babylonian cities: Nippur,
Uruk, Sippar, Babylon, and Borsippa. Although the moon god was unarguably
one of the major deities in the Sumero-Babylonian pantheon, and therefore ven-
erated in several contexts, the connecting factor for each of these local Babylo-
nian cults of Sîn is his genealogical relationship to the main local deities, such as
Enlil and Ninlil in Nippur, Ištar in Uruk, Šamaš in Sippar and Larsa, and Nanaya
in Borsippa. This aspect of the cult, which is tied to the mythological relation-
ship between different deities of the Sumero-Babylonian pantheon is visible in
the (at times) meagre evidence available concerning the moon god’s presence in
these locations.

III.2.1. Nippur
The cult of the moon god in Nippur has a history which reaches back to the
Early Dynastic period (ED IIIb), but in which the Semitic moon god Suen and
the Sumerian moon god Nanna appear as distinct deities.2066 The first references
to these two moon gods in Nippur are sporadic and do not offer concrete inform-
ation about their status within the city. In the case of Nanna, the first attestation
appears in connection with what seems to be a visit of the en-priestess Enmen-
ana to Nippur, and the moon god Suen is mentioned in an inscription of
Lugalzagesi, who held the title “grandvizier of Suen” (sukkal-maḫ dSuen)
among others, in his inscription.2067 Still, it was not until the 14th regnal year of
Šulgi of the Ur III dynasty that the Sumerian moon god Nanna was introduced
to the city of Nippur and his cult established. This introduction of Ur’s city god

2064
ABL 1000, 19: lúŠÀ.TAM šá dNin-gal lúki-sik-a-[a].
2065
See the overview in Jursa 2005, 102 (with a reference to a forthcoming publication of
these texts by K. Kessler).
2066
For the cult of the moon god in Nippur during the 3rd millennium BCE see Such-
Gutiérrez 2003, 254–267 as well as Hall 1985, 727–728.
2067
See Such-Gutiérrez 2003, 254 and 261. For the inscription of Lugalzagesi see Steible
1982, 316 (Luzag. 1, I 21–22).
 III.2. Other Cult Places of Sîn in Babylonia 369

to Nippur may have served a political purpose, as Jacob Klein has suggested.2068
According to the material available from the Ur III period, the gods Suen and
Nanna were venerated separately; they either received their offerings in different
locations or, if they were both present in the same place, at different times. It is
noteworthy that while Nanna particularly received offerings in the temple of
Ninlil, his mother, offerings to Suen were mostly delivered to him at his own
temple.2069 This underlines the genealogical relationship between Nanna, Enlil,
and Ninlil in Sumerian theology. During the Old Babylonian period the moon
god continued to be an important part of cultic life in Nippur; references to the
sanctuary of Sîn can be found in administrative texts, but he also received offer-
ings in the temple of Nusku.2070 The existence of an actual “house of Sîn”, which
is attested in the administrative sources, is however not supported by the metro-
logical text HS 194, which gives the area measurements of different temples in
Nippur: no sanctuary of Sîn is listed in this text, which dates perhaps to the Kas-
site period.2071 On the other hand, the Nippur Compedium includes the sanctuar-
ies Ekišnugal and Edublamaḫ in its list of etymological explanations.2072 Since
these buildings, which were evidently located in Nippur or its vicinity, share the
names of the principal temple of the moon god, Ekišnugal of Ur,2073 and one of
the principal sanctuaries in the temple complex Ekišnugal in Ur, Edublamaḫ,2074
a strong connection to the cult of the moon god in Ur is connoted through them.
No other references to these sanctuaries of the moon god in Nippur by their
names are extant, but according to Andrew George it is plausible that they were
located in Bīt-Suena, which most likely was a suburb of Nippur.2075 A sanctuary
of Sîn without a specific name is mentioned elsewhere in this same compendi-
um: a house of Sîn and its resident deities are listed in the section that names the
deities living in temples of Nippur. From this we learn that the deities housed
there included Sîn himself, his wife Ningal (who is listed here twice2076), his
daughter (Ištar), his son Šamaš, and the gods Šuziana and Kalkal.

2068
Klein 2001, 284–285. See also the discussion on p. 291ff. above.
2069
Such-Gutiérrez 2003, 267.
2070
For and overview see Richter 2004, 148–151
2071
Bernhardt & Kramer 1975, 97–98.
2072
See the citation on p. 80 above.
2073
See pp. 79ff. and 333ff. above.
2074
See p. 356ff. above. Edublamaḫ’s connection to Ur is particularly evident through the
development of this sanctuary and its name through architectural changes.
2075
George 1992, 446–447: the administrative district Bīt-Sîn is attested for Nippur in 2nd
millennium BCE. See also George 1993, nos. 204 and 655.
2076
This must mean that she had two manifestations in the temple.
370 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

Nippur Compendium, § 14 v 7–82077

d
7 30 dNin-gal dDUMU.MÍ-d30 dŠu-zi-an-na dNin-gal dUTU dKal-kal

8 7-ÁM DINGIR.MEŠ É d30

Sîn; Ningal; Sîn’s Daughter; Šuziana; Ningal; Šamaš; Kalkal: 7 gods, the
temple of Sîn.

As can be seen, each of these deities had either a genealogical relationship to the
moon god or they filled roles that were mythologically connected to Nanna/Sîn’s
status as a son of Enlil: the goddess Šuziana was not only Enlil’s secondary
wife, but also Nanna-Sîn’s wet nurse,2078 and the god Kalkal was the doorkeeper
of Ekur who the moon god petitioned to open the door upon his arrival to Nip-
pur.2079 The presence of these deities was thus deeply rooted in the notion of the
moon god being the “first-born son” of the god Enlil.2080 According to this same
text, the moon god was also present in other locations in Ekur. He was counted
among the 21 deities of the outer Court of the Sceptre and the nine gods of the
temple of Ninimma.2081 These attestations confirm that the theological and myth-
ological framework for the moon god’s cult in Nippur was his position as the
eldest son of the city’s tutelary deities, Enlil and Ninlil.2082 Indications of this can
be traced back to the Ur III period, and the sources from the Neo-Babylonian
period suggest that this father-son relationship was still a focal point in the moon
god’s cult in Nippur.
In addition to the information concerning the presence of Sîn in the temples
of Nippur, the Nippur Compendium also reveals that in the first month of the

2077
George 1992, 158–159.
2078
See Krebernik 2012, 378. In An = Anum I, 184 Šuziana holds the explanations dam-
bàn-da dEn-líl-lá-ke4 and um-me-ga-lá dEn-zu-na-ke4 (Litke 1998, 41). For the presence
of the goddess Šuziana in Neo-Babylonian Ur see the discussion on p. 353ff. above.
2079
Nanna-Suen’s Journey to Nippur, 259–318. (see Ferrara 1973, 66–74 and 98–103).
See also the edition of this section in Sjöberg 1960, 148–165, and the overview of the
deity Kalkal in Sjöberg 1960, 156–157. In An = Anum I, 281 Kalkal is identified as ì-du8-
gal É-kur-ra-ke4, “great doorkeeper of Ekur” (Litke 1998, 53).
2080
A cultic structure that is based on mythology can be also observed in other Babyloni-
an and Assyrian temples. For a study of the relationship of the temple, cult, and myth in
Assur see Meinhold 2013, 325–334.
2081
See Nippur Compendium, § 14 v 2–6 and v 11–13 (George 1992, 156–159). The
name of the moon god is also found in the last preserved line of this section, but it is im-
possible to understand the connection because of to the fragmentary nature of the line.
For the presence of the god Ninimma in Ur during the reign of Sîn-balāssu-iqbi see the
discussion on p. 353ff. above.
2082
For a further discussion of the genealogical relationship between the moon god and
Enlil and Ninlil see the discussion on p. 291ff. above.
 III.2. Other Cult Places of Sîn in Babylonia 371

year, an akītu-festival of Sîn was celebrated in the city.2083 Unfortunately, the

only additional detail about this festival that the text provides is its connection to
the god Ninurta, who also was Enlil’s son. Since the compendium states that all
the other akītus – apart the one for Marduk and Ninurta’s own akītu – are also
celebrated in honour of Ninurta, this must be interpreted as a sign of a special
Nippurian theological context.

III.2.2. Uruk
In the city of Uruk, the main cult centre of the goddess Ištar in Babylonia, there
was also a house for her father, Sîn. The earliest attestations for the moon god ’s
cult there derive from the Ur III period, and the existence of this cult in the Old
Babylonian period is confirmed by the sporadic records of offerings delivered to
the moon god, who is called by both the names Nanna and Sîn.2084 For the Neo-
Babylonian period, the cult of the moon god in Uruk is well-attested in the ad-
ministrative sources,2085 and this material shows that he had three different mani-
festations in the cultic landscape of the city.2086 The sources confirm the exist-
ence of these three manifestations of the moon god, but questions concerning
their exact nature remain unanswered. Still, it is clear that the moon god had a
presence not only in his own temple in Uruk, but also as a minor deity in the
household of his daughter, Ištar.
First, there was a moon god in Uruk known only by the name Sîn, who re-
ceived offerings of salt, dates, barley, emmer, billatu-beer, sesame, and meat.2087
This manifestation had his own temple/sanctuary in the city, designated bīt Sîn
(É d30), “house of Sîn”, in the administrative sources. Unfortunately, no ceremo-
nial name for this building is known for certain, but it is possible that it was the
same building as the É-dumu-nun-na, “House of the Princely Son”,2088 which is
attested in the Hellenistic ritual that was performed during the eclipse of the
moon.2089 However, since no other attestations for this temple name in Uruk are
known, the connection cannot be established for certain.2090 Regarding the mean-

2083
Nippur Compendium, § 13 iii 16’: á-ki-it dSuen-na a-na dNin-urta sa-pàr DINGIR.
MEŠ, “akītu of Sîn: for Ninurta, net of the gods” (George 1992, 154–155). See also Co-
hen 1993, 309 and Cohen 2015, 394–395.
2084
For the references see Renger 1967, 161 and Richter 2004, 316–318.
2085
The Neo-Babylonian administrative material connected to the cult of the moon god in
Uruk is discussed in Beaulieu 2003, 271–274 and 346–347.
2086
In addition to these three manifestations of the moon god in Uruk, four letters in the
Eana archive refer to the moon god of Ur (Beaulieu 2003, 347).
2087
Beaulieu 2003, 272–273. It appears that the same prebendary was in charge of the of-
ferings for the sanctuaries of Sîn and Marduk.
2088
George 1993, no. 214.
2089
BRM 4 no. 6, 33’: É-dumu-nun-na É d30 tu-kap-par (see Linssen 2004, 307).
2090
According to George 1993, no. 214, the only other possible reference to a temple of
372 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

ing of this name, it is a reference to Sîn’s status as the “princely son” of Enlil.2091
There is no apparent reason why the moon god’s temple in Uruk had a name that
connoted this genealogical relationship, but it should be noted that in the text
listing the gates of Esaĝil, the gate of Ištar has the name Ká-dumu-nun-na, “Gate
of the Princely Son”, which could be a reference to her father Sîn as the son of
Enlil.2092 It should also be noted that Ningublaga, the moon god’s son according
to local theology in Ur, was still venerated in Sîn’s sanctuary in Uruk in the Hel-
lenistic period: this is made apparent by the terse note that forbade offerings of
beef to Ningublaga there.2093
The second manifestation of the moon god in Uruk was Sîn-ša-šamê, “Sîn of
Heaven”.2094 Based on this name, this must have represented the moon god in his
celestial form as the moon,2095 but it remains unclear what this meant in cultic
reality. Since a similar manifestation of Sîn is not attested in the canonical god-
list An = Anum or in the literary sources of the 1st millennium BCE,2096 it was
probably a local phenomenon confined to Uruk and Sippar, where Sîn-ša-šamê
is also attested. The existence of similar manifestations of the moon god in the
cult cities of the two other principal astral deities in the Mesopotamian pan-
theon, Ištar and Šamaš, must be connected to the celestial character of Sîn,
Šamaš, and Ištar, but the further implications of this connection elude us. It is
also possible that Sîn-balāssu-iqbi, the pro-Assyrian governor of Ur, wanted to
refer to this manifestation of Sîn when he used the Sumerian equivalent of this
name to designate the moon god in his inscriptions, but it is equally likely that
the connection is mere coincidence.2097 In Uruk, Sîn-ša-šamê was a minor deity

the moon god with this name is restored in the lexical list Kagal Bog F, I 14: [É-dumu-
nun-na | É-tu-mu-n]u-na | bi-it ši-i-in (MSL 13, 152).
2091
One of the names of the moon god is dDumu-nun-na (An = Anum III, 15). For the ref-
erences to and use of this epithet see the discussion concerning the father-son relation-
ship between Enlil and Sîn on p. 291ff. above.
2092
See the text BM 35046, 19 (George 1992, 92–93).
2093
AO 6451, 41 (Linssen 2004, 175 and 179). It should be noted that Ningublaga is
absent in the materials presented in the study of Uruk’s pantheon during the Neo-Babylo-
nian period by P.-A. Beaulieu (2003). It is not clear whether Sîn’s vizier, Alamuš, also
belonged to the moon god’s household in Uruk, but it is certainly possible based on Nin-
gublaga’s presence. For Ningublaga and Alamuš as a pair see p. 323 above.
2094
Beaulieu 2003, 346–347. As Beaulieu notes, other astral deities were also attested as
having similar manifestations as early as the Old Babylonian and Old Assyrian sources
(see Beaulieu 2003, 346).
2095
For a discussion concerning the relationship between the nature of the moon god as
both an anthropomorphic deity and a celestial phenomenon see p. 19ff. above.
2096
For attestations, see CAD Š/I, 341. No similar epithets for Sîn are attested in literary
sources (see the overview of Sîn’s epithets in Tallqvist 1938a, 444). The epithet that can
be compared with this divine name is nannār šamê (see the discussion on p. 31ff. above).
2097
As noted in Beaulieu 2003, 346 note 90. The divine name dSuen an-na is used by Sîn-
 III.2. Other Cult Places of Sîn in Babylonia 373

who probably was housed in the temple Eana of Ištar.2098 He did have a silver of-
fering table, mentioned in the available documentation,2099 and offerings of dates
and barley are also attested.2100
The third manifestation of the moon god in Uruk is Sîn-ša-kisalli, “Sîn-of-
the-Courtyard”. The moon god with this name is not found in the administrative
records connected to the temple Eana, but a single reference to him is given in a
kudurru-stone of Marduk-zākir-šumi I, who reigned around the middle of the 9th
century BCE.2101 This kudurru records a royal endowment of land, real estate,
and prebendaries that entitled him to receive 1 qû bread and 1 qû beer from the
“sanctuary of Sîn-of-the-Courtyard” to Ibni-Ištar.2102 This suggests that a mani-
festation of the moon god in Eana, perhaps in the form of a lunar crescent, was
housed in his own sanctuary in the courtyard of the temple complex. However,
other aspects of this manifestation remain unfortunately unknown.2103

III.2.3. Sippar
The moon god’s cult in Sippar may have been similar to his cult in Uruk. Both
of these cities were dominated by the cult of Sîn’s children, Šamaš in Sippar and
Ištar in Uruk. For the Old Babylonian period, attestations for the presence of the
moon god in Sippar are common, but they are completely absent in Middle
Babylonian and early Neo-Babylonian sources, and it is only in the reign of Na-
bonidus that the moon god resurfaces in the cult in Sippar.2104 According to Jen-
nie Myers’ study of the Sippar pantheon, the earliest attestation for the moon
god Sîn in Sippar can be found in a seal impression containing the divine name
d
EN.ZU on a document dated to the reign of the local king Immerum, who
reigned at the same time as Sumulael of Babylon (1880–1845 BCE).2105 During

balāssu-iqbi in his inscriptions that describe the restoration of Etemenniguru (see RIMB,
B.6.32.2001, 1 and B.6.32.2002, 1).
2098
Beaulieu 2003, 325. This is suggested by the fact that no sanctuary for “Sîn-of-Heav-
en” is attested in the Eana archive.
2099
See, for example, the Late Babylonian document YOS 7 no. 185, 20: 1 gišBANŠUR
KÙ.BABBAR šá d30 šá AN-e, “One offering table of silver belonging to Sîn-of-Heav-
en”. For other attestations, see Beaulieu 2003, 346–347 and 385.
2100
See Beaulieu 2003, 28–29 and 347.
2101
This kudurru-inscription was first edited in Thureau-Dangin 1919, 117–156, and a
new edition can be found in Paulus 2014, 666–672 (MZŠ I 1). See also the reference in
Beaulieu 2003, 347.
2102
MZŠ I 1, II 10–11: 0;0.0.1 NINDA.ḪI.A 0;0.0.1 KAŠ.SAG / ina É dEN.ZU šá KISAL
(Paulus 2014, 667).
2103
Beaulieu 2003, 325 takes “Sîn-of-the-Courtyard” to be one of the minor deities in
Eana.
2104
For an overview of the cult of Sîn in Sippar see Myers 2002, 107–112 and 335–337.
For the Old Babylonian evidence for Sîn’s temple in the city see Harris 1975, 183–184.
2105
BM 92649 A (CT 8 no. 47 a), l.e.: dEN.ZU (see Dekiere 1994, 199 [no. 9]). In con-
374 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

the Old Babylonian period, references to the moon god, to his šurinnu-emblem,
or to his cultic personnel in legal and administrative texts are numerous.2106 For
the Old Babylonian period, there is evidence for the existence of a sanctuary of
Sîn with the name É-idim-an-na in Sippar since this name is featured in Old
Babylonian personal names.2107 Since É-dim-an-na, “House, Bond of Heaven”,
is attested as a sanctuary of the moon god in Ur and in Borsippa, it can be as-
sumed that É-idim-an-na is simply a variant of this name.2108 The exact location
of such a sanctuary in Sippar remains unknown, but since the moon god appears
in a list of offerings together with the deities Bunene and Mamu, who both
resided in Ebabbar of Šamaš, it seems likely that Ebabbar also housed the sanc-
tuary of Sîn.2109
After the Old Babylonian period, evidence for a cult of the moon god at Sip-
par disappears completely. This disappearance is conspicuous in the records of
animal offerings dating to the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, which present the
pantheon of Sippar in its most complete form.2110 The moon god re-emerges in
Sippar in the documentation in the 16th regnal year of Nabonidus, for which
there is a document containing a reference to Sîn.2111

CT 57 no. 683, 1–4

1 1/2 GÍN šá KÙ.BABBAR ⌈ŠÀM⌉
2 1+en mušenKUR.GI šá
3 [UD.x].LÁ.KÁM šá itiAPIN
4 a-na d30 il-lik
Half a shekel of silver: the price of one goose that went to (the house of) Sîn
on [X]th [day] of Araḫsamnu.

nection with these documents from the period before the reign of Hammurapi, we should
note that they contain many personal names that incorporate the theophoric element Sîn,
which attests to the popularity of the moon god in the area.
2106
See the attestations given in Renger 1967, 153–154 and Myers 2002, 107–112. The
šangû of Sîn seems to be found in legal contexts particularly, because he often acted as a
witness or was called to resolve legal cases (Myers 2002, 107–109).
2107
For the attestations of the temple name É-idim-an-na in Old Babylonian personal
names in Sippar see Wilcke 1971, 546 note 2; Frankena 1973, 149; and Myers 2002, 110.
2108
A reading É-dim7-an-na for this Old Babylonian spelling is suggested in Frankena
1973, 149. For the temples with the name É-dim-an-na see George 1993, nos. 159–160
and the discussion here on p. 333ff. (Ur) and 383ff. (Borsippa).
2109
See Myers 2002, 110–111.
2110
The gods Šamaš, Aya, Marduk, Zarpanītu, Bunene, Queen-of-Sippar, Anunītu, Gula,
Adad, and Šala, the Divine Chariot, Anum, and Enlil, the Daughters-of-Ebabbar, Ištar-
tašmê, Nanaya of Dūr-Kurigalzu, the Birth Goddess, Ūmu, Kittu, Mīšaru, Dayyānu, Ner-
gal, and the Bride-of-Ekur are included in these records (see MacGinnis 1995a, 152).
2111
See Myers 2002, 335–336.
 III.2. Other Cult Places of Sîn in Babylonia 375

In addition to this allocation of a goose, the moon god is repeatedly mentioned

in a tablet that lists the monthly sheep offerings, which should probably be dated
to the 12th year of either Nabonidus or Cyrus.2112 This single list does not reveal
much about the position of the moon god in Sippar, but it does include some
noteworthy details. First, Sîn appears in this list in the entourage of the goddess
Anunītu, who was his daughter.2113 Second, the monthly sheep offerings to the
moon god are consistent with the pattern of the lunar cycle: in the month
Araḫsamnu Sîn receives a sheep on the 7th day,2114 and in the unidentified month
of the following subsection a sheep is offered to Sîn on the 15th day.2115 The final
entry for the sheep offering to the moon god is connected to the 16th day.2116 This
indicates that offerings were made to Sîn in accordance with the lunar cycle and
its seven day stages, and serves as a reminder of the cultic importance of the
new, half, and full moon.2117 The second attestation of sheep offerings to Sîn is
found in a fragmentary document listing the sheep that are given away from the
stalls. According to this text, an unknown number of sheep were given to Sîn in
a ceremony involving maṣḫatu-flour during an unknown month.2118 Unfortu-
nately, the date of this list is also unknown, but it certainly derives from the peri-
od after the second year of Nabonidus, since the “statue of the king”, i.e. the
statue of Sargon that was repaired and provided with offerings after the rebuild-
ing of Ebabbar in this year of Nabonidus, is included in it.2119
No definite explanation for the disappearance of the moon god from sources
pertaining to the cult in Sippar after the Old Babylonian period, or for his re-
emergence during the reign of Nabonidus can be offered. Since the return of the
moon god in Sippar appears to coincide with the restoration of the temples of
Šamaš and Anunītu there,2120 it has been suggested that perhaps the moon god’s

2112
It is claimed in MacGinnis 1995a, 153 that it is the manifestation Sîn-ša-šamê that is
attested in this document CT 55 no. 469, but the name of the moon god in the text, d30
without any further definition, is unambiguous. The dating of this document remains un-
certain, but an origin in the reign of Cyrus is suggested in Myers 2002, 336 note 1149.
2113
For this genealogical relationship see the discussion on p. 313ff. above.
2114
CT 55 no. 469, 5: 1 šá d30 UD.7.KAM.
2115
CT 55 no. 469, 9: 1 šá d30 UD.15.KAM.
2116
CT 55 no. 469, r. 19’: [1 šá] d30 UD.16.K[AM].
2117
For the phases of the lunar cycle see the discussion on p. 98ff. above.
2118
BM 63751, 7’: [x UDU.NÍTA] a-na ma-aṣ-ḫa-tu4 šá d30 iti[x SUM-nu], “[x] sheep
[given] for the maṣḫatu of Sîn (in) the month [x]” (see MacGinnis 1995b, 184).
2119
This statue is attested as having received regular offerings from the 11th year of Na-
bonidus to the 2nd year of Cambyses (MacGinnis 1995b, 183; Myers 2002, 337–339).
2120
See e.g. Eḫulḫul Cylinder reporting the restoration of Eḫulḫul of Sîn in Ḫarrān as well
as Ebabbar of Šamaš and E’ulmaš of Anunītu in Sippar (Schaudig 2001, 2.12). Accord-
ing to Beaulieu 1989, 42, Nabonidus conducted building activities in Sippar throughout
his reign, starting from his second regnal year with the restoration of Ebabbar and cul-
minating in the restoration of E’ulmaš probably in his 16th year.
376 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

renewed presence in the city should be explained by Nabonidus’ the personal in-
tervention.2121 It remains unclear if this was the case, but it certainly is possible
that Nabonidus promoted the already existing but minor cult of the moon god. A
reason for this endorsement can most likely be found in the presence of the triad
Sîn-Šamaš-Anunītu/Ištar in this city, reflecting the theological concepts of the
family relationship between these celestial deities found in Nabonidus’ inscrip-
tions and in the iconography of his reliefs.2122
Documents from the Persian period reveal that a cult of Sîn-of-Heaven (Sîn-
ša-šamê), a manifestation that is also known to have been present in Uruk, exis-
ted in Sippar.2123 Like the attestations of Sîn, this manifestation of the moon god
in his celestial form is only sporadically mentioned in the extant documenta-
tion.2124 No residence for Sîn-of-Heaven is mentioned in the available sources,
making it likely that this minor deity resided in the temple complex Ebabbar in
the household of his son Šamaš. This is also suggested by documents that men-
tion Sîn-of-Heaven in connection with the bakers of Šamaš, known to have pre-
pared the offerings for the minor deities of Ebabbar who had no prebendaries or
sanctuaries of their own.2125 Although we do not know exactly where Sîn-of-
Heaven was housed, it is certainly plausible that this manifestation of the moon
god was venerated in the courtyard of the temple, where the moon could be seen
in the night sky.
On the basis of an attestation in a prebend contract from the Persian period, it
appears that a third manifestation of the moon god existed in Sippar, in the
palace of the crown prince (bīt redûti).2126 Since there is no other information
concerning this manifestation of Sîn, it is impossible to evaluate the theological

2121
Myers 2002, 336–337. Furthermore, Myers explains Sîn’s disappearance from the
local pantheon in Sippar by the larger theological development in Babylonia, where the
moon god prominence appears to have dwindled during the post-Old Babylonian period
(Myers 2002, 371–372).
2122
This concept is also the principle behind the combination presented in the Eḫulḫul
Cylinder mentioned above: in this inscription, the report of building the moon god’s
temple is combined with the similar reports concerning the children of Sîn, Šamaš, and
Anunītu despite the geographical and temporal distances between these places and ac-
tions. The genealogical principle behind the combination of these three building reports
is noted in Schaudig 2001, 415. For the sun god as Sîn’s son, see p. 305ff. above, and for
Anunītu as Sîn’s daughter see p. 313ff. above. For an example of the triad Moon-Sun-
Venus in the reliefs of Nabonidus, see Fig. 7, on p. 45 above.
2123
For Sîn-ša-šamê in Uruk, see the discussion on p. 371ff. above.
2124
Sîn-of-Heaven is attested in the documents CT 57 no. 117, 8; Cyr 40, 6; Cyr 256, 14;
Camb 150, 3’; and BM 64882, 9. See the discussion and attestations in Bongenaar 1997,
230; Jursa 1999, 72, Myers 2002, 363; and Zawadzki 2013, no. 85.
2125
Bongenaar 1997, 170.
2126
BM 42408, 4: ITI-us-su šá d30 ⌈É⌉ re-du-ú-tu (Jursa 1999, 177). This contract is dated
13 of Addaru, 13th year of Darius.
th
 III.2. Other Cult Places of Sîn in Babylonia 377

framework for the presence of the moon god’s manifestation in this royal resid-
ence.2127 Michael Jursa has suggested that perhaps this manifestation stands in
connection with the moon god as the first-born son of Enlil (that is, the crown
prince), or, alternatively, that the cult of Sîn in the palace of the crown prince
could have been the result of Nabonidus’ personal endeavours.2128 As Jursa him-
self noted, the first of these options seems more plausible, since it appears un-
likely that a religious innovation introduced by Nabonidus would have been ad-
opted by the Achaemenid rulers. The connection between the moon god and
kingship is theologically well-attested in Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian
sources; not only was the moon god the “princely son” of Enlil, but he was also
bound to royal ideology, especially through celestial divination.2129

III.2.4. Larsa
The question of whether there was a cult of the moon god Sîn during the 1st mil-
lennium BCE in Larsa, the cult city of the sun god in southern Mesopotamia,
must remain unanswered. For the Old Babylonian period, the cult of the moon
god in Larsa is quite well-attested: Nanna/Sîn, his wife Ningal, and the proces-
sion boat (gišMÁ) of Nanna are listed in administrative documents as receiving
goods, and a cultic functionary of Nanna is mentioned in a text from the reign of
Sîn-iddinam.2130 During this period, the moon god clearly had a sanctuary of his
own, attested in the name of the 4th regnal year of Rīm-Sîn,2131 as well as in ad-
ministrative contexts.2132 However, the ceremonial name of this building remains
unknown.
Despite the apparent existence of a cult and a temple of Nanna/Sîn and Nin-
gal in Larsa in the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE, the available Neo-Baby-
lonian and Late Babylonian sources make no mention of it.2133 Whether this si-

2127
It should be noted that in the aforementioned list of sheep offerings (CT 55 no. 469, r.
19’–20’), the moon god is directly followed by the palace of the crown prince.
2128
Jursa 1999, 74–75. For the bīt redûti during Nabonidus’ reign see Beaulieu 1989,
155–157.
2129
See the discussion on p. 196ff. above.
2130
See the attestations in Renger 1967, 146–147 and Richter 2004, 388–392.
2131
Rīm-Sîn, 4th year: mu é dInanna é dNanna ù é dEn-ki šà Larsaki-ma ba-dù (see Ungnad
1938, no. 206; Hall 1985, 219; Richter 2004, 389; and George 1993, no. 1413). The cult-
ic activities of Rīm-Sîn in Ur (described in Hall 1985, 578–583) are noteworthy in this
context since they show a clear connection between the ruler of Larsa and the moon god
of Ur.
2132
The document YOS 12 no. 102, 1–3 describes a house that is located next to the
temple of Sîn (see Richter 2004, 391).
2133
The preserved Neo-Babylonian and Late Babylonian documentation concerning
Larsa is focused on the temple Ebabbar and the deities Šamaš and Aya, who lived there.
However, the sources relating to the cult(s) in Larsa are scarce in comparison to the ex-
tensive material found in Uruk or Sippar. For an overview of the available sources see
378 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

lence simply represents a lack of surviving material, or if the moon god indeed
was not important in Larsa during this period remains unclear. Considering the
theological connection between Šamaš and his father Sîn, the moon god most
likely was revered in some form in the temple Ebabbar as he was in other Baby-
lonian temples belonging to his family members.

III.2.5. Babylon
Babylon, like the older Sumerian cultic centres of southern Mesopotamia, was
also home to the cult of the moon god Nanna/Sîn.2134 Evidence of the moon
god’s presence in the city can be traced back to the reign of Sumu-abum of the
First Dynasty of Babylon: the construction of an “exalted temple” (é maḫ) of
Nanna is recorded in the name of his fifth regnal year.2135 Because of the un-
specific character of this reference, it remains unclear which sanctuary of the
moon god in Babylon is meant: the “house” in question could be either one of
the two temples of Sîn, Ekišnugal, or Enitendu, attested in the year names of the
succeeding kings of Babylon. The first reference to the temple of the moon god
with the name Ekišnugal in Babylon is found in the name of the 3rd regnal year
of Hammurapi of Babylon.2136 Following the First Dynasty of Babylon, the
sources concerning the temple of Sîn there disappear. Ekišnugal of Sîn in
Babylon does not resurface until the Neo-Babylonian period, when it is known
from the inscriptions of Nebuchadnezzar II, himself known for his massive
building projects not only in Babylon, but also in other Babylonian cities. The
references to the temple by the formulation “Ekišnugal in Babylon” make it
clear that the temple in question was not located in Ur. Usually Ekišnugal of Sîn
in Babylon is simply listed with the other temples in the city that were renovated
by Nebuchadnezzar II.2137 A similar list of renovated temples is also found in the

Beaulieu 1991, 58–81; Beaulieu 1993b, 137–152; and Jursa 2005, 108–110.
2134
See Combe 1908, 73–74.
2135
Hall 1985, 220 and Horsnell 1999, 45 (5th year of Sumu-abum). As noted in George
1992, 320, the building of the “house” for Nanna must have been a very significant event
since the following years (6th and 7th) are designated only by a reference to it (“the year
following (the year that) exalted house (of Nanna) was built”). The name of the 8th year
of Sumu-abum records the making of a great cedar door for the temple of Nanna (Hall
1985, 220 and Horsnell 1999, 46).
2136
Hammurapi, 3rd year: mu ĝišgu-za bára maḫ (é) dNanna Ká-dingir-raki É-kiš-nu6-galki
mu-un-na-an-dím (Hall 1985, 220 and Horsnell 1999, 107). For the later attestations in
the year names of Samsu-iluna and Abi-ešuḫ see George 1992, 320. An overview of Old
Babylonian attestations of the moon god Nanna and his spouse Ningal in Babylon can be
found also in Renger 1967, 139.
2137
See Langdon 1912, Nr. 13, I 45 and the similar passage in Langdon 1912, Nr. 20, I
45. Here this temple is mentioned among the temples of Ninmaḫ, Nabû, Ninkarrak,
Adad, Šamaš, Nineana in Babylon. For these inscriptions see also Berger 1973, 292–294
(Nebukadnezar Zylinder III,7 and III,8) and Da Riva 2008, 121 (C 37 and C 38).
 III.2. Other Cult Places of Sîn in Babylonia 379

stone tablet inscription of Nebuchadnezzar II, but in this case the deities and
temples in question are described in more detail through their epithets and
location.

1 R 55, IV 25–282138
IV 25 a-na dEN.ZU mu-da-am-mi-iq
IV 26 i-da-ti-ia
IV 27 É-ĝiš-nu11-gal É-su
IV 28 i-na Ba-bi-iliki e-pú-uš
For Sîn, the one who makes my omens favourable, I built Ekišnugal, his
house, in Babylon.

The wording here is similar to the account of rebuilding of Ekišnugal of Sîn in

Ur: even the epithet, which emphasises the importance of celestial divination
and the role of the moon god as one of the divine decision makers for the Meso-
potamian king, is the same.2139 The affinity of this temple to the cult of the moon
god in Ur is naturally also clear from its name, which is adapted from the temple
Ekišnugal in Ur. Because a temple with the same name is also attested in Nip-
pur, the religious centre of the Sumerian world, it is plausible that the adoption
of this name for the moon god’s temple in Babylon reflects Babylon’s rise to the
new focal point of religious power.
Since this temple Ekišnugal has not been found by the excavations at the site,
its location can only be proposed on the basis of textual references. The first
clue is offered by the more detailed expression used in an additional description
of the renovation of Babylon’s temples by Nebuchadnezzar II. In this case the
Ekišnugal of Sîn is said to be located in the eastern side of the city: “Ekišnugal,
house of Sîn on the eastern bank of the river”.2140 A location for the moon god’s
temple in the eastern part of the city is also confirmed by the description of
Babylon, Tintir, in which this temple of Sîn is said to be situated in the quarter
called Kullab that was located in the northeastern corner of the city.2141 Although
the exact location of this temple is not known, it can be assumed that it was situ-
ated in Kullab, relatively close to the ancient centre of the city that was later
known by the name Eridu.2142 Andrew George’s theory about its location is

2138
Langdon 1912, Nr. 15, IV 25–28. See also Berger 1973, 310–312 (Steintafel X,1) and
Da Riva 2008, 122 (ST).
2139
See the discussion on p. 340ff. above.
2140
BM 85965 (CT 37, pl. 13), II 42: É-ĝiš-nu11-gal É d30 bal-ri dUTU.È.A (see George
1992, 320).
2141
Tintir IV, 24 (George 1992, 60–61).
2142
Since the existence of the temple Ekišnugal was already recorded in the year names
of the First Dynasty of Babylon, it can be assumed that this temple was situated near to
the ancient city centre. That it was separated from the other temples mentioned by the
380 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

shown here in Fig. 16 (p. 382).

In addition to the temple Ekišnugal, a sanctuary known by the name É-ní-te-
en-du10, “House of Pleasant Rest” or É-ní-te-en-na, “House of Rest”, also be-
longed to Sîn in Babylon.2143 The earliest references to this sanctuary name de-
rive from the time of the First Dynasty of Babylon, during which it is attested in
the year names of Ammiditana and Ammiṣaduqa.2144 After the Old Babylonian
period, the name is attested mainly in Sumerian litanies and laments, in which
several sanctuaries of the moon god are mentioned. It is present in the litany of
sanctuary names in the balaĝ-composition “The Honoured One of Heaven” (an-
na e-lum-e), in which it directly follows the temple Ekišnugal. Because of this
litany’s affinity to the moon god’s cult in Ur, it is most likely that a sanctuary for
Nanna/Sîn by the name Enitendu existed not only in Babylon, but also in Ur.2145
Therefore, it is plausible that like Ekišnugal, the name Enitendu for a sanctuary
of Sîn in Babylon also had its origin in the city of Ur, and was imported to
Babylon after the city’s rise to political and religious hegemony. Consequently,
it is plausible that here, like in Ur, this name was a designation for a particular
chapel within the moon god’s temple Ekišnugal.
Besides Ekišnugal and Enitendu, the moon god appears to have had a sanctu-
ary in the temple É-tùr-kalam-ma, “House, Cattle Pen of the Land”, that be-
longed to Bēlet-Bābili and was located in the city quarter Eridu in Babylon.2146
This is suggested by the text that describes the journey of a group of deities from
Borsippa to Babylon, from whence they continue their way to Kiš with Bēl.2147
The ritual in question took place at the end of the month Šabāṭu, and on the 28th
day of that month (during the moon’s invisibility) Sîn and Ningal from Borsippa
spent the night in the “chapel of Sîn in Eturkalama”.2148 The existence of such a
chapel in the temple of Bēlet-Bābili, the local manifestation of the goddess Ištar,
is unsurprising, since the genealogical relationship between Ištar and Sîn is
deeply rooted in Sumero-Babylonian mythology.2149 Moreover, it appears that

early kings of Babylon is suggested by the topography in Tintir IV: the other temples are
situated in the city quarter Eridu, but the temple Ekišnugal’s location is in Kullab (see
George 1992, 13–29).
2143
See George 1992, 308 and George 1993, no. 870.
2144
See Ungnad 1938, 189 and Horsnell 1999, 312 (30th year of Ammiditana); Ungnad
1938, 190–191 and Horsnell 1999, 347–348 (17th year of Ammiṣaduqa).
2145
See the transliteration of this litany and the following discussion on p. 333ff. above.
2146
George 1992, 16 and 307–308. See also George 1993, no. 1117.
2147
See the edition of BM 32516 and BM 41239 in George 2000, 289–299.
2148
BM 32516//BM 41239, 7: dSîn u dNin-gal ina bīt dSîn šá É-⌈tùr⌉-⌈kalam⌉-⌈ma⌉ ⌈i⌉-
⌈bit⌉-⌈tu⌉-’ (George 2000, 293). J. Fincke has noted that the moon god’s travel during the
day, combined with his period of rest at night, reflects the concept that the moon god was
fully active during the sunlit hours (Fincke 2009, 530–531).
2149
See the discussion on p. 309ff. above.
 III.2. Other Cult Places of Sîn in Babylonia 381

there was a connection between the temple Eturkalama of Bēlet-Bābili and En-
itendu/Enitena of Sîn: the list in Tintir IV, 8–9 mentions these names together,
with Eturkalama preceding the name Enitena.2150 For this reason, it is possible
that the sequence reflects the topography in Eturkalama in addition to the father-
daughter relationship between Sîn and Ištar.2151 Due to the aforementioned ac-
commodation of Sîn and Ningal in a chapel inside Eturkalama in the month
Šabāṭu, it is plausible that the place where they rested was, in fact, the sanctuary
Enitena/Enitendu, “House of (Pleasant) Rest”.
In addition to the presence of the moon god in the temple of his daughter
Ištar, a further attestation in the text Ritual vor Gottheiten Assyriens und
Babylons also indicates his presence in the temples of Nabû and Marduk in
Babylon. Sîn is not named in the section listing the deities who reside in Esaĝil
and Babylon, but most likely this is due to the lacuna at the beginning of this
section.2152 The additional section that deals with the deities found in the temple
of Nabû, lists Sîn and Ningal after Marduk and Zarpānītum and before Šamaš
and Gula.2153 In the list of the deities who stand before Marduk in his sanctuary,
Sîn is named in the same line as the god Madānu.2154 These references, which re-
veal that several manifestations of Sîn could be found in Babylon’s main
temples, accord with the short remark made in the text Tintir, which reveals that
there was a “seat” (šubtu) of Sîn in the temple complex Esaĝil: this “seat”,
whose name remains unknown, is said to be located in the west, behind the
well.2155 Outside the city of Babylon, the town Damru appears to have housed a
sanctuary for Sîn with the name É-ĝissu-bi-du10-ga, “House whose Shade is
Pleasant”.2156 The existence of the moon god’s cult there is supported by the epi-
thet bēl Damru, “lord of Damru”, which is attested for Sîn in a lipšur-litany.2157

2150
George 1992, 58–59.
2151
In George 1992, 308 the genealogical relationship is seen as the reason why the
names Eturkalama and Enitena were listed together.
2152
Ritual vor Gottheiten Assyriens und Babylons, i+487–516 (Meinhold 2009, 396–398
and 404–405).
2153
Ritual vor Gottheiten Assyriens und Babylons, i+521 (Meinhold 2009, 398 and 405).
2154
Ritual vor Gottheiten Assyriens und Babylons, k+537 (Meinhold 2009, 399 and 405).
2155
Tintir II, 34: [x-(x)]-kù šubat(MIN) d30 É šá im4 šá ku-tal bur-tum (George 1992, 46–
47).
2156
See George 1993, no. 407. This temple name is perhaps attested in the Canonical
Temple List, 271 (George 1993, 15). According to George, an unpublished manuscript of
the so-called “Syncretistic Ištar Hymn” reveals that this temple was located in Damru.
For further references for the existence of the cult of the moon god there in the Old
Babylonian period see Charpin 1978, 19 note 26.
2157
K. 2096 (ABRT I no. 58), o.! 9: d30 EN! DU10.GARki (collated from the photograph
available in CDLI P394190; see also the citation in George 1993, no. 407).
382 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

Fig. 16: Reconstruction of Babylon’s topography (George 1992, Fig. 4)

 III.2. Other Cult Places of Sîn in Babylonia 383

III.2.6. Borsippa
In Babylonia, the moon god Sîn also had a sanctuary in Borsippa, at least during
the Neo- and Late Babylonian times. Whether he had a sanctuary in the city dur-
ing earlier periods is uncertain, but the moon god’s presence in Borsippa can
already be observed in the famed colophon of Esaĝil-kīn-apli, compiler of the
medical diagnostic series: the gods Sîn, Lisi, and Nanaya are all brought forward
in connection with the city Borsippa.2158 Neo-Babylonian sources reveal that a
sanctuary of the moon god called É-dim-an-na, “House, Bond of Heaven”,2159
existed in the city, but information concerning this temple is scarce. This sanctu-
ary, which most likely bore the same name as one of the moon god’s sanctuaries
in Ur,2160 is best attested in one of king Nebuchadnezzar II’s inscriptions, where
it is mentioned among the Babylonian temples that he had built.

1 R 55, IV 61–652161
IV 61 a-na dEN.ZU na-aš ṣa-ad-du
IV 62 da-mi-iq-ti-ia É-dim-an-na É-su
IV 63 i-na i-gar li-mi-ti É-zi-da
IV 64 na-am-ri-iš e-pu-uš
For Sîn, the bearer of signs (that are) favourable to me, I brilliantly built Edi-
mana, his house, at the surrounding wall of Ezida.

The topographical details (“at the surrounding wall of Ezida”) given here sug-
gest that the sanctuary Edimana perhaps was located in the courtyard of the E-
zida, but this cannot be confirmed by the archaeological data.2162 There also
seems to be an attestation of the name Edimana in a fragment of a text from
Babylon, VS 24 no. 112 (VAT 17017). Because only a small part of this tablet is
preserved, it is difficult to tell its exact content: what is clear is that it concerns
the chapels (papāḫu) of certain deities.2163 Sîn together with another deity – most

2158
ND 4358+4366, r. 55–56 and BM 41237+, r. 21’: um-mat d30 dLi9-si4 u dNa-na-a
BÁRA.SIPAki-i reš-ti-i, “the ummatu of Sîn, Lisi and Nanaya, a prominent citizen of
Borsippa” (see Finkel 1988, 148–149). For the god Lisi in Borsippa see Waerzeggers
2010, 30.
2159
See George 1993, no. 160. A temple with presumably the same name existed also in
Sippar (see p. 373ff. above).
2160
SBH no. 24//, 8 (see Cohen 1988, 210–211 and the transliteration of this passage on
p. 333 above). An overview of the available attestations can be found in George 1993,
no. 159.
2161
See Langdon 1912, no. 15, IV 61–65. For detailed bibliographical information see
Berger 1973, 310–312 (Steintafel X,1) and Da Riva 2008, 122 (ST).
2162
For the location of the Sîn temple in Borsippa see Unger 1931, Abb. 27 (Tf. 18); Un-
ger 1932, 422 and Waerzeggers 2010, 31.
2163
The editor of the text suggests that this fragment is a list belonging to the temple ad-
384 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

likely his spouse Ningal – is mentioned in this fragment and in the following
line the building name Edimana can be read.2164 Due to the origin of the text in
Babylon and its apparent late date,2165 we can only suppose that the sanctuary
Edimana in Borsippa, not the sanctuary with the same name in Ur, is meant.
Unfortunately the administrative sources from Borsippa stay quiet about the
cult of Sîn and his wife Ningal in this city, which makes it very difficult, if not
impossible, to evaluate his position there. The sporadic references to “Sîn of
Edimana” that are known all come from the Persian period, and involve preb-
endary income from the offerings presented to Sîn.2166
Due to this lack of sources, the reason for the moon god’s presence in Bor-
sippa can only be speculated about, but it may plausibly have been connected to
the cult of his daughter Nanaya there.2167 Such an interpretation is supported by
the presence of Sîn and Ningal among the gods who travel together with Nanaya
from Borsippa to Babylon as part of a festival at the end of the month Šabāṭu.2168
Upon reaching Babylon on the 28th day of Šabāṭu, the deities from Borsippa
spent the night there before continuing with Bēl to Kiš.2169 This explanation,
based on genealogy, parallels the cult of Sîn and Ningal elsewhere in Babylonia:
the presence of the moon god in Nippur, Uruk, Sippar, and Babylon was connec-
ted to the cult of his parents (Enlil and Ninlil) or his children (Šamaš, Ištar,
Anunītu, and Nanya).

III.3. Ḫarrān
The main city of the moon god in the northern part of Mesopotamia was Ḫar-
rān.2170 Located along the river Baliḫ in the upper reaches of the Euphrates, at

ministration (van Dijk 1987, 14). It is noted in the review article of VS 24 that this text
appears to list different structures and parts of the sanctuaries like chapels and doors
(Oelsner 1993, 145–146).
2164
VS 24 no. 112, r. 9–10: 4? d30 ù d[...] / É-dim-a[n-na ...].
2165
This tablet belonged to the archive/library N15 in Babylon (Pedersén 2005, 257 no.
80).
2166
See Waerzeggers 2010, 563 and 614–616.
2167
The temple of Nanaya in Borsippa was called É-ur5-šà-ba (see George 1993, no. 1195
and Drewnowska-Rymarz 2008, 63). For an overview of the cult of Nanaya in Borsippa
during the Persian period see Waerzeggers 2010, 20–29. For a discussion of Nanaya as
Sîn’s daughter see p. 312ff. above.
2168
BM 32516//BM 41239, 1–9 (George 2000, 289–299). See also Waerzeggers 2010, 31.
2169
Sîn and Ningal spend the night in the “chapel of Sîn” (ina bīt Sîn) in the temple É-tùr-
kalam-ma (see the discussion on p. 378ff. above).
2170
The history of Ḫarrān has been discussed and outlined by several authors in the past,
and the overview given here is based on the following studies: Lloyd & Brice 1951, 87–
89; Prag 1970, 70–76; Postgate 1972–1975, 122–125; Fales 1979, 13–41; Green 1992,
19–22; Donbaz 1987, 15–19; Lipiński 1994, 171–174; Holloway 1995, 279–284; Pon-
gratz-Leisten 1995, 549–550; Fales 1998, 216–217; Theuer 2000, 323–326; Holloway
 III.3. Ḫarrān 385

the crossroads of trade routes that connected the West and the East as well as the
North and the South,2171 Ḫarrān was economically and politically important
throughout its existence. Correspondingly, the moon god, as the tutelary deity of
Ḫarrān, held religious power in the area. It remains unknown whether this place
was a centre for the worship of the moon already in the pre-historic past. Al-
though it is likely that the cult of moon god in Ḫarrān as it is attested in the 2nd
and 1st millennium BCE was an import from Ur, the possibility that a longer tra-
dition of moon worship existed in the city cannot be excluded.
The archeological evidence confirms that the site of Ḫarrān has a long his-
tory of habitation: the earliest clear remains date back to the Early Dynastic II–
III period, ca. 2750–2350 BCE.2172 Documentation from Ebla reveals that around
the 24th century BCE, Ḫarrān was an independent city with a local ruler.2173
These references in the Ebla material do not, however, mention the tutelary deity
of Ḫarrān. Written sources that speak of the moon god of Ḫarrān first begin to
appear during the Old Babylonian period. The most notable is a treaty concluded
in the temple of Sîn in Ḫarrān.2174 During the latter part of the 2nd millennium
BCE, when Ḫarrān was a part of the Mitannian kingdom, the moon god of Ḫar-
rān is attested in a treaty between the Hittite ruler Šuppiluliuma and Šattiwaza of

2002, 389–404; Novotny 2003, 2–5; and Groß 2014, 139–140. The clearly close relation-
ship between the Sargonid kings and Ḫarrān cannot be definitively explained, but various
speculations have been presented. K. Radner has suggested that Esarhaddon turned to the
moon god of Ḫarrān in order to be healed from a skin disease (Radner 2003, 173). Mean-
while, E. Leichty proposes that Esarhaddon’s mother Naqī’a was from Ḫarrān (Leichty
2007, 189–191). A similar hypothesis is offered by E. Frahm: Sennacherib’s mother
Ra’īmâ perhaps came from the city (Frahm 2014, 180–181). To explain the surge of ref-
erences to Ḫarrān from the reign of Sargon II onward, N. May has recently suggested
that Ḫarrān was a city where collateral lines of the Assyrian royal family resided (May
2017, 516–521).
2171
Lloyd & Brice 1951, 80–81.
2172
See Prag 1970, 70–72. It is most likely that the site was inhabited before the 3rd mil-
lennium BCE, but only one object that could be dated to the Samarra period (ca. 5000
BCE) has been found in the excavations.
2173
The sources from Ebla concerning Ḫarrān are presented in Archi 1988, 1–8.
2174
ARM 26/1 no. 24, 10–12: IÁs-di-ta-ki-im ù LUGAL.MEŠ ša Za-al-ma-qí-imki ù / lúsu-
ga-gu.MEŠ ù lúŠU.GI4.MEŠ [š]a DUMU.MEŠ ia-mi-na / ⌈i⌉-na É dEN.ZU ša Ḫa-ar-ra-
nimki anšeḫa-a-ri iq-ṭú-ú-lu-[n]im, “Asdi-takim and the kings of Zalmaqum, the sheikhs
and the elders of the Benyaminites, killed a male donkey in the temple of Sîn of Ḫarrān”.
See also Dossin 1939, 986. Asdi-takim, one of the people entering the treaty in this text,
is identified as the king of Ḫarrān in ARM 27 no. 80, 8: Ás-di-ta-ki-im LUGAL Ḫa-ar-
ra-nimki. Perhaps predating the attestation in ARM 26/1 no. 24 is the reference to the
Ḫarranian moon god in the inscription of Narām-Sîn of Ešnunna, ca. 1800 BCE (Recip-
ieoli 1999, 19–20), but the reading of the inscription remains uncertain.
386 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

Mitanni.2175 Here, the moon god is listed among the Mitannian deities.2176 Ḫarrān
entered the Assyrian political sphere during the Middle Assyrian period when
both Adad-nērārī I (1305–1274 BCE) and Šalmaneser I (1273–1244 BCE) claim
to have conquered the district of Ḫarrān.2177 After the areas controlled by Assyria
were reduced to the core of the realm in the 11th century BCE, it was most likely
not until the reign of Assurnaṣirpal II (883–859 BCE) that the city became incor-
porated as part of the Assyrian empire.2178
During the Neo-Assyrian period Ḫarrān assumed a position as one of the
provincial capitals, as an Assyrian outpost in the western part of the empire. The
political and religious importance of the city is clear by the activities of the Sar-
gonid kings there: Ḫarrān was exempted from taxes and corvée work by Sargon
II;2179 Esarhaddon was crowned there as the king of the universe on his way to
Egypt;2180 and in addition to appointing his younger brother as a priest of Sîn
there, Assurbanipal also executed a large scale renovation project in Ḫarrān.2181
In the final days of the Assyrian empire Ḫarrān became the last bastion of the
Assyrian king Aššur-uballiṭ II, who was based there after the sack of Nineveh in
612 BCE until it succumbed to enemy forces in 610/609 BCE.2182
In the following chapters, the main focus will be on the sources that contain
information about the activities of the Sargonid kings and Nabonidus in Ḫarrān
since they form the bulk of sources that refer to the moon god and his cult there.
These activities include the rebuilding of Eḫulḫul, Emelamana, Eĝipar, and the
akītu-house as well as the celebration of the moon god’s akītu-festival in Ḫarrān.
An overview of the local character of the Ḫarranian moon god – the differences
and the similarities between the moon god of Ḫarrān and Sîn as he is presented
in Sumero-Babylonian sources – will also be outlined. The lack of material is
problematic in this respect, but information concerning the local pantheon and
certain theological aspects of the moon god can be gleaned from the royal in-
scriptions of Assurbanipal and Nabonidus, as well as from the introductory for-
mulae of letters and from personal names deriving from the area.

2175
CTH 51–52 (see the translation in Beckman 1996, nos. 6a and 6b).
2176
See Holloway 1995, 280–281, Theuer 2000, 325, and Holloway 2002, 392.
2177
See Postgate 1972–1975, 123 as well as Harrak 1987, 63–64 and 135.
2178
In Postgate 1972–1975, 123 an annexation during the reign of Šalmaneser III (858–
824 BCE) was suggested, but since the city is not mentioned in any of his inscriptions, it
was probably annexed to the empire during the reign of Assurnaṣirpal II (see Reade
1989, 96 and Yamada 2000, 70). See also Holloway 2002, 394–395, where Postgate’s
suggestion is followed, and Novotny 2003, 2–3 note 9.
2179
See p. 398 below.
2180
See p. 209ff. above.
2181
See p. 401ff. below.
2182
For the references see p. 405 below.
 III.3. Ḫarrān 387

III.3.1. Local Aspects of the Moon God’s Cult in Ḫarrān

The local pantheon in Ḫarrān is mostly known from the sources deriving from
the 1st millennium BCE and from the later Graeco-Roman and Arabic sources
which reveal that the worship of the moon god and his family in the area contin-
ued well into the Islamic era.2183 The core of the Ḫarranian pantheon is well-
known. Like Ur in southern Mesopotamia, the city’s tutelary deities were the
moon god Sîn and his wife Ningal.2184 This theological connection between Ur
and Ḫarrān is also reflected in the biblical tradition, which ties these two cities
of the moon god together: according to Genesis, the patriarch Abraham
wandered from Ur of the Chaldees to Ḫarrān.2185 The Panbabylonian school of
the late 19th and early 20th century wanted to see the patriarch as the moon god,
who traveled from Ur to Ḫarrān to live there.2186 Even without a “Panbabyloni-
an” explanation for this myth, Abraham’s travel from Ur to Ḫarrān has been de-
scribed as guided by the moon.2187 The Sumero-Babylonian moon god’s transfer
from southern Mesopotamia to the North has been explained as the product of
commercial connections or political ties, although no direct evidence for such a
transfer exists.2188 The most significant indication for the transfer of the Sumero-
Babylonian moon god Nanna/Suen to Ḫarrān can be found in the names of the
divine pair Sîn and Ningal, which reflect the theological framework that had
been well-established in Mesopotamia by the 3rd millennium BCE. Ningal (who
was also known by the name Nikkal in the local panthea of northern Syria) tak-

2183
For the religious tradition in Ḫarrān in Graeco-Roman and following periods see
Green 1992 and Fales 1998, 220–227.
2184
A overview of the goddess Ningal as the spouse of Nanna/Sîn in Sumero-Babylonian
tradition is found on p. 296ff. above.
2185
Genesis 11, 31: “And Terah took Abram his son, and Lot the son of Haran his son’s
son, and Sarai his daughter in law, his son Abram’s wife; and they went forth with them
from Ur of the Chaldees, to go out into the land of Canaan; and they came unto Haran,
and dwelt there.”
2186
See the references in Combe 1908, 84–85.
2187
The relationship between these cities housing the Mesopotamian moon god and their
connection to the nomadic groups in Mesopotamia and Syria as well as to Abraham has
been discussed in Dhorme 1928a, 367–385 and 481–511.
2188
The view that the moon god of Ur was brought to Ḫarrān by Ur III merchants is ex-
pressed in Green 1992, 2 and 19; Theuer 2000, 325; and Holloway 2002, 390–391. To
prove the connection between Ur and Ḫarrān, Holloway claims that the temple of the
moon god in Ḫarrān, Eḫulḫul, bears the same name as the moon god’s temple in Ur (Hol-
loway 2002, 391), but this is false: no temple or a sanctuary by this name is known to
have ever existed in Ur. Another proposition for the transfer of the moon god’s cult from
Ur to Ḫarrān dates this event to even earlier than the Ur III era: it is suggested in Lipiński
1994, 172–173 that the moon god of Ur was perhaps imported to Ḫarrān as early as the
reign of Narām-Sîn of Akkad (2254–2218 BCE), whose daughter was the high priestess
of Nanna in Ur. This, however, remains highly speculative.
388 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

ing the role of the moon god’s wife, particularly points to this goddess’ Sumeri-
an origins.2189 There is no evidence for whether or not a pre-historic cult of the
moon god had already existed in the area before the arrival of the Sumero-Baby-
lonian moon god. Differentiating from the Sumero-Babylonian tradition, the son
of the moon god in Ḫarrān was Nusku, who in Babylonia belonged to the house-
hold of Enlil. Thus the role of sun god Šamaš as the son of Sîn was taken over
by Nusku, another god of light.2190 It is possible that, during the reign of Na-
bonidus, these two sons of Sîn were associated with each other in Ḫarrān, but
the evidence for this is meagre.2191 Also, an equation between the gods Nusku
and Nabû has been proposed especially for Ḫarrān.2192 As the son and the vizier
of the moon god Nusku was not restricted specifically to the cult of the moon
god in Ḫarrān, but he was also found in Nērab, written in Aramaic as nsk.2193 The
father of the Ḫarranian moon god is not named in the available sources, but it is
most likely that he was Enlil, in accordance with the prevailing Sumero-Babylo-
nian tradition.2194
In Ḫarrān, the triad Sîn, Ningal, and Nusku enjoyed a well-established posi-
tion not only on the official level, but naturally also among the local people. The
building work executed by Assurbanipal in the temple Eḫulḫul of Sîn and the
sanctuaries of Ningal and Nusku in Ḫarrān demonstrates the king’s reverence for
these Ḫarranian deities. The same group of deities is present in the inscriptions
of the Babylonian king Nabonidus, who recounts how he led the deities Sîn,
Ningal, Nusku, and Sadarnuna back to Ḫarrān after their long stay in
Babylon.2195 The triad is also well-known from the introductory formulae of let-
ters sent to the Assyrian king from Ḫarrān.2196 The letters sent to Sargon II or his
officials by Nabû-pāšir always include a greeting that invoked Sîn and Nin-
gal.2197 The gods Sîn, Ningal, and Nusku in the form of a triad are also attested

2189
This highly significant factor is noted already in Dhorme 1928a, 382. See also Theuer
2000, 325.
2190
For Šamaš and Nusku as sons of Sîn see p. 305ff. and 314ff. above, respectively.
2191
See the discussion on p. 316ff. above.
2192
The suggestion that, in Ḫarrān, Nusku was equated with the god Nabû can be traced
back to Lewy & Lewy 1948, 146–159, and this idea has been repeated in Gadd 1958, 40;
Drijvers 1980, 145; Green 1992, 34; and Nissinen 1998, 122.
2193
See Theuer 2000, 374.
2194
For the god Enlil as the father of the moon god Nanna/Sîn see p. 291ff. above.
2195
See the citation of the Adda-guppi Stele on p. 409 below.
2196
This is noted already in Combe 1908, 58.
2197
SAA 1 nos. 188–193; 195–196; 198; 200; and 201. A letter, probably sent by Nabû-
pāšir and Nabû-dūr-makie (SAA 1 no. 210), also contains the greeting formula that in-
vokes Sîn and Ningal/Nikkal. One anomaly is letter SAA 1 no. 202, which was sent by
Nabû-pāšir, but its greeting formula invokes Nabû and Marduk instead of Sîn and
Ningal.
 III.3. Ḫarrān 389

in letter SAA 13 no. 187, which indicates that the sender had a connection to
Ḫarrān.2198 The veneration of the moon god, his wife and their son among the
population living in and around Ḫarrān is highlighted by the personal names that
are attested in the area.2199 The most significant piece of evidence in this respect
is the Ḫarrān Census, which lists families together with their agricultural hold-
ings in various places in the area of Ḫarrān.2200 These either Akkadian or West
Semitic personal names also reveal the local form Sē’ or Sī’ of the divine name
Sîn.2201
In addition to the local form Sī’/Sē’ of the Akkadian divine name Sîn, the
Ḫarranian moon god was also known by the epithet Bēl-Ḫarrān, “Lord of Ḫar-
rān”, which takes the place of the god’s name in certain contexts. When referred
to by this name, the moon god was strictly connected with his manifestation in
Ḫarrān as opposed to other local manifestations. Based on the local character of
this divine name, it is unsurprising that it is attested both in Akkadian and Ara-
maic contexts, primarily in Ḫarrān and its surrounding areas. A stark contrast to
this is shown by the almost complete absence of the name Bēl-Ḫarrān in the As-
syrian official texts connected to Ḫarrān: in both royal correspondence and As-
surbanipal’s inscriptions, the moon god is nearly always referred to with the
name Sîn or the traditional Sumero-Babylonian appellations Nannāru and
Dilimbabbar/Namraṣīt. A single reference to the moon god by this local name
can be found in letter SAA 10 no. 179, which informs the king of a conspiracy
that is being planned against him.2202 In doing so, the correspondent Kudurru re-
counts the events that had taken place in the temple of Bēl-Ḫarrān2203 and in the
temple of Nusku.2204 Despite the use of the name Bēl-Ḫarrān for the moon god,
the circumstantial evidence suggests that the temple in question was in fact loc-

2198
See the citation on p. 64 above.
2199
An overview of the Akkadian and West Semitic personal names containing the theo-
phoric element for Sîn can be found in Lipiński 1994, 174–180. See also the listing of
the names beginning with the element Sē’ or Sîn in PNA 3/I, 1097–1107 and 1112–1151,
respectively. The names with the element Nikkal are few in number (see PNA 2/II, 961–
963), but the names containing the element Našuḫ or Nusku are more popular (see PNA
2/II, 935–937 and 972–975, respectively). The popularity of the moon god, Nikkal, and
Nusku in the personal names in the area of Ḫarrān is indicated by the existence of theo-
phoric names incorporating these deities in almost every single family in the area, as de-
scribed by M. Fales (Fales 1998, 219).
2200
See the editions in Fales 1973, 15–89 and SAA 11 no. 200–219. An overview of the
structure and purpose of the Ḫarrān Census can be found in Fales & Postgate 1995,
XXX–XXXIV.
2201
For this form of the divine name Sîn see p. 30 above.
2202
This letter is discussed in Nissinen 1998, 133–134. See also Frahm 2010a, 121–122.
2203
SAA 10 no. 179, 12: É dEN–KASKAL.
2204
SAA 10 no. 179, 21: É [d]Nusku.
390 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

ated in Nineveh, not Ḫarrān.2205 It is possible that the moon god would have been
present in Nineveh under this name, or that Kudurru used this appellation to
specifically refer to the Ḫarranian moon god. In this respect, it should be noted
that there is more evidence to indicate a connection between Ḫarrān and Ninev-
eh at the time of Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal: Urad-Ea, the chief lamentation
priest of the Ḫarranian moon god was also active in Nineveh,2206 and an attesta-
tion in the Assurbanipal Prism T presents Nusku as part of the moon god’s
household also in Nineveh.2207
The veneration of the Ḫarranian moon god under the name Bēl-Ḫarrān was
not restricted to the immediate vicinity of the city, and that this god was ack-
nowledged across a wider Syro-Anatolian area is illustrated by the presence of
Bēl-Ḫarrān with his crescent moon standard in the stele of Bar-rākib, ruler of
Sam’al (Zinçirli).2208 In this case, the name of the moon god is given in its Ara-
maic form, b‘l ḥrn, indicating the Ḫarranian moon god’s popularity in the Ara-
maic cultural sphere across the western provinces of Assyria. The veneration of
the moon god, under the name Bēl-Ḫarrān, by the general population in the area
of Ḫarrān as well as in the Assyrian mainland is confirmed by the existence of
numerous theophoric personal names containing this element.2209 One high-rank-
ing person with such a theophoric name was Bēl-Ḫarrān-bēlu-uṣur, who lived
during the reigns of Šalmaneser IV and Tiglath-pileser III.2210 As the palace
herald (nāgir ekalli),2211 and the eponym of the year 741,2212 Bēl-Ḫarrān-bēlu-
uṣur appears to have enjoyed a remarkable level of independence from the king,

2205
The architectural details present in the building reports of Assurbanipal speak against
the identification of this two-storied temple as Eḫulḫul (see Novotny 2003, 117–118).
The temple of the moon god in Nineveh as the meeting place in SAA 10 no. 179 is also
suggested in Nissinen 1998, 134: according to Nissinen, this must have been the place in
which the Babylonian scholar Kudurru was detained. Such a view is accepted also in
Frahm 2010a, 121–122.
2206
For Urad-Ea see the discussion on p. 393ff. below.
2207
See p. 435ff. below.
2208
See p. 43 above. The stele of Bar-rākib is discussed in Seidl 2000, 94–96 and Theuer
2000, 358–360.
2209
The PNA lists 17 different personal names containing this theophoric element (see
PNA 1/II, 300–304). All of these names begin with the theophoric element, but a pos-
sible attestation for a name [Ix x (x)–EN]-KASKAL in TSF 97 F 200/140(+)214, r. 2’
should be noted (Fales, Radner, Pappi & Attardo 2005, 635). These names include some
that are clearly West Semitic (e.g. IEN-KASKAL–id-ri in SAA 11 no. 214, 3’) and some
that are Akkadian (e.g. IEN-KASKAL–ku-ṣur-a-ni in SAA 6 no. 196, 1). For an over-
view of the use of Bēl-Ḫarrān in personal names see also Lipiński 1994, 186–187 and
Theuer 2000, 362–363.
2210
See the overview of the sources concerning Bēl-Ḫarrān-bēlu-uṣur in PNA 1/II, 301.
2211
For Bēl-Ḫarrān-bēlu-uṣur as the nāgir ekalli see Mattila 2000, 30–31.
2212
See year 741 in the Eponym List and the Eponym Chronicle (Millard 1994, 44).
 III.3. Ḫarrān 391

which is illustrated by the stele he erected in Tell Abta to commemorate the

founding of Dūr-Bēl-Ḫarrān-bēlu-uṣur.2213 It should be noted that only in very
few instances the theophoric element Bēl-Ḫarrān in personal names is written
together with the divine determinative as is expected in the case of a divine ap-
pellation.2214 This suggests that this appellation was rather understood as an epi-
thet of the Ḫarranian moon god than as a divine name on its own right.
The moon god and his spouse were naturally not the only deities venerated in
Ḫarrān, but the available sources unfortunately do not contain tangible informa-
tion about any other deities who resided in the city. A single Neo-Assyrian text,
VAT 8005, implies that, in addition to Sîn and Ningal, the gods Aššur and Enlil
enjoyed a prominent position in Ḫarrān.2215 No further attestations for the cult of
these deities in the city are known, but it should be noted that both Aššur and
Enlil may have been conceptually equated with the moon god in this respect.2216
The Akkadian documentation gives us the impression that, in Ḫarrān, the sun
god Šamaš and the goddess Ištar did not play a significant role in the household
of their father Sîn. Since the moon, sun, and planet Venus share a tight connec-
tion in the Sumero-Babylonian tradition, as members of the same family and as
the principal celestial bodies, it is reasonable to assume that this is only an illu-
sion created by the lack of sources. This is supported by the rich material in the
Graeco-Roman and Islamic sources concerning the veneration of both the sun
and the planet Venus in the area.2217 Moreover, sporadic Neo-Assyrian references
suggest that both Šamaš and Ištar were either venerated as minor deities in Ḫar-
rān or they had their own cult places in the vicinity. The sun god’s presence in
Ḫarrān is suggested by a letter sent from the city to the queen mother: in this let-
ter, SAA 13 no. 188, a greeting formula that includes the divine pair Šamaš and

2213
See the photograph of the stele (Archaeological Museum, Istanbul [Inv. no. 1326]) in
Börker-Klähn 1982, no. 232 and the text edition in RIMA 3, A.0.105.2.
2214
According to the overview presented in PNA 1/II, 300–304, only five certain attesta-
tions for a spelling with a divine determinative are known among the names with Bēl-
Ḫarrān as the theophoric element. These attestations are: I.d+EN-KASKAL–⌈KI⌉?-⌈ia⌉?
(SAA 6 no. 132, 1 and 6); I.dEN-uruKASKAL–MAN–PAB (SAA 6 no. 254, r. 2);I.dEN-
uru
KASKAL–MAN–PAB (SAA 6 no. 297, r. 5’); I.dEN-KASKAL–DAB-a-ni (Sm. 55+,
VI? 16 = ADD App. no. 2, r. XI? 16); I.dEN-KASKAL–ki-la-ni (Sm. 55+, VI? 17 = ADD
App. no. 2 r. XI? 17).
2215
VAT 8005, r. 17: ki-i ina uruKASKAL MIN d30 dNin-gal dAš-šur dBAD MIN, “When
you ditto (i.e. put salt) in Ḫarrān, ‘Sîn, Ningal, Aššur, Enlil ditto’ (i.e. ‘Sîn, Ningal, Aššur,
Enlil – receive!’ you say)” (Ebeling 1952, 131 and 134; Menzel 1981, T 112). See also
Menzel 1981, 88.
2216
For the connection of Aššur and Sîn see the overview on p. 395 below.
2217
For the veneration of the sun god in Ḫarrān during the Graeco-Roman and Islamic
times see Tubach 1986, 140–142 and 160–175 as well as Green 1992, 62–65. In Ḫarrān,
the moon god’s daughter was known by the names Bath Nikkal, Tar‘atha, and al‘Uzza in
these later sources (see Green 1992, 59–62 and 157–159; Green 1996, 87–100).
392 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

Aya, in addition to Sîn and Ningal, is used.2218 The sun god Šamaš is also
present, as the son of Ningal, in the inscription of Assurbanipal written on the
wooden carrying poles of the goddess.2219 More evidence for the veneration of
the sun god in connection with the moon god can be found in the Aramaic con-
text in Nērab, an Aramean cult city of the moon god.2220 In the stele of the priest
Šnzrbn, who in Akkadian is known by the name Sîn-zēru-ibni, the Aramaic
moon god Šḫr is paired with the sun god Šmš, leaving the goddess Nkl and the
son Nsk in a secondary position.2221 The goddess Ištar is absent in Neo-Assyrian
sources related to Ḫarrān, which leaves us uninformed about her status there.
Despite the view presented by Jo-Ann Scurlock, a manifestation Ištar of Ḫarrān
is not attested in Akkadian sources although it can be assumed that Ištar be-
longed to the household of her father.2222 Although Ištar is not attested to have
been venerated in Ḫarrān during the Neo-Assyrian period, she was certainly
worshipped in Ḫuzirīna (Sultantepe), close to Ḫarrān.2223 Ḫuzirīna and Ḫarrān
were linked by their geographical closeness to each other, and the available
sources also suggest a religious/cultic connection between them. One indication
of this can be found in the donation of temple personnel from among the ser-
vants of Ištar of Ḫuzirīna to (most likely) Nusku of Ḫarrān.2224 A more tangible
piece of evidence for the presence of the Ḫarranian moon god in Ḫuzirīna is
provided by the crescent moon stele found there, broken in two pieces.2225 The
moon god also appears in a document that gives accounts of wine issues and sil-

2218
SAA 13 no. 188, 4–7: [d30] dNin-gal [dNusku] / ⌈dUTU⌉ dA-a [x x x x x] / a-na
LUGAL a-na ⌈AMA⌉-⌈LUGAL⌉ be-[lí-ia] / li-ik-⌈ru⌉-[bu], “May [Sîn], Ningal, [Nusku],
Šamaš, Aya, [DN, and DN] ble[ss] the king and the mother of the king, [my lo]rd!” This
letter that informed the queen mother Naqī’a about the materials donated to the temples
in Ḫarrān (see p. 401 below).
2219
See the citation of Bu. 89-4-26, 209, 1–11 on p. 301 above.
2220
For a discussion of the Nērab stelae see Theuer 2000, 373–376 with further biblio-
graphical information.
2221
KAI 225, 9: šḫr wšmš wnkl wnšk ysḥw, “may Šaḫar and Šamaš and Nikkal and Nusk
eradicate”.
2222
See especially Scurlock 2009, 67–68 as well as the discussion on p. 310ff. above.
Goddesses that correspond to the Mesopotamian Inanna/Ištar are attested in Ḫarrān only
in the much later Graeco-Roman and Islamic sources (see Green 1996, 87–100).
2223
For an overview of the sources for the cult of Ištar in Ḫuzirīna see Menzel 1981, 90.
2224
SAA 12 no. 91, 1–2: [ARAD?.MEŠ ša] ⌈d⌉15 ša uruḪu-z[ir]-ri-i-ni / [ša LUGAL? a-na]
d
Nusku ⌈e⌉-di-nu-ni, “[The servants of] Ištar of Ḫuzirīna, [that the king] has given [to]
Nusku.” This donation may have occurred in connection with the expansion of the sanc-
tuary of Nusku in Ḫarrān (see Novotny 2003, 169–170 and also the discussion on p.
404ff. below). Sîn is Ḫarrān is also mentioned in a fragmentary context in a land grant
from Ḫuzirīna (SAA 12 no. 48, 6’).
2225
See Lloyd & Gokçe 1953, 39–40 and Pl. IV; Börker-Klähn 1982, no. 230 and
Lipiński 1994, 187.
 III.3. Ḫarrān 393

ver payments, which also confirms to the cultic veneration of Sîn in Ḫuzirīna.2226
One of the silver payments, eight shekels, was made for a calf that was appar-
ently intended as an offering for Sîn.2227 At the end of the text, moreover, a
laḫḫinu of Sîn is named as a recipient of 10 shekels of silver.2228
Because of the lack of documentation, not much is known about the cult of
the moon god in Ḫarrān. Royal correspondence confirms that an akītu-festival of
Sîn was celebrated in the city yearly, but apart from this, no evidence exists for
the local cult in the temple Eḫulḫul.2229 Only a few individuals belonging to the
temple personnel in Ḫarrān are known by name. The temple administrator
(šangû) of Ḫarrān, named Balāssu, is found in an account of a ceremonial ban-
quet, but no further details about him are preserved in the documentation.2230
A family of lamentation singers of Sîn is known through royal correspond-
ence and genealogies present in colophons. This family was active in Ḫarrān and
in the royal court in Nineveh during the reigns of Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal,
and originally came from Babylonia.2231 The lamentation priest Urad-Ea is best
known from the correspondence of Esarhaddon.2232 Seven letters sent by Urad-
Ea to Esarhaddon concern cultic matters not only in Ḫarrān, but also in Kur-
ba’il.2233 On the basis of the titles, which presumably designate Urad-Ea in dif-

2226
STT 48 (SU 52/331), edited in Gurney 1953, 21–25. See also Menzel 1981, 90.
2227
STT 48, r. 6–7: 8 ⌈GÍN⌉.MEŠ ina lìb-bi gu4mu-u-ru É x [x (x)] / ina IGI d30 šá ina
MURUB4 URU e-lu-u-ni. As already pointed out in Gurney 1953, 24 note 2, it is not
clear whether the subject of the verb e-lu-u-ni is the calf or the moon god.
2228
STT 48, l.e. 1: lúlaḫ-ḫi-nu ša d30. For the function of laḫḫinu in Neo-Assyrian temples
see Menzel 1981, 223–228.
2229
See the discussion on p. 410ff.
2230
SAA 7 no. 151, r. I 5’–6’: 1 mBa-la-su lúSANGA / ša uruKASKAL. It has been sugges-
ted in Mattila 1990, 16 that this account is connected with the New Year’s festival or
possibly the occasion of swearing the loyalty oath to Esarhaddon. This šangû of Ḫarrān
is also shortly mentioned in Menzel 1981, 88. See also Holloway 2002, 409–410.
2231
For recent overviews of the Babylonian Šumu-libši family see Gabbay 2014b, 119–
121 and Gabbay 2014a, 241–242. Šumu-libši, the ancestor of the lamentation priests
Urad-Ea and his son Nabû-zēru-iddina, is given the title “galamāḫu of Esaĝil” in a colo-
phon written by Nabû-zēru-iddina (see e.g. 81-2-4, 306, r. 10’–11’ in Elat 1982, 15–16;
see also Hunger 1968, no. 500).
2232
The latest overview of Urad-Ea can be found in Gabbay 2014b, 120. See also the pre-
vious discussions in Parpola 1971, 43–44 and PNA 3/II, 1396–1397. For the position of
Urad-Ea in the “inner circle” of scholars in the service of the Assyrian king see Parpola
1993a, XXV–XXVII.
2233
The letters sent by Urad-Ea are edited in SAA 10 nos. 338–344. The letters SAA 10
nos. 338–339 concern the akītu-festival in Ḫarrān and Kurba’il. Three letters (nos. 340–
342) inform the king of kettledrum performances for celestial deities. Two letters (SAA
10 nos. 343–344) are badly preserved, but they can be connected to the moon god of
Ḫarrān due to their introductory formulae, which mention Sîn, Nikkal, and Nusku.
394 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

ferent stages of his life, it is clear that throughout his whole career he was in the
service of the moon god Sîn.2234 It has been suggested that he began his career as
the chief lamentation priest (galamāḫu) for the Ḫarranian moon god, but made
his way to the royal court in Nineveh, where he also stayed in Sîn’s service, per-
haps in the Sîn-Šamaš temple.2235 Whether he completely relocated himself from
Ḫarrān to Nineveh in order to be closer to the king can be disputed, but it is cer-
tain that he at least temporarily lived at the royal court in Nineveh.2236 The son of
Urad-Ea, Nabû-zēru-iddina, inherited his father’s position as the lamentation
priest of Sîn.2237 Like his father, Nabû-zēru-iddina was also active at the royal
court in Nineveh: in the list of experts in the court he is the first of the six listed
lamentation priests.2238 The most visible traces of Nabû-zēru-iddina and his fam-
ily are found in the colophons that reveal his family genealogy and his career as
a lamentation priest. On the basis of these colophons it is evident that Nabû-
zēru-iddina was employed in the service of the moon god and the king, as his
father Urad-Ea had been. In the tablet containing the third excerpt of the lament-
ation “He who Makes Decisions in the Council” (unkin-ta eš-bar til-la),2239
Nabû-zēru-iddina describes himself as “kalû of Sîn and the king, son of Urad-
Ea”.2240 The title “aštalû of Sîn” that Nabû-zēru-iddina uses for himself in the
colophon of a tablet containing a war ritual2241 differs from the title kalû known
from other sources, and is perhaps an indication of the professional development
in his career.2242 Nevertheless, the connection to the moon god appears to have
persisted through all the stages of his career in the service of the Assyrian king.
As in the case of cultic personnel, written sources shedding light in the theo-
logical notions connected to the Ḫarranian moon god form unofficial contexts
are lacking. The role of Sîn as the tutelary deity of the city is, however, demon-
strated by certain aspects of the Neo-Assyrian documents and iconography.

2234
For designations of kalûs as connected to a specific deity see Gabbay 2014a, 69–70.
2235
Gabbay 2014b, 120. This proposition is based on the development of Urad-Ea’s titles
from galamāḫu of Sîn of Ḫarrān (81-2-4, 306, r. 10’–11’ in Elat 1982, 15–16 and Hunger
1968, no. 500) to galamāḫu of the king (K. 4240, r. II 11’ in Borger 1998, 31) and finally
to galamāḫu of Sîn and the king (e.g. Sm. 80, 1’–2’ in Hunger 1968, no. 524). For the
double temple of Sîn and Šamaš in Nineveh see the discussion on p. 431ff. below.
2236
Urad-Ea, the lamentation priest (lúGALA) is present in the list of court officials (SAA
7 no. 5, I 51).
2237
See the overview of the sources concerning Nabû-zēru-iddina in PNA 2/II, 908.
2238
SAA 7 no. 1, r. I 1.
2239
This lamentation is edited in Cohen 1988, 479–499.
2240
K. 3238 (BL 158), r. 7’: I.dAG–NUMUN–SUM-na ŠÚ d30 u LUGAL A IÌR–dÉ-a. See
the edition of this colophon in Hunger 1968, no. 499.
2241
81-2-4, 306, r. 9’: I.dAG–NUMUN–SUM-na áš-ta-lu-u d30 A IÌR–dÉ-a (Elat 1982, 15–
16; see also the edition of the colophon in Hunger 1968, no. 500).
2242
This is suggested in Elat 1982, 22.
 III.3. Ḫarrān 395

Most tangibly, the moon god of Ḫarrān acted as the guarantor of contracts in the
area and he was the recipient of penalty payments in the case of a contract viola-
tion.2243 A further local aspect is seen in the iconography of cylinder seals from
northern Mesopotamia and Syria: depictions of the crescent moon together with
motifs of vegetation suggest an association between the moon god and
fertility.2244
In contrast to the moon god’s traits as the head of the local pantheon, the epi-
thets of the Ḫarranian moon god in the official texts, mostly inscriptions of As-
surbanipal, conform with general Sumero-Babylonian theological notions re-
garding the moon god. Importantly, the theological-astronomical thinking that
emerged in Nineveh during the Sargonid dynasty made its way to Ḫarrān in the
form of the so-called “Theology of the Moon”.2245 Sîn’s ability to bestow king-
ship and to sustain it is apparent in royal correspondence and the inscriptions of
Assurbanipal in Ḫarrān and was clearly important to the Sargonid kings.2246 Also
significant is the apparent juxtaposition of the Ḫarranian moon god with the na-
tional god Aššur (and the cities of Ḫarrān and Assur) beginning from the reign of
Sargon II.2247 Such a phenomenon is exhibited by the juxtaposition of the cities
Ḫarrān and Assur, both of which were granted the kidinnūtu and zakûtu priv-
ileges (as the only cities in Assyria) by Sargon II.2248 Moreover, an inscription of
Sargon II mentioning a rebellion in the western provinces of Assyria depicts Sîn
as the king of the gods in the same way that the god Aššur is depicted in the
Aššur Charter.2249 At Esarhaddon’s coronation in Ḫarrān, while he was travelling

2243
See the discussion on p. 249ff. above.
2244
See Fig. 11, on p. 52 and discussion on p. 229ff. above.
2245
The “Theology of the Moon” associates Sîn with the gods Anu, Ea, and Enlil during
the first half of the lunar cycle. For this association see the discussion on p. 136ff. and
especially the citation of the inscription K. 8759+ on p. 142ff.
2246
See the discussion on p. 196ff. above.
2247
The sources suggesting that Aššur and Sîn were associated during the reign of the
Sargonid dynasty are detailed in Schaudig 2002, 628 note 37. See also Mayer 1995, 66–
67 where the rise of the moon god during the reigns of the Sargonid kings is connected to
the attempt to bind the Aramaic population to the Assyrian empire. Similarly, in Ue-
hlinger 1997, 315–323, the Ḫarranian moon god is interpreted as having been the highest
ranking god in the western provinces of Assyria, thus corresponding to the god Aššur in
Assyrian main land. See also Mayer 1998, 257 with the same argument for the promo-
tion of the moon god as an equal to the god Aššur. In the most recent discussion concern-
ing Ḫarrān and the Sargonid dynasty, N. May suggests that Ḫarrān may have been a do-
main of collateral branches of the royal family, thus explaining the close connection of
the rulers who were not first in line to the throne (Sargon II, Esarhaddon and Assurbani-
pal) with the city and its cult (May 2017, 516–521).
2248
The references to the kidinnūtu and zakûtu for Ḫarrān in the inscriptions of Sargon II
are given on p. 398ff. below.
2249
Frahm 2013a, 46–47 and 49 (ll. 16–19); see also the discussion on p. 203 above.
396 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

to Egypt, both Aššur and Sîn were the deities who granted the king his royal
power.2250 A further connection was embedded in the installation of Assurbani-
pal’s two younger brothers as šešgallu-officials: one was stationed in the temple
of Aššur in Assur and the other in the temple of Sîn in Ḫarrān.2251 These actions
must have aimed at enforcing Assyrian control in the region of Ḫarrān. On the
other hand, they may also be regarded as evidence for the hypothesis that collat-
eral lines of the Assyrian royal family were residing in Ḫarrān.2252 Outside of the
royal context, a group of Neo-Assyrian penalty clauses likened Aššur and the
Ḫarranian moon god to each other: as beneficiaries, both of them were to receive
white horses if the contract was breached.2253 A peculiar case for the possible
equation of Aššur with Sîn is offered by Bēl-iddina’s letter to the Assyrian king
(SAA 13 no. 187). Here the triad Aššur, Nikkal, and Lord-Crown is named in the
introductory formula, suggesting that the moon god was perhaps associated with
Aššur as “Lord-Crown”.2254 Moving to the city of Assur itself, a celestial associ-
ation between Aššur and Sîn can be found in the compendium that described the
akītu-festival in Assur: in the first line of the section pertaining to the planetary
equivalences of the deities Sîn, Aššur, Adad, and Šamaš, we encounter the state-
ment “Jupiter is the star of Sîn and Sîn is Aššur”.2255 Finally, a connecting factor
between Sîn of Ḫarrān and the god Aššur is formed by the god Nusku, who in
Assyria was the son of Aššur, the “Assyrian Enlil”,2256 but in Ḫarrān (and pos-
sibly later in Nineveh) was the son and vizier of the moon god.2257 Therefore,
Nusku being a member of both Aššur’s and Sîn’s households may have provided
a theological justification for juxtaposing them in both royal and non-royal
contexts.

III.3.2. The Temple Eḫulḫul, Sargonid Kings, and Nabonidus

The temple of the moon god in Ḫarrān was known by the name É-ḫúl-ḫúl,
“House of Joy”.2258 When seeking the possible implications of this temple name,

2250
See the citation and further discussion of the letter SAA 10 no. 174 on p. 209 above.
2251
See the discussion on p. 401ff. below.
2252
May 2017, 516–521.
2253
For the penalty clauses prescribing the donation of white horses to the moon god of
Ḫarrān see the discussion on p. 266ff. above.
2254
See the discussion on p. 64 above.
2255
BM 121206, VIII 55’: dSAG.ME.GAR MUL šá d30 šú-u ù d30 Aš-šur šú-u (see Men-
zel 1981, T 64 as well as the citation of this line in Parpola 1983, 59).
2256
For the god Aššur as the Assyrian Enlil see Lambert 1983, 82 and Mayer 1995, 62.
2257
See the discussion on p. 314ff. above.
2258
The translation given in George 1993, no. 470 is “House Which Gives Joy”. Because
of the similarity to the name of Sîn’s temple in Assur, Eḫulḫuldirdira, “House of Surpass-
ing Joys”, it is perhaps more likely that the element /ḫulḫul/ is here a plural nominal
form, not a participle. See also the discussion in Novotny 2003, 92–93 note 293.
 III.3. Ḫarrān 397

it seems primarily to refer to the joyous emergence of the moon in the night sky
that is also especially praised in the ikrib-prayers to Sîn (which assert that man-
kind, as well as the stars and the night, rejoice over the moonrise).2259 It is worth
noting that the names of Sîn’s temples in Ḫarrān (Eḫulḫul) and in Assur
(Eḫulḫuldirdira) resemble each other greatly, but since the origins of both these
names is clouded by the lack of sources, their possible relationship cannot be
confirmed.2260 Despite the apparent existence of this temple in the city during the
Old Babylonian period at the latest,2261 textual references to it are focused on the
last decades of the Neo-Assyrian period and its reconstruction during the reign
of the Babylonian king Nabonidus. The earliest attestation for the name Eḫulḫul
derives from the reign of Sargon II, and it is further attested in the inscriptions of
Assurbanipal and Nabonidus.2262
Eḫulḫul’s location remains unknown (see Fig. 17, p. 407 below). Ḫarrān was
excavated by British archeologists in the 1950’s and more recently by their
Turkish colleagues, but their excavations have not revealed the remains of the
once dominant temple in the city.2263 The only clues are the stone stelae and their
fragments containing inscriptions of Nabonidus which were reused as building
material for the Great Mosque. The way these stones were utilised in the con-
struction of the mosque suggests that the temple of the moon god was located in
the vicinity, if not at the same spot as the mosque. On the basis of the locations
where bricks with Nabonidus’ inscription were found combined with the de-
scription in Assurbanipal’s report concerning the building of Eḫulḫul, Jamie No-
votny has suggested that the temple of the moon god was located in the north-
eastern quarter of the tell, but this remains to be confirmed by archeological ex-
cavations.2264 The general appearance of the temple is provided by the relief
found in Til Barsip, which depicts the Ḫarranian moon god standing on top of
his house.2265
If we are to believe the history of the temple Eḫulḫul as it is portrayed in the
inscriptions of Assurbanipal, the only Neo-Assyrian king before him to build

2259
K. 2751+//, 14’–15’; 35’–36’; 47’ and 61’ (see p. 483ff. below). The verb that is used
in this connection is ḫadû, which is also present through the noun ḫidâtu in the Akkadian
translation of Eḫulḫuldirdira’s name in Götteradressbuch, 156 (see p. 420 below).
2260
For the moon god’s temple in Assur see p. 416ff. below.
2261
See the discussion on p. 384ff. above.
2262
The lack of sources prior to the Sargonid dynasty was already noted in the overview
of the moon god’s temple in Ḫarrān in Combe 1908, 75–81.
2263
For discussions concerning the location of Eḫulḫul see Lloyd & Brice 1951, 79–80;
Gadd 1958, 90; Saggs 1969, 166–169; Prag 1970, 77–78; Fales 1998, 228–237 as well as
Novotny 2003, 46–47 note 148. Locating the temple on the basis of later Arabic authors’
descriptions of Ḫarrān is complicated by the mixing of traditions in the city.
2264
Novotny 2003, 123–126.
2265
See Fig. 4, p. 24 above.
398 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

and repair the temple of the moon god was Šalmaneser III (858–824 BCE).2266
However, no trace of any activity in Ḫarrān have been preserved in the inscrip-
tions of Šalmaneser III, which makes it difficult to verify the truth of this claim.
The same history for Eḫulḫul is repeated by Nabonidus, who apparently relied
only on the inscriptions of Assurbanipal in this matter.2267 The kings Adad-nērārī
III (810–783 BCE) and Šalmaneser IV (782–773 BCE) are not named as build-
ers of the temple in any sources, but the two boundary stelae containing their in-
scriptions indicate that they were otherwise active in the area surrounding
Ḫarrān.2268
Beginning with the reign of Sargon II, Ḫarrān rose to an important position
in the political and religious context of Assyria. This is reflected by the signific-
ant increase in references to the city around this time. The attention given to
Ḫarrān by Sargon II is apparent, and the most important indication of its special
status was its exemption from taxes and corvée service (kidinnūtu and zakûtu),
as reported in his inscriptions.2269 An example is found in the cylinder inscription
from Dūr-Šarrukīn.

Sg Zyl, 62270
le-e’ kàl mal-ki ša UGU uruḪar-ra-na an-dùl-la-šu it-ru-ṣu-ma ki-i ṣa-ab dA-
nim u dDa-gan iš-ṭu-ru za-kut-su

2266
See e.g. Assurbanipal Prism T, II 39–40 (= Assurbanipal Prism C, I 78–79): É d30 ša
I.d
Šùl-ma-nu–MAŠ / A IAš-šur–[PAB–IBILA] LUGAL pa-ni / maḫ-ri-ia e-pu-šu, “the
temple of Sîn that Šalmaneser, son of Assur[naṣirpal], a king who preceded me, had
built” (Borger 1996, 142 and 207 and Novotny 2003, 97–99; now also RINAP 5/I nos.
10 and 6, respectively). See also Holloway 1995, 287 no. 1; Novotny 2003, 47–49; and
the overview of the history of the city and the temple in Mayer 1998, 251–252.
2267
Schaudig 2001, 2.12, II 3–5 (Ex. 1): [e-li] te-me-en-na ša IAN.ŠÁR–ba-an–IBILA
LUGAL KUR Aš-šurk[i] / [ša] te-me-en-na IŠul-man–SAG.KAL DUMU IAN.ŠÁR–na-
ṣir–IBILA i-mu-r[u] / [u]š-šu-šuv ad-di-mav ú-kin, “I laid its foundation over the founda-
tion of Assurbanipal, king of Assyria, [who] had seen the foundation of Šalmaneser, son
of Assurnaṣirpal, and made it permanent”.
2268
RIMA 3, A.0.104.2 and RIMA 3, A.0.104.3 (Adad-nērārī III); RIMA 3, A.0.105.1
(Šalmaneser IV). The curse formulae in these boundary stones name the Ḫarranian moon
god: a reference to his role as a guarantor of treaties and oaths (see p. 249ff. above). See
also the discussion about the depictions of the crescent standard of Sîn on p. 43ff. above.
2269
See Holloway 1995, 284–285 and Holloway 2002, 406. It has been suggested that the
Ḫarrān Census may have been compiled in connection with the kidinnūtu that Sargon II
granted to Ḫarrān (Fales & Postgate 1995, XXXII–XXXIII; see also Parpola 1974, 108
and Postgate 1974, 36–39). Another reason for the compilation of this list may have been
the separation of Ḫarrān from the province of the general (turtānu) to become a province
itself (see Radner 2006, 54 and Groß 2014, 142).
2270
Fuchs 1994, 32 and 289. See also the similar passages in Sg Ann., 2; Sg S4, 10; Sg
Stier, 9; Sg R. 7; and Sg Bro. 13.
 III.3. Ḫarrān 399

the most able of all the kings, who extended his protection over the city Ḫar-
rān and wrote down its exemption like (for) the people of Anu and Dagān

Another reference to the privileges given to Ḫarrān conspicuously juxtaposes the

cities Assur and Ḫarrān as the recipients of these rights which, according to Sar-
gon II, had existed previously but had since been forgotten.

Sg Prunk 10–122271
10 za-kut Bal-tilki ù uruḪar-ra-ni šá ul-tu u4-me
11 ma-a’-du-ti im-ma-šu-ma ki-den-nu-us-su-un ba-ṭil-ta ú-ter
12 áš-ru-uš-šá
The exemption from taxes and corvée service, which has been forgotten long
ago, for Baltil and Ḫarrān, as well as their interrupted privileged status I
restored.

The attention given to Ḫarrān in this respect is balanced by the absence of refer-
ences to restoration work in the moon god’s temple in Ḫarrān. Still, a clay cylin-
der of Sargon II contains the oldest reference to the temple Eḫulḫul, mentioned
alongside other important Assyrian temples.2272 The relevant passage in the lines
3’–7’ of the cylinder is difficult to interpret because the predicate verbs are miss-
ing, but it is clear that it subject matter is the donation of precious metals – za-
ḫalû and silver – for the decoration of temples.2273 The deities that are mentioned
by name together with their temples are Aššur, Šarrat-Ninūa, Bēlet-Arba’il, and
Sîn of Ḫarrān. The purpose of the silver donation remains unknown although
most likely it was in some way associated with the establishment of the kidin-
nūtu for Ḫarrān.2274 The possibility that the metal would have been used for
šurinnu-standards of Sîn seems unlikely since these crescent standards in Ḫarrān
were in good condition during the reign of Sargon II, as the letter sent by Ṭāb-
šār-Aššur informs the king.2275

SAA 1 no. 50, 1–8

1 a-na LUGAL be-lí-ia
2 ARAD-ka IDU10.GA–IM–dAš-šur
3 lu SILIM-mu a-na LUGAL be-lí-ia

2271
Fuchs 1994, 192 and 343. See also the similar passages in Sg XIV, 5 and Sg S5, 10.
2272
BM 122614+BM 122615, published in Thompson 1940, 86–89 and Fig. 1–2. See also
Menzel 1981, 88; Novotny 2003, 50–51; and Groß 2014, 144.
2273
BM 122614+, 6’: [...] 7 1/2 ma-na KÙ.BABBAR eb-bu a-na ši-pir É-ḫúl-ḫúl maš-tak
d
30 a-šib uruḪar-⌈ra⌉-a[n ...], “[...] 7 1/2 minas of pure silver for the work of Eḫulḫul, the
abode of Sîn who lives in Ḫarrā[n ...]”.
2274
The preceding passage in this inscription mentions kidinnūtu.
2275
See Menzel 1981, 88 and Novotny 2003, 51–52.
400 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

4 ina UGU dšu-ri-in-ni ša d30

5 ša uruKASKAL ša be-lí iš-pur-an-ni
6 i-ba-áš-ši 2 SIG5.MEŠ
7 ša a-na ma-ṣar-ti ⌈ša⌉ [x x] x
8 ša LUGAL be-[lí-ia x x]
To the king, my lord: your servant Ṭāb-šār-Aššur. Good health to the king,
my lord! As to the emblem of the moon god of Ḫarrān of which the king my
lord wrote to me, there are two good ones which [...] for the watch of [...] of
the king, my lord [...].

Sargon II’s interest in the state of the šurinnu-standards of Sîn in Ḫarrān further
attests to his involvement in the moon god’s cult in that city. Jamie Novotny has
considered the possibility that the letters concerning the manufacture of large
doors, written by Nabû-pāšir who is known to have been active in Ḫarrān, may
refer to Eḫulḫul, but this matter cannot be resolved on the basis of Sargon II’s
correspondence alone.2276
Sennacherib was the only king of the Sargonid dynasty, who left no tangible
evidence of activity in Ḫarrān.2277 During the reign of his successor Esarhaddon,
however, an upsurge in sources relating to the city and the cult of the moon god
there can be observed.2278 Although no references to Esarhaddon’s construction
work in Ḫarrān survive, he was involved with the city in several other ways.2279
The preserved references to his activities in Ḫarrān appear to be concentrated in
the last four years of his reign (672–669 BCE), the time when the two crown

2276
Novotny 2003, 52–53. For the editions of these letters see SAA 1 nos. 202–203.
Nabû-pāšir also wrote to Sargon II about the akītu-festival of the moon god in Ḫarrān
(see the citation of this letter on p. 410 below).
2277
See Novotny 2003, 53–55. It has been suggested that the stele with crescent moon
standard found in Açaği Yarimca contains an inscription of Sennacherib (Gadd apud
Lloyd & Brice 1951, 108–110 as well as Keel 1994, 139 no. 1), but this suggestion has
since been rejected (see Frahm 1997, 193). N. May has recently suggested that the reas-
on Ḫarrān may have been a place with an association with the collateral lines of the royal
family (May 2017, 516–521). This would mean, according to May, that Sennacherib as
the crown prince of Sargon II did not have the same connection with the city as Sargon
II, Esarhaddon, or Assurbanipal appear to have had.
2278
For an overview of Esarhaddon’s activities in connection with Ḫarrān see especially
Novotny 2003, 56–84.
2279
The number of references to Ḫarrān during Esarhaddon’s reign led E. Leichty to sug-
gest that this city was the original home of the Sargonid kings (Leichty 2007, 189–191).
A different explanation for the piety towards the Ḫarranian moon god shown by Esarhad-
don is given by K. Radner, who suggested that the king sought help for his illness (a dis-
ease involving skin lesions) from Sîn, who was considered to be a source of such ill-
nesses (see Radner 2003, 173 and Groß 2014, 143). For the conceptual connection of the
moon god to skin diseases see the discussion on p. 270ff. above.
 III.3. Ḫarrān 401

princes Assurbanipal and Šamaš-šumu-ukīn were promoted by installation of

their statues in the moon god’s temple,2280 a rebellion against Esarhaddon broke
out in Ḫarrān,2281 and the king was blessed by the moon god as he was on his
way to conquer Egypt.2282 In addition to Esarhaddon himself, the queen mother
Naqī’a appears to have shown benevolence towards the cults in Ḫarrān. This is
suggested by letter SAA 13 no. 188, which concerns the donation of materials to
the temples in Ḫarrān.2283 The letter is badly damaged, but it seems that these
materials were meant for decorations and cultic paraphernalia.
After Esarhaddon’s death, the new king Assurbanipal executed his father’s
plan concerning the royal brothers. This plan involved not only installing
Šamaš-šumu-ukīn as the king of Babylonia, but appointing two of Assurbanip-
al’s younger brothers to what appear to be two of the most prestigious cultic po-
sitions in the land. According to inscription K. 891, Aššur-mukīn-palē’a was ap-
pointed as the šešgallu-priest of a god, who most likely was Aššur,2284 and Aššur-
etel-šamê-erṣeti-muballissu was installed as the šešgallu-priest of Sîn in
Ḫarrān.2285

K. 891, 10–132286
10 ul-tu an-na-a e-tap-pu-šu ag-mu-ru šip-ri a-mat AD ba-ni-ía ul x x
at-ta-ṣar ana-ku

2280
See the citation of SAA 10 no. 13, r. 2’–17’ on p. 157 above.
2281
For the rebellion that originated in Ḫarrān see Nissinen 1998, 127–135 and Radner
2003, 165–184.
2282
See the citation of the letter SAA 10 no. 174 on p. 209 above.
2283
See Melville 1999, 52–53 and Holloway 2002, 314 no. 27 and 408.
2284
The identity of this deity remains unclear, since the relevant passage is damaged. In
the edition of K. 891 by M. Streck, the identity is left open, but he suggests that perhaps
this deity was Aššur (Streck 1916, 250–251). In AHw, 1220 it is, however, suggested that
Aššur-mukīn-palē’a was installed in Babylon, i.e. as the šešgallu of Marduk. This latter
view is followed also by K. Radner and E. Weissert in PNA 1/I, 198 and 162, respect-
ively. J. Novotny maintains that the former option (Aššur) is, in fact, correct on epigraph-
ic grounds (Novotny 2003, 57 note 185 and Novotny 2014, 80–81). A collation of the
tablet K. 891 (CDLI P237924) from a photograph supports the view presented by Streck
and Novotny: the spacing in the line suggests that there was space only for a single sign
at the end of the line.
2285
For an overview of the sources concerning Aššur-etel-šamê-erṣeti-muballissu see
PNA 1/I, 184–185. For Assurbanipal’s family see especially Parpola 1983, 117–119 and
PNA 1/I, 161–163. This appointment of the brothers is referred to also in Dhorme 1928a,
385; Holloway 1995, 291 no. 17; Mayer 1998, 251; and Holloway 2002, 412.
2286
See editions of this tablet in Streck 1916, 249–252 and Novotny 2014, 80–81 (no.
19). For further bibliographical information see Borger 1996, 320. K. 891 is also dis-
cussed in Novotny 2003, 57–58 and 200–204.
402 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

I.d
11 GIŠ.NU11–MU–GI.NA ŠEŠ-MU ta-li-me LUGAL-ut kurKar-dDun-
í[a-àš] ú-šad-gi-la pa-nu-uš-⌈šú⌉
I.d
12 AN.ŠÁR–mu-kin–BALA.MEŠ-ía ŠEŠ-MU tar-den-ni ana
lú
ŠEŠ.GAL-tú ug-dal-lip ina IGI AN.[ŠÁR?]
I.d
13 AN.ŠÁR–e-tel–AN–KI–TI.LA.BI ŠEŠ-MU TUR ana lúŠEŠ.GAL-
tú ina IGI d30 a-šib uruKASKAL ug-dal-lip
After I had done this and completed the work, I did not ..., (but) heeded the
word of the father who engendered me: I entrusted the kingship of the land
Karduniaš to my favourite brother Šamaš-šumu-ukīn, consecrated my
younger brother Aššur-mukīn-palē’a to the status of šešgallu before Aš[šur?],
(and) consecrated my younger brother Aššur-etel-šamê-erṣeti-muballissu to
the status of šešgallu before Sîn who lives in Ḫarrān.

The exact role of the šešgallu-priest in the Assyrian cultic context remains un-
clear since nearly every attestation detailing the function of this cultic official
derives from the Late Babylonian period.2287 Still, because members of the royal
family were consecrated for this office, it must have possessed prestige in the
cultic context.2288 The appointment of the younger brothers of the king as temple
functionaries in these two important Assyrian religious centres (Assur and Ḫar-
rān) also resulted in a permanent royal presence in these cities. These appoint-
ments certainly were not without political motives,2289 but they also served as
further evidence for the association between the gods Aššur and Sîn, who were
juxtaposed through the appointment of the king’s brothers as their priests, during
the time of the Sargonid kings.2290
Assurbanipal was the most prolific builder of sanctuaries in Ḫarrān. His
activities are known through three different reports detailing his building pro-

2287
See the discussions concerning šešgallu in Kümmel 1979, 134–135; McEwan 1981,
9–10; and Sallaberger & Huber Vulliet 2005, 629. In the Hellenistic Rēš-temple, the
šešgallu had an important cultic role, for example in the New Year’s festival, but in the
earlier periods his function appears to have been administrative.
2288
According to Mayer 1998, 251 this appointment of members of the royal family to a
cultic position reflects the same dynastic ideals as, for example, the appointment of Sar-
gon’s daughter Enḫeduana as the en-priestess of Nanna in Ur. A similar comparison
between the installation of Nabonidus’ daughter En-niĝaldi-Nanna as the high priestess
of the moon god in Ur and the installation of Assurbanipal’s brother in Ḫarrān is made in
Groß 2014, 147.
2289
It is suggested in Fales 1998, 218 that the appointment was made in order to control
the clerics in the moon god’s temple, which had played a role in the rebellion against Es-
arhaddon. On the other hand, the installation of Assurbanipal’s younger brother as a
priest of Sîn in Ḫarrān is seen a further proof for the suggested connection between the
city and the collateral lines of the royal family in May 2017, 520.
2290
For further discussion concerning this association see p. 395ff. above.
 III.3. Ḫarrān 403

ject, references to this project in the inscriptions detailing the deeds of the king,
and through the copies of the inscriptions that were written to be displayed in
Eḫulḫul of Sîn, Emelamana of Nusku, Eĝipar of Ningal, and the akītu-house in
Ḫarrān.2291 It appears that the building project in Ḫarrān was one of the first to be
commissioned by Assurbanipal in the early years of his reign.2292 The building
reports are detailed enough to allow us to reconstruct six phases for the rebuild-
ing of the temple.2293 First, the site was prepared by removing the old structures
build by Šalmaneser III, after which the walls of the temple were built. The
temple grounds were expanded, making the temple larger than it had been be-
fore. The roof of Eḫulḫul was then built using cedar beams and the doors made
of cypress wood were decorated with silver bands. The interior of the temple
was decorated with zaḫalû-metal, and images of wild bulls, laḫmu-figures and
anzû-birds were made to guard its gateways. After all this had been done, the
moon god was able to return to his temple – an event that most likely took place
between the years 664–662 BCE.2294
Despite the goddess Ningal/Nikkal’s prominence in the area of Ḫarrān and
other cult centres of the moon god in the Syro-Anatolian area by the 2nd millenn-
ium BCE,2295 her sanctuary É-ĝi6-pàr in Ḫarrān is known only from a single in-
scription of Assurbanipal.2296 This inscription, preserved as an archival copy in

2291
The building activities of Assurbanipal in Ḫarrān have been studied in depth by J. No-
votny in his doctoral dissertation (2003) and, therefore, there is no need to discuss the
details of the construction work here. There are three reports that describe the work in
Eḫulḫul in Ḫarrān: 1) The report in LET (r. 43–69) is the earliest and most detailed one
and it was written in the first years of Assurbanipal’s reign (see Onasch 1994, 110–114;
Novotny 2003, 88–94 as well as Novotny 2014, 84–85 and 102–103); 2) The so-called
“Canonical First Summary Report” was written ca. 15 year after the LET report. This
later report, which begins with the divine commission for building Eḫulḫul, is present in
the Assurbanipal Prisms C, T, CND, G and I (Novotny 2003, 94–100; for recent editions,
see Assurbanipal Prism T, II 29–III 14 and Assurbanipal Prism C, I 71–98 in Borger
1996, 141–143 and 207 [RINAP 5/I nos. 10 and 6], as well as the editions of the Prisms I
and T in Novotny 2014, nos. 1–2 [RINAP 5/I nos. 5 and 10] and Prism G in RINAP 5/I
no. 8); 3) The third report, which also is shortest and only fragmentarily preserved, is
found in IIT, 60–69 (see Fuchs apud Borger 1996, 273–274 and Novotny 2003, 100–
106; now also edited as RINAP 5/I no. 23). For further details of these texts and other
fragments related to Assurbanipal’s building work see Novotny 2003, 86.
2292
Novotny 2003, 196–218.
2293
The building phases for the Eḫulḫul temple are discussed in Novotny 2003, 109–153
2294
See Novotny 2003, 151.
2295
For the Hittite and Hurrian sources concerning Ningal/Nikkal see Imparati 2000,
356–357. The moon god yrḫ and his spouse nkl in Ugarit have been studied in Theuer
2000, 5–296.
2296
See George 1993, no. 380. The Eĝipar of Ningal is also discussed in Novotny 2003,
154–160. In Sumerian and Babylonian sources, the É-ĝi6-pàr is connected with the enu-
404 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

tablet Bu. 89-4-26, 209, was composed for the goddess Ningal/Nikkal and writ-
ten on the gold plating of her wooden carrying poles.2297 In it, Eĝipar is por-
trayed as her dwelling-place.2298 Since this is the only reference to the Eĝipar of
Ningal/Nikkal, the nature of the structure remains uncertain: it is not known
whether it was a separate temple or only a sanctuary inside Eḫulḫul of Sîn, al-
though the latter opinion has prevailed.2299 The view that Eĝipar was a chapel in-
side Eḫulḫul of Sîn is supported by the complete lack of written sources refer-
ring to a temple of Ningal/Nikkal in Ḫarrān. Moreover, the passage that refers to
the rebuilding of the moon god’s temple by Nabonidus gives the impression that
Eḫulḫul housed the sanctuaries of all the principal deities in Ḫarrān: Sîn, Ningal,
Nusku, and Sadarnuna.2300
The god Nusku, who in Ḫarrān was Sîn’s son, also had a sanctuary in the
city. Like Ningal’s, this building is also known from the inscriptions of Assur-
banipal.2301 However, references to it are more numerous than to the Eĝipar of
Ningal, and it is even mentioned along with Eḫulḫul in Assurbanipal’s later
building reports.2302 Additionally, five display inscriptions composed for the
temple are preserved as copies in Nineveh.2303 The name of the sanctuary is itself
a loan from Nippur, where Nusku was the vizier of Enlil and his house was
called É-me-lám-an-na, “House of the Radiance of Heaven”.2304 Whether this

priest and entu-priestess (see George 1993, nos. 377–390). The name É-ĝi6-pàr is also
used by Sîn-balāssu-iqbi, the governor of Ur under Assurbanipal, for the temple of Nin-
gal in Ur (see p. 350 above).
2297
See the citation on p. 301 above.
2298
Bu. 89-4-26, 209, 10–11: ru-ba-a-⌈tu⌉ réme-ni-tum ma-ḫi-rat tés-li-ti a-ši-bat É-ĝi6-
pàr / šá ⌈qé⌉-reb uruḪar-ra-na, “merciful queen, the one who receives supplication, the
one who lives in Eĝipar that is in Ḫarrān” (see Novotny 2003, 234).
2299
For Eĝipar as a sanctuary of Ningal inside Eḫulḫul see Ebeling 1938a, 279; Streck
1916, 289 note 13; George 1993, no. 380; Zgoll 2000, 355; and Holloway 2002, 290 note
218 (as opposed to Holloway 1995, 290 no. 13 where Eĝipar is taken to be the temple of
Ningal). Support for an opposing view can be found only in the formulation “Eĝipar that
is in Ḫarrān” (as opposed to “that is in Eḫulḫul”), but this is not enough to argue for a se-
parate temple for the goddess Ningal (Novotny 2003, 157).
2300
As noted in Novotny 2003, 156–157. See the passages describing how the gods Sîn,
Ningal, Nusku, and Sadarnuna again took their abode in Eḫulḫul in Schaudig 2001, 1.9;
2.12, II 16–19 (Ex. 11); 3.1, III 21–24 (Ex. 1), and 3.2, II 18–21 (Ex. 1).
2301
The sources concerning Emelamana are discussed in Novotny 2003, 160–182.
2302
See e.g. Assurbanipal Prism T, II 49–51: É-me-lám-an-na É dNusku SUKKAL MAḪ /
ša LUGAL pa-ni maḫ-ri-ia la e-pu-šú / ab-na-a qé-reb-šú (Borger 1996, 142 and 207;
Novotny 2003, 98–100; and Novotny 2014, 56 and 89). See also IIT, 62 (Fuchs apud
Borger 1996, 273 and 292 as well as RINAP 5/I no. 23).
2303
New transliterations of the display inscriptions K. 2803+, K. 2813+, K. 2822+, K.
9143 and Sm. 530+ are presented in Novotny 2003, 236–248.
2304
George 1993, nos. 763–764. This association is noted also in Novotny 2003, 166.
 III.3. Ḫarrān 405

name was first adopted for the Ḫarranian sanctuary of Nusku during the reign of
Assurbanipal or if it had been used there earlier remains unknown. The refer-
ences to Emelamana in the inscriptions of Assurbanipal reveal that this structure
was built inside Eḫulḫul, which suggests that, like the sanctuary of Ningal, it
was located within the temple complex. At the same time that Assurbanipal re-
built Eḫulḫul, he enlarged the temple grounds, and it is plausible that the sanctu-
ary of Nusku was also enlarged and completely rebuilt.2305 Numerous objects
and architectural features are mentioned in connection with Emelamana in the
sources detailing the building work, which suggests that the building project was
significant. It also seems that with the increase in size, additional manpower was
needed in Ḫarrān, and that the necessary cultic personnel were donated by the
temple of Ištar in Ḫuzirīna.2306 It has been suggested that, like the temples of Sîn
and Šamaš in Assur and Nineveh, Eḫulḫul of Sîn and Emelamana of Nusku
formed a double temple, but this cannot be confirmed.2307 There is a possibility
that by the reign of Assurbanipal, the temple complex in Ḫarrān was similar in
form to the Sîn-Šamaš-Ningal temple in Dūr-Šarrukīn2308 or the double temple of
Sîn and Šamaš in Assur2309 and Nineveh,2310 but this remains highly speculative
due to the lack of archeological evidence.
After the destruction of Nineveh in 612 BCE, the last Assyrian king Aššur-
uballiṭ II held power in Ḫarrān, but not for long. In 610/609 BCE Ḫarrān was
conquered by the Babylonian king Nabopolassar, together with his Median al-
lies, and the temple Eḫulḫul was sacked.2311 This meant that Sîn of Ḫarrān aban-
doned his city, and did not come back until decades later when his temple was
rebuilt by the Babylonian king Nabonidus. According to Nabonidus, Sîn’s
temple in Ḫarrān had lain in ruins for 54 years before the reconciliation and re-
turn of the moon god and his household from Babylon to Ḫarrān occured.2312

2305
For a discussion of this possible enlargement see Novotny 2003, 169–170.
2306
This is perhaps the context of the text SAA 12 no. 91 (STT 406+) which concerns the
transfer of 50 to 60 people allegedly into the service of Nusku in Ḫarrān (Streck 2001,
633 and Novotny 2003, 169–170).
2307
This possibility is mentioned in Pongratz-Leisten 1995, 554 and Holloway 2002, 291
note 219. See also Novotny 2003, 167.
2308
See p. 426ff. below.
2309
See p. 416ff. below.
2310
See p. 431ff. below.
2311
The capturing of Ḫarrān and the looting of the city and the temple in the 16th regnal
year of Nabopolassar is described in Grayson 1975, 95–96 (no. 3, 58–65). See also Fales
1998, 219–220 and Mayer 1998, 252.
2312
Schaudig 2001, 3.3a, X 8’–31’. The Median occupation of the city came to an end in
the third year of Nabonidus (Beaulieu 1989, 108–110 and Mayer 1998, 252–253). The
journey of Sîn, Ningal, Nusku, and Sadarnuna from Babylon to Ḫarrān is referred to in
the Adda-guppi Stele (Schaudig 2001, 3.2, II 17–21 (Ex. 1); see also Beaulieu 1989,
406 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

This happened after the king’s return from Tayma, perhaps during his 14th or 15th
regnal year.2313 Nabonidus had a personal connection to Ḫarrān and the moon
god living there because his mother had lived there before its sacking by the en-
emies of Assyria.2314 In addition to the inevitable economical and geopolitical as-
pects of the attention Nabonidus gave to the city, his intimate connection most
likely played a role in his endeavour to reintroduce the Ḫarranian deities back to
their homes after decades of exile in Babylonia.2315 Moreover, the moon god’s
significance to the kings of the Sargonid dynasty, especially as a god who held
power over kingship, is echoed in his inscriptions that refer to the rebuilding of
Sîn’s temple in Ḫarrān.2316 The link between Nabonidus and Assurbanipal as
builders of the temple Eḫulḫul in Ḫarrān is especially conspicuous. As a builder,
Nabonidus saw himself as a successor to the kings Šalmanaser III and Assurba-
nipal, who had rebuilt the moon god’s temple Eḫulḫul before him.2317 Based on
this, as well as the expression of similar theological ideas about the moon god in
Assurbanipal’s and Nabonidus’ Ḫarrān inscriptions, it is clear that Assurbanip-

208–209). It is claimed in Fales 1998, 220 that Nabonidus consecrated his daughter as
the high priestess of the moon god in connection with rebuilding the temple Eḫulḫul, but
this was done in Ur, not in Ḫarrān (see p. 360ff. above).
2313
According to the chronology established in Beaulieu 1989, 43. It is suggested in Tad-
mor 1965, 351–358 that the rebuilding of Eḫulḫul took place during the 15th or 16th year
of Nabonidus. See also the discussion in Beaulieu 1989, 205–209. It is possible that the
construction of Eḫulḫul had already taken place while Nabonidus was residing in Arabia,
since a fragmentary inscription from Tayma appears to contain an epithet referring to the
restoration of Eḫulḫul (TA 11381, 3’; see Schaudig, forthcoming [no. 5]).
2314
The idea that Adda-guppi was a priestess of the moon god in Ḫarrān was formulated
by É. Dhorme already in the first half of the 20th century (see Dhorme 1908, 131 and
Dhorme 1947, 1–21), and it has since been repeated in literature concerning the cult of
the Ḫarranian moon god (e.g. Green 1992, 21 and Theuer 2000, 328). P.-A. Beaulieu has,
however, questioned the accuracy of this claim, maintaining that the reverence shown by
Adda-guppi to Sîn and other Ḫarranian deities does not necessarily indicate the cultic
status of Nabonidus’ mother (Beaulieu 1989, 67–86). This view is accepted in
D’Agostino 1994, 117 as well as Schaudig 2001, 14, and indeed, there is no definitive
evidence to link Adda-guppi with a cultic office in the moon god’s temple. Despite Beau-
lieu’s suspicion, W. Mayer speculates that since she remained childless until her late
thirties, Adda-guppi indeed was a high priestess of the moon god (Mayer 1998, 253–
254). Moreover, Mayer hypothesises that she was the daughter of Assurbanipal’s brother,
Aššur-etel-šamê-erṣeti-muballissu, who had been appointed as the šešgallu-priest of Sîn
in Ḫarrān. For this appointment see p. 401ff. above.
2315
As pointed out in Beaulieu 1989, 109–110, it is impossible to know to what extent the
decision to rebuild the moon god’s temple in Ḫarrān was motivated by religion as op-
posed to geopolitical strategy that aimed at securing control of the area.
2316
For the moon god’s character in connection with kingship see p. 213ff. above.
2317
Assurbanipal is mentioned as the previous builder of the temple in the Eḫulḫul Cylin-
der of Nabonidus (Schaudig 2001, 2.12, I 39–40).
 III.3. Ḫarrān 407

al’s inscriptions were familiar to the scholars who composed Nabonidus’ own
texts.2318 Like Assurbanipal, who claimed to have acted on a divine order to re-
build Eḫulḫul,2319 Nabonidus stressed his divine mandate. In his case, however,
the order did not come from the moon god alone, but from both Marduk and Sîn,
who made themselves manifest to the king in a dream.2320

Fig. 17: Plan of Ḫarrān (Lloyd & Brice 1951, 85 Fig. 3)

2318
See the discussion concerning the use of the “Theology of the Moon” in the inscrip-
tions of Assurbanipal and Nabonidus (p. 142ff. above).
2319
Sîn’s selection of Assurbanipal to build the temple is discussed on p. 214ff. above.
2320
For an overview of dreams that contained a direct message from a deity or deities see
Butler 1998, 15–18. The motif of revealing the temple’s reconstruction via a dream is
also found in the Adda-guppi Stele (Schaudig 2001, 3.2, II 5–11 [Ex. 1]). See also the
overview of Sîn’s role in oneiromancy on p. 189ff. above).
408 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

Schaudig 2001, 2.12, I 15–20 (Ex. 1)2321

I 15 i-na re-eš LUGAL-ú-ti-ia da-rí-ti ú-šab-ru-’i-in-ni šu-ut-ti
d
I 16 AMAR.UTU EN GAL ù d+EN.ZU na-an-na-ri AN-e ù KI-tì
I 17 iz-zi-zu ki-lal-la-an dAMAR.UTU i-ta-ma-a it-ti-ia
d
I 18 NÀ–NÍ.TUKU LUGAL TIN.TIRki i-na ANŠE.KUR.RA ru-ku-bi-ka
I 19 i-ši SIG4.ḪI.A É-ḫúl-ḫúl e-pu-uš-ma d+EN.ZU EN GAL-ú
I 20 i-na qé-er-bi-šu šu-ur-ma-a šu-ba-at-su
At the beginning of my everlasting kingship, he showed me a dream: Mar-
duk, the great lord, and Sîn, the luminary of the heaven and earth, were both
present and Marduk spoke with me. “Nabonidus, king of Babylon, bring
bricks with your riding horses, build Eḫulḫul and let Sîn, the great lord, take
his place of residence therein!”

In addition to the lengthy episodes detailing the rebuilding of the temple Eḫulḫul
and reintroduction of the deities Sîn, Ningal, Nusku, and Sadarnuna to their
abodes in the Eḫulḫul Cylinder, the Ḫarrān Stele and the Adda-guppi Stele, this
event was also recorded in a short inscription written on bricks and brick frag-
ments found in Ḫarrān.

Schaudig 2001, 1.92322

I.d
1 MUATI–na-’i-id LUGAL TIN.TIRki za-nin É-saĝ-íl
2 u É-zi-da DUMU I.dMUATI–ba-laṭ–iq-bi NUN gít-ma-lu4
3 É-ḫúl-ḫúl É d30 šá qé-reb uruḪar-ra-na a-na d30
d
4 Nin-gal dNusku u dSa-dàr-nun-na EN.MEŠ-a lu DÙ-uš
Nabonidus, king of Babylon, provider of Esaĝil and Ezida, son of Nabû-
balāssu-iqbi, the perfect ruler. I have verily built Eḫulḫul – the house of Sîn
in Ḫarrān – for Sîn, Ningal, Nusku, and Sadarnuna, my lords.

This short inscription, in addition to the lengthier descriptions, speaks of the

four main deities in Ḫarrān in a way that leads us to assume that they were all
resident in the same temple complex known by the name Eḫulḫul. The lack of
references to separate “houses” for Ningal and Nusku leads us to assume that, at
least after the rebuilding of Eḫulḫul by Nabonidus, the sanctuaries of Ningal/
Nikkal and Nusku were located within the larger temple complex.2323 Whether
the sanctuary of Nusku was still called Emelamana, as it was in the time of As-
surbanipal, or if the sanctuary of Ningal bore the name Eĝipar remains un-
known. Importantly, it appears that the temple complex rebuilt by Nabondius

2321
See also the similar account in the fragment of a cylinder found in Ḫarrān (Schaudig
2001, 2.19). This passage is briefly discussed in Oppenheim 1956, 202–203 and 250.
2322
See also the fragment of an inscription on a stone from Ḫarrān (Schaudig 2001, 4.4).
2323
See also p. 403ff. above.
 III.3. Ḫarrān 409

also included a ziqqurrat of the moon god. This is suggested by a single inscrip-
tion written on a stone bowl dedicated to the moon god of Ḫarrān.2324 According
to its inscription, the bowl, together with a jug, was intended for use in the
ziqqurrat of Eḫulḫul, whose name remains unknown.2325 Nothing else is known
about the ziqqurrat in Ḫarrān, and it remains unclear whether it was introduced
to the temple complex by Nabonidus in connection with the rebuilding of
Eḫulḫul, or if the structure had existed there previously. The former option ap-
pears more likely on the basis of the available evidence, since no references to a
ziqqurrat of the moon god in Ḫarrān have been preserved in any earlier sources:.
Even Assurbanipal, who otherwise appears to have rebuilt all the parts of the
temple and even enlarged it, does not mention a ziqqurrat in Eḫulḫul.2326
As already discussed, the reconstruction of Sîn’s Eḫulḫul climaxed in the re-
introduction of the city’s deities, who had been taken to Babylon by enemy
forces, to their abode in Ḫarrān. This journey of Sîn, Ningal, Nusku, and
Sadarnuna from Babylon back to Ḫarrān is described in the Adda-guppi Stele.

Schaudig 2001, 3.2, II 17–21 (Ex. 1)

II 17 qa-ti
d
II 18 30 dNin-gal dNusku dSa-dàr-nun-na ul-tu
II 19 ŠU.AN.NA URU LUGAL-ú-ti-šú iṣ-bat-ma ina qé-reb uruKASKAL
II 20 ina É-ḫúl-ḫúl šu-bat ṭu-ub ŠÀ-bi-šú-nu ina ḫi-da-a-tú
II 21 u ri-šá-a-tú ú-še-šib
he grasped the hands of Sîn, Ningal, Nusku, and Sadarnuna (taking them
away) from Babylon, and let them in joy and exultation take their abode in
Ḫarrān, in Eḫulḫul, the abode of their happiness

The return of the moon god and his family to Ḫarrān was the occasion on which
Nabonidus commanded the creation of a new cult image of Sîn. According to his
own account, help in fashioning the statue was provided by a cylinder seal of
Assurbanipal on which the moon god was depicted.2327 As already pointed out in
connection with the anthropomorphic depictions of the moon god, this new
statue appears to have been fashioned in Assyrian style in accordance with the
local tradition in Ḫarrān, and this provoked resistance from the Babylonian, if
we are to believe the mocking description of the statue in the Verse Account.2328

2324
HSM 899.2.282 (Dole & Moran 1991, 268–273; Schaudig 2001, 4.2).
2325
Schaudig 2001, 4.2, I 2–4: [kal-lu u] / šul-pi šá na4a-lál-lu4 a-na na-še-e me-⌈e⌉ [ŠUII
ina TN] / ziq-qur-rat É-ḫúl-ḫúl šá qé-reb KASKALki e-pu-u[š-ma], “I made [a bowl and]
a jug of alallu-stone for raising water [for the hands (in) TN], the ziqqurrat of Eḫulḫul”.
2326
See Novotny 2003, 192–193.
2327
A description of this can be found in the Babylon Stele of Nabonidus (Schaudig 2001,
3.3a, X 12’–51’). See also the citation of lines X 32’–45’ on p. 26 above.
2328
See the discussion on p. 24ff. above.
410 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

III.3.3. The Akītu-Festival of Sîn in Ḫarrān

In Ḫarrān, an akītu-festival of the moon god was celebrated much like in other
Assyrian cities.2329 According to Mark Cohen’s interpretation of the Mesopot-
amian akītu-festival, the main objective of this festival procession was to celeb-
rate the return of the city’s deities from the akītu-house back to the city, thus re-
newing their benevolent presence there.2330 Beate Pongratz-Leisten has
expressed a similar view; she sees the akītu-festival in the Assyrian provincial
cities not only as a means of celebrating the original entry of the patron deity
into the city, but also as a way to visualise the presence of the Assyrian king in
the periphery.2331 This would explain the existence of such a festival in strategic-
ally significant cities, such as Ḫarrān, which was an important military garrison.
The importance of the akītu-festival in Ḫarrān for the exercise of power of the
Assyrian king is demonstrated by the references to it in the royal correspond-
ence. It should be noted that these reasons for an akītu-festival do not necessar-
ily explain the purposes of the festival in entirety, since the references to appeas-
ing or feeding the gods suggest a more complex theological framework for the
festival.2332
The history of the akītu-festival of the Ḫarranian moon god remains un-
known to us because there are only two references, both in the Neo-Assyrian
royal correspondence, to its celebration.2333 The older reference dates back to the
reign of Sargon II, who also expressed concern about the cult of Sîn in Ḫarrān in
other ways.2334 In a letter to the king, Nabû-pāšir2335 informs him of the proces-
sion of the moon god from his temple to the akītu-house, where sacrifices in the
name of the king were performed.

SAA 1 no. 188, 7–r. 7

7 [itiX] UD.17.KAM
8 [dEN.ZU] ⌈it⌉-tu-ṣi-a
9 [ina É] ⌈á⌉-ki-it
10 [e]-ta-rab

2329
For a short overview of the akītu-festivals recorded in the documentation of the 1st
millennium BCE see Cohen 1993, 426–427. For the akītu-festivals in Assyria see Postg-
ate 1974, 60–62; Pongratz-Leisten 1994, 79–83; and Pongratz-Leisten 1997, 245–252.
See also Theuer 2000, 327–328 with a discussion of the akītu in Ḫarrān.
2330
Cohen 1993, 404.
2331
Pongratz-Leisten 1997, 251–252.
2332
See Postgate 1974, 61.
2333
In Pongratz-Leisten 1994, 79 a Neo-Assyrian origin of the akītu-festivals in Assyrian
provincial cities is postulated.
2334
See p. 398ff. above.
2335
That Ḫarrān was the place where Nabû-pāšir was active is confirmed by the use of a
greeting formula invoking Sîn and Nikkal in his letters to the king (see PNA 2/II, 858).
 III.3. Ḫarrān 411

11 ⌈udu⌉⌈SISKURv⌉.MEŠ ša LUGAL EN-a

12 i-na SILIM-mu
13 it-te-pa-áš
d
r. 1 EN.ZU i-su-[ḫur]
r. 2 ina É-šú e-ta-rab
r. 3 i-na ša-lim-ti
r. 4 i-na šub-ti-šu
r. 5 it-tu-ši-ib
r. 6 a-na LUGAL EN-a
r. 7 ik-tar-ba
On the 17th of [the month ... Sîn] came out and entered the akītu-house. The
sacrifices of the king, my lord, having been performed successfully, Sîn re-
turned, entered his temple, took his seat in peace and blessed the king, my
lord.

The second letter can be dated to the reign of Esarhaddon2336 and it reveals how
the royal presence in the akītu-festival was assured by sending the king’s gar-
ments to act as his substitute.2337 The performance of lamentations for pacifying
the heart of the god were performed in order to ensure the benevolence of Sîn of
Ḫarrān towards the Assyrian king.2338

SAA 10 no. 338, 9–r. 2

9 UD.17.KÁM d30 i-ta-bi
10 ina a-ki-it ú-šab
11 LUGAL be-lí
12 ṭè-e-mu liš-kun
13 [tú]ggu-zip-pi lid-⌈di⌉-⌈nu⌉
14 [is]-si-ia lu-[bi-la]
15 [É]R.ŠÀ.ḪUN.GÁ ina [UGU-ḫi]
16 [in-né]-pa-áš a-na LUGAL [EN-ía]
17 ⌈i⌉-kar-[rab]
18 ba-laṭ na-p[iš-ti]

2336
The traitors based in Ḫarrān mentioned in the letter serve as the main clue that this
letter can be dated to the reign of Esarhaddon: the king’s closest men required body-
guards to ensure their safety (see Parpola 1983, 262 [no. 272] and Nissinen 1998, 132).
To the contrary, it is suggested in Menzel 1981, 88 that this festival was perhaps connec-
ted to the building activities recorded in Assurbanipal’s inscriptions. Perhaps letter SAA
10 no. 343, which shows similarities to SAA 10 no. 338, also pertained to the akītu of
Sîn, but the subject matter of the letter is unfortunately broken off.
2337
The sending of kuzippu-garments for the akītu in Kurba’il is also recorded in the let-
ter SAA 10 no. 339 (Pongratz-Leisten 1997, 247). See also Holloway 2002, 271 no. 9.
2338
See Maul 1988, 28–29.
412 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

19 [šá u]4-me ru-q[u-ú-ti]

r. 1 a-na LUGAL be-lí-[ía]
r. 2 i-da-an
On the 17th day Sîn sets off and takes up residence in the akītu-temple. Let
the king, my lord, order that they give the garments; I should b[ring them]
with me. The penitential psalm will be [per]formend ov[er them], he will
bless the king, [my lord], and give a life of dis[tant d]ays to the king, [my]
lord.

Both of these letters contain the same date for Sîn’s procession to his akītu-
house, but unfortunately the name of the month is not preserved in either one of
them. There has been speculation about the month in question, ranging from Ay-
yāru (2nd month)2339 to Simānu (3rd month)2340 to Tašrītu (7th month).2341 The 17th

2339
For an earlier overview of all the suggested months for the akītu in Ḫarrān see Novot-
ny 2003, 183 note 567. An akītu-festival in the month Ayyāru in Ḫarrān is based on the
dating of Urad-Ea’s letter (SAA 10 no. 338) to ca. 10th of Ayyāru (Parpola 1983, 262 [no.
272] and 429) and this suggestion is followed in Pongratz-Leisten 1997, 246 and Hollo-
way 2002, 275 note 168.
2340
The moon god’s month Simānu is thought to be the month of the akītu-festival in
Green 1992, 30 and 157. The attribution of the festival to this month is said to be based
on hemerological texts from the library of Assurbanipal, but no references to these texts
are given. Such a reference to an akītu-festival of the Ḫarranian moon god in the hemero-
logical corpus is unknown to me. Furthermore, Green suggests that the proximity of the
solar solstice to this date would create a dichotomy between the akītu of Sîn in the sum-
mer and the association of Nergal, Sîn’s brother, to the winter solstice. This view is fol-
lowed in Theuer 2000, 327.
2341
The passage that has been seen as evidence for the akītu of Sîn in Tašrītu is found in
Schaudig 2001, 3.1, II 13 (Ex. 1): ina itiDU6 UD.17.KAM u4-mu d30 im-ma-⌈ag⌉-⌈gàr⌉,
“In the 17th of Tašrītu, the day ‘Sîn will be well-disposed’.” It is suggested in Beaulieu
1989, 152–153 that king Nabonidus wanted his return from Tayma on the 17th of Tašrītu
to coincide with the most important festival of the Ḫarranian moon god, the akītu, and,
therefore, the month for the akītu-festival must be Tašrītu. This view is repeated in
Wolters 1995, 199–206, where it is further noted that this date for the akītu would coin-
cide with the full moon nearest to the autumnal equinox. An akītu-festival of the moon
god in Ḫarrān on the 17th of Tašrītu is taken for granted in Bidmead 2004, 136–137 note
28 and 139, and Schaudig 2001, 20. Since there is no other evidence supporting such an
identification, the reference in Nabonidus’ Ḫarrān Stele should primarily be seen as a
reference to the Babylonian Almanach, which it cites (see Beaulieu 1993a, 255 for this
more careful approach and Schaudig 2001, 491 note 699 for bibliographical references).
The entry for the 17th of Tašrītu in the Babylonian Almanac can be found in Livingstone
2013, 45, but see also the overview of the 17th day in relation to the moon god on p.
114ff. above. The closeness to the autumnal equinox and the special character of the full
moons in the period preceding it, noted by Wolters, may have played a role in the attribu-
tion of this day to the good disposition of the moon god.
 III.3. Ḫarrān 413

day of Tašrītu was certainly connected to the moon god in the Babylonian hem-
erological tradition, which makes this date a good candidate, but this does not
reliably prove that the akītu in Ḫarrān would have taken place in that month.
Since the evidence supporting the different suggestions is circumstantial, it is
perhaps better to leave the question concerning the month of the akītu open for
the time being. The only certain detail concerning the timing of the festival is
that the procession of the moon god to the akītu-house took place on the 17th
day, during the waning gibbous moon. This is a date that differs considerably
from the Sumerian and Babylonian akītu-festivals.2342 However, when the attes-
ted days in connection with the other Neo-Assyrian akītu-festivals are taken into
consideration, we see that the akītu-festivals in Nineveh and Arbela took place
on a similar day (16th and 17th), but in a different month.2343 This suggests that
the date for the akītu in Ḫarrān was not necessarily related to lunar theology, but
was perhaps inspired by some other unknown factors present in the imperial reli-
gious context of the Neo-Assyrian era.
The akītu-house of Sîn in Ḫarrān is known to have been rebuilt by king As-
surbanipal.2344 A copy of the inscription displayed in this building in Ḫarrān is
partially preserved in the tablet Sm. 671.2345 Also, the copy of the inscription
written on the carrying poles of Ningal/Nikkal contains a brief reference to the
akītu-house, suggesting that these carrying poles were used in the procession of
Sîn and Ningal/Nikkal in this festival.2346 A further brief reference to this build-

2342
For the Ur III period, it is evident that both the vernal and autumnal á-ki-ti-festivals
of the moon god took place at the beginning of the month (see Cohen 1993, 408–411).
The latest overview of the days of the Babylonian New Year’s festival is given in Bid-
mead 2004, 46–106.
2343
Compare to the akītu of Ištar in Nineveh, which is thought to have taken place on the
16th day of Ṭebētu (Pongratz-Leisten 1997, 249). A similar date is found in a reference
concerning the entry of deities to the akītu-house (of Ištar of Arbela?) and offerings for
them on the 17th of Elūlu (RINAP 4 no. 54, r. 20–32 = Borger 1956, § 64; see also Pon-
gratz-Leisten 1994, 80).
2344
The references to the akītu-house in Ḫarrān and the building work of Assurbanipal are
discussed in Novotny 2002, 191–199 and Novotny 2003, 183–192.
2345
Sm. 671, r. 5’: [ša ina UGU x x (x)] ⌈É⌉ ⌈a⌉-ki-ti d30 ša uruKASKAL, “[Which is (writ-
ten) on ... (of)] the akītu-house of Sîn of Ḫarrān.” (see Bauer 1933, Pl. 49 and Novotny
2003, 249–250).
2346
Bu. 89-4-26, 209, 23: a-na i-tab-bul DINGIR-ti-šá GAL-tú ša a-ṣe-⌈e⌉ ⌈É⌉ a-ki-ti e-
peš x [x x (x)], “to carry her great divinity every time it goes out of the akītu-house to
perform” (see Novotny 2003, 159 and 235). This reference to the akītu-house in the in-
scription concerning the goddess Ningal/Nikkal has led some scholars to suspect that she
had an akītu-house of her own in Ḫarrān (Pongratz-Leisten 1994, 79; Holloway 1995,
290 no. 11; and Holloway 2002, 290 no. 10). Like Novotny, I maintain that there was
only one akītu-house in Ḫarrān and that the reference here is to the participation of Nin-
gal/Nikkal in the procession alongside her husband Sîn.
414 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

ing can be found in the IIT inscription of Assurbanipal.2347 According to Jamie

Novotny, the construction of the akītu-house represented the third and final
phase of Assurbanipal’s restoration of temples in Ḫarrān, and perhaps began in
the period between 647–644 BCE.2348 Whether this building was located inside
or outside the city has long remained unclear since the few textual references to
it yield no direct information about its location.2349 According to Novotny, a new
reading of a passage in tablet K. 2664+,2350 which is perhaps an archival copy of
an inscription of Assurbanipal, reveals that the akītu-house of the moon god was
in fact located inside the city perimeter.2351 Based on epigraphical and philolo-
gical evidence, Novotny plausibly suggests that the temple name in this passage,
which reports the rebuilding of a temple of Sîn inside the city of Ḫarrān, refers
to the akītu-house of the moon god and not the temple Eḫulḫul, as had been pre-
viously thought.2352 This implies that the location of the akītu-house in Ḫarrān is
comparable with the location of Ištar’s akītu-house in Nineveh2353 or the location
of akītu-chapels within the temple of Nabû in Kalḫu.2354 Furthermore, a location
inside the city contradicts Mark Cohen’s idea that the primary concern of the
akītu-festival in Mesopotamia was the return of the city’s deities from an akītu-
house that was located outside the city.2355 The plausible absence of this notion
of the god’s return to his home city in Sîn’s akītu in Ḫarrān suggests that the
festival may have had other aspects. The festival certainly served political pur-
poses, as Beate Pongratz-Leisten has stressed in her discussion of the akītu-fest-

2347
IIT, 64: É á-ki-tu mu-š[ab? be-lu-ti-šú(?) a]r-ṣip ú-šak-lil KÙ.BABBAR KÙ.[GI ú-šal-
biš ...], “I completely rebuilt the akītu-house, [his lordly] resi[dence, (and adorned (its
walls)] with silver (and) go[ld ...]” (see Novotny 2002, 193; Novotny 2003, 184 and
Fuchs apud Borger 1996, 273; now edited also as RINAP 5/I no. 23).
2348
Novotny 2002, 197 and Novotny 2003, 192.
2349
It is assumed in Lewy 1945–1946, 458 note 246 that the akītu-house of Sîn was loc-
ated outside the city and that this was in fact the “temple of cedar” that was built outside
the city when Esarhaddon was crowned there as the conqueror of Egypt (see the letter
SAA 10 no. 174). In Pongratz-Leisten 1994, 79, it is maintained that it remains unclear
whether this building was located inside or outside the city.
2350
See Borger 1996, 137 (TTaf 1).
2351
The matter is discussed in Novotny 2002, 194–197 and Novotny 2003, 184–192.
2352
For an earlier rendering of the passage see Borger 1996, 169. According to Novotny’s
suggestion, the lines K. 2664+, V 14–15 are to be read ina u4-me-⌈šú⌉-⌈ma⌉ [É a-ki-i]t!(?)
d
30 / ⌈ša⌉ ⌈qé⌉-⌈reb⌉ uruKASKAL, “At that time, (with regard to) [the akīt]u-[house of] the
god Sîn, which is (situated) inside the city Ḫarrān” (Novotny 2002, 194; Novotny 2003,
184; and Novotny 2014, 65).
2353
See Reade 2000, 419. Ištar’s akītu-house is described to be “inside Nineveh” in the
building report in the Assurbanipal Prism T, V 33–34 (Borger 1996, 169). See also Pon-
gratz-Leisten 1994, 79.
2354
For locating the akītu-house inside Nabû’s temple in Kalḫu see Postgate 1974, 51–74.
2355
Cohen 1993, 404.
 III.3. Ḫarrān 415

ivals in provincial military garrisons in Assyria.2356 Thus the akītu-festival in

which the king took part, either in person or with his clothing acting as a substi-
tute, had the purpose of embodying the power of the Assyrian king in this peri-
pheral area. However, the whole spectrum of meaning in the moon god’s akītu-
festival in Ḫarrān and its local theological significance remains out of our reach.

III.3.4. The Moon God of Elumu

Ḫarrān and Nērab are famous as centres of worship for the moon god in the
Syro-Anatolian area, but the Assyrian king recognised other, smaller cult places
of the moon god in this region. This is suggested by attestations naming a Sîn
who lived in a place called Elumu, probably located near Carchemish.2357 The
moon god of Elumu is prominent in text SAA 12 no. 90, which records the re-
installation of a stele dedicated to Sîn by Assurbanipal.2358 The stele commemor-
ated the donation of the village to Sîn who lives in Elumu (Sîn āšib Elumu),2359
first dedicated by Il-yabi, who later had unlawfully taken it away. It is signific-
ant that although this local manifestation was most likely of Aramaic origin, the
moon god of Elumu, here identified with Sîn, is addressed through epithets that
are already familiar from other Assyrian and Babylonian sources.2360 Their affin-
ity to the epithets employed in connection with the Ḫarranian moon god particu-
larly suggests that this local moon god was associated with Sîn of Ḫarrān.

SAA 12 no. 90 (K. 2564), 1–3

1 a-na d30 a-šá-red AN-e u KI-[tim ...]
2 DUGUD dDILI.ÍM.BABBAR e-muq la šá-na-an [...]
3 EN réme-nu-u šá a-na LUGAL mut-n[e]n-ni-šú i-x [...]
For Sîn, the foremost of heaven and eart[h ...], the honoured Namraṣīt, power
without equal, [...], the compassionate lord who [...]s the king who is pious to
him, [...]

A significant detail about this text, which records the donation of a village,
fields, and orchards to Sîn in Elumu, is the direct connection to kingship ex-
pressed in the text: through the donation and the erection of a stele commemor-
ating it, Assurbanipal sought to achieve continuity for his dynasty.2361 This is ex-
pressed by the use of the verbal form līteddiš, “may it renew itself”, which in

2356
See Pongratz-Leisten 1997, 251–252.
2357
This presence of the moon god in Elumu is discussed in Fales 1973, 112–113.
2358
A copy of the tablet K. 2564 (SAA 12 no. 90) is published in Bauer 1933, pl. 21. A
photograph of this tablet is available in CDLI P336174.
2359
SAA 12 no. 90, 8: a-na d30 a-šib uruE-lu-ma.
2360
Cf. K. 8759+, 11–12 (p. 142ff. above) and “Sîn 1”, 17 (p. 452ff. below).
2361
SAA 12 no. 90, 3: a-na u4-me da-ru-ti li-te-ed-diš pa-lu-⌈u⌉-[ia? ...], “May [my] dyn-
asty renew itself forever [...]!”
416 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

this context creates a direct connection to the renewal of the moon. Therefore,
the underlying idea at play was the the moon god’s divine protection for the king
that allowed his dynasty to renew itself unceasingly, like the moon god who cre-
ates himself anew every month.2362
Apart from Assurbanipal’s praise of the moon god of Elumu, little informa-
tion of this deity is available. In fact, the place Elumu is mentioned only in a one
further text: BM 116230.2363 This document, which records an agreement
between the rab kiṣri Šarrī-taklāk and the citizens of Elumu, contains a penalty
formula involving Sîn, Šamaš, and perhaps a third deity.2364 The naming of the
moon god and the sun god suggests that they were both venerated in that town.
Nothing else regarding the moon god of Elumu is known.

III.4. The Temples of Sîn in the Assyrian Capital Cities

III.4.1. Assur
In the cultural centre of the Assyrian world, the city of Assur, the moon god Sîn
shared a temple with his son, the sun god Šamaš.2365 The remains of this building
were uncovered by the German excavations at the southeast side of the square
located in the northern part of the city. This temple was surrounded by palaces
and other temples (Anu-Adad temple and Ištar-Nabû temple).2366 The history of
the temple can be traced back to at least ca. 1500 BCE. This was when king
Aššur-nērārī I designated himself as the “builder of the temple of Sîn and
Šamaš” in one of his brick inscriptions.2367 This earlier form of the double
temple, which was preserved through the Middle Assyrian2368 and early Neo-As-

2362
For this aspect of the moon god’s connection to royal power see p. 196ff. above.
2363
Edited in Postgate 1974, 360–362. See also Radner 1997a, 16.
2364
For this penalty clause see the discussion on p. 261 above.
2365
For an overview of the textual sources connected to this temple see Menzel 1981, 76.
The archeological data has been recently studied by P. Werner (2009) who also gives ref-
erences to the inscriptions connected to this temple. See also the earlier publication of
the archaeological material in Haller & Andrae 1955, 82–92 and the brief overview of
the Neo-Assyrian building phase of the temple in Andrae 1977, 226–227.
2366
See Haller & Andrae 1955, 83 and Werner 2009, 11 and Tf. 1. In the map of the area,
the grid square in which the Sîn-Šamaš temple is found is f6.
2367
RIMA 1, A.0.60.3: [b]a-ni É dEN.ZU / ⌈ù⌉ dUTU. In Haller & Andrae 1955, 86 the
initial construction of the temple was originally dated to the reign of Šamšī-Adad I (ca.
1808–1776 BCE) on the basis of the bricks that were used in the earliest phase of the
building. Later, a dating to the reign of Aššur-nērārī I, who reigned during the transition-
al phase between the Old Assyrian and Middle Assyrian periods, has been made (see
Heinrich 1982, 201; Werner 2009, 16; and Miglus 2013, 542).
2368
The Middle Assyrian king Tukultī-Ninurta I (1243–1207 BCE) left behind an inscrip-
tion on an alabaster tablet reporting that he rebuilt the Sîn-Šamaš temple (for an edition
of the inscription see RIMA 1, A.0.78.18, 29–43). Two inscriptions of the earlier king
 III.4. The Temples of Sîn in the Assyrian Capital Cities 417

syrian period, consisted of a broad building with the cellas of Sîn and Šamaš
located on opposite ends, facing each other.2369 This opposition of the moon and
the sun gods in the cultic topography of the temple must have represented the
monthly opposition of the moon and the sun during the full moon.2370 The Neo-
Assyrian temple of Sîn and Šamaš was remodelled by Assurnaṣirpal II. It was
enlarged, and given a completely different ground plan: the orientation of the
cellas were changed and the gods no longer faced each other in opposition (Fig.
18). This remodelling was perhaps modelled on the Anu-Adad temple, which
had a similar temple form and orientation of the cellas.2371

Fig. 18: Sîn-Šamaš temple of Assurnaṣirpal II (Andrae & Haller 1955, Abb. 26)

Arik-dēn-ili (1317–1306 BCE) also mention this temple, but only in connection with the
sun god Šamaš (see RIMA 1, A.0.75.1 and A.0.75.2). Note also the donation of cedar
resin made by Šalmaneser II (1030–1019 BCE) to the temples in Assur, among which the
temples of Sîn and Šamaš are also listed (KAV 78, 14–15; edited in Menzel 1981, T 23–
24 and Meinhold 2009, 479–482). Another Middle Assyrian reference to the temples of
Sîn and Šamaš is found in fragment KAV 176, which perhaps contains a list of products
supplied to the temples in Assur (Meinhold 2009, 477–478).
2369
See the description of the architectural structures in Werner 2009, 19–24.
2370
The celestial character of the opposition of Sîn and Šamaš in the topography of this
double temple is discussed in Lanfranchi 1995, 135–144 and noted also in Miglus 2013,
542. For the opposition of the moon and sun during the full moon see p. 217ff. above.
2371
Lanfranchi 1995, 138–142.
418 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

In spite of this change in the topography of the Sîn-Šamaš temple, the continued
co-residence of the moon god and the sun god can be seen as a reflection of the
similar positions held by these two celestial luminaries: whereas the sun god
Šamaš was the ruler of the daytime, the moon god Sîn reigned over the night.
Together they embodied both the passage of time and the stability of the cos-
mos.2372 It is important to note that the gods Sîn and Šamaš also shared a temple
in the later capital cities of Dūr-Šarrukīn and Nineveh – a practise that may have
been based on the cultic topography established in Assur. The archeological
evidence can be evaluated only in the case of Dūr-Šarrukīn, and like the Neo-
Assyrian temple of Sîn and Šamaš in Assur, the temple built by Sargon II for his
new residence incorporated sanctuaries for the moon god and the sun god within
a larger complex.2373
Although the excavations in Assur were well-recorded, the badly preserved
state of the Neo-Assyrian layers in the area of the Sîn-Šamaš temple leaves
much room for speculation.2374 Two possible reconstructions of the temple have
been made, both on the basis of the stone rails uncovered at the site.2375 These
rails, which were introduced by Sennacherib, were presumably built for the cult-
ic vehicles that transported the divine statues from and to the temples during the
akītu-festival.2376 Along with the other deities who lived in the city, Sîn and
Šamaš took part in the procession to the akītu-house located outside the city dur-
ing the akītu of the god Aššur; here they also received meat offerings.2377 The de-
scription of this festival in Assur containing the list of the deities who particip-
ated in its various phases is supported by the account given by Sennacherib
concerning the depictions of the deities in the relief of the akītu-house’s gate.2378

2372
See the discussion on p. 91ff. above.
2373
See the discussion on p. 426ff. below. The textual evidence points to a double temple
of Sîn and Šamaš in Nineveh (see p. 431ff. below).
2374
See Werner 2009, 24–25.
2375
The old plan published in Haller & Andrae 1955, 88 (Abb. 26) has been modified by
P. Werner to have a different entrance of the stone rails to the temple (Werner 2009, 25
[Abb. 9]). See also the overview in Heinrich 1982, 264.
2376
See Haller & Andrae 1955, 91–92 and Heinrich 1982, 264. The return of Sîn and
Šamaš to their cellas on their processional boats is depicted by W. Andrae in his descrip-
tion of the city of Assur (Andrae 1977, 70 [Abb. 49]). For the origin of the akītu-house in
the reign of Sennacherib see van Driel 1969, 57–59 and Cohen 1993, 424–425.
2377
Menzel 1981, 76. In BM 121206, V 7’ Sîn and Šamaš are among the fifteen deities
who stand to the right of Aššur, and in VIII 28’; 39’–42’ the moon god is listed as a re-
cipient of meat offerings (Menzel 1981, T 59 and T 64). For a different listing of the deit-
ies see the text VAT 13596, I 7’–15’ (Menzel 1981, T 72).
2378
See Lambert 1963, 189–190 and Cohen 1993, 23. The ritual texts detailing the pro-
cession of the deities are named in van Driel 1969, 163. See also the list of deities in
Sennacherib’s succession treaty VAT 11449 (= SAA 2 no. 3. A new edition of the text to-
gether with a copy is published as KAL 3 no. 69).
 III.4. The Temples of Sîn in the Assyrian Capital Cities 419

Here, the deities Mullissu, Šērūa, Sîn, Ningal, Šamaš, Aya, Kippat-māti, Anu,
Antu, Adad, Šala, Ea, D[amkina], Bēlet-ilī, and Ninurta are described as follow-
ing the god Aššur as he goes to fight Tiamat.2379 In addition, Sennacherib called
himself the “one who fashioned images” of Aššur and the great deities, includ-
ing Sîn, in connection with his construction work in the akītu-house.2380
The same compendium that details the akītu-festival in Assur also includes a
list of the bathing rituals for the deities living there. This list states that the moon
god had his bath (rimku) during six separate months of the year.

BM 121206, VII 5’–7’2381

VII 5’ UD.7.KAM ša <iti>BÁRA UD.10.KAM šá itiGU4 UD.16.KAM
VII 6’ šá itiKIN UD.2.KAM šá iti⌈DU6⌉ UD.16.KAM ša itiAPIN
UD.18.KAM ša itiZÍZ

VII 7’ rim-ka-a-ni šá d30

7th day of Nisannu (I), 10th day of Ayyāru (II), 16th day of Elūlu (VI), 2nd day
of Tašrītu (VII), 16th day of Araḫsamnu (VIII), 18th day of Šabāṭu (XI).

Baths of Sîn.

These dates do not reveal any clear cut lunar pattern, but they are more or less
connected to either the beginning of the month (2nd day), the half moon (7th day),
the gibbous moon (10th and the 18th days), and the full moon (16th day).
Despite Sennacherib’s apparent influence on the Sîn-Šamaš temple in Assur,
Assurnaṣirpal II, the builder who changed the temple’s ground plan, was the
only Neo-Assyrian king who mentioned this temple in his inscriptions. In the
long inscription written on the stone slabs of the Ninurta temple in Kalḫu, he re-
ports that he brought cedar logs from the Mount Amanus to the Aššur temple
and the Sîn-Šamaš temple.

RIMA 2 A.0.101.1, III 90

giš
ÙR.MEŠ giše-re-ni iš-tu KUR ḫa-ma-ni na-šá-ku DU-ka a-na É-šár-ra a-na
É-ia-as-ma-ku É ḫi-da-te a-na É d30 u dUTU DINGIR.MEŠ KÙ.MEŠ
I transported cedar logs from Mount Amanus and brought (them) to Ešara, to
my temple the shrine, a joyful temple, to the temple of the gods Sîn and Ša-
maš, the pure gods.

2379
RINAP 3 no. 160, r. 26–31. As opposed to these mostly peaceful deities, the gods
marching before Aššur include more aggressive deities such as Tišpak, Ninurta (of the
Wall), and the Sebettu.
2380
RINAP 3 nos. 172–174.
2381
Menzel 1981, T 61.
420 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

An inscription on clay cones found inside the temple also records the building
work done by Assurnaṣirpal II, who recounts that he had rebuilt the temple his
predecessors had built, but which had now grown dilapidated.

RIMA 2, A.0.101.67, 11–152382

11 e-nu-ma É d30 u d[UT]U
12 DINGIR.MEŠ GAL.MEŠ EN.MEŠ-a
13 šá MAN.MEŠ [ālikūt pānīya e]-⌈pu⌉-šu
14 e-n[a-a]ḫ [iš-t]u uš-še-šú a-di gaba-dib-bi-šú
15 ar-ṣip
At that time the temple of Sîn and [Šam]aš, the great gods, my lords, which
kings [who preceded me] had built, had become dilapidated. I erected it from
its foundations to its crenellations.

The construction work on the temple has also been recorded in a fragmentary
section in the stone slab inscription found in the Aššur temple;2383 it recounts that
Assurnaṣirpal II had rebuilt the temple and let the gods Sîn and Šamaš re-enter
their abode.

RIMA 2, A.0.101.52, r. 7’–9’

r. 7’ šu-bat d30 u dUTU DINGIR.MEŠ GAL.[MEŠ]
r. 8’ [bēlīya] ⌈a⌉-⌈na⌉ ⌈eš⌉-⌈šu⌉-te ina ŠÀ ad-di d30 u d[Šamaš]
r. 9’ [ana libbi] ⌈ú⌉-⌈še⌉-ri-ib
I newly founded therein the abode of Sîn and Šamaš, the great [gods, my
lords,] and brought Sîn and Šamaš inside.

No other references to the Sîn-Šamaš temple in Assur have been preserved in the
official texts of the Neo-Assyrian period beyond these few inscriptions of As-
surnaṣirpal II. This may be purely coincidental, but it may also reflect the relo-
cation of political power from Assur to the later capital cities of Kalḫu, Dūr-Šar-
rukīn, and Nineveh. These inscriptions also do not refer to the temples of Sîn
and Šamaš by their ceremonial names, É-ḫúl-ḫúl-dir-dir-ra, “House Filled with
Joy” and É-babbar-ra, “Shining House”;2384 these names are known only from
the list of Assyrian temples in the Götteradressbuch.

Götteradressbuch, 156–1572385
156 É-ḫúl-ḫúl-dir-dir-ra É šá ḫi-da-a-ti ma-lu-u É d30

2382
See also the fragment of a clay cone inscription from Assur, RIMA 2, A.0.101.69.
2383
See also Haller & Andrae 1955, 83 and Werner 2009, 14.
2384
George 1993, nos. 472 and 100 respectively.
2385
George 1992, 178–179.
 III.4. The Temples of Sîn in the Assyrian Capital Cities 421

157 É-babbar-ra É nam-ru É dUTU

Eḫulḫuldirdira: House which is filled with joy; the temple of Sîn
Ebabbara: Shining house; the temple of Šamaš

The ceremonial name for the temple of the moon god in Assur is strikingly sim-
ilar to the name of his temple in Ḫarrān, Eḫulḫul.2386 However, it is impossible to
evaluate any possible connection between these names, especially as the name
Eḫulḫuldirdira is only rarely attested. Therefore, the question that remains un-
answered is whether the name of the moon god’s temple in Assur reflects the
name of his temple in Ḫarrān or if the name of the Ḫarranian temple was actu-
ally adopted from Assur during the reign of Sargon II at the latest.
In addition to recording the ceremonial names for the temple of Sîn and
Šamaš in Assur, the Götteradressbuch also offers us a list of the deities who
lived in the households of Sîn and Šamaš.2387 According to this list, alongside
Sîn and his wife Ningal two other deities, Tambāya and Ebeḫ, lived there.

Götteradressbuch, 63–642388
d
63 30 dNin-gal dTam-ba-a-a
d
64 E-be-eḫ PAB 4 DINGIR.MEŠ šá É d30
Sîn, Ningal, Tambāya, Ebeḫ: a total of four gods of the house of Sîn.

These same deities are also said to be living in the moon god’s temple in the
Ritual vor Gottheiten Assyriens und Babylons, this time grouped together with
the deities Bunene, Kettu, and Ūmu, who belonged to the household of
Šamaš.2389 Tambāya, who was also connected with the temple of Mullissu in As-
sur,2390 is further mentioned in letter SAA 13 no. 47.2391 Although this letter con-
cerning cultic images of Ningal and Tambāya is fragmentary, the references to
the deities Ningal, Tambāya, and Šamaš together allows us to connect it to the
temple of Sîn and Šamaš.2392 Ebeḫ was, in turn, the divine Jebel Hamrin,2393 who
was also revered in the temple of Anu according to the Götteradressbuch.2394

2386
For this temple see the discussion on p. 384ff. above.
2387
For an overview of the available sources see Menzel 1981, 76.
2388
Meinhold 2009, 434.
2389
Ritual vor Gottheiten Assyriens und Babylons, 103–109 (Meinhold 2009, 384 and
400).
2390
Götteradressbuch, 20 (Meinhold 2009, 431).
2391
An overview of the sources mentioning Tambāya is given in Krebernik 2012, 431.
2392
SAA 13 no. 47, 9’–r. 9 concerns the manufacture of a ring for Ningal’s statue, the re-
moval of the hands from the statue of Tambāya, and the production of a new pair of
hands for the same.
2393
See Lambert 1983, 82–86.
2394
Götteradressbuch, 57 (Meinhold 2009, 433).
422 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

The nature of these deities is not known, but their evidently close connection to
the city of Assur testifies to the highly local character of Sîn’s cult (as opposed
to his cult in the Sumero-Babylonian tradition). Worth noting in this cultic sett-
ing is the absence of Sîn’s children, apart from Šamaš who was worshipped in
the same temple building. Nusku, who in Ḫarrān was the son of the moon god,
here belongs to the household of Aššur, who was equated with the god Enlil.2395
Sîn’s daughter, Ištar, was revered in her own temple.2396
In Assur the moon god was not restricted to his own temple. According to the
text Ritual vor Gottheiten Assyriens und Babylons, the moon god had two differ-
ent manifestations in the temple of the god Aššur. First, Sîn is listed in a group
consisting of the deities Sîn, Adad, Šamaš, and Ištar. Their names follow those
of the cosmic gods Enlil, Anu, and Ea-šarru.2397 This grouping was most likely
associated with the character of Sîn, Adad, Šamaš, and Ištar as cosmic forces
who manifested as observable forces of nature (the moon, the weather, the sun,
and the planets/stars). A similar grouping is also found in the text of the tākultu-
ritual. Sîn appears in the opening lines: “[D]rink [Aššur]! Drink Enlil! Drink
Anu! Drink Ea-šarru! Drink Bēlet-ilī! Drink Sîn! Drink Šamaš! Drink Adad!
Drink Ištar! May the great gods, the Sebettu (and) Narudi drink!”.2398 According
to the Ritual vor Gottheiten Assyriens und Babylons, the second manifestation of
Sîn in the Aššur temple appears among deities that clearly functioned as divine
judges, including Aššur-Divine Judges, Ea, Kettu, Sîn, and Šamaš.2399 The pres-
ence of the moon god among these other divine judges is a reminder of his as-
pect as a divine decision maker.2400
Details about the temple personnel in the Sîn-Šamaš temple in Assur remain
for the most part unknown.2401 A šangû of Sîn is present as a witness in a docu-
ment that dealt with the division of an inheritance,2402 and a nargallu of Sîn and
Šamaš likewise acted as a witness in a fragmentary document concerning a pur-
chase.2403 Significant in respect to this latter attestation is the nargallu’s service
to both Sîn and Šamaš, a reflection of their double temple in Assur.

2395
Götteradressbuch, 16 (Meinhold 2009, 430).
2396
The cult of Ištar in Assur has been studied by W. Meinhold (2009).
2397
Ritual vor Gottheiten Assyriens und Babylons, 7–8 (Meinhold 2009, 379 and 400).
2398
Tākultu-Ritual Aššur-etel-ilānīs, 1–5 (Meinhold 2009, 414 and 420). See also the pre-
vious editions of the text in Frankena 1954, 23–39; Ebeling 1954b, 116–128; and Menzel
1981, T 138–142.
2399
Ritual vor Gottheiten Assyriens und Babylons, 17–19 (Meinhold 2009, 380 and 400).
2400
See the discussion on p. 150ff. above.
2401
See the overview of the sources in Menzel 1981, 76.
2402
VAT 9330, 40 (Deller, Fales & Jakob-Rost 1995, no. 71). The name of this person is
unfortunately not preserved.
2403
StAT 2 no. 114, r. 2’: [IGI Ix x x l]úNAR.GAL šá d30 dŠá-maš. For nargallu in Neo-
Assyrian sources see Menzel 1981, 254–255.
 III.4. The Temples of Sîn in the Assyrian Capital Cities 423

III.4.2. Kalḫu
Sîn is known to have belonged to the gods who were worshipped in Kalḫu, the
city which became the capital of Assyria under the reign of Assurnaṣirpal II
(883–859 BCE). In Kalḫu, Sîn had his own sanctuary, which unfortunately is
never mentioned by its ceremonial name.2404 Information about the moon god’s
presence in Kalḫu is sporadic and mainly concentrated in the references to Sîn’s
sanctuary from the inscriptions of Assurnaṣirpal II. The only attestation outside
the royal inscriptions is a receipt listing various materials that were delivered to
the bīt Sîn in Kalḫu.2405 Due to the lack of both written and archaeological evid-
ence, the sanctuary of Sîn cannot be identified in the remains of the excavated
buildings. Based on the circumstantial evidence, mainly the lists of Kalḫu’s deit-
ies in the inscriptions of Assurnaṣirpal II, some information about the organisa-
tion of this temple can be gleaned. The main piece of information in this respect
is that instead of being linked with the sun god Šamaš, who shared temples with
Sîn in Assur, Dūr-Šarrukīn, and Nineveh, in Kalḫu Sîn is grouped with the deit-
ies Ninurta, Ea, Adad, Šarrat-nipḫi, and Gula.2406 Moreover, although there is
some inconsistency in Assurnaṣirpal II’s inscriptions concerning the founding of
sanctuaries for these deities,2407 it appears that these sanctuaries were initially
built as part of his building programme when Kalḫu became the capital of As-
syria: in his inscriptions, Assurnaṣirpal II spoke of founding these sanctuaries,
not rebuilding them. An example can be found in the inscription written on the
outer face of the wall panels in the temple of Ninurta.

RIMA 2, A.0.101.1, II 135

BÁRA dMAŠ EN-a ina qé-reb-šá lu ú-šar-ri-ḫi É dGAŠAN-KUR d30 u dGu-
la NU dÉ-a-MAN NU dIŠKUR GÚ.GAL AN-e KI-te lu-ú ad-di
I made the dais of the god Ninurta, my lord, resplendent therein. I founded
the house of Šarrat-nipḫi, Sîn and Gula, the statue of Ea-šarru (and) the stat-
ue of Adad, the canal-inspector of heaven (and) the earth.

Also the inscription on the monumental lions found at the entrance to the temple
of Šarrat-nipḫi commemorated the founding of the houses for Ninurta, Ea, Adad,

2404
For overviews of the textual sources concerning the temple of Sîn in Kalḫu see Men-
zel 1981, 105 and George 1993, no. 1412.
2405
ND 2758, 10’: a-na É ⌈d⌉30 (Parker 1961, 48 and Pl. 26; Menzel 1981, 105 note
1445).
2406
See RIMA 2, A.0.101.1, II 135; A.0.101.28, V 7–9; A.0.101.29, 13’–14’; A.0.101.30,
55–59; A.0.101.32, 9–10.
2407
Although the other attestations speak of founding these houses for the gods, the Ban-
quet Stele speaks of rebuilding them (RIMA 2, A.0.101.30, 59: ana eš-šú-te ina lìb-bi ad-
di, “I founded therein anew”; see Reade 2002, 143).
424 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

Sîn, Gula, and Šarrat-nipḫi. In this case, other who deities undoubtedly lived in
these sanctuaries – Ninurta’s father Enlil and the spouses of Ea and Adad – are
also mentioned, but the moon god is still named without his wife Ningal.

RIMA 2, A.0.101.28, V 7–9

V7 É dBAD u dMAŠ
V8 É dÉ-a u dDam-ki-na É dIŠKUR u dŠa-la É d30 É dGu-la
V9 É dGAŠAN-KUR É.KUR-at DINGIR.MEŠ GAL.MEŠ ina qé-reb-
šu lu-ú ad-di
I founded therein the house of Enlil and Ninurta, the house of Ea and Damki-
na, the house of Adad and Šala, the house of Sîn, the house of Gula, (and) the
house of Šarrat-nipḫi, temples of the great gods

Similar references can be also found in the text Ritual vor Gottheiten Assyriens
und Babylons, in the section that most likely named the deities who resided in
Kalḫu. In this list, Sîn and his spouse Ningal are mentioned after the weather
god Adad and his spouse Šala, thus reflecting the same cultic topography as can
be found in the inscriptions of Assurnaṣirpal II.2408 Importantly, the sun god
Šamaš was not connected to Sîn in this list, which underlines their separation in
the cultic topography of Kalḫu in constrast to other Assyrian capital cities.

Fig. 19: Proposed locations of shrines in Kalḫu (Reade 2002, Fig. 2)

2408
Ritual vor Gottheiten Assyriens und Babylons, d+303 (Meinhold 2009, 391 and 403).
 III.4. The Temples of Sîn in the Assyrian Capital Cities 425

Based on the references to the house of the moon god in the inscriptions of
Assurnaṣirpal II mentioned above, Julian Reade has proposed that the moon god
was housed in the temple complex that belonged to Ninurta, located in the cit-
adel between the North-West Palace and the ziqqurrat (Fig. 19, p. 424).2409 Thus
the topography of the temple complex would resemble the better documented
situation in Dūr-Šarrukīn, but with the moon god occupying only one of the
smaller sanctuaries in the Ninurta temple. According to this reconstruction, sup-
ported by the lack of any reference to Sîn and Šamaš together in Kalḫu, the sun
god Šamaš did not reside in the same temple complex, but his presence can be
traced to the House of Kidmuri, where a pedestal for the symbol of Šamaš was
found.2410 The separation of the moon and sun gods in its cultic topography is the
most notable difference between Kalḫu and the other three Assyrian capital cit-
ies, where Sîn and Šamaš were housed in the same temple complex. The reasons
for this difference, and the theological implications of the particular separation
of Sîn and Šamaš in Kalḫu, remain unknown due to the lack of sources.
Further references to the moon god’s presence in Kalḫu are very restricted. It
has been proposed that the moon god of Kalḫu is referred to in the introductory
formula of letter SAA 13 no. 102, in which the gods Aššur, Bēl, Nabû, Sîn,
[Šamaš], Ninurta, and Nergal are mentioned, since the writer of the letter, Nabû-
šumu-iddina, was based in Kalḫu as the ḫazannu of the Nabû temple.2411
Moreover, a connection to the city is found in the letter SAA 13 no. 58, which
describes an outing of the gods Aššur, Sîn, and Adad-of-Plenty to the king.2412

SAA 13 no. 58, r. 1–9

r. 1 UD.6.KAM dAš-šur d30
r. 2 a-na gišKIRI6 ša šap-[la]
r. 3 ta-am-li-i ur-ru-⌈du⌉
r. 4 dul-lu i-ba-áš-ši in-né-pa-áš
r. 5 SÍSKUR.MEŠ ša LUGAL
r. 6 in-né-pa-šá dIŠKUR nu-uḫ-še
r. 7 ina ŠÀ am-ba-si il-lak
r. 8 SÍSKUR.MEŠ-ma ša LUGAL
r. 9 in-né-pa-šá
th
On the 6 day Aššur (and) Sîn will descend to the garden belo[w] the terrace.
There is a ritual, and it will be performed. Offerings in the name of the king
will be made. Adad-of-Plenty will go to the park. More offerings in the name
of the king will be made.

2409
See Reade 2002, 192–193 and Fig. 2.
2410
Reade 2002, 145–146.
2411
See Menzel 1981, 105 note 1445 and PNA 2/II, 885–886.
2412
See Schwemer 2001, 608–609 where Adad’s cult in Kalḫu is discussed.
426 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

Because the letter’s author, Urad-Nabû, was the priest of Nabû in Kalḫu, that
city has been nominated as the location for the outing described.2413 The joint
ritual of Sîn and Adad may also be a reflection of their co-habitation in the
temple of Ninurta, as depicted in the inscriptions of Assurnaṣirpal II.

III.4.3. Dūr-Šarrukīn
The temple of the moon god Sîn held a prominent position in the topography of
Sargon II’s newly founded capital city, Dūr-Šarrukīn.2414 Sîn’s significance in the
new capital bears a resemblance to the role played by the god Ninurta as the
main deity in Assurnaṣirpal II’s capital city – a connection that is reflected in the
similar layout of Ninurta’s temple in Kalḫu and Sîn’s temple in Dūr-Šarrukīn.2415
The prominent role taken by Sîn in Sargon II’s city is perhaps reflected also in
text SAA 12 no. 19, which refers to the founding of Dūr-Šarrukīn. At the begin-
ning of this text, the moon god appears under the name Nanna in a fragmentary
context and he is followed by Ninmenana, who perhaps should be identified as
Ningal.2416 The exact character of the moon god in this city is clouded by the
lack of textual sources pertaining to his cult. It has been maintained that in Dūr-
Šarrukīn the moon god was not defined by geographical epithets, but was rather
understood in a supra-regional form, like the moon itself.2417 This is not entirely
true, since Sîn who lived in Dūr-Šarrukīn (Sîn āšib Dūr-Šarrukīn) is attested in a
penalty clause of a real estate purchase, which stated that if the completed pur-
chase should be litigated in the future, the complainant should give ten minas of
refined silver and one mina of pure gold to Sîn who lives in Dūr-Šarrukīn.2418
This reference to the local manifestation of Sîn also confirms that the moon god
living in Sargon II’s city was not the Ḫarranian moon god as has been previously
suggested on the basis of the Sargonid kings’ interest in Sîn of Ḫarrān.2419 Fur-

2413
See Menzel 1981, 106–108 and PNA 3/II, 1408–1409.
2414
For an overview of the archaeological data see Heinrich 1982, 271–272. The written
sources concerning the temples of Dūr-Šarrukīn are brought together in Menzel 1981,
83–84. See also the description of how the city was built in Parpola 1995b, 47–77.
2415
Reade 2002, 199.
2416
SAA 12 no. 19, 3’–6’: [... wh]ose m[ind], Nanna, the [...] ..., has t[urned] to (re)set-
tling the wasteland. The true king [...] whose lordship the goddess Ninmena[na ha]s mag-
nified, that he may not oppress the weak, and may cause the feeble to prosper.” See also
the copy and the previous edition of this text in Postgate 1969, no. 32. For the possible
identification of Ningal with the divine name Ninmen(an)a see p. 304ff. above.
2417
As noted already in Schaudig 2002, 630.
2418
SAA 14 no. 220 (see also p. 269 above).
2419
So in Uehlinger 1997, 316: “Im Zuge der sog. Aramaisierung Assyriens im Laufe des
8. Jhs. hat der Mondgott von Harran weiter an Prestige gewonnen: Sargon II. hat ihm in
Dur-Šarrukin die größte Palastkapelle reserviert, gleichzeitig den Tempel von Harran mit
königlichen Opfern vesorgt und der Stadt zakūtu und kidinnūtu genannte Privilegien
gewährt.” In fact, the Ḫarranian moon god may have been present in the capital city
 III.4. The Temples of Sîn in the Assyrian Capital Cities 427

thermore, Sîn’s role as the beneficiary in the penalty clause underlines his cent-
ral role in Dūr-Šarrukīn because such a function is commonly attested for the tu-
telary deities of the city.2420

Fig. 20: Shrines in Dūr-Šarrukīn (Reade 2002, Fig. 39)

The house of the moon god, for which no Sumerian ceremonial name is known,
was a part of a temple complex located beside the palace (see Fig. 20, p.
427).2421 This complex also contained sanctuaries for the wife and son of the
moon god (Ningal and Šamaš) and the gods Adad, Ninurta, and Ea. All the sanc-
tuaries can be securely identified with the help of the thresholds found at the
site, each of which was inscribed with a short dedication to the deity in whose
doorway the threshold was situated. The inscription for the house of the moon
god, written on a slab of alabaster stone, depicts the aspects of the moon god
that are also highlighted in other references to him by the Sargonid kings: he

Nineveh during the reigns of Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal (see p. 431ff. below).
2420
See the discussion on p. 264ff. above.
2421
This complex was first identified as a harem by the French excavator V. Place, but its
true nature as a temple – recognised in Andrae 1930, 22–23 – was confirmed by the fur-
ther American excavations in the season 1931–1932 (see Wilson 1995, 114–115).
428 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

was portrayed as a god who was responsible for the divine decisions concerning
the king and the country, and his ability to control time is brought forth. Both of
these qualities made Sîn an important supporter of the Assyrian king.2422

OIP 38, 130 no. 32423

d
1 EN.ZU DINGIR KÙ KU5-is EŠ.BAR mu-šak-lim
2 ṣa-ad-di a-na I20–GIN MAN ŠÚ MAN KUR Aš-šurki GÌR.ARAD
3 KÁ.DINGIR.RAki MAN KUR EME.GI7 ù URIki ba-nu-ú
4 ku-me-ka ina ku-un lìb-bi-ka ki-niš IGI.BAR-su-ma
5 bu-un-ni-ka šá me-šá-ri šu-ut-ri-ṣa e-li-šú
6 šu-ut-lim-šú UD.MEŠ DU10.GA UZU.MEŠ ru-qu-ti
7 MU.AN.NA.MEŠ ḫu-ud lìb-bi ši-i-me ši-ma-tuš
8 it-ti AN-e u KI-tim šu-ri-ik BALA-šú
9 UGU kib-rat LIMMU-i ki-in gišGU.ZA-šú
O Sîn, pure god, maker of decisions, revealer of signals to Sargon, king of
the world, king of Assyria, šakkanakku of Babylon, king of Sumer and
Akkad, builder of your chamber, look steadily at him and let your just face
be turned to him! Grant him many days of well-being (and) decree years of
happiness as his fate! Let his reign last as long as the heaven and the earth
(and) establish his throne on the four corners (of the world)!

The construction of the temples in Dūr-Šarrukīn is mentioned in various inscrip-

tions of Sargon II found in the city. The exact date when the deities entered their
newly-built abodes was the 22nd day of Tašrītu in the year 707, as recorded in the
Assyrian eponym chronicle.2424
Two inscribed bricks found at the site also commemorate the building of the
temples for Sîn and Šamaš.

Sg Ziegel e2425
I
1 20–GIN MAN ŠÚ MAN KUR AŠ
2 URU DÙ-ma BÀD-20-GIN
3 šùm-šú ab-bi šu-bat d30
d
4 UTU ana TI-a GIN BALA-a
5 qé-reb-šú lu ab-ni

2422
For the importance of the moon god in royal ideology especially during the reign of
the Sargonid dynasty, see the discussion on p. 196ff. above.
2423
See the edition in Fuchs 1994, 280 and 369
2424
See the entry for this year in Millard 1994, 48. See also Parpola 1995b, 66.
2425
Fuchs 1994, 287 and 372.
 III.4. The Temples of Sîn in the Assyrian Capital Cities 429

(I,) Sargon, king of the universe, king of Assyria, I built the city and called
its name Dūr-Šarrukīn. I constructed therein the abodes of Sîn and Šamaš for
my life (and) the continued existence of my reign.

From the theological point of view, the ground plan of the temple complex in
Dūr-Šarrukīn is very interesting. First, the size and location of the sanctuaries of
Sîn, Ningal, and Šamaš suggest that they were the principal deities venerated in
the temple. The sanctuary of Sîn was the largest of the cult spaces accessed
through the courtyard XXVII, and it also was the closest to the ziqqurrat, located
beside the palace. Due to the proximity of Sîn’s sanctuary to the ziqqurrat, it is
possible that the ziqqurrat was also dedicated to Sîn, but no direct evidence for
this has been preserved.2426 Similar in form and almost of the same size, the
sanctuary of Šamaš was located in the same courtyard. The smaller sanctuaries
belonged to the gods Adad, Ninurta, and Ea, who thus held only minor roles in
the temple belonging to Sîn and Šamaš. The fact that Sîn and Šamaš were the
main inhabitants of a shared temple is reflected also in a brick inscription found
at the site. In this inscription, the construction of a single temple of Sîn and
Šamaš, as opposed to two separate temples, is commemorated.

Sg Ziegel f2427
I
1 20–GIN MAN ŠÚ MAN KUR Aš-šurki
2 É d30 dUTU EN.MEŠ-šú
3 šá ŠÀ uruBÀD-20-GIN
4 TA URU4-šú a-di gaba-dib-bi-šú
5 ana TI-šú GIN BALA.MEŠ-šú
6 SI.SÁ e-bur KUR Aš-šurki
7 šá-lam KUR Aš-šur DÙ-uš
Sargon, king of the universe, king of Assyria, built the house of Sîn and Ša-
maš, his lords, that is in Dūr-Šarrukīn, from the foundations to the crenella-
tions for his life for the continued existence of his reign, for letting the har-
vest of Assyria thrive, (and) for the well-being of Assyria.

Seen from this point of view, Sargon’s temple of Sîn and Šamaš must be under-
stood as a development in temple topography that is most notably attested in As-
sur: the double temple of the moon and the sun.2428 In this new design, however,
the moon god and the sun god were not placed in opposition to each other, as in

2426
That the ziqqurrat in Dūr-Šarrukīn was dedicated to the moon god is considered likely
in Menzel 1981, 83 note 1131.
2427
Fuchs 1994, 287 and 372.
2428
See p. 416ff. above. There was also a double temple for Sîn and Šamaš in Nineveh,
but its archeological remains have not been found (see p. 431ff. below).
430 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

the Middle Assyrian temple of Sîn and Šamaš in Assur, or even side by side, as
in the Sîn-Šamaš temple of Assurnaṣirpal II.2429 Despite the differences in the
temple layout, the concept behind the coexistence of the moon and the sun gods
in a double temple must reflect not only their genealogical relationship, but also
their character as the two most important celestial luminaries who functioned in
relation to each other.
Attached to the double temple of Sîn and Šamaš was the sanctuary of Ningal,
Sîn’s wife. Although it had its own courtyard, through which it was accessed, it
was an integral part of the temple complex (Fig. 20, p. 427). These temples are
referred to as a group in the letter from the treasurer Ṭāb-šār-Aššur to Sargon II,
in which the king is informed about the progress of the work on the silver-coated
doors in the “House of Sîn”, the “House of Šamaš”, and the “House of Ningal”.

SAA 1 no. 66, r. 4–11

r. 4 ki-i an-ni-i
r. 5 iq-ṭí-bi-a ma-a gišIG.MEŠ
r. 6 ša É d30 ša É dUTU
r. 7 ša É dNin-gal
r. 8 ša le-’a-a-ni ša KÙ.BABBAR.MEŠ
r. 9 ina muḫ-ḫi e-lu-u-ni ra-aṣ-pa
giš
r. 10 sa-ra-me-e la ga-mu-ru
r. 11 ma-a UD.1.KAM ša itiDU6 a-ga-mar
He informed me as follows: “The doors of the temples of Sîn, Šamaš, and
Ningal to be coated with silver sheets have been made but the wooden sara-
mus are not ready; I shall finish them by the 1st of Tašrītu.”

Based on the presence of the goddess Ningal as one of the chief deities, it might
be more accurate to speak of a triple temple of Sîn, Šamaš, and Ningal instead of
a double temple of Sîn and Šamaš. The arrangement reflects Sargon II’s con-
spicuous veneration of Ningal, who usually remained in the shadow of her hus-
band Sîn.2430 Ningal’s status in the temple complex in Dūr-Šarrukīn is the main
difference between it and the Sîn-Šamaš temple in Assur. The only parallels for
such an elevation of the moon god’s wife can be found in Ur and in Ḫarrān,
which were the main cult centres of the moon god in Mesopotamia. For this
reason, the possibility that Sîn and Ningal (perhaps together with Šamaš) were
the tutelary deities of Dūr-Šarrukīn must be considered.

2429
A speculative hypothesis concerning the orientation of the cellas for Sîn and Šamaš in
Dūr-Šarrukīn, presented in Lanfranchi 1995, 143, is that it reflects the “ethnic” back-
ground of these deities: Sîn was considered to be primarily an Assyrian deity whereas
Šamaš was seen as ultimately Babylonian.
2430
See the discussion on p. 296ff. above.
 III.4. The Temples of Sîn in the Assyrian Capital Cities 431

III.4.4. Nineveh
There is much that remains unknown about Sîn’s temple and cult in Nineveh.
No ceremonial name for his temple is known,2431 and because of the lack of ar-
cheological evidence even the exact location of his sanctuary inside the city is
unclear. Still, the few references to Sîn’s temple in the inscriptions of Sen-
nacherib and Assurbanipal do offer us some details concerning its general loca-
tion and the deities who were housed there. An important source of information
is also the text Ritual vor Gottheiten Assyriens und Babylons, which contains a
list of deities that were part of the moon god’s temple in Nineveh.2432
The earliest known reference to the temple of Sîn in Nineveh can be found in
the inscription of Sennacherib issued in connection with his vast building pro-
jects there after Nineveh was made the capital of Assyria.2433 Among the temples
that he rebuilt were also the sanctuaries of Sîn, Ningal, Šamaš, and Aya.

RINAP 3 no. 36, r. 3’–10’2434

r. 3’ e-nu-ma É x [...]
r. 4’ É d30 É d⌈Nin⌉-[gal É dUTU É dA-a ...]
r. 5’ É dGAŠAN-NINAki GAŠAN ⌈ra⌉-[bi-ti? (...) ša IAš-šur–PAP–A
MAN KUR Aš-šurki]
r. 6’ DUMU ITukul-ti–dMAŠ MAN KUR Aš-⌈šur⌉[ki ... ēpušú? É.MEŠ]
r. 7’ šá-ti-na la-⌈ba⌉?-riš u4-me [...]
r. 8’ aq-qur-ši-na-ti-ma dan-⌈nat⌉?-[si-na akšud? uššēšina? (...) itti? kiṣir?]
r. 9’ KUR-i dan-ni ar-ti-ma ul-[tu uššēšina adi gabadibbīšina arṣip]
r. 10’ ú-šak-lil
At that time, the temple of ... [...], the temple of Sîn, the temple of Nin[gal,
the temple of Šamaš, the temple of Aya, ...], the temple of the Lady of Nin-
eveh, the gr[eat] lady, [(...) which Assurnaṣirpal, king of Assyria], son of
Tukultī-Ninurta, king of Assyria, [... had built] – with the passage of time
those [temples ...]. I tore them down and [reached their ] foundation pits. I
secured [their foundations (...) like] solid [bed]rock and [I built] and com-
pleted (them) [from their foundations to their crenellations.]

2431
George 1993, no. 1414.
2432
For an overview of the available sources see Menzel 1981, 123; Frahm 1997, 136–
137; Frahm 1998, 117–118; and Reade 2000, 410. A proper edition of the text Ritual vor
Gottheiten Assyriens und Babylons has become available recently (Meinhold 2009, 377–
412), and it certainly has contributed to our knowledge of the deities living in the moon
god’s temple in Nineveh.
2433
The connection of this marble tablet inscription to king Sennacherib is confirmed by
the analysis presented in Frahm 1997, 136–137 and Frahm 1998, 107–121.
2434
See also Frahm 1998, 108–113.
432 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

Although this is the earliest preserved reference to the temple of Sîn and Šamaš
in Nineveh, the inscription implies that Sennacherib demolished the remains of
earlier buildings at the site (perhaps built by Assurnaṣirpal II who is mentioned
in the inscription) before he could begin his own building work. However, no
references to a temple of Sîn and Šamaš in Nineveh are preserved in As-
surnaṣirpal II’s inscriptions.
More information about Sîn and Šamaš’ temple in Nineveh is gained from
the inscription of Esarhaddon that recorded his restoration work on this temple.

RINAP 4 no. 12, 12–232435

12 a-na-[ku I]AN.ŠÁR–ŠEŠ–SUM.NA LUGAL ŠÚ LUGAL KUR Aš-
šurki [...]
13 É d30 dNin-gal dUTU dA-a [...]
14 ina qé-reb MURUB4 URU šá NINAki a-na mu-šab [...]
15 ina ITI šal-me u4-me še-me-e ina na4pi-i-li NA4 KUR-i [dan-ni ...]
16 ṣe-er tam-le-e šu-a-tu uš-ši-šú ad-di [...]
17 É šu-a-ti a-na si-ḫir-ri-šú ar-ṣip [ú-šak-lil ...]
giš
18 ÙR.MEŠ gišEREN MAḪ.MEŠ ú-šat-⌈ri⌉-[ṣa UGU-šú ...]
giš
19 IG.MEŠ gišŠUR.MÌN šá e-re-es-si-na ṭa-a-ba [...]
20 mim-ma ú-na-a-ti ḫi-šiš-ti É šá KÙ.BABBAR KÙ.[GI ...]
21 ul-tu É šu-a-tu ú-šak-li-lu ú-[qat-tu-u ag-mu-ra ši-pir-šú ...]
d
22 30 dNin-gal dUTU dA-a DINGIR.MEŠ GAL.[MEŠ ...]
23 ina ITI-šam-ma la na-par-ka-a [...]
I, Esarhaddon, king of the world, king of Assyria, [...] the temple of Sîn, Nin-
gal, Šamaš (and) Aya [...] in the citadel of (the city of) Nineveh as residence
of [...]. In a favourable month, on a propitious day, I laid its foundation upon
that terrace with limestone, [strong] stone from the mountains, [...]. I built
(and) [completed] that temple in its entirety. [...] I roof[ed it] with magnifi-
cent cedar beams [... (and) I fastened bands of silver and copper on] doors of
cypress, whose fragrance is sweet, [and installed (them) in its gates. I ...]
whatever utensils were needed for the temple, whether silver (or) go[ld ...].
When I had completed that temple (and) br[ought its construction to an end
...] the gods Sîn, Ningal, Šamaš (and) Aya, the great gods, [...] monthly with-
out ceasing.

A significant detail in this description is the use of the phrase ina qabal āli ša
Ninua, which, according to Eckart Frahm, denotes the “acropolis” in Nineveh,
corresponding to the mound Kuyunjik.2436 This area, which was located on the
western side of the city, close to the river Khosr, was the place where the royal

2435
See also Borger 1956, Nin. I (§ 29) and Borger 1996, 134–135.
2436
See Frahm 1997, 272 and Frahm 1998, 118–119.
 III.4. The Temples of Sîn in the Assyrian Capital Cities 433

palaces and temples were grouped together, separated from the rest of the city
by a wall. The temple of Sîn and Šamaš in this area is also alluded to in the
building inscription of Naqī’a/Zakûtu, wife of Sennacherib, who records how
she “cleared a tract of land in the citadel of (the city of) Nineveh, [be]hind the
temple of the gods Sîn and Šamaš, [for a] royal [residence of Esarh]addon, my
[beloved son, ...]”.2437 This confirms that the remains of this temple should be in
the citadel Kuyunjik, close to the palace built for Esarhaddon. Julian Reade has
noted that there is enough room for this temple both on the eastern and western
sides of the Kuyunjik mound, but he has also suggested another possible loca-
tion for this temple beside the North Palace of Assurbanipal.2438
As he did in Assur and Dūr-Šarrukīn, the moon god shared his temple in
Nineveh with his son Šamaš. This cultic topography must be seen as a reminder
of the importance of the monthly opposition and conjunction of the moon and
the sun in the context of divination and royal ideology.2439 In this respect, it is
significant that the temple may have been founded by the king Sennacherib
when he made Nineveh the new capital of the Assyrian empire. Perhaps there
had been a temple for Sîn or Šamaš in Nineveh prior to this inauguration, since
Sennacherib made a reference to Assurnaṣirpal II in his inscription reporting on
the building of this temple, but the lack of any evidence for a temple of Sîn and
Šamaš on the site makes it equally possible that this sanctuary was introduced to
the city only after it had been made the new capital. Because the layout of the
temple is not known, it is impossible to judge whether this double temple re-
sembled the Sîn-Šamaš temple in Assur or if it was perhaps similar to the Sîn-
Šamaš-Ningal temple complex known from Dūr-Šarrukīn.2440
The identity of other deities who most likely resided in the temple of Sîn in
Nineveh, or who were otherwise associated with the moon god’s cult there, is
conveyed by the text Ritual vor Gottheiten Assyriens und Babylons, which in-
structs the reader to invoke the names of specific deities when a sheep offering
for the moon god is made.

Ritual vor Gottheiten Assyriens und Babylons, c+242–2482441

c+242 d30 dNin-gal Aš-šur

2437
RINAP 4 no. 2003, II 15’–II 20’: qaq-qa-ru pu-ṣe-e / ina MURUB4 URU šá NINAki /
[ku]-tal É d30 u dUTU / [ana mu-šab?] LUGAL-u-ti / [ša IAš-šur–PAP?]–AŠ / [DUMU
na-ram lìb-bi?]-ia. See also Melville 1999, 38–40 and Reade 2000, 416. Frahm 1998, 118
notes that this temple must have been impressive enough to offer a reference point for
the location of the newly built palace.
2438
Reade 2000, 391 (Fig. 2) and 410.
2439
See the discussion on p. 150ff. and p. 196ff. above.
2440
For the temple in Assur see p. 416ff. and for Dūr-Šarrukīn p. 426ff. above.
2441
See the edition in Meinhold 2009, 389 and 402. The deities who are invoked when an
offering is made to Šamaš are listed in lines c+234–c+241.
434 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

c+243 dBE dDUMU.MEŠ-ZI

c+244 dMAŠ.TAB.BA gi-ru dMUATI
c+245 DINGIR.MEŠ mu-ši-ti
c+246 ki-i uduSISKUR.MEŠ
c+247 ina IGI d30 BAL-u
c+248 MU.<MEŠ>-šú-nu MU-ár
Sîn, Ningal, Aššur, Enlil, dDUMU.MEŠ-ZI, Twins, the Fire, Nabû, the Gods
of the Night: when you make a sheep offering in front of Sîn, you call out
their names.

The reason for the appearance of the deities on this list can, in some cases, be
found in the family relationship between them and the moon god. Thus, Ningal,
as Sîn’s spouse, should of course be invoked while an offering is made to her
husband.2442 The presence of Enlil perhaps reflects his genealogical relationship
to Sîn, as known in the Sumero-Babylonian tradition.2443 The exact association
between the divine Twins (dMAŠ.TAB.BA) and the moon god in this context re-
mains unclear due to the lack of further details. A possible explanation can be
found in the connection between the Twins and Sîn in Mesopotamian astrology-
astronomy. The Great Twins constellation (mulMAŠ.TAB.BA.GAL.GAL.LA)
was associated with the twin gods Lugalgira and Meslamtae’a, who were further
associated with the gods Sîn and Nergal.2444 On the other hand, the Little Twins
constellation (mulMAŠ.TAB.BA.TUR.TUR), represented the pair Alamuš and
Ningublaga: the vizier and son of Sîn in Ur.2445 In addition to this, another pos-
sible connection existed between the divine Twins and Šamaš and Ištar based on
their status as children of Sîn.2446 Invoking the gods of the night reflected a noc-
turnal setting for the offering. Who the deity dDUMU.MEŠ-ZI was, and the
nature of his relationship to Sîn, remains unclear. The fire that is listed may be a
reference to either the gods Gira or Nusku (or to both of them) considering their
close association.2447 No apparent explanation for the presence of the god Nabû
in this context is available.2448 It should be noted that, to a certain degree, the

2442
For the goddess Ningal as the wife of Sîn see the discussion on p. 296ff. above.
2443
For Enlil as the father of the moon god Nanna/Sîn see p. 291ff. above.
2444
MUL.APIN I, i 5 (Hunger & Pingree 1989, 19). See also the overview of Lugalgira
and Meslamtae’a in Lambert 1987b, 143–145. These deities are called by the names Sîn
and Nergal in 4 R 46 no. 1, 4–5 (Weidner 1915, 51).
2445
See the discussion on p. 324 above.
2446
For an attestation of Šamaš and Ištar as the twin gods Māšu and Māštu see Muššu’u
IV, 13 (Böck 2007, 152 and 170). The character of the twin gods Māšu and Māštu as the
children of Sîn was noted already in Combe 1908, 18–19.
2447
For the equation of Gira and Nusku see Streck 2001, 632.
2448
Nabû’s presence in this group of deities is noted in Pomponio 1978, 93, but left unex-
plained. Since the older editions of the text did recognise that this group concerned deit-
 III.4. The Temples of Sîn in the Assyrian Capital Cities 435

groups of deities in the temples of Sîn and Šamaš in Nineveh overlap: the gods
Nabû, the Twins, Gira, and Nusku are also in the group of deities invoked when
an offering to the sun god Šamaš was made.2449 The Twins, Gira, and Nusku
were also present in the temple of Aššur in Nineveh, according to the same
text.2450
A more simplistic view of the inhabitants of the Sîn-Šamaš temple in Ninev-
eh is offered in the prism inscription of Assurbanipal recording the king’s restor-
ation work there. In this reference, the deities Sîn, Ningal, Nusku, Šamaš, and
Aya are listed as the residents of the temple.

Assurbanipal Prism T, III 32–352451

III 32 ⌈d⌉30 dNin-gal dNusku dUTU u dA-a
III 33 [DINGIR].MEŠ tik-le-ia ina qer-bi-šú
III 34 ⌈ú⌉-še-rib-ma ú-šar-me
III 35 pa-rak ⌈da⌉-ra-a-ti
I let Sîn, Ningal, Nusku, Šamaš, and Aya, the [god]s (who are) my support-
ers, enter it and take residence in an everlasting shrine.

That Nusku’s name directly follows Ningal’s in this reference suggests that
Nusku was a part of the moon god’s household, not only in Ḫarrān but also in
Nineveh. Moreover, since he is mentioned side by side with the main deities
who lived in the Sîn-Šamaš temple, his status in this sanctuary must have been
greater than that of a minor deity. Exact information about the cult of Nusku in
Nineveh is lacking, and because of this we can only speculate about the de-
tails.2452 If this reference to Nusku living in Nineveh in the same temple as Sîn
and Ningal indeed reflected the cultic reality of the city at the time of Assurba-
nipal’s reign, it portrays a cultic scheme that differs from Sîn’s other temples in

ies in Nineveh, not in Assur, Pomponio’s reference to Nabû in this group was associated
with the city of Assur. For the possible equation of the gods Nusku and Nabû in Ḫarrān
see p. 388 above.
2449
Ritual vor Gottheiten Assyriens und Babylons, c+234–241 (Meinhold 2009, 388–389
and 402).
2450
Ritual vor Gottheiten Assyriens und Babylons, b+205–206 (Meinhold 2009, 388 and
402).
2451
Assurbanipal Prism T, III 18–35 (see the editions in Borger 1996, 144 and Novotny
2014, 56; now also RINAP 5/I no. 10). It should be noted that Assurbanipal tells that this
temple had been built by his father Esarhaddon, as it is known from Esarhaddon’s own
inscriptions (see Borger 1996, 134–135). A corresponding section to this building re-
port – without the god Nusku – can be found also in the IIT of Assurbanipal (IIT, 40–41;
see Fuchs apud Borger 1996, 270 and 291 as well as RINAP 5/I no. 23).
2452
References to Nusku are absent in the overview of the deities worshipped in Nineveh
in Menzel 1981, 120–123.
436 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

the Assyrian heartland. In Assyria, Nusku was attached to the god Aššur through
Aššur’s identity as the Assyrian Enlil. This is supported by Nusku’s presence as
a member of Aššur’s household in Assur.2453 Since the theological concept that
Nusku was the son of Sîn and Ningal is central to the cult of the moon god in
Ḫarrān, the reference to Nusku in the Assurbanipal Prism T certainly brings to
mind the Ḫarranian moon god and his cult. This is not the only association
between Nineveh and Ḫarrān in respect to Sîn. As already noted, the chief lam-
entation priest of Sîn of Ḫarrān, Urad-Ea, was also active in Nineveh in the ser-
vice of the king.2454 Moreover, it is possible that the temple of the moon god in
Nineveh was the location of a conspiracy that, according to letter SAA 10 no.
179, took place in the “temple of Bēl-Ḫarrān”.2455 If this identification is indeed
true, the moon god’s temple in Nineveh must have had two storeys, based on the
reference to an upper room in the temple of Bēl-Ḫarrān in that letter.2456 More
importantly, the reference in the letter suggests that the Ḫarranian moon god was
either worshipped in Nineveh or that Sîn of Nineveh used the name Bēl-Ḫarrān
in this context, thus indicating an equation of Sîn in Nineveh and in Ḫarrān. The
matter must remain open at the moment, but it is plausible that the importance of
both the moon god and Ḫarrān, especially during the reigns of Esarhaddon and
Assurbanipal, led to a situation where the Ḫarranian moon god was worshipped
not only in his home city, but also in Nineveh, the centre of the Assyrian empire.
The text Ritual vor Gottheiten Assyriens und Babylons reveals that in addi-
tion to having his own temple in Nineveh, the moon god Sîn also belonged to
the groups of deities that were worshipped in the temples of Aššur and Ištar. Ac-
cording to this text, Sîn appears in the temple of Aššur as a part of the triad Sîn,
Adad, and Šamaš that directly follows the gods Anu and Ea-šarru.2457 This re-
sembles the cultic setting known at Aššur’s temple in Assur.2458 In the temple of
Ištar, both Sîn and Ningal are among the deities who presumably were invoked
when a sheep offering to Ištar was made. Interestingly, they are not named as a
couple; instead Ea-šarru, Ninurta, and an unidentified deity separate their names
in the list.2459 Sîn and Ningal’s presence in the household of their daughter Ištar

2453
See the discussion on p. 314ff. above.
2454
For Urad-Ea and his son Nabû-zēru-iddina see the discussion on p. 393ff. above.
2455
See p. 389 above.
2456
SAA 10 no. 179, 14: a-na ŠÀ-bi É e?-li-ti ul-te-la-an-ni, “he made me go up to an up-
per room”. The existence of an upper room in this temple also supports locating it in
Nineveh instead of Ḫarrān: according to the calculations concerning the height of the
walls in Eḫulḫul made by J. Novotny, on the basis of Assurbanipal’s building reports,
Eḫulḫul did not have two storeys (Novotny 2003, 117–118).
2457
Ritual vor Gottheiten Assyriens und Babylons, b+204 (Meinhold 2009, 388 and 402).
2458
See p. 422 above.
2459
Ritual vor Gottheiten Assyriens und Babylons, c+250–252: Aš-šur-dBE d30 / dÉ-a-
MAN / dMAŠ d⌈x-(x)⌉ dNin-gal (Meinhold 2009, 389 and 402).
 III.4. The Temples of Sîn in the Assyrian Capital Cities 437

can only be connected to the mythological geneaological relationship of the

moon god and Inanna/Ištar.2460
No references to the cult personnel employed at Sîn’s temple in Nineveh are
preserved. An extispicy query concerning the appointment of a šangû of Sîn by
Assurbanipal is preserved, but it is unknown whether this official was in the ser-
vice of the moon god’s temple in Nineveh or another Assyrian temple of Sîn.2461

Temple/ Associated Cult

City Ziqqurrat
sanctuaries deities personnel
É-kiš-nu-ĝál/
Ningal
É-ĝiš-nu11-gal (É-temen-ní-gur(-
Ningublaga En-niĝaldi-
É-dub-lá-maḫ ru))
Nin(e)igara Nanna, entu-
Ur É-ní-te-en-du10 É-aga-du7-du7/
Alamuš priestess of
É-dim-an-na É-šu-gán-du7-du7
Amarazu Sîn
É-dim-gal-an-na É-lugal-ĝalga-si-sá
Amaraḫea
(É-)iti6-kù-ga
(É-amaš-kù-ga of (šatammu of
Kissik — (Ningal)
Ningal) Ningal)
Ningal
É-kiš-nu-ĝál/ Mārat-Sîn
Nippur É-ĝiš-nu11-gal — Šuziana unattested
É-dub-lá-maḫ Šamaš
Kalkal
Ištar
Uruk É-dumu-nun-na — Ningublaga unattested
(Alamuš?)
Šamaš
Sippar É-(i)dim-an-na — unattested
Anunītu
Larsa unattested — Šamaš(?) unattested
É-kiš-nu-ĝál/
Ištar
É-ĝiš-nu11-gal
Nabû
Babylon É-ní-te-en-na/ — unattested
Marduk
É-ní-te-en-du10
Šamaš
É-ĝissu-bi-du10-ga

Table 17: Cult places of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria (to be continued)

2460
For Ištar as the daughter of the moon god see the discussion on p. 309ff. above.
2461
SAA 4 nos. 307–308. The name of the šangû is only partially preserved (SAA 4 no.
307, r. 12: ana UGU IARAD–x [x x x x]).
438 III. The Cult of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria

City Temple/ Ziqqurrat Associated Cult personnel

sanctuaries deities
Borsippa É-dim-an-na — Nanaya unattested
(Nabû)
Ḫarrān É-ḫúl-ḫúl name Ningal/ Aššur-etel-šamê-
(É-ĝi6-par of Nin- unknown Nikkal erṣeti-muballissu,
gal/Nikkal) Nusku šešgallu of Sîn
(É-melam-an-na of Šamaš Balāssu, šangû of
Nusku) Ištar Ḫarrān
Urad-Ea,
galamāḫu of Sîn
(Nabû-zēru-iddina,
kalû of Sîn and the
king)
Ḫuzirīna unattested — Ištar(?) laḫḫinu of Sîn
Elumu unattested — Šamaš(?) unattested
Assur É-ḫúl-ḫúl-dir-dir-ra — Ningal šangû of Sîn
Šamaš nargallu of Sîn and
Tambāya Šamaš
Ebeḫ
Kalḫu name unknown — Ninurta unattested
Ea
Adad
Šarrat-nipḫi
Gula
Dūr- name unknown (name Ningal unattested
Šarrukīn unknown) Šamaš
Adad
Ninurta
Ea
Nineveh name unknown — Ningal Urad-Ea,
Šamaš galamāḫu of Sîn
Aya (Nabû-zēru-iddina,
Nusku kalû of Sîn and the
king)

Table 18: Cult places of Sîn in Babylonia and Assyria (continued)

IV. Conclusions
The preceding chapters have been an attempt to fulfil the demanding task of de-
scribing the theologies and the cults of the moon god Sîn during the Neo-Assyri-
an and Neo-Babylonian periods. As already noted in the introduction to this
study, the theological concepts surrounding Sîn in the available cuneiform
sources are by no means limited only to his role as the god of the moon, but he
shared numerous abilities and powers with other deities of the Mesopotamian
pantheon depending on the context. Despite this, it is certainly not inaccurate to
state that his nature as the moon god was the elementary core of his divine per-
sonality to which a multiplicity of additional aspects can be added. The fact that
there was no distinction between the moon god Sîn and the moon as a celestial
object is clear from the cuneiform sources, as the discussion in Chapter II.1
shows. Like the cult images of the moon god, the anthropomorphic statues as
well as the crescent moon emblems, the moon was considered to be a manifesta-
tion of the god Sîn, making him approachable anywhere under the open sky.
Most of Sîn’s attested qualities can be divided into two main categories: his
character as the celestial deity and his abilities as the patron god of his home cit-
ies. Out of these, the descriptions of, or references to, celestial aspects outweigh
the sources that detail the capacities of Sîn in his cult cities. The emphasis on the
nature of Sîn as the moon begins with his principal names and epithets (see
Chapter II.2). The name Sîn/Suen, already attested in the 3rd millennium BCE,
was the dominant name of the moon god and the moon in the Akkadian context.
In the sources deriving from the 1st millennium BCE, the numeric spelling d30
was the most common way to write this name, although the logogram dEN.ZU
was also used. In addition to the normal Akkadian form Sîn, the name had the
form Sī’ or Sē’ in West Semitic contexts. The noun nannāru, “luminary”, was
both an appellation and an epithet of Sîn (Chapter II.2.2). As an epithet, it was
used either alone or as a part of a more elaborate epithet (e.g. nannār šamê u er-
ṣeti, “luminary of the heaven and the earth”). Although the noun nannāru de-
rived from the verb nawāru, “to be bright”, the spellings that were used to write
it demonstrate that it was commonly associated with the name of the Sumerian
moon god, Nanna. Furthermore, it is plausible that it was associated with the
waxing moon of the first half of the lunar cycle. A strong argument in support of
this interpretation is the equation of the crescent moon (Sum. u4-sakar) with nan-
nāru. The noun “crescent” (Akk. uskāru) was itself never used as an epithet for
Sîn, but it rather referred to crescent-shaped objects, such as his crescent em-
blem (Chapter II.2.3). In the form of this emblem, the moon god was made man-
ifest in various media ranging from his divine crescent standard to the crescent
shaped amulets used for therapeutic purposes, as well as elements of icono-
graphy and monumental architecture. Three different forms of Sîn’s crescent are
attested in the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian sources. The simple thin cres-
cent is ubiquitous in the iconography of cylinder and stamp seals. The variant in
440 IV. Conclusions

which the crescent moon forms a disc is also frequently encountered in symbolic
depictions of the main deities of the Assyro-Babylonian pantheon. During this
period, the crescent moon mounted on a pole – a divine manifestation of Sîn
equal to the anthropomorphic cult image – was associated especially with the
Ḫarranian moon god.
The metaphor of the moon as a boat or a barge that travels across the sky,
prominent already in Sumerian literature, was widely-used in names and epithets
for Sîn, and was also depicted in the iconography of cylinder seals (Chapter
II.2.4). The available sources indicate that the terms “the boat” and “the barge”
were both associated with the waxing crescent moon and the appellation nan-
nāru. In the case of the barge (makurru), the shapes that were associated with
the term in other contexts suggests that the epithet may refer to several different
lunar phases: the crescent, the half, the gibbous, and the full moon. In a similar
fashion, the appellation “Fruit” for the moon god was associated with both the
beginning of the month and the days preceding the full moon (Chapter II.2.5). In
cases where the “Fruit” referred to the moon god on the days of the gibbous
moon, it was associated with the epithet “crown of splendour” (agê tašriḫti), an-
other description of the nearly-full moon (Chapter II.2.7). In general, the moon
as a crown is one of the most central lunar metaphors in the Sumero-Babylonian
sources (Chapter II.2.6). The lunar crown incorporates several different levels of
meaning. On the one hand it described the illuminated lunar disc as a crown in
the night sky, and on the other hand it referred to the moon god’s power to en-
dow royal insignia. In the astrological literature, the crown of the moon referred
either to the lunar disc or the lunar halo. Therefore, the description of the moon
god as the “lord of the crown” (bēl agê) related both to his control over the ap-
pearance of the lunar disc and his ability to endow the ruler with kingship.
The third principal name of the moon god was Dilimbabbar (Akk. Namraṣīt)
which refers to the white luminosity of the moon (Chapter II.2.9). This name
was relatively rare in the Akkadian texts of the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylo-
nian times, but was more often used in bilingual texts. There are some indica-
tions that this name may have specifically referred to the full moon, but the mat-
ter must remain unsettled due to the lack of indisputable evidence. In the case of
the appellation Ellammê, “radiant in me-powers”, the attestations of the name in
connection with lunar eclipses suggest an association with the full moon
(Chapter II.2.8)
Celestial luminosity was a central trait of the moon god. This underlined by
the names and epithets that describe him as a source of light or relate to his radi-
ance and luminosity (Chapter II.3). Moreover, the motifs in literary sources il-
lustrate that the moonrise was observed not only for the purpose of celestial
divination but that the moment when the moon illuminated the night sky was a
moment of joy for both the people and the animals. The luminosity of the moon
was associated with the notion of purity and holiness, and it represented the
 IV. Conclusions 441

awe-inspiring radiance that emanated from divine beings.

The lunar cycle forms the basis for the lunar month and, therefore, the moon was
central to time-keeping in Mesopotamia (Chapter II.4). In this respect, the reap-
pearance, transformation, and disappearance of the moon were significant since
they marked the boundaries of a single month and its main points. The establish-
ment of the moon’s movements and the lunar month was best illustrated mytho-
logically in the Enūma eliš, when Marduk created the heavenly bodies and fixed
their movements. Sîn’s powers relating to time are also emphasised by the refer-
ences to Sîn governing the night and determining the boundaries of temporal
units, especially the month (Chapter II.4.1). It should also be noted that this role
for Sîn was fundamentally connected to the similar character of the sun god
Šamaš, and these two deities were often depicted as the two forces holding
power over the two halves of a single diurnal cycle (night and day) and also re-
sponsible for setting the limits of the month and the year.
The most important stages in the Mesopotamian month are the beginning (re-
appearance of the crescent moon), the middle (opposition of the moon and the
sun during the full moon), and the end (invisibility of the moon). Moreover, the
phases of the waxing and waning half moon were significant. These stages are
reflected in the days associated with the moon god in Mesopotamian hemerolo-
gical and cultic traditions. The general trend was for the moon god to receive of-
ferings, take part in specific rituals, or to be active in some other way, at inter-
vals of seven days (Chapter II.4.2). The 13th day of each month was dedicated to
Sîn, as shown by lists of monthly festivals and hemerological texts. In addition,
individual days without explicit lunar association were linked to the moon god:
for example, according to hemerological tradition, one should give a gift to Sîn
on the 3rd day of Araḫsamnu.
During the Neo-Assyrian period, a theological idea about the moon god and
his powers during the first fifteen days of the lunar cycle surfaced in two differ-
ent contexts: in scholarly explanatory works and in inscriptions issued by As-
surbanipal and Nabonidus (Chapter II.5). First, this so-called “Theology of the
Moon” is prominent in scholarly texts that explained the correspondences of the
different lunar phases. These texts made it clear that during the first half of the
lunar month Sîn was considered to hold the divine powers (Sum. ĝarza; Akk.
parṣū) of the supreme triad Anu (crescent moon), Ea (half moon), and Enlil
(gibbous and full moon). The meaning of such a statement involved the moon
god encompassing the highest divine powers in the cosmos during this part of
the month. Importantly, the supreme powers of Anu, Ea, and Enlil were associ-
ated with divine decision-making, and therefore this notion must have been re-
lated to lunar divination. On the other hand, by taking hold of the supreme
powers in the cosmos, Sîn became the supreme deity – a notion that must also
have been linked to the “Theology of the Moon”. Both these aspects, divine
442 IV. Conclusions

decision-making and the supreme character of Sîn, most likely were of signific-
ance in the references to the “Theology of the Moon” in the inscriptions of As-
surbanipal and Nabonidus. The section in the Ḫarrān Stele of Nabonidus that
ascribes the supreme divine powers to Sîn has long been known, and it is often
cited as proof for Nabonidus’ reverence for him. However, the citation from the
“Theology of the Moon” in one of Assurbanipal’s inscriptions for the temple
Eḫulḫul demonstrates that this text was used to praise the Ḫarranian moon god
long before Nabonidus reigned, and it undermines the often repeated idea that
Sîn’s association with Anu, Ea, and Enlil in Nabonidus’ Ḫarrān Stele must in-
dicate the promotion of the moon god to the head of the Babylonian pantheon.

As one of the highest ranking deities in the Sumero-Babylonian pantheon, Sîn is

one of the authorities who made divine decisions and decreed fates (Chapter
II.6.1). His powers in this respect were praised by epithets such as pāris purussê,
“decision maker”, and by his aforementioned association with the triad Anu, Ea,
and Enlil, who exerted supreme power over the cosmos. This aspect is inher-
ently linked with the nature of Sîn as the moon god because the decisions made
by Sîn or other deities in the divine assembly were made manifest in the lunar
disc (Chapter II.6.2). Sîn’s powers as a divine decision-maker and the signs sig-
nalling his will are prominent in royal inscriptions and other sources concerning
the Assyrian or Babylonian kings: because lunar divination concerned the king
and his land, any favourable signs from the moon signalled the moon god’s be-
nevolence (and the benevolence of similarly powerful deities) towards the ruler.
Correspondingly, unpropitious lunar omens revealed a disturbance in the rela-
tionship between the king and the gods who held the fates in their hands. As the
correspondence from the royal court at Nineveh shows, the signs of the moon
were diligently observed and reported to the court. Of particular importance
were the reappearance of the moon at the beginning of the month and the oppos-
ition of the moon and the sun during the full moon. In this respect, the corres-
pondence of the lunar cycle to the ideal month of 30 days was a central notion in
lunar astrology, but other aspects, including the appearance of the lunar disc,
were significant. The evil that was announced by an unpropitious sign from the
moon could be warded off by the performance of a namburbi-ritual. A further
option was the performance of a ritual that was designated IGI.DU8.A d30 ḪUL
SIG5.GA, “to make an unpropitious appearance of Sîn good” (Chapter II.6.2.1;
see also the edition of the text K. 6018+// on p. 497ff. below). This procedure
aimed at dissipating Sîn’s anger and the subsequent restoration of the human-di-
vine relationship.
In comparison to the observations of the moon’s day-to-day appearance, a
lunar eclipse constituted an extreme sign of divine displeasure, connoting the
disruption of the cosmic order due to the darkening of the moon (Chapters
II.6.2.2–II.6.2.3). An eclipse was considered to have been established either by
 IV. Conclusions 443

Sîn or other decision-making deities and, therefore, it was a sign of problems in

the relationship between the ruler and the deities who would normally support
him. A different concept is presented in the 16th tablet of the series Udug-ḫul, ac-
cording to which the moon became eclipsed not by his own will but due to an
external attack by demons. Regardless of the cause, a lunar eclipse, possibly
portending the demise of the king or destruction of his land, meant that the king
had to be protected by elaborate procedures. In the case of direct danger, a sub-
stitute king (šar pūḫi) was enthroned, but other, less extreme methods to ward
off the evil of the eclipse and to appease the deities also existed.
Lunar astrology was the main field of divination in which Sîn was actively
present, but his influence also extended to other divinatory practices. The
sources detailing his role in the context of extispicy are scarce, but it is evident
that, as one of the great gods taking part in the divine assembly, Sîn had a role in
establishing the divine verdicts made manifest in the innards of the sacrificial
animals (Chapter II.6.3). In the rituals of the bārû, Sîn, together with other celes-
tial deities, received offerings, and he was implored to enter the place of the ver-
dict. Moreover, some ikrib-prayers to Sîn, performed during the extispicy ritual,
are preserved (see the edition of K. 2751+// on p. 483ff. below). The epithets
that were used to praise Sîn in this context stress his abilities as a divine deci-
sion-maker, protector/giver of kingship, and the first-born son of Enlil. Further-
more, the preserved rubrics in the collection of ikrib-prayers to Sîn (K. 2751+//)
suggest that different lunar phases were significant to the choice of prayer to be
performed.
Receiving divine signs through dreams, oneiromancy, was the last notable
branch of divination in which the moon god was active (Chapter II.6.4). In this
context, his role was undoubtedly connected with his status as a prominent noc-
turnal deity. Moreover, luminosity was a trait shared by the deities who promin-
ently appear in Mesopotamian dream rituals. In these rituals, Sîn was ap-
proached for a sign of reconciliation between the petitioner and their personal
deities, and the dream god Zaqīqu was depicted as a proxy between Sîn and the
petitioner. The available references to the particular dates on which dream rituals
should be performed before the moon suggest that the days around the middle of
the month (during the phases of the gibbous and full moon) were suitable for the
performance. In royal inscriptions, both Assurbanipal and Nabonidus referred to
messages relating to kingship and temple building received from the moon god
in dreams. Furthermore, Nabonidus’ reference to celestial signs observed in
dreams indicates that the position and appearance of the moon and other celesti-
al bodies conveyed messages from the gods also in dreams.

The significance of lunar divination is one of the reasons why the moon god is
associated with kingship, but other aspects can also be observed in this respect
(Chapter II.7). Importantly, he had the status of the divine king in the local theo-
444 IV. Conclusions

logical framework of his cult cities, Ur and Ḫarrān (Chapter II.7.1). The notion
of the moon god as local “king of the gods” becomes especially important as his
praise in the inscriptions of Assurbanipal, Sîn-balāssu-iqbi, and Nabonidus is
considered. In the case of Nabonidus this contextualisation gives a good reason
to doubt the validity of the often repeated claim that the moon god was pro-
moted by him at the expense of the chief Babylonian deity Marduk.
Sîn was considered to be one of the Sumero-Babylonian deities who en-
dowed and protected kingship: Sîn as the “lord of the crown” was able to give
the crown and sceptre to the king (Chapter II.7.2). Sîn’s protection and support
for the ruler is expressed by propitious signs of the moon, signifying order in the
cosmos. The renewal and continuity of the lunar cycle also symbolised the re-
newal and continuity of the king’s reign. In respect to cosmic order, the relation-
ship of the moon and the sun, Sîn and Šamaš, was important in Mesopotamian
royal ideology (Chapter II.7.3). The regular cycles of the moon and the sun em-
bodied stability and order, and the propitious conjunction and opposition of
these two celestial bodies signified divine benevolence toward the king. The
moon god’s role as the patron of the king becomes especially prominent with the
emergence of theophoric royal names with the element Sîn during the reign of
the Sargonid kings: the exceptional throne names Sîn-aḫḫē-erība (Sennacherib)
and Sîn-šarru-iškun suggest that such names had become suitable for the ruling
king (Chapter II.7.4). In addition, several personal names, chiefly from the same
period, evoked the moon god as a protector of the king – a detail that underlines
Sîn’s role as one of the deities who support and protect the ruler.

Also, the association of the moon god with fecundity, growth, and animals was
related to both his celestial nature and his role in the local cults in Ur and Ḫar-
rān. The role of the moon as a source of fertility is, of course, found in most cul-
tures around the globe, and likewise in Akkadian prayers Sîn was praised as the
provider of offspring. Moreover, he was thought to offer help when childbirth
was difficult, as the mythological passage in the incantation Cow of Sîn exhibits
(Chapters II.8.1–II.8.2). On the other hand, in the local cults in Ur and Ḫarrān,
the divine pair Sîn and Ningal/Nikkal had the status of a father and a mother
who brought their divine children into being, and who also continued to secure
abundant resources to nourish their city. The affinity of the moon god to cattle
was linked to several theological notions (Chapter II.8.3). In his local cult in Ur,
cattle and milk products played an important role, which becomes apparent es-
pecially in connection with his son Ningublaga (god of herding and cattle) and
his housekeeper Nin(e)igara (goddess of dairy products). The connotation of
bovine imagery to fertility and fecundity – exemplified by Cow of Sîn – should
also be taken into consideration. Moreover, the moon as a celestial phenomenon
was described with bovine metaphors: the moon was the shepherd of celestial
cows (the stars), the crescent moon had horns, and the lunar halo was described
 IV. Conclusions 445

by both the terms “sheepfold” (supūru) and “cattle pen” (tarbaṣu). In addition to
the association of the moon god with domesticated cattle, there are some indica-
tions that wild animals, especially the gazelle and the ibex, have a special con-
nection to him (Chapter II.8.4). One plausible explanation for such a connection
is that these animals’ horns were associated with the crescent moon. Significant
in this respect is also the moon’s general affiliation with the wilderness: because
of his celestial nature, the moon god made himself manifest not only in the urb-
an centres and their sanctuaries, but also in the uninhabited regions.

The concepts of celestial (supra-regional) and local theological notions are also
useful in describing the moon god’s role as a divine guarantor of contracts, oaths
sworn by his name, and curses that name him as the executor of divine punish-
ments. The first two of these, acting as the divine guarantor of contracts and
having oaths sworn by his name, was specifically connected with his cult cities.
This aspect is particularly visible in Neo-Assyrian sources in which references
to Sîn of Ḫarrān as the guarantor of contracts are well-attested, both in textual
sources and artistic representations (Chapter II.9.1). Likewise, the penalty
clauses in Neo-Assyrian contracts that named the moon god as the receiver of
donations – be it silver/gold, animals, or human servants – almost always spoke
of the Ḫarranian moon god (Chapter 2.9.2.2). Such a direct link to the local cult-
ic context is not apparent in the attested curse formulae that name Sîn (II.9.2.1).
Particularly the curse motif that threatens leprosy inflicted by Sîn was wide-
spread both in Assyria and Babylonia.

In the context of illness and healing, the moon god played a restricted role in
comparison to many other major deities of the Sumero-Babylonian pantheon.
Diagnostic and therapeutic texts reveal that he was thought to cause certain
types of symptoms. One group of such symptoms is formed by epileptic seizures
and feverish trembling, both involving involuntary body movements (Chapter
II.10.1). Sîn did not function alone in afflicting people with epilepsy or fever; he
commanded the demons Bennu (epilepsy) and Lamaštu (fever) to attack the vic-
tim. Another group of diseases or symptoms considered to be a sign of Sîn’s an-
ger is formed by afflictions of the skin (Chapter II.10.2). The association
between leprosy and the moon god is demonstrated by the widespread curse for-
mula that threatens with leprosy caused by Sîn. References in diagnostic and
therapeutic texts further suggest that red pustules, boils, and lesions were partic-
ular signs of Sîn’s “hand”. To a lesser extent, the moon god appears to have been
associated with night-blindness and day-blindness through his luminosity
(Chapter II.10.3). The centrality of Sîn’s association with epileptic symptoms
and skin diseases in Mesopotamian conceptions of illness is suggested by the
fact that he is beseeched as a part of therapies for epilepsy and leprosy: because
he was the cause of the malady, he was able to relieve the patient from it. Apart
446 IV. Conclusions

from these instances, however, Sîn played a diminutive role in therapeutic pro-
cedures (Chapter II.10.4).

The theologies concerning the members in the moon god’s household (Chapter
II.11) present a prime example of plurality created by local traditions as opposed
to supra-regional notions. There are notions that are ubiquitous in Babylonian
and Assyrian theologies, and one of them is the status of the moon god as the
first-born son of the god Enlil (Chapter II.11.1). It should be noted that the fath-
er-son relationship between Sîn and Enlil is highlighted in the context of divine
decision-making, which suggests that this aspect of Sîn’s authority was inherited
from his father, the king of the gods. Also Ningal/Nikkal is omnipresent as the
wife of the moon god (Chapter II.11.2). In this role, she acts as the mistress of
Ur and Ḫarrān, and as a compassionate intermediary between human petitioners
and her husband. The differences between the theological traditions become ap-
parent in connection with the moon god’s children. As attested by epithets and
other sources, the two foremost children of the moon god, in the broader
Sumero-Babylonian theological tradition, are the sun god Utu/Šamaš and the
Venus goddess Inanna/Ištar – a genealogy that undoubtedly is based on the ce-
lestial character of all three (Chapters II.11.3–II.11.4). Ištar’s status as Sîn’s
daughter is also reflected in the status held by Nanaya and Anunītu, the two god-
desses that syncretised with Ištar in the 1st millennium BCE (Chapters II.11.4.1–
II.11.4.2).
Different conceptions can, however, be observed in the local cults in Ur and
Ḫarrān, where the gods Ningublaga and Nusku, respectively, had the position of
moon god’s son. In Ḫarrān, Nusku, the god of the lamp, was venerated as the
moon god’s son and vizier (Chapter II.11.5). This is the same role that Nusku
occupied as the son and vizier of Enlil in Nippur and the vizier of Aššur in As-
sur. In Ur, the god Ningublaga was the son of the moon god: he was in charge of
herding and cattle, and his wife, Nin(e)igara, who is associated with dairy
products, was the housekeeper of the moon god (Chapter II.11.6). The bulk of
references to these two deities derive from the 3rd and 2nd millennium BCE, but
their status in the theological framework in Ur is still reflected in the literary
sources of the 1st millennium BCE. It is clear, however, that Ningublaga be-
longed to the moon god’s household in Uruk, likely modelled after the cult in
Ur, still in the Hellenistic period. Sîn’s vizier (sukkallu), Alamuš, is also associ-
ated with Ur, though he is rarely mentioned in Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babyloni-
an sources (Chapter II.11.7). Importantly, Alamuš acted as the messenger
between the diviner (bārû) and Sîn in the ikrib-prayers, thus fulfilling his role as
the vizier. Further members of the moon god’s household in Ur were the god-
desses Amarazu and Amaraḫea, who in the 1st millennium BCE are attested only
in god-lists and bilingual adjurations (Chapter II.11.8). The mother goddess Bē-
let-ilī, the elder sister of Sîn, is not attested as a part of the moon god’s house-
 IV. Conclusions 447

hold in any of his local cults, but she took a prominent position as his partner in
the royal hemerology Inbu bēl arḫi (Chapter II.11.9).

As shown in the overview of Sîn’s cults in Assyria and Babylonia, he was vener-
ated in several cities in the southern and northern parts of Mesopotamia. In his
cult cities Ur and Ḫarrān, the moon god was the head of the local pantheon and
the tutelary deity of the city. It is clear that the worship of the moon god in the
city of Ur and its vicinity goes back at least to the emergence of written sources,
and this tradition continued into the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods
(Chapters III.1–III.6). The documentation from this period concerning the moon
god’s temple complex in the city, Ekišnugal, is unfortunately very meagre, and
only sporadic references to the temple are found in private documents of the
Persian period. Therefore, the bulk of available information is focused on the
building activities of the local governor Sîn-balāssu-iqbi, as well as the Babylo-
nian kings Nebuchadnezzar II and Nabonidus; their inscriptions detail the recon-
struction of individual buildings within the temple complex (the ziqqurrat
Elugalĝalgasisa, Ningal’s temple, the sanctuary Edublamaḫ, and the Eĝipar of
the entu-priestess) as well as the rebuilding of the temple Ekišnugal in general.
Elsewhere in Babylonia, the moon god Sîn appears to have been mainly ven-
erated in the temples of his family members. He is attested to have enjoyed a
cult in Nippur, the city of his father Enlil, already by the Early Dynastic period,
and his veneration is still exhibited in the sources from the 1st millennium BCE
(Chapter III.2.1). In this context, the influence of myth and genealogical rela-
tionships on the cult is particularly apparent because the deities who are housed
in the moon god’s sanctuary are mythologically connected with him. Moreover,
the names of the moon god’s sanctuaries in Nippur (Ekišnugal, Edublamaḫ)
demonstrate a link to his cult in Ur.
In Uruk, the city of Sîn’s daughter Ištar, three different manifestations of the
moon god were venerated during the Neo-Babylonian period (Chapter III.2.2).
First, documents from the temple administration attest to offerings that were de-
livered to the “house of Sîn” (bīt Sîn), which may be identical to the sanctuary
Edumununa that is attested during the Hellenistic period. Second, a manifesta-
tion of the moon god known by the name “Sîn-of-Heaven” (Sîn-ša-šamê) plaus-
ibly was a minor deity in the temple Eana of Ištar. Third, the manifestation “Sîn-
of-the-Courtyard” (Sîn-ša-kisalli), was most likely housed in the courtyard of
Eana.
In Sippar, which was the cult city of both the sun god Šamaš and the goddess
Anunītu, the cult of the moon god is well-attested in the Old Babylonian period,
but in the later times, references to it are only found in sources dating to the
reign of Nabonidus (Chapter III.2.3). In the available documentation, Sîn is
found in the entourage of his daughter Anunītu, which suggests that he was ven-
erated in connection with her. Attestations from the Persian period exhibit two
448 IV. Conclusions

further manifestations of the moon god: “Sîn-of-Heaven” (Sîn-ša-šamê) and Sîn

who resides in the palace of the crown prince. It should also be noted that Sîn’s
status as the father of Šamaš and Anunītu in the context of Sippar was stressed
in the inscriptions of Nabonidus. During the Old Babylonian period, the moon
god was also venerated in Larsa, another cult city of Šamaš, but it remains un-
clear if this tradition continued into the Neo-Babylonian period (Chapter III.2.4).
The presence of the moon god’s cult in Babylon can be traced back to the
Old Babylonian period, when the city became a political and religious centre
(Chapter III.2.5). Like the temple of Sîn in Nippur, his temple in Babylon,
Ekišnugal, adopted its name from Ur, which suggests that the veneration of Sîn
reflected Babylon’s status as the new focal point in the land. During the Neo-
Babylonian period, the temple Ekišnugal of Sîn in Babylon is referred to by
Nebuchadnezzar II in connection with his rebuilding work in the city, and it is
possible that it was located in the quarter Kullab in the northeastern part of the
city. A sanctuary known by the names Enitendu or Enitena is also attested to
have belonged to Sîn in Babylon, but its location remains unknown. One possib-
ility is that this was a sanctuary of Sîn within the temple Eturkalama of the local
Ištar-manifestation, Bēlet-Bābili. Therefore, Babylon appears to be the only
Babylonian city where the cult of Sîn was not primarily associated with his
genealogical relationships, but with the city’s status as the political and religious
centre.
In Borsippa, the sanctuary Edimana of Sîn appears to have been located
within the temple Ezida (Chapter III.2.6). Otherwise, the references to the cult of
the moon god in the city are sporadic, and they all derive from the Persian peri-
od. Due to the lack of evidence, it cannot be known for sure whether Sîn was
venerated as the father of his daughter Nanaya in the city. Nevertheless, such a
context is plausible on the basis of the evidence from other Babylonian cities.

In Assyria, the centre of the moon god’s worship was Ḫarrān, located at the crit-
ical junction of trade routes along the river Baliḫ (Chapters III.3). The moon god
as the tutelary deity of Ḫarrān is assuredly attested in the Old Babylonian period,
but his cult in the area most likely had a much longer history. Because of the
lack of written documentation from the city and the fact that his temple has not
been unearthed in archaeological excavations, the information available about
the Ḫarranian moon god and his household must be primarily gleaned from the
inscriptions of Assurbanipal and Nabonidus, both of whom rebuilt the temple
Eḫulḫul in the city (Chapter III.3.2). The status of the god Nusku, the son of the
moon god in Ḫarrān, differentiates the Ḫarranian household of Sîn from his
household in other Assyrian or Babylonian cities (Chapter III.3.1) whereas the
status of the goddess Ningal/Nikkal, Sîn’s wife, creates a link between the
Sumerian tradition and the local one. It is plausible that Ištar and Šamaš were
also worshipped in connection with the moon god in this area, but explicit evid-
 IV. Conclusions 449

ence of this is lacking. The daily cult in Eḫulḫul remains completely clouded by
the lack of sources: the Neo-Assyrian royal correspondence and the archives in
Nineveh offer only sporadic references to cultic personnel of the Ḫarranian
moon god. Likewise, the celebration of the moon god’s akītu-festival in the city
is known from Neo-Assyrian royal correspondence, but the only assuredly-
known detail is that the procession to the akītu-house took place on the 17th day
of an unnamed month (Chapter III.3.3).
A specific feature that becomes visible in the sources from the reign of Sar-
gonid kings is the apparent juxtaposition of the national god Aššur and the Ḫar-
ranian moon god or their respective cities, Aššur and Ḫarrān (Chapter III.3.1).
This involves royal actions, such as the installation of Assurbanipal’s two youn-
ger brothers as šešgallu-officials in the mains temples of Aššur and Ḫarrān, as
well as theological statements, such as the equation of Sîn and Aššur in a com-
pendium that describes the akītu-festival in Aššur. It is impossible to pinpoint a
single reason for the juxtaposition of the moon god and Aššur, but several pos-
sibilities present themselves. First, the importance of Ḫarrān and the popularity
of its moon god in the surrounding area provided a tool for enforcing Assyrian
control in the region. Second, the appellation “Lord-Crown” for Aššur offered a
direct association between him and the moon god, who was “lord of the crown”.
Third, the position of Nusku as the son and vizier of both Sîn of Ḫarrān and
Aššur provided a further theological argument for their juxtaposition. A contrib-
uting factor may also be the hypothesised personal connection between the Sar-
gonid kings and Ḫarrān: it has been suggested that Sargon II, Sennacherib, Esar-
haddon, and Assurbanipal may have been linked with the city through their
family. Most importantly, it has recently been proposed that Ḫarrān was a place
where collateral lines of the Assyrian royal family resided and were active. Al-
though no definitive portrayal of the situation can be given here, it is clear that
Ḫarrān and its moon god had a special position in the political and religious con-
text of Assyria during the reigns of the Sargonid kings.
It should be stressed that Ḫarrān was not the only cult place of the moon god
in the Syro-Anatolian area. Although the cults of the Aramaic moon god remain
outside the scope of the present study, it must be noted that the moon god of the
town Elumu is identified with Assyro-Babylonian Sîn in a text that records the
recovery of a stolen village, and its dedication to the moon god by Assurbanipal
(Chapter III.3.4).
In the Assyrian heartland, cults of the moon god are attested only in the polit-
ical centres, which suggests that ideological concerns were a fundamental ele-
ment in the worship of Sîn. Nevertheless, it should be stressed that the mytholo-
gical-theological elements similar to those found in Babylonian cults must also
have been significant in the cults in Assyrian capital cities, but they often remain
undetected due to the nature of the available sources. First, in the city of Assur,
the double temple of Sîn and Šamaš was located in the northern part of the city,
450 IV. Conclusions

in the area that contained the palace and the other temples (Chapter III.4.1). In
the earlier phases of the temple, the cellas of Sîn and Šamaš were located op-
posite each other, thus presenting the moon and the sun in permanent opposition.
When the temple was rebuilt by Assurnaṣirpal II, the alignment of the cellas was
changed, but Sîn and Šamaš continued to share their house. The few references
to the deities living in this household emphasise the local character of Sîn’s cult
in Assur in comparison to the Babylonian cities: the deities named as members
of his household are strictly Assyrian.
In contrast to Assur, the setting of the moon god’s cult in Kalḫu appears to be
completely different (Chapter III.4.2). Here, the moon god shared a temple with
Ninurta, Ea, Adad, Šarrat-nipḫi, and Gula, which means that he was separated
from the sun god Šamaš in the city’s cultic topography. References to the moon
god in the context of Kalḫu are very few, but the available sources stress a cultic
connection between the weather god Adad and Sîn. Unfortunately, the details of
the theological framework or the daily cult are unknown.
A shared temple for Sîn and Šamaš is also attested in the last two Assyrian
capitals, Dūr-Šarrukīn and Nineveh. In the city built by Sargon II, Dūr-Šarrukīn,
the temple complex of Sîn, Šamaš, and Ningal was prominently located next to
the palace and the ziqqurrat (Chapter III.4.3). In addition to the temple’s promin-
ence in the citadel, a reference to Sîn of Dūr-Šarrukīn in a penalty clause sug-
gests that the moon god played a central role in the city’s cult and that he may
even have had the status of tutelary deity. Also worth noting is the exceptional
status held by the goddess Ningal in this context: instead of occupying a small
sanctuary inside Sîn’s temple, her cella equalled the cellas of her husband and
her son in size. In Nineveh, the earliest reference to the temple of Sîn and Šamaš
appears in an inscription of Sennacherib who executed extensive building pro-
jects in the city after it was made the new capital (Chapter III.4.4). The temple’s
location is not known for certain, but there are indications that it was grouped
with the houses of the other great gods and the palace. A significant detail in
Sîn’s cult in Nineveh is that, as in Ḫarrān, the god Nusku appears to have been a
member of his household, suggesting a possible Ḫarranian influence on his cult
during the reign of Assurbanipal at the latest. Moreover, in Nineveh, manifesta-
tions of the moon god were also housed in the sanctuaries of Aššur and Ištar. In
the latter case, the presence of Sîn and Ningal within Ištar’s temple serves indic-
ates of their genealogical relationship, demonstrating that mythological context
was apparent also in Assyrian cults of the moon god.

As this summary and the more detailed information in the preceding chapters
show, the sources from the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods describe
the moon god Sîn first and foremost as the moon, a celestial luminary that em-
bodies cosmic order and regulates time, conveys messages about the decisions
he or other deities have made, brings stability to the reign of the king, allows
 IV. Conclusions 451

people (and animals) to procreate, and afflicts them with epilepsy and skin dis-
eases (but also heals them, if he wills). He is present not only in cult images in
and around sanctuaries but also in the night sky, where he unceasingly makes
himself manifest from day to day, month to month; the jewel of heavens, sur-
rounded by rejoicing stars.
V. Text Editions
V.1. “Sîn 1”
The prayer “Sîn 1” (Mayer 1976, 408) is the most widely attested and the best
preserved among the Akkadian šu’ila-prayers to the moon god. The manuscripts
that contain it belong most notably to the purificatory ritual bīt rimki, performed
in response to a lunar eclipse, but it is attested also in the context of dream
rituals. The prayer highlights Sîn’s celestial luminosity and his power in divine
decision-making. The incipit of this prayer is cited in the bīt rimki rituals BBR
26, III 53 and K. 4494+, 23’ (see Ambos 2013a, 188 and the translation in
Farber 1987, 245–255), as well as in namburbi BM 121037 (CT 51 no. 190), r.
13’ (see Maul 1994, 458).

Manuscripts
A: K. 155, 1–28 (BMS 1; CDLI P393771)
B: K. 2823+K. 3332+K. 11347+K. 11722+K. 15427, 1–r. 8 (AOAT 34 no.
1; CDLI P394701)
C: Sm. 1382, 1’–4’ (AOAT 34 no. 2; CDLI P425889)
D: VAT 14060, 1’–r. 1’ (LKA 39)
E: SU 51/107, 19–r. 7 (STT 56)
F: Si. 18, 1’–r. 52462
G: Si. 884, 1–7 (Butler 1998, pl. 15a)
H: Si. 904, 1’–r. 4 (Butler 1998, pl. 15b)
I: BM 78432 = Bu. 88-5-12, 335, 1’–r. 4 (Langdon 1918, pl. 7; Butler
1998, pls. 1–2)
J: VAT 13854 (KAL 4 no. 66), 1’–r. 52463
K: K. 15528, r. 1–52464 (pl. 1; CDLI P401429)

Editions: King 1896, no. 1 (K. 155); Perry 1907, no. 2 (K. 155); Combe 1908,
no. 2 (K. 155); Ebeling 1953a, 6–9 (K. 155), Mayer 1976, 490–495
(“Sîn 1”); Butler 1998, 379–398 (“Shamash-shum-ukin Dream Ritual”)
Translations: Stephens 1950, 386; Falkenstein & von Soden 1953, 316–317;
Tallqvist 1938b, 121–122; Tallqvist 1947, 330; Tallqvist 1953, 106–
107; Leibovici 1962, 109–110; Labat 1970, 284–285; Seux 1976, 278–
280; Foster 2005, 760–761

2462
No copy of this tablet is available, but it is transliterated in Combe 1908, no. 6 (see
also Scheil 1902, 104). The transliteration here follows the collations made by W. von
Soden for the edition in Mayer 1976, 490–495.
2463
This fragment is likely to belong to the same tablet as VAT 14060 (here Ms D; see
Maul & Strauß 2011, 123).
2464
This fragment was identified and kindly brought to my attention by E. Jimenéz.
 V.1. “Sîn 1” 453

Literature: Sperl 1994, 221–223; Butler 1998, 149–150; Frechette 2012, 201–
208 and 269

Score transliteration
1 A1 ÉN d30 dNanna-ru ⌈šu⌉-⌈pu⌉-⌈ú⌉ [ ]
d d
B1 ÉN 30 Nanna-ru [ ]
E 19 ⌈ÉN⌉ d30 NAN[NA](or: ŠEŠ-[ru]) ⌈šu⌉-⌈pu⌉-⌈u⌉ S[AG.KAL
DIN]GIR.MEŠ
G1 [ š]u-pu-u SAG.KAL DINGIR.MEŠ

d
2 A2 30 ed-deš-šu-ú mu-nam-mi[r ]
d
B2 30 ed-deš-šu-ú ⌈mu⌉-[nam-mir ]
E 20 [ ] ⌈ed⌉-⌈deš⌉-⌈šú⌉-u mu-na-⌈mir⌉ uk-[l]u
G2 [ ] mu-nam-mir uk-li

3 A3 ša-ki-in na-mir-ti a-na UN.MEŠ [ ]

B3 ša-ki-in na-mir-t[i ]
E 21 [ n]a-⌈mir⌉-te ana U[N].MEŠ a-pa-[a-ti]
G3 [ ] UN.MEŠ a-pa-a-ti

4 A4 ana UN.MEŠ ṣal-mat SAG.DU uš-šu-ru šá-[ ]

B4 ana UN.MEŠ ṣal-mat SAG.DU [ ]
C 1’ [ ] ⌈uš⌉-⌈šu⌉-⌈ru⌉ [ ]
E 23 [ana UN.ME]Š ṣal-mat SAG.DU uš-šu-ru šá-r[u-ru-ka]
G4 [ ] uš-šu-rù šá-ru-ru-⌈ka⌉

5 A5 nam-rat UD.DA-ka ina AN-e e[l?-lu?-ti?]

B5 nam-rat UD.DA-ka [ ]
C 2’ [ UD.DA-k]a ina AN-e [ ]
E 22 [nam-ra]t UD.DA-⌈ka⌉ ina ⌈AN⌉-e e[l?-lu?-ti?]
G5 [ i]na AN-e e[l?-lu?-ti?]

6 A6 šar-ḫat di-pa-ra-ka GIN7 dGìra ḫ[i? ]

B6 šar-ḫat di-pa-[r]a-ka G[IN7 ]
C 3’ [ -k]a GIN7 dGìr[a ]
E 24 [šar-ḫa]t UD.DA-ka GIN7 dGìra x [ ]
d
G6 [ G]IN7 Gìra x [ ]

7 A7 ma-lu-ú nam-ri-ru-ka KI-ta DAG[AL-ta]

B7 ma-lu-ú nam-ri-ru-ka KI-t[a ]
C 4’ [ -r]u-ka [ ] (rest broken away)
E 25 [ma-lu]-⌈u⌉ nam-ri-ru-ka ⌈KI⌉-tim DA[GAL-ta]
454 V. Text Editions

G7 [ nam-ri-ru-k]a KI-tim D[AGAL ] (rest of the

obverse broken away)
I 1’ [ K]I-⌈ta⌉ [ ] ⌈ti?⌉

8 A8 šar-ḫa UN.MEŠ ug-da-šá-ra ana a-ma-ri ka-[a-ta]

B7 [ ]
?
F1 [ r]a ana a-ma-ri ka-[a-ta]
I 2’ [ ] ana a-⌈ma⌉-ri ka-a-ta

8a E 26 [ ] x DINGIR-ut-ka ú-paq-⌈qu⌉(-)ka(-)x [ ]

d
9 A9 A-num AN-e šá la i-lam-ma-du mì-lik-šú ma-a[m-man]
B8 ⌈d⌉A-num AN-e šá la [ ]
E 27 [la i]-lam-ma-du mi-lik-šú kab-[tu? ]

10 A 10 šu-tu-rat UD.DA-ka GIN7 dUTU bu-uk-ri-[ka]

B9 [šu-tu-ra]t UD.DA-ka [ ]
D 1’ [ -k]a GIN7 ⌈d⌉[UTU ]
E 28 [ UD].⌈DA⌉-⌈ka⌉ ⌈GIN7⌉ ⌈dUTU⌉ [ ] (edge)

11 A 11 [k]ám-su ⌈IGI⌉-⌈ka⌉ ⌈DINGIR⌉.⌈MEŠ⌉ ⌈GAL⌉.⌈MEŠ⌉

EŠ.BAR KUR.KUR GAR-in ina IGI-k[a]
B 10–11 [ -s]u? I[GI?-ka ]/
[EŠ.B]AR KUR.[KUR ]
D 2’ [ EŠ.BA]R
KUR.KUR GAR-in [ ]
E r. 1–2 [ ] IGI!-ka DINGIR.MEŠ G[AL.MEŠ] /
[ šá]-⌈kin⌉ ina IGI-[ka]

11a A 12 ina UGU AN.MI d30 šá ina ITI NENNI UD NENNI GAR-
n[u]
B 12 [ UG]U AN.M[I ]
11b A 13 UGU Á.MEŠ GISKIM.MEŠ ḪUL.MEŠ NU DU10.MEŠ šá
ina É.GAL-MU u KUR-MU GÁL-a
B 13–14 [UG]U Á.[MEŠ ]/
[šá] ina É.GA[L ]
11c D 3’ [ana-ku I.dAN.ŠÀR–D]Ù–A DUMU [DINGIR-šú]
11d D 4’ [šá DINGIR-šú dAš-šur] diš-tar8-šú dAš-šur-⌈i⌉-[tum]
11e D 5’ [pal-ḫa-ku a]d-ra-ku u šu-ta-d[u-ra-ku]

12 A 14 DINGIR.MEŠ GAL.MEŠ i-šal-lu-ka-ma SUM-in mil-ka

B 15 [DINGIR].M[EŠ ]
D 6’ [ i-šal]-lu-ka-ma SUM-in [ ]
 V.1. “Sîn 1” 455

13 A 15 uš-bu pu-ḫur-šú-nu uš-ta-mu-ú ina KI.⌈TA⌉-⌈ka⌉

B 16 [u]š-[bu ]
D 7’ [ pu-ḫur-šú-n]u uš-ta-mu-u ina K[I.TA-ka] (rest of the
obverse broken away)

d
14 A 16 30 šu-pu-ú šá É-kur i-šal-⌈lu⌉-⌈ka⌉-⌈ma⌉ ta-mit
DINGIR.MEŠ SUM-[i]n
d
B 17–18 [30 i-šal-lu]-k[a]-ma /
t[a-mit S]UM-in
E r. 3 [ ] i-šal-⌈lu⌉-ka ta-nam-[din]
J 1’ [ i-šal]-⌈lu⌉-[ka-ma ]

14a E r. 4 [ ] u dÍ-gì-gì ú-šat-lim-k[a ]

15 A 17 UD.NÁ.ÀM u4-um ta-mit-ti-ka pi-riš-ti DINGIR.MEŠ

G[AL.MEŠ]
B 19–20 U[D.NÁ.ÀM ta-mit]-ti-ka / p[i-riš-ti G]AL.MEŠ
E r. 5 [ u]4-um EŠ.BAR šá DINGIR.MEŠ [ ]
J 2’ [ u4]-⌈um⌉ ⌈ta⌉-⌈mit⌉-ti-ka p[i-riš-ti ]

15a E r. 6 [ina? ūm?] te-diš-ti i-qul-lu-ka [ ]

15b E r. 7 [ ]ixxxxx[ ]

16 A 18 UD.30.KÁ[M] i-sin-na-ka ⌈u4⌉-um ta-šil-ti DINGIR-ti-[ka]

B 21–22 [ i-sin-n]a-ka / [ t]i-ka
J 3’ [ i]-sin-na-ka u4-um t[a-šil-ti ]

d
17 A 19 DILI.⌈ÍM⌉(or: ⌈IM5⌉).BABBAR e-muq la šá-na-an ⌈šá⌉ la
i-lam-ma-du mi-lik-šú ma-a[m-man]
B 23–24 [ šá]-na-an /
š[á m]a-am-man
d
F2 N[amraṣīt e]-muq la ša-na-an ša la i-l[am-ma-du] mi-lik-šú
[ ]
I 3’–4’ [ e]-muq la šá-na-an /[ i-
lam-ma]-du ⌈mi⌉-lik-⌈šú⌉ mam-ma
J 4’–5’ [dDILI.Í]M(or: [IM]5).BABBAR e-muq [ ] /
[la i-l]am-ma-du mi-lik-š[ú ]

17a F3 ana-ku dGIŠ.NU11-MU-GI.NA Ì[R-ka]

d
I 5’ [ UTU]-MU-GI.NA ⌈ÌR⌉-ka

18 A 20 as-ruq-ka si-riq GI6 el-⌈lu⌉ aq-qí-ka re-eš-ta-a ši-kar [ ]

B 25–26 a[s-ruq-ka e]l-⌈lu⌉ /
456 V. Text Editions

aq-[qí-k]a re-⌈eš⌉-[ta-a ]
F 4–5 as-ruq-ka ši-riq mu-ši e[l-lu] /
aq-qi-ka re-eš-ta-a ši-kar [ ]
I 6’–7’ [ š]i-riq mu-ši el-la /
[ re]-eš-ta-a ši-kar da-áš-pa
J 6’–7’ [as-ruq]-ka se-er-q[u ] /
[ ] re-eš-ta-a ši-ka[r ]

18a F6 ina giš⌈GÁN⌉?.⌈LAGAB⌉? qud-du-ši MU-ka az-kur

I 8’ [ ]-ši MU-ka az-kur
18b E r. 8 [ ]-ka EN ina q[é-reb ]
F7 al-si-ka be-lí ina qé-reb AN-e K[Ù.MEŠ]
I 9’ [ be-l]í ina qé-reb AN-e KÙ.MEŠ
18c E r. 9 [ ] ana DI[N]GIR.MEŠ an-na-⌈a⌉? ⌈šu⌉-⌈te⌉-⌈šir⌉?

19 A 21 kám-sa-ku az-za-az a-⌈še⌉-’e-ka ka-⌈a⌉-[šá]

B 27 kám-[sa-k]u az-za-az ⌈a⌉-[še-’e ]
F8 [kam-sa]-ku a-za-az a-še-’e ka-a-[ ]
I 10’ [ az-za-a]z a-še-’e ka-a-šá
J 8’ [ az-za]-⌈az⌉ a-še-⌈’e⌉ [ ]

20 A 22 INIM.GAR dum-qí u mì-šá-ri GAR-un UGU-[ia]

B 28 INIM.[GAR du]m-qí u mì-šá-ri [ ]
F9 [ ] dum-qí u mi-ša-ri šu-kun UGU-[ia]
I 11’ [ ] u mi-šá-ri šu-kun UGU-ía
J r. 1 [ d]um-qí u mi-šá-ri GAR-u[n ]
21 A 23 DINGIR-MU u iš8-tár(i) ša iš-tu u4-um ma-du-ti is-bu-su
[ ]
B 29–r. 1 DINGIR-M[U u diš8-tá]r-⌈MU⌉ ⌈ša⌉ ⌈iš⌉-t[u ]
(edge) / is-bu-su UGU-[MU]
F 10 [ ] u d[ištarī] iš-tu u4-mu ma-a’-du-x is-bu-su
[ ]
I 12’ [ i]š-tu UD.MEŠ ma-a’-du-tú is-bu-su
⌈UGU⌉-⌈ía⌉
J r. 2–3 [ ] diš8-tár(i) ša iš-t[u ] / [ma-’-d]u-ti
is-bu-s[u ]

22 A 24 ina kit-ti u NÍG.SI.SÁ lis-li-mu KI-MU : ur-ḫi lid-mì-iq

pa-da!(tablet: iš)-ni l[i-šir]
B r. 2–3 ina kit-ti NÍG.SI.SÁ lis-li-[m]u KI-M[U] / ur-ḫi lid-mì-iq
pa-da-ni li-š[ir]
F 11 [ kit]-ti u m[i-ša-ri li]-is-li-mu [ ]
 V.1. “Sîn 1” 457

I 13’–14’ [ mi]-⌈šá⌉-ri li-is-li-mu KI-ía / [ ]

pa-da-nu li-šir
J r. 4–5 [ina kit-t]i u mi-šá-ri ⌈lis⌉-li-[mu] / [ -i]q pa-d[a]-⌈ni⌉ [
] (rest broken away)
K r. 1 [ pa-d]a-ni
li-š[ir]

23 A 25 ú-ma-’e-er-ma AN.ZA.GÀR DINGIR šá MÁŠ.GI6.[MEŠ]

B r. 4 ú-ma-’e-er-ma AN.ZA.[G]ÀR DINGIR šá MÁŠ.G[I6.MEŠ]
F r. 1 [ú-ma-’e]-er-ma AN.ZA.GÀR [ ]
H 1’ ú-ma-[’e-er-ma ] (edge)
I 15’ [ ] AN.ZA.GÀR DINGIR.MEŠ šá
MÁŠ.GI6.MEŠ (edge)
K r. 2 [ š]á MÁŠ.GI6.MEŠ

24 A 26 ina šat GI6 DU8.MEŠ ár-ni-ia5 lu-uš-me šèr-ti lu-ta-l[íl ]

B r. 5–6 ina šat GI6 DU8.MEŠ ár-[ni-ia5] /[lu-u]š-me šèr-ti l[u-t]a-líl
[ ]
F r. 2–3 [ mu]-ši-im li-paṭ-ṭi-ra [ ] / [lu-uš-
m]e šèr-ti lu-ta-líl [ ]
H r. 1–2 ina šat mu-ši-i[m ] / lu-uš-me šèr-[ti ]
I r. 1–2 [ -r]a [á]r-ni-⌈ia⌉ / [ lu-ta-
l]íl ana-ku
K r. 3–4 [ á]r-ni-ia5(erasure; written over the sign
ia) / [ lu-ta-lí]l ana-ku

25 A 27 ana dà-ra-ti lud-lul dà-lí-lí-[ka]

B r. 7 ⌈ana⌉ ⌈dà⌉-⌈ra⌉-⌈ti⌉ [lud-l]ul d[à-lí-lí-ka]
F r. 4 [ da]-ra-a-ti lud-lu-la da-li-li-ka
H r. 3 ana da-ra-a-ti lud-l[ul ]
I r. 3 [ lud-l]u-⌈la⌉ dà-lí-lí-ka
K r. 5 [ k]a (rest broken away)

26 A 28 KA.INIM.MA ŠU.⌈ÍL⌉.LÁ d+S[U]EN.[NA.KÁM]

d
B r. 8 KA.INIM.MA [ ]SU[EN].NA.KE4
D r. 1’ [KA.INIM.M]A ŠU.ÍL.LÁ N[ANNA?.KÁM]
d

F r. 5 [KA].INIM.MA ŠU.ÍL.LÁ dSUEN.NA.[KÁM]

H r. 4 KA.INIM.MA ŠU.ÍL.L[Á ]
I r. 4 [ ŠU].⌈ÍL⌉.LÁ d+SUEN.NA.KÁM
458 V. Text Editions

Translation
1 Incantation: O Sîn, the splendid luminary, the foremost of the gods!
2 O Sîn, the constantly self-renewing one, the one who illuminates the
darkness,
3 the one who provides light for the teeming mankind,
4 (down) to the black-headed people is your radiance released!
5 Bright is your glow in the r[adiant?] heavens,
6 glorious is your torch(var.: light [Ms E]), like Gira […]!
7 Your awesome radiance fills the wi[de] earth,
8 the people become filled with pride, they vie with each other to see you!
8a’: [...] they [...] heed your divinity!
9 O Anu of heaven, whose intent(var.: impo[rtant?] intent [Ms E]) no one can
comprehend,
10 your light is supreme like Šamaš, [your] first-born son!
11 The great gods [k]neel before you, the decision(s) of all the lands are
put before you!
11a Because of the lunar eclipse that happen[ed] of the month so-
and-so, day so-and-so,
11b because of ill-boding (and) unpropitious omens and signs that
have come into being in my palace and in my land:
11c [I am Assurba]nipal, son [of his god]
11d [whose god is Aššur and] whose goddess is Aššurī[tum]
11e [I am afraid, I] am frightened and [I am in p]anic!
12 The great gods ask you and you give counsel,
13 they sat in their assembly, they deliberated at your feet.
14 O Sîn, the splendid one of Ekur, they ask you and you give the response
of the gods!
14a [The Anunnakū] and Igigū gods granted yo[u ...]
15 The day of disappearance is the day of your answer, the secret of the
great gods!
15a [on the day of?] renewal they pay attention to you [...]
15b [...]
16 The 30th day is your festival, the day of [your] divinity’s celebration!
17 O Namraṣīt, power without a rival, whose intent no one can
comprehend!
17a I am Šamaš-šumu-ukīn, your servant:
18 I have strewn the pure night-time offering for you, I have libated first-
class honey-sweet beer,
18a I sworn by you by (using) the purified ...!
18 b I invoke you, my lord, in the midst of radiant heavens!
18c [...] set? this straight? for the gods!
19 I am on my knees, I stand (here), I am seeking you,
 V.1. “Sîn 1” 459

20 grant me an oracle of goodness and righteousness!

21 My god and my goddess who have been angry with me since so many
days,
22 may they make peace with me in justice and equity! May my path be
good, may my road be straight!
23 I have ordered Zaqīqu, the god(var.: gods [Ms I]) of dreams so that
24 he may absolve my sins (for me) during the night! May I learn of my
misdeed, may I be cleansed!
25 Let me proclaim your glory for eternity!

26 Wording of a šu’ila-prayer to Sîn.

Commentary
1 In Ms E the epithet nannāru is written either as NAN[NA] or ŠEŠ-[ru].
The lack of the divine determinative does not help in deciding which of
these possibilities would be more likely here, since the other attestations
of similar spellings all include the determinative. dŠEŠ-ru is used for
nannāru in an ikrib-prayer to Sîn in K. 3794+, 13 (see the edition on p.
483ff. below) and dŠEŠ is found in the stele inscription of Bēl-Ḫarrān-
bēlu-uṣur, RIMA 3, A.0.105.2, 6. For a discussion of the epithet nan-
nāru for Sîn see p. 31ff. above.
5 In the edition by S. Butler the end of this line is restored as AN-e e[l!-
lu-ti] (Butler 1998, 382). W. Mayer left the end incomplete in his trans-
literation, but suggested the restoration D[AGAL.MEŠ] (Mayer 1976,
419). In my opinion, the traces present in Mss A, E and G support But-
ler’s suggestion. Moreover, there are no attestations of “wide heavens”
in CAD Š/1, 339–348 whereas the expression “radiant heavens” (or
“pure heavens”; see the discussion concerning the meaning of the ad-
jective ellu in Feder 2014, 87–113) appears often in connection with the
celestial deities (see e.g. Sîn’s epithets āsib šamê ellūti in CTN 4 no.
61+62, 3 and nannār šamê ellūti in K. 2884, 12).
6 There have been different suggestions for the restoration of this line (for
an overview see Butler 1998, 393). The most plausible are ḫi[-mi-iṭ-ka]
(Ebeling 1953a, 6; Mayer 1976, 491) and ru[š-ši] (Langdon 1918, 107;
Zimmern apud Perry 1907, 15). The first of these would therefore refer
to the heat of fire (CAD Ḫ, 193: ḫimṭu, “scorching; fever; anxiety”) and
the second to its colour (CAD R, 427: ruššû, “having a reddish sheen”).
Since no further attestations for the use of either of these expression in
connection with Sîn are known to me, the line is left here without a
restoration.
8a This is a variant line that replaces line 8’ in Ms E. In comparison to line
8’ in the other manuscripts, this line contains a masculine subject in-
460 V. Text Editions

stead of the feminine nišū. Butler 1998, 383 restores the adverb “con-
stantly” (ka-⌈a⌉-[a-na]) to the destroyed section of at the end of the
line – perhaps according to note 2 in Foster 2005, 760 – but no attesta-
tions of similar passages are known to me.
9 Mayer 1976, 492 suggests the restoration mi-lik-šú kab-[tú mamma(n)]
for the variant part in Ms E.
11a–e For the eclipse (attalû) formula see Mayer 1976, 100–102 and Butler
1998, 149.
14a It is possible that the Anunnakū and Igigū gods are present here as a
pair, but unfortunately it cannot be confirmed.
15–16 For the days of lunar invisibility described here see p. 122ff. above.
15a A possible reconstruction for this line could be [ina ūm] tēdišti iqullūka,
“they pay attention to you [on the day of] renewal”. It is clear that here
the line refers to the renewal and reappearance of the moon after the
days of its invisibility, therefore forming a logical continuation to the
previous line. Note also that the term tēdištu, “renewal”, is included in
the explanations for the logogram UD.NÁ.ÀM in the 2nd division of i-
NAM-ĝiš-ḫur-an-ki-a (K. 2164+, r. 12’–14’; see the citation on p. 123
above).
17 For discussion of the divine name Dilimbabbar see p. 71ff. above.
giš
18a GÁN.LAGAB? according to collation of W. von Soden (Mayer 1976,
493).
21 The reading iš8-tár(i) has been adopted from the edition of Ms J (VAT
13854) in KAL 4 no. 66. The use of a sign value with an appended
vowel (see MZL, 457–459) solves the problem of the missing possess-
ive suffix in Ms A (K. 155) discussed in Butler 1998, 394 (Ms A1 in
Butler’s edition).
23 The subject of the verb uma’’erma is not entirely clear. In previous edi-
tions it has been variously taken to be either an unspecified “he”, the
personal god of the supplicant, the moon god Sîn, or the petitioner him-
self (see the overview in Butler 1998, 394). Despite the preference to-
wards the moon god as the subject of the verb in the latest edition of
this prayer (see Butler 1998, 392 and 394), I agree with the previous
translations that saw the petitioner as the sender of Zaqīqu. This inter-
pretation is supported by the fact that Sîn is not named in this plea at the
end of the prayer. Also the form of petitions in general in Akkadian
šu’ila-prayers (imperative/precative address to the deity coupled with 1.
Sg. verbal forms) supports the interpretation that it is indeed the peti-
tioner who sends the dream god to act as a messenger between him and
the moon god.
24 The emendation lu-uš-lim!(me) in Butler 1998, 388 (adopted also in
Foster 2005, 761) cannot be correct, since it would mean that this “mis-
 V.1. “Sîn 1” 461

take” had occurred in four different manuscripts. The sign value limx for
ME given in Jaques 2015, 238 is not included in sign lists. The structure
of the line also supports the reading lušme: the object in each sentence
is presented after the predicate.
462 V. Text Editions

V.2. “Sîn 2”
The prayer “Sîn 2” (Mayer 1976, 408) is known only from a single Neo-Assyri-
an fragment from Nineveh. The remains of the first two lines of this prayer par-
allel the prayer “Sîn 1” (see the edition on p. 452ff. above), but the rest of the
preserved lines diverge from the wording of that prayer. Due to the fragmentary
nature of the manuscript the context of “Sîn 2” remains unknown. The only clue
is the formulation in line 3, which suggests that Sîn’s healing powers – espe-
cially in respect to epilepsy – were praised in this prayer.

Manuscript: K. 10151, 1–11 (Perry 1907, Taf. III; CDLI P398518; pl. 1)

Editions: Perry 1907, no. 7; Combe 1908, no. 11

Transliteration
1 ÉN d30 U4.SAKA[R ]
d
2 30 ed-de-š[u-u ]
3 DINGIR nam-ru muk-k[iš ]
4 nu-úr ma-a[-ti ]
d
5 DILI.ÍM.BABBAR šu-x [ ]
6 raš-bu d30 [ ]
7 MAS.SÙ-ú r[a?-bu?-u? ]
8 kab-tu šur-b[u-ú ]
9 IBILA gít-m[a-lu ]
10 [r]e-mé-nu-⌈ú⌉ [ ]
11 [d]30 x x [ ]
(rest broken away)

Translation
1 Incantation: O Sîn, the lumina[ry ]
2 O Sîn, the constantly rene[wing one ]
3 the brilliant god, the one who driv[es out ]
4 the light of the la[nd ]
5 O Namraṣīt, the ... [ ]
6 the awe-inspiring one, Sîn [ ]
7 the gr[eat?] leader [ ]
8 the supr[eme] venerable one [ ]
9 the perf[ect] heir [ ]
10 [the m]erciful one [ ]
11 O Sîn [ ]
(rest broken away)
 V.2. “Sîn 2” 463

Commentary
3 The last two signs were copied incorrectly as DÙ and K[I] in Perry
1907, Taf. III., leading to the reading kàl ir[ṣitim(?)] in his edition
(Perry 1907, 30). The verb akāšu, “to go; to move” in its D-stem form
(ukkušu, “to drive out”; see the attestations in CAD A/1, 264) is attested
in connection with Sîn in the context of epilepsy: in the prayer “Sîn 14”
he is begged to drive the epilepsy-causing demon Bennu away from the
body of the patient (“Sîn 14”, 9; see the edition on p. 479ff. below).
Therefore, it is plausible that by using the participle mukkiš in “Sîn 2”
the healing powers of Sîn were praised.
6 The adjective rašbu, “awe-inspiring; fearsome” is not otherwise attested
as one of Sîn’s epithets (see CAD R, 191–192). However, in a syn-
cretistic hymn to Marduk, the station of the moon in the sky is de-
scribed as awe-inspiring: [šá ina] AN-e man-za-as-su ra-áš-bu (KAR
337, r.? 9; see Lambert 1964, 12–13. Note that a new publication of this
hymn with duplicate manuscripts was planned by W. G. Lambert and I.
Finkel according to the information given in Schwemer 2001, 665 note
5519).
7 The epithet massû rabû is otherwise attested only in a reference to
Šamaš, and therefore it is uncertain whether or not it should be restored
here (see CAD M/1, 327–328).
8 The epithet kabtu, “important”, applied to the moon god is attested also
in SAA 12 no. 90, 2 and perhaps in K. 8759+, 11 (see the citation on p.
142 above). For the use of the adjective kabtu (“honoured, influental,
venerable”) as an epithet for deities, see CAD K, 26–27.
9 According to the attestations in CAD G, 111, the epithet aplu gitmālu,
“perfect heir”, is only attested in connection with Nabû.
464 V. Text Editions

V.3. “Sîn 3”
The prayer “Sîn 3” (Mayer 1976, 408) is attested in six different manuscripts
from Nineveh, Assur, and Ḫuzirīna (Sultantepe). It is evident from these manu-
scripts that this prayer was not performed for a specific purpose, but that it was
used in a variety of ritual contexts. The manuscript from Nineveh (Ms A) be-
longs to the cycle of prayers recited during the royal ritual bīt salā’ mê. In addi-
tion to the existence of this tablet, the incipit from “Sîn 3” is also found in the
tablet that outlines the performance of this ritual (see Ambos 2013a, 162; line B2
47). It is possible that Ms F was written for the same purpose since the organisa-
tion of the tablet corresponds to the structure of bīt salā’ mê: the prayer that fol-
lows “Sîn 3” is addressed to Gula (noted in Ambos 2013a, 203). The attribution
of Ms F to this ritual context cannot, however, be confirmed since the purpose of
the text is not stated in the tablet. The second explicitly attested context is thera-
peutic: two of the manuscripts from Ḫuzirīna (Sultantepe), Mss D and E, involve
healing procedures against epilepsy and also contain the prayer “Sîn 14” (see p.
479ff. below). It is also possible that “Sîn 3” is referred to in BAM 3 no. 244 – a
tablet that contains procedures for easing childbirth (BAM 3 no. 244, r. 69: [ÉN
d
30] na-nàr AN-e DIN[GIR? …]). Ms C from Assur gives no indications of its
context because it contains nothing other than the prayer to Sîn.

Manuscripts
A: K. 2106+K. 2384+K. 3393+K. 6340+K. 7146+K. 8605+K. 8983+K.
9576+K. 9688+K. 9754+K. 11589+K. 12911+K. 13792+K. 13800, 36–
70 (BMS 6; CDLI P394195)
B: K. 16342, 1–6 (AOAT 34 no. 17; CDLI P401954)
C: VAT 13681, 1–r. 22 (LKA 52)2465
D: SU 51/85+, 57–84 (STT 57+263)
E: SU 51/49, o.! 1–28 (STT 58)
F: SU 51/34, 1–29 (STT 59)

Editions: King 1896, no. 6 (K. 2106+); Perry 1907, no. 10 (K. 2106+); Combe
1908, no. 7 (K. 2106+); Ebeling 1953a, 44–47 (K. 2106+); Mayer 1976,
495–502 (“Sîn 3”); Ambos 2013a, 203–211 (K. 2106+)
Translations: Seux 1976, 280–282
Literature: Frechette 2012, 269–270

Score transliteration
1 A 36 ÉN d30 na-[ ]
B1 [ÉN] d30 na-n[àr ]
d
C1 [ 3]0 [ ]

2465
Collation of this tablet from a photograph was kindly made possible by S. M. Maul.
 V.3. “Sîn 3” 465

D 57 ÉN d30 dnán-na-ru AN-e e-tel-lu

E1 ÉN d30 dnán-an-ru ⌈AN⌉-e EN
d
F1 [ n]án-na-ru AN-e DINGIR e-tel-lu

2 A 37 ga-šir ina D[INGIR.MEŠ ]

B2 [g]a-šir ina DI[NGIR.MEŠ ]
C2 [gaš]-ru ⌈DINGIR⌉.⌈MEŠ⌉ [ ] x [x (x)]
D 57 ga-šir ina [DINGIR?] GAL.⌈MEŠ⌉
E1 ga-šir DINGIR.MEŠ [ ]
F1 ga-š[ir ]

3 A 38 LUGAL kib-r[a-a-ti ] E[N ]

B3 LUGAL UB.MEŠ [ ]
C3 [L]UGAL kib-rati ⌈AD⌉ ⌈DINGIR⌉.⌈MEŠ⌉ EN
⌈NAM⌉.L[Ú?.U18?]
D 58 ⌈LUGAL⌉ ⌈kib⌉-ra-a-ti a-bi DINGIR.MEŠ [EN a-m]e?-lu-
tum
E2 LUGAL kib-ra-ti a-bi DINGIR.MEŠ be-el [ ]
F2 [ ki]b-ra-a-ti a-bi DINGIR.MEŠ [ ]

4 A 39 a-šá-red A[N n]u-ú[r ]

B 4–5 SAG.KAL AN-[e ] / SAG.KAL d[Igigī?]
C4 ⌈a⌉-šá-red AN-e u ⌈KI⌉-ti[m] ⌈ZÁLAG⌉ ⌈d⌉[Í]-⌈gì⌉-⌈gì⌉
D 59 ⌈SAG⌉.KAL AN-e u KI-tim nu-úr dI-⌈gi4⌉-gi4
E3 [S]AG.KAL AN-e u KI-tim nu-úr dI-gi4-gi4
F3 [SA]G.KAL ⌈AN⌉-e u KI-tim nu-⌈úr⌉ dI-gi4-gi4 ⋮

5 A 40 šá nap-ḫar g[i ]
B6 ⌈ša⌉ ⌈nap⌉-⌈ḫar⌉ [ ] (rest broken away)
C5 ša [na]p-ḫar x (x) [g]i?-⌈mir⌉? x x x
D 59 nap-ḫar ⌈gi⌉-m[ir] a-pa-tú
E3 nap-ḫar gi-m[ir ]
F3 š[á ]

6 A 41–42 ina ba-li-k[a ] / [a]b?-ra-a-[ti? ]

C 6–7 ina NU.[ME].A-ka ⌈ul⌉ ⌈up⌉-⌈taḫ⌉-⌈ḫa⌉?-[r]a / ⌈UN⌉.ME[Š]
⌈sap⌉?-[ḫa?]-⌈a⌉?-⌈ti⌉?
D 60 ina ba-li-ka ul up-taḫ-ḫa-ra UN.MEŠ sa-ap-[ḫa]-ti
E4 [ina] ba-li-ka (erasure: AMAR) ul up-taḫ-ḫa-ra UNKIN sap-
ḫa-[ti]
F4 ina ba-⌈li⌉-ka ul up-taḫ-ḫa-ra [ ]
466 V. Text Editions

7 A 43 a-šar at-ta t[a-qab-bu-ú ]

C8 ⌈a⌉-šar at-ta taqa-b[u]-⌈u⌉ [ ]
D 61 a-šar at-ta ta-qab-bu-ú na-di-tum uš-⌈téš⌉-š[èr]
E5 a-šar [at]-ta [t]a-qab-bu-⌈ú⌉ na-di-tum u[š-téš-šèr]
F5 a-šar at-ta ta-qab-bu-ú n[a-di-tum ]

8 A 44 ma-aq-tum šá ⌈i⌉[-ni-šú ]
C9 [ma]-aq-tú šá i-ni-šú t[a-ṣab-bat ]
D 62 ma-aq-tú tu-⌈uš⌉?-ṭa-ba ta-ṣab-bat qa-a[s]-⌈s⌉u
E6 ma-aq-[tú?] i-ni-šu ta-ṣa-[bat ]
F6 ma-aq-ta šá i-ni-šu [ ]

9 A 45 di-in kit-ti ⌈u⌉ m[i-šá-ri ]

C 10 [di]-in kit-ti [ ]
D 63 di-in kit-tú u mi-šá-ri tu-šar-šá tu-šam-ḫar ⌈en⌉-šá
E7 di-in kit-t[e] u mi-šá-ri! tu-šar-šá tu-šam-ḫar [en]-šá
F7 di-in kit-ti u mi-šá-r[i x x (x)] x [ ]

10 46 šá ap-la l[a ]
C 11 [ša IBI]LA NU T[UKU ]
D 64 šá IBILA la i-šu-ú tu-šar-šá-a IB[IL]A
E8 šá IBI[LA] la i-šu-ú tu-⌈šar⌉-šá-a IB[I]LA
F8 šá IBILA la i-⌈šu⌉-ú [tu-ša]r-šá [ ]

11 A 47 la a-lit-tum ina b[a-li-ka ]

C 12–13 [NU a]-⌈lit⌉-[tum ] / [NUMU]N me-⌈re⌉-[e ul
DA]B?-[at?]
D 65 la a-lit-tum ina ba-li-ka NUMUN u me-e-re-e ul iṣ-ṣab-bat
E9 la a-lit-tum ina ba-li-ka NUMUN u me-e-re-e ⌈ul⌉ ⌈iṣ⌉-⌈ṣa⌉-
bat
F9 ⌈la⌉ a-lit-ta ina ba-li-k[a] ⌈NUMUN⌉ [u me-re]-e ul iṣ-⌈ṣab⌉-
⌈bat⌉

12 A 48 ša iš-te-né-’u-[ka ]
C 14 [šá] iš-te-’i-i-⌈ka⌉ [u]l ⌈i⌉-[ḫa-aṭ-ṭ]i? dum-[qí?]
D 66 šá iš-te-ne-’u-ú-ka ⌈ul⌉ i-ḫa-aṭ-ṭi dum-[q]í
E 10 šá iš-ta-na-ú-ka ul i-ḫa-a[ṭ-ṭ]i [du]m-qa
F 10 šá iš-⌈te⌉-⌈né⌉-⌈’u⌉-ú-ka u[l i-ḫa-aṭ-ṭ]i dum-⌈qí⌉

13 A 49 ⌈šá⌉ ka-a-šá i[t-ka-lu-ka ]

C 15 [š]á ana ka-a-šá tak-lu t[u]-kan iš-di-šú
D 67 šá a-na ka-a-šá it-ka-lu-[k]a? tu-ka-an iš-di-⌈šu⌉
 V.3. “Sîn 3” 467

E 11 [šá] a-na ka-a-šá it-ta-ka-lu-ka tu-ka-an [ ]

F 11 šá a-na ka-a-šá it-ka-lu-k[a tu]-ka-an iš-di-⌈šu⌉

14 A 50 ⌈la⌉ ⌈a⌉-⌈lit⌉-[tum tu-šá-aṣ]-⌈bat⌉

C 16 [l]a a-lit-tú ár-[ḫi]š? tu-šá-[a]ṣ-bat
D 68 la x x x x tu-[šá-aṣ-ba]t
E 12 [la] a-li-⌈ki⌉ ⌈pa⌉-na tu-šá-<<⌈šá⌉?>>-⌈aṣ⌉-bat
F 12 la a-⌈li⌉-kám! pa-na tu-šá-a[ṣ-bat]

15 A 51 [l]a le-⌈’a⌉-[ le-ú]-ti

C 17 la le-’a-⌈a⌉ ⌈ta⌉-[šá?-k]an ana re-e-ši
D 68 [l]a-a ⌈le⌉-⌈’a⌉-⌈a⌉ ⌈ta⌉-⌈šak⌉-⌈kan⌉ ana r[e]-⌈eš⌉?
F 12 [la]-a le-’a-a ta-[šá]-kan ana re-e-ši

16 A 52 [š]á is-saḫ-ru-k[a re]-e-ma

C 18 [š]á ⌈is⌉-ḫu-ru-ka ⌈ta⌉-⌈na⌉-[á]š-ši re-es-su
D 69 šá is-saḫ-⌈ru⌉-ka ta-⌈ra⌉-áš-ši ⌈re⌉-e-me
F 13 ⌈šá⌉ [is-saḫ]-ru-k[a] ta-ra-áš-ši re-e-⌈mu⌉

17 A 53 šá sa-ap-ḫi t[u-paḫ-ḫa-ra ga]-nun-šú

C 19 [š]á sap-ḫi tu-paḫ-ḫa-r[a g]a-nun-šú
D 70 šá sa-ap-ḫi tu-paḫ-ḫa-⌈ra⌉ KI.NE-šú
E 13 [šá] sa-ap-ḫi tu-paḫ-ḫa-ra [ ]-šu
F 14 šá [ KI.N]E-šu :

18 A 54 šá ár-na TUKU-š[i á]r-nam

C 20 [š]a ar-na TUKU-u ta-paṭ-ṭar a-ra-an-šú
D 70 šá ár-ni i-šu-ú ta-paṭ-⌈ṭar⌉ ár-ni
E 14 [š]á ár-⌈ni⌉ i-šu!-ú tu-u-p[aṭ-tar ar]-ni
F 14 šá ár-ni i-šú-ú ta-⌈paṭ⌉-ṭar ⌈ár⌉-ni

19 A 55 šá DINGIR-šú iz-n[u] ⌈KI⌉-[šú tu]-sal-lam

C 21 [š]á DINGIR-šú KI-šú ze-nu-⌈u⌉ tu-sal-la[m] (edge)
D 71 šá DINGIR-šu ze-nu-⌈ú⌉ it-ti-šu tu-sal-lam ar-ḫiš
E 15 [š]á DINGIR-⌈šu⌉ ze-nu-ú KI-šú [tu]-sal-[lam ar]-ḫiš
F 15 šá [ i]t-ti-šu tu-sal-lam ⌈ar⌉-⌈ḫiš⌉

20 A 56 e-nu-ma [DINGIR]-MU z[e-nu-u K]I-ia

C r. 1 ⌈e⌉-nu-ma DINGIR-MU ze-nu-[u] it-ti-⌈ia5⌉
D 72 e-nu-ma [DI]NGIR-MU z[e]-nu-ú KI-ia
E 16 [e-nu]-ma DINGIR ze-nu-ú KI-i[a]
F 16 [e-nu-m]a DINGIR-MU [ze-nu]-⌈ú⌉ ⌈KI⌉-⌈ia⌉ ⋮
468 V. Text Editions

d
21 A 57 i[š8-tár(i) n]é-sa-[at U]GU-ia
C r. 2 ⌈ù⌉ diš8-tár-i14 ze-⌈na⌉-at KI-ia
d
D 72 iš8-tár(i) taš-bu-ús UGU-ia
d
E 16 iš8-t[ár(i) i]š?-b[u]-ú[s? UGU]-ia5
d
F 16 iš8-tár(i) né-sa-at U[G]U-i[a]

22 A 58 ul-tu u[l-la-a n]i-sa-tú ṭ[a?-a’?-tú? GA]R UGU-ia

C r. 3–r. 4 [u]l-tu ul-la a-šad-⌈da⌉-da ni-sa-tú / [ṭ]a-a’-tú taš-ku-na
UGU-MU
D 73 iš-te ul-la-a a-šad-da-⌈ad⌉ DINGIR.MEŠ ⌈tam⌉-ṭa-a-ti Á
⌈iš⌉-ku-nu UGU-ia
E 17 [iš-t]u ul-la-a a-šad-da-ad DINGIR.⌈MEŠ⌉ [tam?]-⌈ṭa⌉?-ti Á
iš-k[u-nu] U[GU-MU]
F 17 ⌈iš⌉-[t]u ul-la-a a-š[ad]-da-ad ⋮ DINGIR.MEŠ tam-ṭa-a-t[i]
Á ⌈iš⌉-k[u-nu U]GU-i[a]

22a C r. 5 ⌈ana⌉-ku NENNI A NENNI šá ⌈DINGIR⌉-⌈šú⌉ [N]ENNI

d
15-šú NENNI-⌈tú⌉

23 A 59 ṣi-i-ti ⌈ḫu⌉-l[u-uq-q]u-ú bu-tuq-q[u-ú ]→

[ G]AR-nu-nim-ma
C r. 6–r. 8 [ṣ]i-i-tú ḫu-⌈lu⌉-uq-qu-ú / [ø] bu-tuq-⌈qu⌉-ú [n]u-šur-ru-ú /
[ø m]a-⌈gal⌉ GAR-nu-nim-ma
D 74–75 ṣi-tum ḫu-lu-uq-⌈qu⌉-ú bu-tuq-qu-ú / nu-šur-ru-ú ma-gal
šak-nu-nim-[ma]
E 18–19 [ṣi-t]u ḫu-lu-uq!-qu-ú [bu-tu]q-q[u]-⌈ú⌉ / [nu-šur-ru-u] ma-
gal [š]ak-[nu]-ni[m-m]a
F 18–19 ṣi-tum ḫu-l[u]-uq-qu-ú ⌈bu⌉-⌈tuq⌉-⌈qu⌉-ú / nu-šur-ru-ú ma-
gal šak-nu-nim-ma ⋮

24 A 60 i-ta-šu-uš [lì]b-bi i[k-tu-ru] ⌈ZI⌉-tim

C r. 9 [i-ta-š]u-uš lì[b-bi i]k-tú-ru ZI-tim
D 75 ⌈i⌉-ta-šu-uš lìb-bi i[k]-tu-ru na-piš-ti
F 19 i-ta-šu-uš lìb-⌈bi⌉ ik-tu-[r]u ⌈na⌉-piš-ti

25 A 61 al-si-ka ⌈be⌉-lum ina [ .ME]Š

C r. 10 [al-s]i-k[a b]e-lí [ AN]-⌈e⌉ KÙ.MEŠ
D 76 al-si-⌈ka⌉ be-⌈lum⌉ d30 [ina] qé-reb AN-e KÙ.MEŠ
E 20 [al-si-ka be]-lum ⌈ina⌉ qé-⌈reb⌉ AN-[e K]Ù.MEŠ
F 20 al-si-ka b[e]-lum ina qé-reb AN-e KÙ.[M]EŠ
 V.3. “Sîn 3” 469

26 A 62 ki-niš nap-lis-an-⌈ni⌉-ma š[i-me ]

C r. 11 [k]i-⌈niš⌉ ⌈nap⌉-l[i-sa-an-ni-ma ]
D 77 ki-niš nap-li-sa-an-n[i]-ma [š]i-me tes-li-tum
E 21 [ki-niš nap-li-sa]-an-⌈ni⌉-ma ši-me ⌈tes⌉-l[i-ti]
F 21 ki-niš nap-li-sa-a[n]-ni-ma ši-me tes-li-ti

27 A 63 ta-a-a-ra-⌈ta⌉ d30 [ ]
C r. 12 ⌈ta⌉-a-a-ra-ta [ ]
d
D 78 ta-a-a-⌈ra⌉-ta ⌈ ⌉[3]0 i-na DINGIR.MEŠ as-ḫur
E 22 [ta-a-a-ra]-⌈ta⌉ d[3]0 ana DINGIR.MEŠ as-ḫur
F 22 [ta]-a-a-ra-ta d30 i-n[a D]INGIR.MEŠ as-ḫur

28 A 64 e-ṭi-ra-ta d30 [ ]
C r. 13 ⌈e⌉-ṭi-re-⌈ta⌉ ⌈d⌉⌈30⌉[ ]
D 79 [e-ṭi]-re-ta d30 KAR-ir ZI-ti
E 23 [e-ṭi-ra-t]a d30 KAR-ir ⌈ZI⌉-⌈ti⌉
F 23 ⌈e⌉-ṭi-ra-ta d30 K[A]R-ir ZI-ti

29 A 65 [ga]m-ma-la-ta d3[0] ina DINGIR.⌈MEŠ⌉ [ ]

C r. 14 ⌈gam⌉-⌈ma⌉-⌈la⌉-ta ⌈d⌉[30 ]
d !
D 80 [gam-ma-la-t]a 30 ina DINGIR.MEŠ gi-⌈mil⌉-la šuk -na
E 24 [gam-ma-la-t]a d30 gi-mil-⌈la⌉ ⌈šuk⌉-⌈na⌉
F 24 ga-am-ma-la-ta d30 ina DINGIR.MEŠ gi-mil-la šuk-na

30 A 66 [š]á la ma-še-e d[3]0 la [ ]

C r. 15–16 šá ⌈la⌉ ma-še-⌈e⌉ ⌈d⌉⌈30⌉ ⌈la⌉ ⌈ta⌉-[maš-šá-an-ni] / si-⌈lim⌉
it-t[i-ia]
D 81 [ ] d30 la ⌈ta⌉-maš-šá-an-ni si-lim KI-ia
E 25 [ša la ma-še-e] ⌈d⌉⌈30⌉ la ⌈ta⌉-maš-šá-an-⌈ni⌉ si-lim ⌈KI⌉-[ia]
F 25 ⌈šá⌉ la ma-še-e ⌈d⌉30 la ta-m[a]š-šá-an-ni si-l[i]m KI-ia

31 A 67 ì-lí u iš-ta-ri ze-n[u]-ti š[ab-šu-ti ]

C r. 17–18 [DIN]GIR-i14 u diš8-tár-i14 ze-nu-⌈ti⌉ / [š]ab-su-ti u ku-um-
mu-lu-⌈ti⌉
D 82 [ šab-s]u-ti ù kit-mu-lu-ti
E 26 [ š]ab-su-u kám-[m]u-lu-ti
d
F 26 DINGIR u 15 ze-nu-t[i š]ab-su-ti ù kit-[m]u-lu-t[i]

32 A 68 i-lut-ka GAL-ta [K]I-i[a su-ul-li]-⌈ma⌉-⌈am⌉-⌈ma⌉

C r. 19–20 [DIN]GIR-ut-ka GAL-tú KI-i[a] / [ø] su-ul-li-ma-a[m-ma]
D 83 [ s]ul-li-ma-a[m]-⌈ma⌉
E 27 [ KI-ia5] sul-li-⌈ma⌉-a[m-ma]
470 V. Text Editions

F 27 i-lut-ka GAL-ta KI-ia sul-li-ma-am-[ma]

33 A 69 nar-bi-ka lu-šá-pi [ ] lud-lul
C r. 21–22 [nar-bi]-ka lu-š[á-pi] / [dà-l]í-lí-⌈ka⌉? [ ]
D 84 [ ] dà-lí-lí-ka lud-lul
E 28 [ ] ⌈dà⌉-[lí-lí-ka lud-lul]
F 28 nar-bi-ka lu-[š]á-pi dà-lí-lí-ka lu[d-lul]

34 A 70 ⌈KA⌉.INIM.MA ŠU.Í[L.LÁ] dNANNA.KÁMv

F 29 KA.INIM.MA ŠU.ÍL.LÁ d30 [ ]

Translation
1 Incantation: O Sîn, luminary of the heaven, prince (var.: lord [Ms E]; di-
vine prince [Ms F]),
2 he is powerful among the great gods!
3 King of the world, father of the gods, lord of [man]kind,
4 foremost of the heaven and earth, light of the Igigū gods (var.: foremost
of the heaven [and earth], foremost of [the Igigū?] g[ods?] [Ms B]),
5 of the whole, enti[re] humankind!
6 Without you the scattered people (var.: the scattered mankind [Ms A]; the
assembly of the scattered? [Ms E]) will not be gathered!
7 Where you command, the fallow woman will successfully deliv[er] (a
child)!
8 You grasp the hand of the fallen one, who has become weak (var. : you
make happy the one who has fallen, you grasp his hand [ms D]),
9 you secure the righteous and just verdict, you let the weak receive (it)!
10 The one who does not have an heir you endow with an heir,
11 without you the childless woman cannot conceive and become
pregnant!
12 The one who always seeks you out will not neglect the good,
13 you make the foundation permanent for the one who trusted in you (var.:
trusts in you [Ms C]),
14 you quickly provide the one who cannot bear a child (with one) (var.:
you let the one who cannot move take the lead [Mss E & F]),
15 you put the powerless on top (var.: [you help] the powerles[s on the way to
pow]er [Ms A]),
16 you have mercy towards the one who has turned to you (var.: you ra[i]se
the head of the one who has turned to you [Ms C]),
17 you bring together the living quarters (var.: the brazier [Mss D & F]) of the
one who is dispersed!
18 You absolve the guilt of the one who feels guilt,
19 you bring reconciliation (var.: you quickly bring reconciliation [Mss D, E &
F]) (to) the one whose personal god is angry with him!
 V.3. “Sîn 3” 471

20 When my god became angry with me (and)

21 my goddess distant from me (var.: my goddess became angry with me [Ms
C]; my goddess became offended with me [Ms D & E?]),
22 since that moment I have endured grief, you have brought corruption?
upon me (var.: since that moment I have persevered, the gods have brought re-
duction of strength upon me [Mss D, E & F]),
22a I am so-and-so, son of so-and-so, whose god is so-and-so,
whose goddess is so-and-so,
23 loss, deficit, shortfall, reduction have been exceedingly brought upon
me and therefore
24 my heart has become distressed, my life force has become diminished!
25 I call to you, lord (var.: my lord [Ms C]; lord Sîn [Ms D]), in the midst of
pure heavens!
26 Look faithfully at me and hear my prayer!
27 You are merciful, Sîn, (therefore) I am turning (to you) among the gods!
28 You are a saviour, Sîn, save my life!
29 You show mercy, Sîn, (be the one) among the gods (to) do me a favour!
(var.: You show mercy, Sîn, do me a favour! [Ms E])
30 (You,) who do(es) not forget, Sîn, do not forget me, be at peace with
me!
31 My god and goddess (who are) offended, turned away in anger and very
displeased,
32 reconcile (them) with me through your great divinity and (then)
33 let me declare your greatness and proclaim your glory!

34 Wording of a šu’ila-prayer to Sîn.

Commentary
6 Ms A appears to use the more poetic expression abrāt[i sapḫāti], “sc-
attered mankind” instead of nišī sapḫāti, “scattered people”. The mean-
ing of the variant in Ms E remains unclear.
14 The line in Ms A is rendered as [l]a ⌈a⌉-li[t-tam uppula/arḫiš tu-šá-aṣ]-
⌈bat⌉, “Diejenige, die nicht gebären kann [läßt du spät/schleunigst (...)
(?)] nehmen” in Ambos 2013a, 206–207 (line 50). The question of
reconstructing either the sign ḫiš(UD) or the signs pu and la in the dam-
aged part cannot be definitively resolved, since the traces in Ms C can
be interpreted to fit both options. However, the space in the damaged
part is, in my opinion, not large enough to have contained two signs and
therefore I am inclined to read it as ár-[ḫi]š?.
As to the textual variants from Ḫuzirīna, we can assume that Ms D
contained the same formulation as Mss E and F “you let the one who
cannot move take the lead”. This variant is thematically tied to the fol-
472 V. Text Editions

lowing line, whereas the line in Mss A and C relates to the theme of fer-
tility treated in lines 10–11.
15 In this line, Ms A differs from the other manuscripts. The translation of
this variant line here follows the suggestion given in Ambos 2013a,
206–207.
17 The variant kinūnu, “brazier” (KI.NE), that appears in the two manu-
scripts from Ḫuzirīna (Sultantepe), was perhaps employed because of
its resemblance to the noun ganūnu, “living quarters” that is attested in
Mss A and C (noted in Mayer 1976, 502). According to the attestations
in CAD K, 393–395, kinūnu is otherwise not attested in a meaning re-
lating to the household or family, but two Old Babylonian attestations
of “extinguished brazier” (CAD K, 394–395) that connote extinguished
progeny should perhaps be taken into consideration here.
22 The manuscripts clearly reflect two different versions of this line: one
present in Nineveh and Assur, the other found in Ḫuzirīna (Sultantepe).
The variations are seen in the use of the expression nissata šadādu, “to
endure grief” (see CAD N/2, 274–275) and the form of misfortune
brought upon the suffering individual. In the first case, Mss A and C
refer to the grief (nissatu) endured by the patient. In the latest edition of
the prayer in Ambos 2013a, 206–207 this line in Ms A is read
differently:
ul-tu ⌈ul⌉-[la-a a-šad-da]-ad né-er-tú ṭ[a-a’-tú emūqi iškunu(GA]R)
elī(UGU)-ja
“[ziehe] ich mir seit langem (die folgenden Übel) zu: (Meine Götter)
[haben] Mord, Be[stechung und Gewalttaten] gegen mich
fest[gesetzt]”
It is true that in Ms A either ni-sa-tú or né-er-tú can be read, since the
crucial sign sa/er is not distinct in the tablet (as acknowledged in Am-
bos 2013a, 207). The reading ni-sa-tú is, however, supported by the col-
lation of Ms C in which the sign sa at the end of the line r. 3 is very
clear (cf. ni-sa(copy: ir)-tu in CAD N/2, 274).

The three manuscripts from Ḫuzirīna leave out nissatu and include only
the verbal form ašaddad, which results in the translation “I have
persevered”.
Second, both the manuscripts from Nineveh and Assur appear to in-
clude the noun ṭā’tu, “gift; bribe” (CAD Ṭ, 62–66) in the latter part of
the line. The manuscripts from Ḫuzirīna attest to the formulation built
around the noun tamṭītu, “reduction; loss” (CAD T, 158–159) in its
plural form.
25 As noted in Mayer 1976, 499, the two fragments that form Ms C are in-
 V.3. “Sîn 3” 473

correctly joined in the copy of the tablet (LKA 52): the first preserved
signs of the lower fragment ([al-s]i-ka) should be aligned with the line
r. 10 in the copy, not line r. 9. An approximation of the correct position
is:
474 V. Text Editions

V.4. “Sîn 9”
The prayer “Sîn 9” is only partially preserved and therefore it is difficult to un-
derstand its function within a ritual context. Its use of an expulsion motif
combined with the corresponding act of discarding the ritual material in a river,
the wording of the prayer suggests that its purpose was to drive negative influ-
ence away from the client. The nature of this negative influence remains un-
known, but it could plausibly have been an illness, since similar actions are at-
tested to have taken place in a therapy aimed to heal leprosy (BAM 6 no. 580,
V’ 17’–20’//, see p. 284 above).

Manuscripts2466
A: VAT 9823, III 1’–20’ (KAR 25)
B: VAT 13688 (LKA 55)

Editions: Ebeling 1953a, 18–21

Literature: Mayer 1976, 409 (“Sîn 9”); Frechette 2012, 270

Score transliteration
(beginning not preserved)
1’ A III 1’ šá ina A.MEŠ [ ]
2’ A III 2’ ina qim-ma-te gi x [ ]
3’ A III 3’ ku-uṣ-ṣu ḫur-ba-šu u mìm-ma l[a? ṭābu?]
4’ A III 4’ ša ana? DAB.MEŠ-ma UŠ.MEŠ-š[u?]
5’ A III 5’ GIN7 ti-ik AN-e ana KI-šú NU GUR.RU [(x x)]
6’ A III 6’ GIN7 A pi-sa-ni ana EGIR-šú NU GUR.RU [(x x)]
B 1’ [ ] KI.MIN [ ]
7’ A III 7’ GIN7 ⌈A⌉ qid-da-tim ana ma-ḫir-tim NU GUR.RU
B 2’ [ ma-ḫi]r-te NU GUR.R[U]
8’ A III 8’ ina [SU] ⌈NENNI⌉ A NENNI ú-suḫ ta-bal
B 3’ [ ú]-⌈suḫ⌉ ta-ba[l]
9’ A III 9’ NU x [x x (x)] x a-di u4-um bal-ṭa-ku
B 4’ [ ] a-di u4-um ba[l-ṭa-ku]
10’ A III 10’ ⌈da⌉-[li-l]i-⌈ka⌉ lid-[lu]l ù ana-ku a-ši-pu
B 5’ [da-li-li]-ka lud-lul [ ]
11’ A III 11’ ÌR-[ka] da-li-⌈li⌉-ka lud-lul
B 6’ [ -k]a KA.TAR.MEŠ-ma lud-l[ul]

12’ A III 12’ KA.I[NIM].MA ŠU.ÍL.LA d30

B 7’ [ ŠU.Í]L.LÁ d30-KÁMv

2466
Collation of these tablets from photographs was kindly made possible by S. M. Maul.
 V.4. “Sîn 9” 475

13’ A III 13’ DÙ.DÙ.BI ina GI6 IGI d30 ÙR SAR A KÙ S[ÙD]
14’ A III 14’ ab-r[u t]e-ṣe-en ana UGU ab-ri 7 NINDA ZÍZ.A.AN
tara-⌈kás⌉
udu
15’ A III 15’ SILA4 KÙ ša NU GI6 tu-pa-ra-as
16’ A III 16’ 3 SÌLA [ZÌ].DA šá NITA i-ṭé-nu 1 SÌLA MUN
17’ A III 17’ Š[IM D]Ù.A.BI 7 la-ḫa-an-ni LÀL Ì.NUN.NA
18’ A III 18’ GEŠTIN [KA]Š A.MEŠ SA5(copy: NIR)-ma ina UGU
⌈ab⌉-ri
19’ A III 19’ te-⌈ṣe⌉-⌈en⌉ mi-iḫ-ḫa BAL-qí [t]u?-⌈uš⌉-kén
20’ A III 20’ qí-⌈lu⌉-tu a-na ÌD ŠUB-di

Translation
(beginning not preserved)
1’ that in the waters [ ],
2’ in the top of [ ].
3’ Chills, shivers and everything u[npleasant?]
4’ that keep haunting h[im?] in order to? seize (him):
5’ just as the rain shower does not return to its place,
6’ just as the water of a drainpipe does not return back,
7’ just as the water flowing downstream does not return upstream,
8’ root (them) out of [the body of] so-and-so, son of so-and-so, and take
(them) away!
9’ ... […]! As long as I shall live
10’ may he(var.: I [Ms B]) proclaim your glory and I, āšipu,
11’ your servant – let me proclaim your glory (var.: let me pr[oclaim] the glory
[Ms B])!

12’ Wor[din]g of a šuila-prayer to Sîn.

13’ Its ritual: In the night, before Sîn, you sweep the roof and sp[rinkle]
pure water.
14’ You pile up brus[hw]ood, you arrange seven loaves of emmer-bread
above the brush pile.
15’ You separate a pure lamb that does not have black spots.
16’ Three qû of flour that a man has ground, one qû of salt,
17’ all the ar[omatics], seven laḫannu-bottles of syrup, ghee,
18’ wine, [bee]r (and) water you fill and then on top of the brush pile
19’ you pile. You libate miḫḫu-beer, you prostrate yourself,
20’ you throw the burnt materials into the river.
476 V. Text Editions

Commentary
2’ The restoration in Ebeling 1953a, 18 is GI.PAD, i.e. giŠUTUG (Akk. šu-
tukku), “reed hut”. However, such a restoration remains implausible
since no parallels to the expression “top of the reed hut” (qimmat šu-
tukki) are attested according to CAD Q, 252–254.
3’ The tentative restoration l[a? ṭābu?] here follows the suggestion made in
Ebeling 1953a, 18. For the pairing of chills (kuṣṣu) and shivers (ḫur-
bāšu) see CAD Ḫ, 248–249.
4’ Since this prayer is spoken by the āšipu (see line 10’), it is plausible
that the patient who suffers from the described ailments is referred to in
this line. Collation of Ms A shows that the second sign in this line in-
deed is DIŠ as it is copied in KAR 25. Although no parallel expressions
are known to me, my tentative suggestion is to read this sign as the pre-
position ana attached to the following logographically written verbal
form.
5’–7’ These lines describe the inability of the banished forces to return to the
patient. A similar formulation is also attested in other contexts (see
CAD T, 404), e.g. in the therapy for difficult childbirth (BAM 3 no.
248, II 57–59; see the overview of this therapy in Couto-Ferreira 2014,
289–315).
11’ Collation of Ms B from a photograph shows that the sign following
KA.TAR.MEŠ is indeed ma as it is copied in LKA 55. Therefore the
reading KA.TAR.MEŠ-ZU! suggested in CAD D, 51 is not correct.
13’–20’ The ritual instruction in these lines is similar to, but not exactly the
same as, the description in BAM 6 no. 580, V’ 17’–20’// (see the trans-
literation on p. 284 above).
18’ The reading SA5 instead of the copied NIR was already noted in Maul
& Strauß 2011, 91, and it is confirmed by the collation of the tablet.
20’ The similar formulation in BAM 6 no. 580, V’ 20’// is qilûta(GÍBIL)
ana nāri tanaddi, “you throw the burnt materials into the river” (see p.
284 above). A collation of the tablet from a photograph (drawing below)
reveals that the copy of the first three signs in this line in KAR 25 is es-
sentially correct, but not clear enough to allow the signs to be confid-
ently identified.
 V.5. “Sîn 11” 477

V.5. “Sîn 11”

The prayer “Sîn 11” (Mayer 1976, 409) is preserved in a single manuscript from
Assur. The tablet in question contains a therapeutic procedure for releasing the
patient from an illness that has been caused by an oath (nam-érim-búr-ru-da) and
a new edition of the complete text is provided in KAL 10 no. 11. Despite this re-
cent edition a transliteration and translation of the prayer are given here for the
convenience of the readers, but no further comments on the individual lines are
provided.

Manuscript: VAT 10067, r. 2’–24’ (KAR 74; KAL 10 no. 11)2467

Editions: Ebeling 1920, 183–185; KAL 10 no. 11)

Literature: Landsberger 1920, 442–443

Transliteration
1 r. 2’ [ÉN d3]0 DINGIR ⌈KÙ⌉ šá ⌈šá⌉-[me-e] KÙ.ME[Š]
2 r. 3’ [d30 x (x)] x x x [x (x)] DINGIR[.MEŠ]
3 r. 4’ [d30 x] ti? x x [l]um?-[ni]
4 r. 5’ [d30] ⌈na⌉-⌈din⌉ [gi]šGIDRU a-na DÙ-šú-nu LUGAL.ME[Š]
5 r. 6’ ⌈d⌉[30] na-din [IB]ILA u NUMUN
d
6 r. 7’ ⌈30⌉ ⌈i⌉-⌈de⌉-⌈šu⌉-u ša bu-⌈ul⌉-lu-ṭu i-ra-mu
d
7 r. 8’ 30 DINGIR réme-nu-⌈u⌉ ⌈šá⌉ ⌈na⌉-⌈ás⌉-⌈ḫur⌉-šú DU10.GA
d
8 r. 9’ 30 na-din ⌈ḪÉ⌉.⌈GÁL⌉-[li ù] maš-re-e
d
9 r. 10’ 30 na-din ḪÉ.NUN ⌈a⌉-⌈na⌉ ⌈UN⌉.MEŠ DAGAL.MEŠ
d
10 r. 11’ 30 na-si-ḫi GIG NÍG.BA TI.LA
d
11 r. 12’ 30 ZI ḪUL.GIG GAR-nu šùl-me
d
12 r. 13’ 30 ša ina pu-uḫ-ri BAR.MEŠ šá bad (erasure) [k]a? ⌈ig⌉?
d
13 r. 14’ 30 ša ina ba-lu-uš-šú EŠ.BAR-e la KU5-su
d
14 r. 15’ 30 mu-ḫal-liq Á.MEŠ GISKIM.MEŠ ḪUL.MEŠ NU
DU10.GA.MEŠ
d
15 r. 16’ 30 mu-na-mir AN-e u KI-tim.MEŠ
d
16 r. 17’ 30 ZI GIG šá ina SU-ia5 DÙ-u
d
17 r. 18’ 30 ZI GIG TI.LA NÍG.BA
18 r. 19’ DINGIR-ut-ka GAL-tú qur-di-ka lu-IGI
19 r. 20’ ina GIG an-ne-e šu-zi-ba-ni-ma la ÚŠ
20 r. 21’ la-ḫa-bíl a-na UZU a-sak-ki ⌈lu⌉ la ŠID-nu
21 r. 22’ ZI GIG ša SU-ia5 TI.LA qi-⌈šá⌉
22 r. 23’ qur-di DINGIR-ti(erasure)-ka EN u4-me TI.LA-ku
23 r. 24’ a-na UN.M[EŠ D]AGAL.MEŠ lud-lul

2467
Collation of this tablet from a photograph was kindly made possible by S. M. Maul.
478 V. Text Editions

Translation
1 [Incantation: O Sî]n, radiant god of the radiant heav[ens]!
2 [O Sîn, ...] … the g[ods]!
3 [O Sîn, ... ] ... [e]v[il?]!
4 [O Sîn,] the giver of the sceptre to every single one of the king[s]!
5 O [Sîn], the giver of [an h]eir and offspring!
6 O Sîn, the one who continually renews himself, the one who loves to
revive!
7 O Sîn, the merciful god whose attention is good!
8 O Sîn, the giver of abundan[ce and] wealth!
9 O Sîn, the giver of prosperity to the wide-spread people!
10 O Sîn, the one who roots out the sickness, the one who endows health!
11 O Sîn, the one who roots out hate, the one who equips with wellness!
12 O Sîn, the one who in the assembly ...!
13 O Sîn, in whose absence decisions cannot be made!
14 O Sîn, the destroyer of the evil (and) bad portents and signs!
15 O Sîn, the illuminator of the heaven and the earth!
16 O Sîn, root out the illness that has been created in my body!
17 O Sîn, root out illness, equip with life!
18 May I see your great divinity, your heroic powers!
19 Save me from this illness so that I will not die,
20 so that I will not be treated unjustly, so that I will not be reckoned as
belonging to the asakku-demon!
21 Root this illness out of my body, equip with life!
22–23 May I praise the heroic powers of your divinity to the broad mankind as
long as I will live!
 V.6. “Sîn 14” 479

V.6. “Sîn 14”

The prayer “Sîn 14” (Mayer 1976, 409) is attested as a part of therapeutic pro-
cedures against epilepsy. Two of the manuscripts (Mss A and B) derive from
Ḫuzirīna (Sultantepe) and they differ from the two other manuscripts that are
Babylonian (Mss C and D). Mss A and B also contain the longer prayer “Sîn 3”
(see the edition on p. 464ff. above). In the Late Babylonian Ms D, the newly
identified prayer “Sîn 15” is also found (see the overview of incantation prayers
to Sîn on p. 14 above). Ms C from Uruk is a part of a larger tablet that most
likely contained a variety of texts concerning small children (Farber 1989, 21).
In Mayer 1976, 409 Ms C (LKU 32, 1’–6’) is taken to contain a separate
prayer that was designated “Sîn 13”. Because that manuscript has been shown
to, in fact, contain “Sîn 14”, the label “Sîn 13” can be discarded.
In the following the edition, Ms B with its organisation of the lines has been
taken as the lead text.

Manuscripts
A: SU 51/85, 36–42 (STT 57+263)
B: SU 51/49, r.! 8–18 (STT 58)
C: VAT 14505, 1’–6’ (LKU 32)
D: BM 47509+BM 48370+81-11-3, 214, r. 1–13 (Schuster-Brandis 2008,
Tf. 8)

Editions: Falkenstein 1931, 5–8 (VAT 14505); Farber 1989, 118–121; Schuster-
Brandis 2008, 265–269 (BM 47509+)
Literature: Stol 1993, 131–132

Score transliteration
1 A 36 ÉN d30 IBILA a-šá-⌈red⌉ ⌈at⌉-⌈ta⌉ ⌈d⌉[3]0 TI.[L]A at-t[a]
B r. 8 [ÉN] ⌈d⌉30 IBILA SAG.KAL at-⌈ta⌉ [d3]0 TI.⌈LA⌉ ⌈at⌉-⌈ta⌉
D r. 1 [ÉN d30 IBILA] a-šá-re-du at-⌈ta⌉ d30 EN GAL-ú at-⌈ta⌉

d
2 A 36–37 30 M[U MU] at-ta / d30 ÁG-im TI.LA at-⌈ta⌉
B r. 9 [d3]0 ⌈MU⌉ MU at-⌈ta⌉ [d30] ra-i[m] TI.⌈LA⌉ ⌈at⌉-⌈ta⌉
D r. 2 [ a]t-ta d30 ra-a’-im ŠE.NUMUN at-ta

3 A 37 ⌈d⌉[30 ] ⌈at⌉-[t]a d30 [SU]M [NUMU]N at-ta

B r. 10 [ 3]0 EN NUMUN ⌈at⌉-⌈ta⌉ [d3]0 na-[din] ⌈NUMUN⌉ a[t-ta]
d

C 1’ [ ] d30 ⌈SUM⌉ NU[MUN at-ta]

D r. 3–5 [ 3]0 na-[di]n ŠE.NUMUN at-ta / [d3]0 na-d[i]n šu-lum at-
d

ta / [d]30 ḫe-⌈pí⌉ eš-šú at-ta

480 V. Text Editions

d
4 A 38 30 SUM NUMUN ⌈ne⌉-š[e] DAGAL.⌈MEŠ⌉ at-ta
B r. 11 [d]30 na-din NUMUN UN.MEŠ D[AGAL.MEŠ a]t-⌈ta⌉
[d3]0 [ ]
D r. 6 ⌈d⌉30 na-di[n] šu-lum u ŠE.NUMUN a-na KUR DAGAL-
tim at-t[a]

5 A 38 ⌈d⌉[3]0 [EN U]N.MEŠ D[AGAL.ME]Š a[t-t]a ⌈d⌉[30 ina qí-

b]iti-ka
B r. 12 ⌈d⌉30 EN UN.MEŠ DAGAL.MEŠ [at-t]a [d30 ]
⌈qí⌉-⌈biti⌉-k[a]
C 2’ [ U]N.⌈ME⌉ DAGAL.ME MIN d30 ina
qí-b[i-ti-ka]
D r. 7 [d]30 ina qí-bi-ti-ka

6 A 39 ṣir-ti šá NU ⌈KÚR⌉.KÚR-ru u ⌈an⌉-na-k[a? ki-n]im šá NU

BA[L x]
B r. 13 ṣir-ti šá NU! KÚR.KÚR-ru u an-na-k[a?] ⌈ki⌉-⌈nim⌉ [š]á
[NU] B[A]L-u
C 2’–3’ [ ] / ⌈u⌉ a[n-na]-⌈ka⌉ ki-nim šá NU
BAL-ú
D r. 7–8 ṣir-⌈ti⌉ šá la ⌈KÚR⌉-⌈ru⌉ / ⌈ù⌉ an-ni-ka ki-nim [šá] l[a BAL-
u]

7 A 39–40 [a]na-[k]u [NEN]NI ⌈A⌉ [NENNI x x] ÌR-k[a] / šá DINGIR-

šú dAMAR.⌈UTU⌉
B r. 14 ana-⌈ku⌉ NENNI A NENNI ⌈lú⌉MAŠ.MAŠ ÌR-⌈ka⌉ šá
[DINGIR-šú] ⌈d⌉[AMAR.]UTU
C 3’ ana-ku NENNI A NEN[NI ]
D r. 9 ⌈ana⌉-[k]u NENNI A NENNI ⌈lú⌉⌈MAŠ⌉.[MAŠ ÌR-ka]

8 A 40 ⌈šá⌉ 15-šú ⌈d⌉⌈Zar⌉-pa-n[i-tu]m šip-ri an-⌈na⌉-a [D]Ù-uš

d
B r. 15 iš8-tár-šú dZer-pa-ni-tum šip-⌈ri⌉ an-n[a-a (x x)] ⌈e⌉?-pu-šú
C 4’ ana NENNI A NENNI ÌR-ka šá DINGIR-šú NENNI
d
+INNIN-šú NENNI-tú ši-p[ir ]
D r. 10–11 a-na NENNI A NENNI šá DINGIR-šú NENNI d15-⌈šú⌉
[NENNI-tú] / ⌈ši⌉-⌈ip⌉-ru an-na-a e-pu-šú

9 A 40–41 be!-[e?-ni? š]a? DAB-[ ] / NU TE-ḫi d30 ina SU-MU u[k-k]iš

B r. 16 be!?-e!?-ni ša!? DA[B]!?-šú NU TE-šú d30 ina SU-š[u?] ⌈uk⌉-
kiš
d
C 5’ 30 be-en-nu šá DAB-šú a-a TE-šú ina SU-šú uk-k[iš (x x
x)]
 V.6. “Sîn 14” 481

d
D r. 11 30 be-en-⌈nu⌉ ⌈šá⌉ D[AB-šú]

10 A 41 a-[a GU]R-ma ⌈a⌉-[a] DIB-su a-a ⌈TE⌉-ḫi ⌈a⌉-⌈a⌉ [ ]

B r. 17 ⌈a⌉-a GUR.RA-ma a-a iṣ-ṣa-bat-šú a-a DI[M4]-šú ⌈a⌉-[a]
iq-rib-šú
C 6’ a-a GUR-ma a-a is-sa-ḫir-šú a-a GUR-ma [ ]
(single ruling)
D r. 12 ⌈a⌉-⌈a⌉ i-tur-šú a-a TE-šú a-a DIM4-šú TU6.ÉN (single
ruling)

11 A 42 a-a ⌈i⌉-KU.<NU>-šú [(x)] ⌈a⌉-a i-ḫi-[ ]

B r. 18 [a]-a i-KU.NU-šú ⌈a⌉-⌈a⌉ i-x-zu-šú [(x x)]

12 D r. 13 ⌈KA⌉.INIM.MA ŠU.ÍL.LÁ d+SUEN.NA.KE4

Translation
1 Incantation: O Sîn, you are the foremost heir! O Sîn, you are life! (var.:
you are the great lord! [Ms D])
2 O Sîn, you are the one who gives a name! O Sîn, you are the one who
loves life! (var.: O Sîn, you are the one who loves offspring! [Ms D])
3 O Sîn, you are the lord of offspring! O Sîn, you are the giver of
offspring! (var.: O [S]în, you are the gi[v]er of offspring! O [S]în, you are the
gi[v]er of well-being! O Sîn, you are new break! [Ms D])
4 O Sîn, you are the giver of offspring to the wide-spread people! (var.: O
Sîn, you are the giv[er] of well-being and offspring to the wide land! [Ms D])
O Sîn [...]!
5 O Sîn, y[ou are] the lord of the wide-spread people! O Sîn, by your ex-
alted command
6 that cannot be changed and by your reliable word of consent that cannot
be altered
7 I am so-and-so, son of so-and-so, mašmaššu, your servant, (Mss A & B
add: whose personal god is Marduk and personal goddess Zarpanītum)
8 I am performing this task (Mss C & D: I am performing this task for so-and-
so, son of so-and so (your servant [Ms C]), whose personal god is so-and-so,
whose personal goddess is so-and-so)
9 (O Sîn [Mss C & D]), may Bennu that has seized him not approach him;
(O Sîn, [Mss A & B]) drive it away from his body!
10 May it not return and may it not hold him fast, may it not reach him,
may it not come close to him! (var.: may it not return and may it not hold
him fast, may it not approach him, may it not [...] [Ms A]; may it not return and
may it not come back to him, may it not return to him [...] [Ms C]; may it not
return to him, may it not approach him, may it not reach him [Ms D])
482 V. Text Editions

11 May it not come close to him, may it not ... him.

12 Wording of a šu’ila-prayer to Sîn.

Commentary
7 The differences in this line perhaps reflect two different traditions of
transmission. The manuscripts from Ḫuzirīna contain an introduction of
the mašmaššu together with his personal deities: “I am so-and-so, son of
so-and-so, mašmaššu, your servant, whose personal god is Marduk and
personal goddess Zarpanītum”. The Babylonian manuscripts, in turn, in-
clude the identification of the patient by name, family and personal deit-
ies: “I am so-and-so, son of so-and-so, mašmaššu, your servant; I am
performing this task for so-and-so, son of so-and so (your servant [Ms
C]), whose personal god is so-and-so, whose personal goddess is so-
and-so”.
9 A similar correction for Ms B has already been suggested in Farber
1989, 120 (<b>e-en!-ni ša! D[I]B?-šú).
10 Each of the manuscripts contains a slightly different version of this line
using different verbs to command the disease to not return to the
patient.
Ms A: ai itūrma ai iṣṣabassu ai iṭḫi ai [...]
Ms B: ai itūrma ai iṣṣabassu ai isniqšu ai iqribšu
Ms C: ai itūrma ai issaḫiršu ai itūrma [...]
Ms D: ai itūršu ai iṭḫišu ai isniqšu
For the translation “hold fast” for Gt-stem of ṣabātu, see AHw, 1069.
11 This line, which is included only in the manuscripts from Ḫuzirīna,
proves difficult to interpret, as noted already in Farber 1989, 121. The
first verbal form in both manuscripts is iqribšu, written with the logo-
gram KU.NU (Ms A: KU.<NU>) accompanied by i- as the verbal pre-
fix. The use of the expression ai iṭḫâ(TE-a) ai isniqa(DIM4) ai
iqriba(KU.NU) ai ikšudanni(KUR-an-ni) is well-attested in procedures
for protecting the patient from evil forces (see e.g. K. 2782//, 130 in
Maul 1994, 139). Therefore, a vetitive form of the verb kašādu is ex-
pected after a-a i-KU.NU-šú in Mss A and B. This, however, is not sup-
ported by the traces of signs in the copies, and thus the final verbal form
in both of the manuscripts remains unclear.
 V.7. Ikrib-prayers to Sîn (K. 2751+//) 483

V.7. Ikrib-prayers to Sîn (K. 2751+//)

The ikrib-prayers to Sîn are known only from two manuscripts that both derive
from Nineveh. Together they form a significant source for the role of the moon
god in the divine council that convened to decree the verdict which was made
manifest in the liver of the sacrificial animal (see the discussion on p. 181ff.
above). The preserved prayers share many characteristics with each other – for
example, the veneration of Sîn as a celestial light and the request to him to step
forth in the heavens – but they also show variations that may have been subject
to the particular day of performance and/or the specific extispicy case in
question.
The text edition here follows Ms A, the two-column tablet that appears to
have contained a collection of ikrib-prayers to Sîn. The nature of this tablet as a
collection is suggested by the absence of prayers to other deities in its preserved
parts and by the rubrics that specify the dates on which the individual prayers
should be performed. Unfortunately, approximately a half of this collection is
missing since the obverse of the tablet is almost completely destroyed. The frag-
ments of Ms A were joined by W. G. Lambert, but has remained partly unpubl-
ished. The second manuscript, Ms B, presents what appears to be a sequence of
prayers performed during the extispicy ritual: the deities addressed here are
Adad, Sîn, Šulpae (i.e. Jupiter), and possibly Ištar (i.e. Venus).

Manuscripts
A: K. 2751+K. 2792+K. 7973+K. 9242+K. 10011+K. 13785 (Perry 1907,
Taf. II [K. 2792+K. 7973]; CDLI P394650; Pls. 1–5)
B: K. 3794+Ki. 1904-10-9, 157 (Perry 1907, Taf. I [K. 3794]; Langdon
1915, 190 [Ki. 1904-10-9, 157]; CDLI P395234; Pls. 6–8)

Editions: Perry 1907, no. 5b (K. 3794); Perry 1907, no. 5c (K. 2792+K. 7973);
Langdon 1915, 191–192 (Ki. 1904-10-9, 157); Schwemer 2001, 683
(K. 3794+, 1–6: prayer to Adad)
Translations: Seux 1976, 478–480 (ll. 23’–58’); Foster 2005, 758–759 (ll. 23’–
58’)

In addition to the separate editions of the manuscripts, E. G. Perry combined

them into a composite text (Perry 1907, no. 5a) that was further translated in
Combe 1908, no. 9; Tallqvist 1938b, 120; Tallqvist 1947, 329; Tallqvist 1953,
103 and Leibovici 1962, 110–111.
484 V. Text Editions

Score transliteration
1’ A II 1’ [ ] m[i? ]
2’ A II 2’ [ ] x an [ ]

3’ A II 3’ [ r]u i diš [ ]

4’ A II 4’ [d30? DINGIR? nam?-ru?] šu-pu-ú e-[tel-lu ]

d
5’ A II 5’ [ ]30 NU i ri ⌈šú⌉? [ ]
6’ A II 6’ [ a?-lik? m]aḫ-ri DINGIR.MEŠ G[AL.MEŠ (x x)]
7’ A II 7’ [ru-bu-u šu-pu]-ú šá qí-bit-su la uta-⌈ka⌉-r[u]
8’ A II 8’ [ù ṭè-en-š]ú DINGIR ma-am-man la i-lam-ma-d[u]
9’ A II 9’ [(x x) ina na-p]a-ḫi šá d30 DINGIR.MEŠ paḫ-ru
10’ A II 10’ [ ] x su na-šu-ú SÍSKUR-šú-nu KÙ (edge)
11’ A III 1 ap-pa-šú-n[u ilabbinū ana mātāti šūšubi]
12’ A III 2 šu-⌈ud⌉-⌈di⌉-⌈i⌉ ⌈šu⌉-⌈tam⌉-ḫ[u-ṣi šukkuri]
d
13’ A III 3 Na-an-na-ra-ma d3[0 uqa’’û d30 tattaṣâ]
14’ A III 4 ina na4GUG KÙ-ti na4ZA.GÌ[N ana nanmuri ša d30 elṣū
kakkabū]
15’ A III 5 mu-ši-tum [ḫa-da-at]
16’ A III 6 i-ziz-za-am-ma d30 [ina qereb? AN-e KÙ.MEŠ]
17’ A III 7 KI-ka GUB.MEŠ-zu DINGIR.ME[Š GAL.MEŠ (x x)]
18’ A III 8 KI-ka li-iz-z[i-zu DINGIR.MEŠ DI.KU5.MEŠ]
d
19’ A III 9 LÀL SUKKAL-ka l[i-še-da-ak di-nu]
20’ A III 10 lib-lak-ku ta-mītu DUMU lúḪ[AL maḫarka liškun]
d
21’ A III 11 30 KÙ ina SÍS[KUR an-né-e? i-ziz-za-am?]

22’ A III 12 ik-rib [d30 ]

d
23’ A III 13 30 DINGIR KÙ nam-r[u ]x[ ]
d
B7 30 DINGIR KÙ nam-ru d⌈Nanna⌉-r[u ]
d ? ? ?
24’ A III 14 IBILA +En-líl [šu -pu ]-⌈u ⌉ ⌈šá⌉ É-[kur]
B7 [ ]
25’ A III 15 LUGAL-⌈ut⌉ k[iš-šá-ti ta]-bé-el KUR.[KUR]
B8 LUGAL-ut kiš-šá-ti ta-be-e[l ]
26’ A III 16 taša-[kan ] ⌈AN⌉ [ ] x ⌈ina⌉? ⌈giš⌉GU.ZA
GADA.[MAḪ]
B 8–9 [ ] / GADA.MAḪ
27’ A III 17 [ a]-ga-[a (x)] šá be-lu-ti [x x]
B9 taša-kan a-ga-a [ ]
d ?
28’ A III 18 [ 30 m]u-uḫ-ta-⌈an⌉-bu šu-pu-ú e-tel-[lu]
B 9–10 [ ] / e-tel-lu
29’ A III 19 [d3]0 nu-ri-šú šá UN.MEŠ a-lik m[aḫ-ri]
 V.7. Ikrib-prayers to Sîn (K. 2751+//) 485

d
B 10 30 nu-ri-šú š[á ]
30’ A III 20 [r]u-bu-ú šu-pu-ú šá qí-bit-su la ut-tak-k[a-ru]
B 10–11 [ ] / šá qí-bit-su la ut-tak-k[a-ru]
31’ A III 21 ⌈ù⌉ ṭè-en-šú DINGIR ma-am-man la i-du-⌈ú⌉
B 11 [ ]
d
32’ A III 22 30 ina IGI.DU8.A-ka DINGIR.MEŠ paḫ-ru
LUGAL.MEŠ-ni D[Ù-šú-nu]
d
B 12 30 ina IGI.DU8-⌈ka⌉ ⌈DINGIR⌉.⌈MEŠ⌉ pa[ḫ-ru] →
[ ]
33’ A III 23 ap-pa-šú-nu i-lab-bi-nu dNANNA d30 ú-q[a-a-a-ú]
B 12 [ ] / dŠEŠ-ru d30 ⌈ú⌉-[qa-a-a-ú]
d
34’ A III 24 30 ta-at-ta-ṣa-a ina na4GUG KÙ u n[a4ZA.GÌN]
B 13–14 [ ] / u na4ZA.GÌN
d
35’ A III 25 a-na na-an-mu-ri šá 30 el-ṣu MU[L.MEŠ]
B 14 a-na na-a[n-mu-ri ]
36’ A III 26 mu-ši-tu ḫa-da-at a-šib-ma d30 ina qé-⌈reb⌉ [AN-e
KÙ.MEŠ?]
B 14–15 [ ] / a-šib-ma d30 ina qé-reb AN-e
?
⌈KÙ⌉ .[MEŠ]
d
37’ A III 27 30 IBILA kun-nu-u DUMU ra-a-[mu]
B 15 [ ]
38’ A III 28 NUN muš-ta-lu IBILA d+En-líl a-⌈šá⌉-[red ]
B 16 NUN muš-ta-lu IBILA [ ]
39’ A III 29 ⌈na⌉-⌈nàr⌉ ⌈AN⌉-⌈e⌉ EN K[UR.KUR.MEŠ]
B 17 na-nàr AN-e EN KUR.KUR.MEŠ
40’ A III 30 šá ina É-kur šá-q[u?-u? ]
B 17 šá i[na ]
41’ A III 31 ina Eriduki INIM-su ma-a[g-ra-at ]
B 18 ina Eriduki INIM-su ma-ag-rat x [ ]
42’ A III 32 ta-ad-di Úriki i[na ]
B 19 ta-ad-di Úri(“ŠEŠ.MÚRU”)ki ina pa-r[ak-ki ]
43’ A III 33 taš-ši re-š[i?-šú? ]
B 19 [ r]e-ši-[šú? ]
d d
44’ A III 34 30 NA[NNA ]
B 20 ⌈d⌉⌈30⌉ ⌈d⌉⌈NANNA⌉ ⌈AN⌉-⌈e⌉ ⌈AN⌉.⌈DÙL⌉ [da-ad-me]-
⌈e⌉? DINGIR KÙ x [ ]
45’ A III 35 EN a-[lik ]
B 21 ⌈a⌉-lik maḫ-ri d30 ina IGI.DU8-ka gišIG.MEŠ
46’ A III 36 A[N-e? ] (rest of the
column destroyed)
B 21 AN-e t[u-uš-pa-la-ka]
47’ B 22 ⌈ina⌉ IGI.DU8-ka UN.MEŠ ḫa-da-a ṣal-mat SAG.DU
DÙ-ši-na i-r[i-iš-šá]
486 V. Text Editions

48’ B 23 ú-sap-pa-ka UN.MEŠ te-né-še-tum pa-aḫ-ra-nik-ka

gi-m[ir-ši-na]
49’ B 24 ⌈pa⌉-⌈ḫi⌉-ir-ku na-maš-šu-u šá EDIN ka-liš pa-aḫ-ra-
ni[k-ka]
50’ B 25 it-ta-ṣa-a d30 EN qar-ni su-pu-ri muš-te-šir ri-ti maš-[qí-
ti]
51’ B 26 i-ziz-za-am-ma d30 ina qé-<reb>? AN-⌈e⌉ KÙ.MEŠ KI-ka
li-iz-zi-zu DINGIR.ME[Š GAL.MEŠ]
52’ B 27 KI-ka li-iz-zi-zu DINGIR.MEŠ DI.KU5.MEŠ KI-ka li-iz-
ziz ⌈DUMU⌉.M[UNUS??-ka? dDil-bat??]
53’ B 28 ⌈d⌉⌈LÀL⌉ [S]UKKAL-ka li-še-da-ak di-nu lib-lak-ka t[a-
mītu]
54’ B 29 [DUMU] lúḪAL m[a]-⌈ḫar⌉-[k]a liš-kun d30 DINGIR
⌈KÙ⌉ ina uduSISKUR an-⌈né⌉-⌈e⌉ ⌈i⌉-⌈ziz⌉-[za-am-ma]
55’ A IV 1 [ DÙ-š]ú ⌈ta⌉-mītu
a-k[a]r-ra-bu kit-tú lib-ši
B 30 [ina IN]IM-MU MU ⌈ŠUII⌉-MU ina mim-ma ma-la DÙ-
šú ta-mītu a-kar-r[a-bu k]it-ta li[b]-⌈ši⌉

56’ A IV 2 [ikrib d30] ka-a-a-[m]a-nu-ti

B 31 [i]k-rib d30 ka-a-a-[ma]-nu-⌈ti⌉

57’ A IV 3 [d30 na]-⌈an⌉-na-ru ⌈šá⌉ AN-e

58’ A IV 4 ⌈d⌉[DILI].⌈IM5⌉.BABBAR EN a-gi-i DINGIR šu-pu-ú
a-lik maḫ-ri
d
59’ A IV 5 A-nu-um GAL-⌈ú⌉ šá qí-bit-su la [i]n-net-ti-qu
d
60’ A IV 6 30 ina MÚ-ka gišIG.MEŠ AN-e ina ⌈šu⌉-pal-ki-ka
61’ A IV 7 ana MÚ-ka LÚ.M[E]Š ḫa-da-a-ka ṣal-mat S[A]G.DU
DÙ-ši-na ri-šá-ka :
62’ A IV 8 ú-sa-ap-pa-ka UN.MEŠ te-né-še-e-ti
63’ A IV 9 šá šèr-ra zu-⌈um⌉-mu-u šu-ma ⌈tu⌉-šar-šá
64’ A IV 10 kal e-du ú-⌈sa⌉-ap-pa-ka ta-n[a]m-din NUNUZ-a
65’ A IV 11 ú zu-um-mu-u ⌈ú⌉-sa-ap-pa-ka ta-[n]am-din-šú IBILA
66’ A IV 12 [t]a-nam-bi MU-šú ma-ḫ[a]r-ka nam-maš-še-e ED[I]N
DÙ-ši-na paḫ-rak-ka
67’ A IV 13 [ ] x-[n]ik-ka z[i]-in-ši-na te-né-te-e-tum
? d
68’ A IV 14 [ittaṣâ ] ⌈ ⌉30 EN qar-ni u ⌈su⌉-pu-ri
69’ A IV 15 [muš-te-šir ri]-⌈i⌉-ti u maš-⌈qí⌉-i-ti
70’ A IV 16 [ BABBA]R?.MEŠ na-šu-ka ⌈ši⌉-iz-bu
71’ A IV 17 [ ] i li [ ]
72’ A IV 18 [KI-ka GUB.MEŠ-z]u? DINGIR.MEŠ [GAL.MEŠ]
73’ A IV 19 [KI-ka GUB.MEŠ-z]u? DINGIR.MEŠ [DI.KU5.MEŠ]
 V.7. Ikrib-prayers to Sîn (K. 2751+//) 487

74’ A IV 20 [KI-ka li-iz-zi]z? dDil-ba[t? ] ⌈tum⌉

75’ A IV 21 [ ] l[i?/su? ] ni ma
lú
76’ A IV 22 [ ta-mītu DUMU ḪAL ma-ḫar]-ka liš-
kun
77’ A IV 23 [ ] x a am

78’ A IV 24 [ik-rib d30] UD.15.KÁM

79’ A IV 25 [d30 na-n]ar AN-e

80’ A IV 26 [ ] ⌈É⌉-kur
81’ A IV 27 [ k]a
82’ A IV 28 [ ]
83’ A IV 29 [ ]x
84’ A IV 30 [ K]UR?.MEŠ
85’ A IV 31 [ M]AḪ
86’ A IV 32 [ ] ka
87’ A IV 33 [ ]x
(rest of the column destroyed)

Translation
1’–2’ too fragmentary for a translation

3’ [Ikrib-prayer to Sîn] ... [ ].

4’ [O Sîn, the bright?,] splendid [god?] p[rince ]

5’ [ ] Sîn ... [ ]
6’ [ ] fore[runner?] of the g[reat] gods,
7’ [splendi]d [prince] whose command cannot be ch[anged]
8’ [and who]se [mind] no other god can lear[n]!
9’ [ at the ri]sing of Sîn the gods are convened,
10’ [ ] ... carry their pure offering,
11’ they [beg] humbly. For repopulating the lands,]
12’ for letting fall into ruins, for causing constant ani[mosity, for causing
enmity],
13’ [they wait] only for Nannāru, Sî[n! O Sîn, you come out]
14’ in radiant carnelian and lapis l[azuli! At the sight of Sîn the stars are
elated,]
15’ the night [rejoices!]
16’ Step forth, Sîn, [from the midst? of radiant heavens]!
17’ May the [great] god[s] stand with you,
18’ may [the divine judges] stan[d] with you!
19’ May Alamuš, your vizier [inform you, the case]
488 V. Text Editions

20’ may he bring to you! May the divi[ner pose] the query before you!
21’ O radiant Sîn, [stand by me] in [this] offe[ring]!

22’ Ikrib-prayer to [Sîn ].

23’ O Sîn, the radiant shining god, the luminar[y ],

24’ first-born of Enlil, [splendid on]e of E[kur]!
25’ As the king of the universe you reign all the land[s],
26’ you set up [...] heaven? [...] on? the throne, a fine linen garment
27’ you place, the crown of kingship [you? ...]
28’ [O Sîn, the w]axing one, splendid prince,
29’ Sîn, his light belongs to the people! The fore[runner],
30’ the splendid [pr]ince whose command cannot be chan[ged]
31’ and whose mind no other god knows!
32’ O Sîn, at your appearance the gods are convened; a[ll] the kings
33’ beg humbly, they w[ait for] Nannāru, Sîn!
34’ O Sîn, you come out in radiant carnelian and lapis lazuli!
35’ At the sight of Sîn the st[ars] are elated,
36’ the night rejoices! Indeed dwells Sîn dwell in the midst of [radiant?]
heavens!
37’ O Sîn, the legitimate heir, the belov[ed] son,
38’ the circumspect ruler, the heir of Enlil, the foremo[st of ],
39’ the luminary of the heavens, the lord of all the lands,
40’ who [holds his head?] h[igh?] in Ekur,
41’ in Eridu his word is agreed to [ ].
42’ You founded Ur on a [ ] dais,
? ?
43’ you raise [its ] top [ ].
44’ O Sîn, the luminary of the heavens, the protection of [the inhabited
worl]d?, the radiant god [ ],
45’ O lord, forerunner, Sîn, at your appearance the doors
46’ of heaven you [open wide]!
47’ At your appearance the people rejoice, all the black-headed people are
jo[yful]!
48’ The people, the humankind, pray to you, [they] all are convened before
you,
49’ the animals of the steppe are gathered before you – they all are gathered
be[fore you]!
50’ Step forth, Sîn, lord of horns and the sheepfold, the one who keeps the
pasture and the drin[king place] in order!
51’ Step forth, Sîn, from the midst? of radiant heavens! May the [great]
gods stand with you,
52’ may the divine judges stand with you, may [your?] daugh[ter?? Dilbat??]
 V.7. Ikrib-prayers to Sîn (K. 2751+//) 489

stand with you!

53’ May Alamuš, your vizier, inform you, may he bring you the case,
54’ may the [di]viner pose the query b[e]fore you! O Sîn, radiant god,
[stand by me] in this offering!
55’ [In my wo]rd, in my prayer, in everything I do, in the query I pres[ent],
may there be truth!

56’ Reg[u]lar [i]krib-prayers to Sîn.

57’ [O Sîn, the lu]minary of the heavens,

58’ [N]amraṣīt, lord of the crown, splendid god, the forerunner,
59’ great Anu, whose command cannot be [t]ransgressed!
60’ O Sîn, as you light up, as you open wide the doors of heaven,
61’ the people are rejoicing over your glow; all the black-headed people are
cheering because of you,
62’ the people, the mankind, are praying to you!
63’ You let the one who is deprived of a child to have a name,
64’ to every single one, who prays to you, you [g]ive a descendant
65’ and to the one, who is deprived (but) who prays to you, you [g]ive an
heir,
66’ [yo]u call out his name! All the animals of the steppe are gathered be-
fore you,
67’ the faces of the mankind are [turned] to you!
68’ [Step forth,] Sîn, lord of horns and the sheepfold,
69’ [the one who keeps the pas]ture and the drinking place [in order]!
70’ The w[hite? ] are bearing milk for you!
71’ [ ] ... [ ]
72’ [May the great] gods [stan]d [with you],
73’ [may the] divine [judges stand with you],
74’ [may] Dilb[at?, the] ... [stan]d [with you]!
75’ [ ] ... [ ] ...
76’ [ ] may [the diviner] pose [the query before] you!
77’ [ ] ...

78’ [Ikrib-prayer] of the 15th day [to Sîn].

79’ [O Sîn the lumi]nary of the

heavens!
80’ [ ] Ekur
81’–87’ too fragmentary for a translation
490 V. Text Editions

Commentary
3’ This line is separated from the main text by horizontal lines, which in-
dicates that it is the rubric of the preceding prayer. Since the rubrics on
the reverse (ll. 22’ and 56’) refer to ikrib-prayers to Sîn, one would also
expect to find a similar rubric here. The preserved signs, however, do
not support such a reconstruction, and, therefore, the content of this
rubric remains unknown. It is plausible that the sign [r]u is what is left
of the appellation Nannāru and that the epithet eddēšû (see e.g. “Sîn
11”, 6) should be reconstructed here, but due to the lack of parallel rub-
rics no reconstruction is given here.
4’–7’ These lines contain many features that are found in a prayer to Sîn in
KBo I no. 12.
KBo I no. 12, o.! 9–13
9 ⌈d⌉EN.ZU dA-nu ša ša-me-e IBILA ra-bu-ú ša dEn-líl
10 [d]Si-in nu-ri-i-šu ša ša-me-e ù er-ṣe-tim
11 [a]-li-ik pa-an i-li aḫ-ḫi-šu ru-bu-ú ša qí-bi-is-s[u]
12 [l]a-a ut-ta-ka-ru i-lu nam-rum šu-pu-ú e-tel-lum [x x]
13 [mu-ad-di] ⌈mi⌉-na-at u4-mi ITI 1.KAMv MU 1.KAMv [x x]
Sîn, Anu of heaven, great heir of Enlil! O Sîn, his light is of heaven
and earth, [f]orerunner of the gods, his brothers, ruler who[se] com-
mand [can]not be changed, bright, splendid god, prince [...], [the one
who marks] the length of the month and the year [...]!
Note that in the edition of the passage in Ebeling 1954a, 213–216 the
line 10 is read [(d)]Si-in-nu ri-i-šu ša ša-me-e ù er-ṣe-tim, “Sîn, head of
the heaven and the earth”.
4’ Cf. KBo I no. 12, o.! 12: i-lu nam-rum šu-pu-ú e-tel-lum [x x].
5’ Although this line resembles KBo I no. 12, o.! 10 as well as line 29’
later in this collection of ikrib-prayers, the presence of the sign i indic-
ates that something else is expressed here. One possibility is to read
here the verbal form ul iriššū, “they do not rejoice”, but such an expres-
sion does not find parallels in the other ikrib-prayer or other sources.
6’ The formulation in KBo I no. 12, o.! 11 (“forerunner of the gods, his
brothers”) is similar to this line. See also the further use of ālik maḫri in
the lines 29’, 45’ and 58’ later in this text.
7’ Cf. KBo I no. 12, o.! 11–12 as well as the line 30’ later in this text. For
the sign value uta(UD) see MZL no. 596.
9’–13’ A similar passage can be found in KAR 19, which contains prayers to
the gods Šamaš and Sîn (see Ebeling 1954a, 210–212 and Seux 1976,
68).
KAR 19, o.! 6–10
6 [ina t]a-mar-ti šá d+EN.ZU DINGIR.MEŠ pa-aḫ-ru
LUGAL.M[EŠ]
 V.7. Ikrib-prayers to Sîn (K. 2751+//) 491

7 na-šu-ú-ma ni-qá-šu-nu el-la ap-pa-šu-nu i-lab-bi-[nu]

8 a-na ma-ta-a-ti šu-šu-bi šu-ud-di-i
9 šu-uk-ku-ri šu-tam-ḫu-ṣi
10 na-an-na-ra-am-ma d+EN.ZU ú-qá-a-a-ú
[At the ap]pearance of Sîn the gods are gathered, the king[s] are car-
rying their pure offering and pray[ing] humbly. To settle the lands,
to bring (them) to ruins, to cause enmity (and) constant animosity,
they wait only for the luminary, Sîn.
9’–11’ Although these lines resemble KAR 19, o.! 6–7 the first two preserved
signs in line 10’ do not allow the restoration “[kin]gs” and therefore the
subject of the verb “to carry” remains unknown.
11’–13’ Cf. KAR 19, o.! 8–10. It should be noted that the signs that here are
read as the infinitive šuddû, “to cause to be in ruins”, (CAD N/1, 97)
were read as šu-par-di-i, “to brighten” (for šu-UD-di-i) in the earlier
edition of this prayer (Perry 1907, no. 5c, line II 2). The actions that are
listed here in infinitive forms (to wage war, to destroy, and also to re-
populate the land or the cities) are all related to the domain of the king
due to their connotations of military conflicts. In other sources, the con-
trol over such powers is given to Nabû and Marduk were closely con-
nected to kingship in Mesopotamia (see Goetze 1965, 129). Likewise, a
similar role is attested for the god Aššur, as is exemplified by an in-
scription of Esarhaddon.
RINAP 4 no. 1, II 30–31
30 dAš-šur AD DINGIR.MEŠ šu-ud-du-ú ù šu-šu-bu
31 mi-ṣir KUR Aš-šurki ru-up-pu-šú ú-ma-al-la-a ŠUII-u-a
The god Aššur, the father of the gods, gave me (the power) to let
(cities) fall into ruins and to (re)populate (them, and) to enlarge As-
syrian territory.
The presence of these lines in a prayer addressed to the moon god un-
derlines his importance not only as a god, who is able to grant royal
power, but more specifically as a god whose decisions concerning the
future of the land and of the king are made visible in lunar omens (see
the discussion on p. 150ff. above).
13’–15’ See lines 33’–36’ for the same passage.
14’ For the reasons for choosing here the translation “radiant” for ellu in
connection with carnelian and lapis lazuli, see the discussion in Feder
2014, 87–113.
16’–21’ It is very likely that the passage from lines 51’–54’ should be recon-
structed here.
23’ The latter part of this incipit remains unknown due to the lack of paral-
lels. See, however, the use of the expression ilu ellu ša šamê ellūti in
the prayer “Sîn 11”, 1 (see p. 477 above): perhaps a similar reference to
492 V. Text Editions

the heavens existed also here.

24’ The restoration [šūpû] ša Ekur was suggested in Combe 1908, 91 on the
basis of its attestation in the šu’ila-prayer ”Sîn 1”, 14 (see p. 452ff.
above). This is supported by the traces on the tablet.
25’ Perry 1907, no. 5a (line 2) renders the end of the line as māt[āti], and
this suggestion was accepted in Seux 1976, 478 note 3. The epithet bēl
mātāti for Sîn is otherwise attested only in the stone slab inscription of
Sargon II found at Nebi Yunus (Frahm 2013a, 46, line 16: dEN.ZU
LUGAL DINGIR.MEŠ be-el KUR.KUR).
26’ The restoration taš[kan ina] šamê [ellūti] suggested in Perry 1907, no.
5a (line 2) has been accepted in both Seux 1976, 478 and Foster 2005,
758. However, due to the lack of parallels, this has not been included in
the present edition.
26’–27’ The fragmentary state of these lines, together with the different arrange-
ment of the text between the two manuscripts, complicates the recon-
struction of this passage. The elusiveness of the object of the verb
tašakkan, “you place”, at the beginning of line 27’ is especially funda-
mental: whereas Ms A separates this verb from gadamāḫu – making it
implausible that this linen garment is the thing that is placed – Ms B
has a different line division. For this reason, it remains unclear whether
the crown (agû) in line 27’ should be understood as the object of the
verb šakānu or not. A reconstruction agâ ša belūti [tappir] is given in
Perry 1907, no. 5a (line 3). Since the verb apāru, “to cover the head”, is
commonly used with the different nouns for headdresses (see CAD A/2,
166–168) this suggestion is not entirely without justification, but on the
other hand, this formulation finds no parallels in other sources. The spa-
cing in Ms A suggests that no more than two signs can be missing at the
end of line 27’.
28’ In Foster 2005, 758 the participle muḫtanbu is attached to agâ bēlūti
and translated “You set out a superb linen, you [don] the resplendent
tiara of lordship whose waxing never fails.” Here muḫtanbu is under-
stood to be an epithet of the moon god (so also in Perry 1907, no. 5a
[line 3]). There is sufficient space in Ms A for the signs d30. For brief
remarks on muḫtanbu see p. 236 above.
29’ The expression nūrīšu ša nišī alik m[aḫri] is structurally strange, as
noted already in Seux 1976, 478 note 6. A restoration maḫ-[ri-ši-na] is
given in Perry 1907, no. 5a (line 4) and further used in Combe 1908,
130, but there is not enough space for three signs at the end of the line.
29’–31’ Similar lines are found in KBo I no. 12, o.! 10–12 (see p. 490 above).
See also the lines 5’–8’ above.
32’–33’ In the previous edition (Perry 1907, no. 5c) and also in the translations
of this prayer (Seux 1976, 478 and Foster 2005, 758), no attempts to re-
 V.7. Ikrib-prayers to Sîn (K. 2751+//) 493

store the end of the line were made. Reconstruction is, however, pos-
sible on the basis of the similar passage in KAR 19, 6–10 (see p. 490
above) and the lines 10’–13’ in the present text. For the different
spellings for the appellation Nannāru – here dNANNA and dŠEŠ-ru –
see the discussion on p. 31ff. above.
34’–36’ Cf. lines 13’–15’ above.
38’ The end of this line remains unclear. The two possibilities for recon-
struction are aša[rēd Ekur] and aša[rēd ilānī]. The former option was
suggested in Seux 1976, 479 note 13, and in this context it is very
plausible, due to the pronounced father-son relationship between Enlil
and Sîn. Still, the latter possibility, which is attested e.g. in ”Sîn 1”, 1
(see the edition p. 452ff. above), may also have been used here.
40’ Damage to both manuscripts and the lack of parallel expressions in oth-
er contexts prevent a definitive reconstruction of this line. A translation
“whose [head?] is [high?] in Ekur” is suggested in Foster 2005, 758, and
this suggestion is followed here. For attestations of the verb šaqû used
with rēšu, “head”, see CAD Š/2, 18.
42’ It is plausible that an adjective attribute followed the noun parakku,
“dais”, but no direct parallels are known to me. One possibility for such
an attribute could be dārû, ”everlasting”, which is used with concrete
objects, e.g. buildings, as well as with abstract phenomenona such as
kingship (CAD D, 115–118). Another, not as widely used, adjective
could be rašdu, “firmly founded” (see CAD R, 192).
43’ A translation “[and raised its] head(?) [on high]” for this line is given in
Foster 2005, 758. This suggestion is followed here since it appears to fit
well with the preserved traces of signs in the line. For the expressions
for raising a building’s top see CAD R, 281–282.
44’ In accordance with the suggestion in Seux 1976, 479 note 18, the
reconstruction andul [dadm]ē is adopted here: it is supported by the
traces of the sign e that precede DINGIR KÙ. For attestations of andul
dadmē see CAD A/2, 115.
46’ In Langdon 1915, 191 the verb in Ms B was considered to be t[u-pat-
ti]. This may be correct, but on the other hand, the reference to the
doors of heaven in line 60’ in this text uses the verb šupalkû, “to open
wide” (see CAD N/1, 270–271). On this basis, the tentative suggestion
here is the verbal form t[u-uš-pa-la-ka]. For descriptions of the moon
god opening the heaven’s doors as he rises, see p. 82ff. above.
47’ As noted in Seux 1976, 479 note 20, a form of the verb riāšu should
most likely be reconstructed at the end of this line. This is suggested
both by the use of the verb ḫadû and riāšu together (see CAD R, 211)
and by the similar formulation that is found in line 61’ in the present
text. However, in line 61’ the stative form rīšāka, “they are cheering be-
494 V. Text Editions

cause of you”, is used instead of the indicative G-stem form (shown by

the preserved verbal prefix i-) in this line. Seux’s suggestion is to recon-
struct the verbal form i-r[i-šú], but the form i-r[i-iš-šá] would be gram-
matically correct and allowed by the spacing of the line. For an addi-
tional use of the verb riāšu to describe the joy of the rising moon and
the sun, see the prayer ”Sîn & Šamaš 1” in CBS 1516, r. 13: ⌈a⌉-⌈na⌉
⌈ta⌉-⌈mar⌉-ti-ku-nu i-ri-iš-šú KUR.KUR (see edition on p. 520 below).
49’ The first signs in this line were interpreted as MÁŠ.ANŠE! ir-ku in
Langdon 1915, 191. This reading has since been cited in CAD B, 315
and followed also in the later translations: “Le bétail, les animaux de la
steppe se rassemblent en totalité devant toi” (Seux 1976, 479) and
“Sheep, goats, and cattle, creatures of the steppe all convene before
[you]” (Foster 2005, 759). The traces on the tablet, however, suggest
the reading ⌈pa⌉-⌈ḫi⌉-ir-ku instead, thus resulting in a stative form with
an appended dative suffix. For a similar formulation see line 66’ later in
the present text.
50’ The same epithet is repeated in line 69’ later in this same text. In other
sources, the role described by this epithet is attributed to Marduk as he
is given the name Enbilulu (Enūma eliš VII, 59: šá ri-i-ta maš-qí-ta uš-
te-eš-še-ru, “who keeps the pasture and the watering place in order; see
Lambert 2013, 126–127).
51’ The formulation i-ziz-za-am-ma d30 ina KI AN-⌈e⌉ KÙ.MEŠ in this line
is problematic due to the use of the sign KI: no satisfactory reading for
this sign as a logogram can be found. Two options for solving the prob-
lem have been suggested in the earlier treatments of the text. First, this
has been taken to be a scribal mistake for ina qé-<reb> AN-e KÙ.MEŠ
(Seux 1976, 479 note 24 and Foster 2005, 759; see also the use of ina
qereb šamê ellūti in line 36’ in this same text). The second suggestion is
to take the sign to be DU6 instead of KI (Langdon 1915, 191: til šami-e;
Mayer 1976, 212: izizzamma dSîn ina DU6? šamê ellūti, “tritt her, o Sin,
aus der Höhe? des heiligen Himmels”). The latter option seems less
plausible, since the formulation “height of pure heavens” is not attested
(see CAD M/2, 193). Moreover, the sign in question does not show any
considerable differences in comparison to other KI signs in Ms B. For
these reasons, the former option that emends the line is accepted here.
52’ It was proposed in Langdon 1915, 191 that the end of this line should
be read bâb [šami-e] (i.e. KÁ [AN-e]). Although this solution is con-
sistent with the traces visible in the tablet, it is less satisfactory when its
meaning is considered. Doors or gates of heaven certainly existed on
the horizon according to Mesopotamian cosmology, but as the other
sources show, these doors do not “stand” with the moon god in the sky,
rather the gods Sîn and Šamaš open them by rising from below the hori-
 V.7. Ikrib-prayers to Sîn (K. 2751+//) 495

zon to the sky (see the discussion on p. 82ff. above). Undoubtedly due
to this problem, the end of the line was left without a translation both in
Seux 1976, 479 and Foster 2005, 759. The suggestion here is based on
the traces preserved in the line (more likely ⌈DUMU⌉.M[UNUS] than
KÁ), and further developed by the apparent reference to Dilbat (the
planet Venus) in the corresponding passage later in this same text (line
74’). Therefore, possibly, the moon god is beseeched to appear in the
sky together with his daughter Ištar (Venus). In this respect, note also
the possibility that the fragmentary ikrib-prayer on the reverse of Ms B
was addressed to Venus (see the comments on line 56’ below). For the
role of Ištar as the daughter of Sîn see the discussion on p. 309ff. above.
54’–55’ See the parallel expression in an ikrib-prayer to Ninurta (K. 128, 31–32
in Mayer 2005, 53).
56’ For the use of the form kayyamānu instead of kayyānu (“regular”) in
the 1st millennium BCE see the overview in Gabbay 2016, 191 note 95.
The designation here most likely means that this particular prayer was
not associated with any specific lunar phase, but could be performed at
any time during the month.
After this rubric, an ikrib-prayer to Šulpae (Jupiter) and to an
unidentified female deity – most likely Ištar as Venus (see Langdon
1915, 189 and Reiner 1995, 74) – are written in Ms B. Since no signi-
ficant improvements to the previous edition by Langdon can be made,
no new transliteration is given here. Note, however, that the expression
[ṣi-i]t-ka na[m-r]at, “your [emergen]ce is bright”, can be reconstructed
for the beginning of the line 33 (second line in the ikrib to Šulpae).
57’–69’ This passage contains very similar epithets and motifs as the newly
identified prayer to Sîn in IM 148516, 1–r. 1 (Fadhil 2018, 197–198).
For the correspondences, see the comments on the individual lines be-
low. The similarity between the ikrib-prayer and the prayer in IM
148516 raises questions about why the specific qualities of the moon
god in these two two different contexts are brought forth. Despite the
differences in the ritual context and performance itself, the temporal
setting of these rituals is a connecting factor between them because it is
likely that both of them were performed at the time of the full moon.
The time of performance is explicitly indicated in the rubric of the
ikrib-prayer, in which the 15th day of the month is mentioned (see line
78’). Although no similar direct evidence is available for the anti-witch-
craft ritual in IM 148516, it is, nevertheless, plausible that the proced-
ure took place on the day of the full moon (see the discussion on the
connection between the full moon and witchcraft on p. 109 above).
58’ The epithets present in this line – except the appellation Dilimbabbar –
are also found in IM 148516, 2 (Fadhil 2018, 197–198).
496 V. Text Editions

59’ For Sîn’s association with the sky god Anu see p. 136ff. above.
60’–63’ A similar passage is also found in the text IM 148516, 6–10 (Fadhil
2018, 197–198).
63’ A parallel formulation is used in the prayer to Marduk in KAR 26,
(KAL 2 no. 21), 27 (see Mayer 1999, 150 and Schwemer 2007b, 57).
See also šu’ila-prayer ”Sîn 3”, 8: šá IBILA la i-šu-ú tu-šar-šá-a IBILA
(p. 464ff. above). For a discussion on the power of the moon god over
fertility, see p. 229ff. above.
66’ See the lines in IM 148516, 12–14 (Fadhil 2018, 197–198).
67’ No parallel formulations are known to me, and, therefore, the specific
verb at the beginning of the line remains unclear.
68’–69’ Cf. line 50’ previously in this same text. A similar phrase can be found
also in IM 148516, 15–r. 1 (Fadhil 2018, 197–198).
70’ Due to the association of milk with the colour white, as well as the
white glow of the full moon, I suggest that the logogram for which only
traces of a vertical wedge are preserved could possibly be BABBAR.
This would produce a line in which white animals, most likely white
cows, produce milk for Sîn. For the connection of the moon god with
cattle, see the discussion on p. 240ff. above.
71’ One would expect that this line parallels lines 16’ and 51’ in the present
text. However, the preserved signs i and li neither support such a recon-
struction nor give any clues about the content of this line.
72’–73’ Cf. lines 17’–18’ and 51’–52’.
74’ Cf. line 52’ and the comments on it above. The sign tum at the end of
the line supports the reading Dilbat for the fragmentary divine name in
this line: it must have been a part of an epithet of a female deity.
75’ The preserved signs in this line do not allow similar formulation as in
lines 19’ and 53’ to be reconstructed here.
76’ Cf. lines 20’ and 54’.
77’ Similar expression as in lines 21’ and 54’ is expected here, but the first
of the preserved signs does not support such a reconstruction: the re-
mains of three horizontal wedges and the completely preserved vertical
wedge cannot have belonged to a sign with the value /ziz/ or /za/.
Therefore, this line remains unclear to me.
78’ For the significance of the full moon in Mesopotamia see the discussion
on p. 106ff. above. See also the discussion on the association of the
moon god with the gods Anu, Ea, and Enlil in different lunar phases (p.
136ff. above).
79’–87’ Very little of this prayer, which is presumably the last in Ms A, is pre-
served. The few signs that are preserved suggest that, like the preceding
prayers, this ikrib-prayer also employed the motif of the moon god as
the heir of the god Enlil.
 V.8. Making the Unpropitious Appearance of Sîn Good (K. 6018+//) 497

V.8. Making the Unpropitious Appearance of Sîn Good (K. 6018+//)

The text K. 6018+// includes ritual instructions for transforming an unpropitious
appearance of the moon (see the discussion on p. 163ff. above). This procedure
is known from two manuscripts: K. 6018+ from Nineveh (Ms A); and CBS 1695
(Ms B) which is Neo-Babylonian.2468 Also included in this edition are other ma-
nuscripts that include either the prayer “Sîn 6a” (Ms E) or the prayer “Sîn 6”
(Mss C, D, and F). The contexts of these manuscripts differ from that of Mss A
and B, but they reflect the same conceptions that are at play in this procedure:
the reconstruction of the relationship between the human petitioner and the di-
vine figure who has become angry with him. The specific context of Ms F re-
mains unclear, but it was certainly connected with averting the consequences of
evil omens, as well.
Following the classification in Mayer 1976, 408–409, this ritual contains the
prayers “Sîn 5” (1’–4’), “Sîn 6a” (8’–13’), “Sîn 6b” (x+36’–x+44’), and “Sîn 7”
(x+27’–x+33’). The new manuscript CBS 1695 reveals the previously unknown
incipit and the full extent of “Sîn 7”.

Manuscripts
A: K. 6018+K. 8958+K. 12922+K. 13296+K. 14704, 1’–r. 23’ (AOAT 34
no. 59; CDLI P396319)
B: CBS 1695, 1’–r. 10’ (Pls. 9–10; CDLI P259027)2469
C: VAT 13608+ o. A. 13759, VI 14’–23’ (BAM 3 no. 316)2470
D: VAT 13630, 1.S II 3’–10’ (LKA 25)
E: K. 8183, 8’–12’ (Abusch & Schwemer 2016, pl. 68; CDLI P397530)2471
F: Si. 849, r. 5’–11’ (Geers Ac 38)

Editions: Mayer 1976, 529–532; Lambert 1974, 294–297 (“Sîn 6a-b”); Jaques
2015, 231–238 (“Sîn 6a–b”); Abusch & Schwemer 2016, no. 8.37 (Ms
E)
Literature: Hunger 1968, no. 319 (colophon, Ms A); Pedersén 1986, N 4 nos.
533 and 549 (Mss C & D); Reiner 1995, 135–136; Lambert 2008, 96–
97; Frechette 2012, 148 and 270

2468
A further manuscript, the unpublished tablet BM 46590, came to my attention too late
to be fully included in the present edition and it will be edited in a forthcoming article.
2469
This tablet was brought to my attention by E. Jimenéz.
2470
A collation of VAT 13608+ and VAT 13630 from a photograph was kindly made pos-
sible by S. M. Maul.
2471
This fragment is listed in Abusch & Schwemer 2011, 15 with the designation “frag-
mentary anti-witchcraft rituals addressed to Sîn”, and it appears to form a partial duplic-
ate to IM 148516 (Fadhil 2018, 197–198).
498 V. Text Editions

Score transliteration
1’ A 1’ [ ] x x x ⌈lu⌉ ⌈ḫi⌉ ⌈im⌉ [ ]
d
2’ A 2’ [ina qí-b]it iq-bu-ú ⌈ ⌉[ ]
3’ A 3’ [ina qibīt?] šar-ra-ti ra-bi-ti ⌈d⌉TIR.[AN.NA TU6?.ÉN?]

4’ A 4’ [KA].INIM.MA ŠU.ÍL.LÁ [dEN?.ZU?.KAM]

5’ A 5’ [KÌD.K]ÌD.BI e-nu-ma d30 in-nam-ma-ru NÍG.NA [šimLI

GAR-an ]
6’ A 6’ [KAŠ] SAG B[A]L-qí ana IGI d30 DUR SÍK BABBAR
⌈NU⌉.[NU ]
7’ A 7’ [e-m]a KEŠDA ÉN ⌈ŠID⌉-⌈nu⌉ [ina] ⌈IZI⌉ GAR-
an-ma a[n-nam DÙ-uš-ma ŠÀ.BI DU10.GA]

8’ A 8’ [É]N EN U4.SAKAR kul-l[a-ti?/at? ]

E 8’ [ bi-n]u-ut dA-sar
9’ A 9’ [a]-šar Ú.ḪI.A er-ṣe-⌈tum⌉ a-⌈dir⌉-[ti ]
E 9’ [ ]
10’ A10’ [k]i-ma ḫi-ri-ti ⌈ana⌉ AB[Z]U a-dir-t[i ]
E 9’ [ ] ⌈ana⌉ ABZU a-dir-ti ⌈liš⌉-⌈du⌉-u[d]
11’ A 11’ la-ši-ru-tum ⌈lim⌉-ḫu-ra a-di-⌈ra⌉-⌈ti⌉-[ia]
E 10’ [ a]-di-ra-ti-ia
12’ A 12’ [an]a-ku ana sul-l[i]-⌈ka⌉ ⌈ak⌉-ta-mis ma-ḫar-ka lu-b[i-
ib]
E 11’ [ ] lu-bi-i[b]

13’ A 13’ KA.INIM.MA ŠU.ÍL.LÁ d+EN.ZU.[KAM]

14’ A 14’ [D]Ù.DÙ.BI ina Ú.SAL ÍD ⌈NÍG⌉.NA GAR-an [m]i-iḫ-

ḫa BAL-qí IM Ú.SAL ÍD T[I-qé]
15’ A 15’ [ZA].⌈NA⌉ MUNUS DÙ-uš ina ŠU-ka ÍL-ma EN
U4.SAKAR kul-la-ti 3-šú ŠID-[nu-ma]
16’ A 16’ [ZA.NA ana] ⌈ÍD⌉ ⌈ŠUB⌉-⌈di⌉-ma KI.ZA.⌈ZA⌉-ma
KEŠDA DU8-⌈ár⌉ ⌈šam⌉-⌈šá⌉-ni KÙ.GI 7 [x x]
17’ A 17’ [ ] x ⌈UGU⌉? ki-a-am DU11.GA kid
⌈ma⌉ x x x [ ]
18’ A 18’ [ ]-⌈ú⌉-ti ša ŠU.TAG.GA lal ti [ ]
19’ A 19’ [ t]i UN.MEŠ [ ]
20’ A 20’ [ d]i-lip-ti ma [ ]
?
21’ A 21’ [ ] x ša sa ru t[i ]
(gap of unknown lenght)
x+22’ B 1’ [ ] ⌈an⌉? ⌈na⌉? [ ]
 V.8. Making the Unpropitious Appearance of Sîn Good (K. 6018+//) 499

x+23’ B 2’ [KA.INIM.MA šá IGI.DU8].⌈A⌉ ⌈d⌉⌈30⌉ ḪUL

SIG5.[GA.KAM]

x+24’ B 3’ [DÙ.DÙ.BI u4-mi d]⌈30⌉ [I]GI.LÁ ana I[G]I ⌈d⌉30

NÍG.NA ⌈šim⌉[LI GAR]
x+25’ B 4’ [DUR SÍK] ba-⌈ru⌉-⌈un⌉-du NU.NU 7 KA.KEŠDA
KEŠDA-ár
x+26’ B 5’ [ÉN ana IGI] ⌈d⌉30 ŠID-ma ina MUD Á ⌈GÙB⌉
KA.K[E]ŠDA ⌈DUL⌉ SILIM-im

x+27’ B 6’ [ÉN ta-t]ap-ḫa d30 ABGAL DINGIR.MEŠ DÙ.A.BI

x+28’ B 7’ [ ] ka EN šu-kun ⌈za⌉-[ku-t]i
x+29’ B 8’ [x e?-t]i?-qu i-ta-a ú-ka-[bi-su an-zil-l]a
x+30’ A r. 1’ [ ] x ⌈kit⌉?-⌈ti⌉ ⌈it⌉-⌈ti⌉ ⌈tap⌉-⌈pe⌉-⌈e⌉ ⌈la⌉ ⌈ad⌉-
⌈bu⌉-⌈bu⌉ x x [ ]
B 9’ [ k]it-ti it-ti tap-pe-⌈e⌉ [la ad-bu-b]u?
x+31’ A r. 2’ [ ]-am-ma šu-kun za-ku-t[i]
B 10’ [ ] šu-kun za-ku-[ti]
x+32’ A r. 3’ [la-le]-e ba-la-ṭi lu-uš-bi TU6.É[N]
B 11’ [ b]a-la-ṭi lu-u[š]-[bi ]

x+33’ A r. 4’ [KA].⌈INIM⌉.MA šá IGI.DU8.A d30 ḪUL

S[I]G5.GA.K[AM]
B 12’ [ ] šá IGI.DU8.A d30 [ ]

x+34’ A r. 5’ [DÙ.DÙ].BI u4-mi d30 IGI.LÁ síkGA.RÍG.AK.A ta-mat-

t[aḫ]
B 13’ [ ] d30 IGI.LÁ síkG[A.RÍG.AK.A ]
x+35’ A r. 6’ [É]N 7-[š]ú ana UGU ŠID-nu-ma ina GÚ-šú GAR-an-
ma ḪUL pa-ši-i[r]
B 14’ [ mu]ḫ-ḫi ŠID-ma [ ]

x+36’ A r. 7’ [É]N ⌈EN⌉ na-an-na-ru kul-lat bi-ni-ti

B 15’ [ U4.SA]KAR? ⌈kul⌉-[ ]
C VI 14’ ⌈ÉN⌉ [at -t]a? [b]e-lum n[a-nà]r? ⌈kul⌉-⌈la⌉-⌈ti⌉ [
?
]
D II 3’ [ÉN at?-t]a? be-lum U4.SAKAR kul-la-⌈tú⌉ ⌈bi⌉-⌈nu⌉-⌈ti⌉?
F r. 5’ [ ] kul-lat b[i?-nu-ti/tu]
x+37’ A r. 8’ [a]-šar it-ti Ú.ḪI.A KI-tim a-dir-ti ul-du
C VI 15’ a-šar ki-i šam-mi er-[ṣe-tu ]
D II 4’ [a-šar K]I šam-mi KI-ti a-dir-tú ul-du
F r. 6’ [ ] a-dir-t[i ]
x+38’ A r. 9’ [KI]-t[i]m ma-ḫi-rat ana ABZU a-dir-ti liš-du-u[d]
500 V. Text Editions

C VI 16’ er-ṣe-tu ma-ḫi-rat ana ap-s[i ]

D II 5’–6’ ⌈er⌉-⌈ṣe⌉-tum ma-ḫi-ra-at ana ABZU a-dir-t[i] / li-il-du-
ud
F r. 7’ [ ] ABZU a-dir-t[i ]
x+39’ A r. 10’ [e]š-ru-⌈tu⌉ lim-ḫu-ru a-di-ra-ti-i[a5]
B r. 1’ [ a]-d]i-r[a-ti-ia]
C VI 17’ la eš-ru-ti lim-ḫu-[ru ]
D II 6’–7’ la eš-ru-tu[m] / lim-ḫu-ru a-⌈di⌉-ra-te-⌈ia⌉
F r. 8’ [ lim]-ḫu-ru a-di-r[a-ti-ia]
x+40’ A r. 11’ [i?]-⌈šá⌉-ru-tu lim-ḫu-ru-in-[ni]
B r. 2’ [ lim]-⌈ḫu⌉-ru-[nin?-ni]
C VI 18’ i-šá-ru-ti lim-ḫu-[ru-nin?-ni ]
x+41’ A r. 12’ [š]u?-⌈šá⌉-ru-tu li-tén-nu-ú it-ti-[ia5]
B r. 3’ [ ] ⌈li⌉-ten-nu-⌈ú⌉ [ ]
C VI 19’ šu-šu-⌈ru⌉-ti li-ten-n[u-ú] it-⌈ti⌉-[i]a
F r. 9’ [ li-t]en-nu-ú it!-[ti-ia]
x+42’ A r. 13’ [liš-d]u-ud ár-ni la pa-li-ḫu ma-ḫar-ka lil-[qú]
B r. 4’ [ l]a pa-li-ḫi ⌈ma⌉-[ḫar-ka ]
C VI 20’ liš-du-ud ar-ni la pa-li-⌈ḫu⌉? ma-ḫar-⌈ka⌉ ⌈lil⌉-qú
F r. 10’ [ pa]-li-ḫu IGI-[ka ]
x+43’ A r. 14’ ⌈EN⌉ [a-n]a-ku a-na sul-li-ka ak-ta-mis ma-ḫar-ka lu-
b[i-ib]
B r. 5’ [ s]ul-⌈li⌉-ka ak-⌈ta⌉-⌈mis⌉ ⌈ma⌉-[ḫar-ka ]
C VI 21’–22’ ana-ku ana su-ul-li-ka ak-ta-mis ma-ḫa[r-ka] / [lu]-⌈še⌉-
⌈er⌉
D II 8’–9’ ana-ku a-na su-⌈li⌉-ka ⌈ak⌉-ta-mi-is / ma-ḫar-ka lu-ši-⌈ir⌉
F r. 11’ [ ] IGI-ka [ ]

x+44’ A r. 15’ K[A.IN]IM.MA šá IGI.DU8.A d30 ḪUL

SIG5.GA.[KAM]
B r. 6’ [ ] šá IGI.DU8.A d30 ⌈ḪUL⌉
⌈SIG5⌉.G[A.KAM]

x+45’ A r. 16’ DÙ.[DÙ.BI] u4-mi d30 IGI.LÁ ana IGI ⌈d⌉30 NÍG.NA
šim
LI GAR-a[n]
B r. 7’ [ u]4-mi d30 IGI.LÁ ana IGI d3[0 NÍG.N]A
⌈šim⌉[LI ]
x+46’ A r. 17’ ⌈KAŠ⌉.[SAG BA]L-qí-[m]a IM ú-šal-li ÍD TI-qé
B r. 8’ [ BA]L-qí IM Ú.SAL ⌈ÍD⌉ TI-⌈qé⌉
x+47’ A r. 18’ [Z]A.[NA DÙ-u]š ÉN 3-šú ana IGI d30 ŠID-ma
B r. 8’–9’ [ZA].N[A] ⌈DÙ⌉-⌈uš⌉ / [ ] ana IGI d30 ŠID-ma
x+48’ A r. 19’ [ku-tal-la]-nik-ka ina ÍD ŠUB-ma ḪUL BÚR
 V.8. Making the Unpropitious Appearance of Sîn Good (K. 6018+//) 501

B r. 9’ ⌈ku⌉-⌈tal⌉-la-⌈nik⌉-⌈ka⌉ ana ⌈ÍD⌉ ⌈ŠUB⌉-ma ⌈ḪUL⌉

⌈BÚR⌉

x+49a’ A r. 20’ [ÉN EN g]a-aš-ru ti-iz-qa-ru bu-kúr dNun-nam-ni[r]

x+49b’ B r. 10’ [ ] ⌈u4⌉-⌈mi⌉? x [ ] x ti Á.MEŠ
⌈GISKIM⌉.MEŠ ḪUL.⌈MEŠ⌉
B r. 11’ [(empty?) ] NU DU10.⌈GA⌉?.⌈MEŠ⌉
(rest of Ms B too fragmentary for a transliteration)

Colophon (Ms A)
A r. 21’ [É.GAL I.dAš-šur–D]Ù–A LUGAL ŠÚ LUGAL KUR AN.ŠÁRki
A r. 22’ [šá ana Aššur] ù [d]NIN.LÍL tak-lu
A r. 23’ [šá Nabû u Tašmetu GEŠTUGII ra-pa-áš]-⌈tum⌉ [i]š-ru-k[u-uš]
(rest of the tablet destroyed)

Translation
1’ [ ] ... [ ]
2’ [By the com]mand given by [ ]
3’ [by the command?] of the great queen Man[zât! Incantation-formula?.]

4’ [Wo]rding of a šu’ila-prayer [to Sîn?.]

5’ Its ri[tual]: When Sîn becomes visible, [you set] an incense burner [with
juniper in place ...],
6’ you li[ba]te first-class [beer]. If front of Sîn you s[pin] white wool into
yarn [ ].
7’ [Every ti]me you bind (it), you recite the incantation and place (it) [in]
fire; [you do] t[his and he will be happy].

8’ [Incan]tation: O Lord, the luminary of al[l creations of Asar]!

9’ [W]here the earth [bore] my fear along plants,
10’ may it draw away my fear to Apsû [l]ike a canal
11’ may the turbulent (waters) take my fear upon themselves!
12’ I, I have kneeled in order to pr[a]y to you, may I be cleansed before
you!

13’ Wording of šu’ila-prayer [to] Sîn.

14’ Its [r]itual: In the meadow of a river you set in place an incense burner
and you libate [m]iḫḫu-beer. You ta[ke] clay of the river meadow (and)
15’ make a female [pu]ppet. By lifting your hands you reci[te] (the incanta-
tion) “O Lord, the luminary of all” three times [and]
16’ you throw [the puppet into the river] and you prostrate yourself and
502 V. Text Editions

then clear away the ritual arrangement. Seven golden sun discs [...]
17’ [ ] you speak thus over? [ ] ... [ ]
18’ [ ] ... of undertaking ... [ ]
19’ [ ] ... (of) the people [ ]
20’ [ a]nxiety ... [ ]
21’ [ ] ... [ ]
(gap of unknown lenght)
x+22’ [ ] ... [ ]

x+23’ [It is a wording for] making [an unpropitious appearan]ce of Sîn

go[od].

x+24’ [Its ritual: When] Sîn becomes [v]isible [you set] an incense burner
with [juniper in place] before Sîn.
x+25’ You spin multi-coloured [wool into yarn], you tie seven knots.
x+26’ You recite [the incantation before] Sîn and then cover the knots with the
heel of the left side: it will be well.

x+27’ [Incantation: You have ri]sen, Sîn, sage of all the gods!
x+28’ [ ] ... lord, provide with cl[eansin]g!
x+29’ [I?, who transg]ressed the limits, com[mitted sacrileg]e?
x+30’ [ ] ... who did not speak the truth with the comrade ... [...]
x+31’ [ ] me and provide with cleansin[g!]
x+32’ May I find [happin]ess in life! Incantation-for[mula.]

x+33’ [It i]s a [wo]rding for making an unpropitious appearance of Sîn

g[oo]d.

x+34’ Its [ritual]: When Sîn becomes visible you pick [up] combed wool,
x+35’ you recite the [incan]tation seven ti[m]es over it and then place it on his
neck and the evil will be undo[ne].

x+36’ Incantation: O Lord, the luminary, all creation! (var.(?): [Yo]u?, the
luminary of all creation! [Mss C and D])
x+37’ Where the earth bore my fear along plants,
x+38’ the earth takes (it) upon itself, may it drag my fear to Apsû,
x+39’ may [the s]mooth (waters) (var.: [the turbulent (waters) [Mss C and D]) take
my fear upon themselves,
x+40’ may the smooth (waters) receive (them from) m[e],
x+41’ may the well-ordered (waters) serve as my substitute!
x+42’ May it draw away my sin, may the irreverent take it in front of you!
x+43’ O lord – I, I have kneeled in order to pray to you, may I get well before
you!
 V.8. Making the Unpropitious Appearance of Sîn Good (K. 6018+//) 503

x+44’ [It is] a wo[rd]ing for making an unpropitious appearance of Sîn good.

x+45’ Its ritual: When Sîn becomes visible you set an incense burner with ju-
niper in place before Sîn,
x+46’ [you lib]ate [first-class] beer [and t]hen take clay from the river
meadow.
x+47’ You fashion [a pu]ppe[t]. You recite the incantation three times before
Sîn and then
x+48’ throw it in the river behind your back and then the evil will be undone.

x+49a’ [Incantation: O po]werful, outstanding lord, son of Nunamni[r]. (Ms A,

catchline )
x+49b’ [ ] when? [ ] ... evil portents and signs, [(empty)]
not good ones (rest of Ms B too fragmentary for a translation)

Colophon (Ms A)
A r. 21’ [The palace of Assurba]nipal, king of the world, king of Assyria,
A r. 22’ [who trusts in Aššur] and Mullissu,
A r. 23’ [whom Nabû and Tašmētu] have [gr]anted [a wid]e [understanding],
(rest of the tablet destroyed)

Commentary
3’ It is plausible that this line relates to Ištar’s role in pacifying her father
Sîn (for this function of Ištar’s in cases of lunar eclipse see Koch-West-
enholz 2001, 74).
4’ The name of the addressee is not preserved in this rubric, but since the
following ritual instruction concerns performance before the moon, and
because all the other sections in Ms A involve Sîn, it can be assumed
that his name should be restored here.
6’–7’ The instruction to spin white wool into yarn and make knots in it mir-
rors line x+25’. The beginning and the end of line 7 are reconstructed
on the basis of BM 46590, 14–15 (unpublished duplicate; see p. 497
above).
8’ Since the prayer in Ms E parallels the prayer “Sîn 6a” here in lines 8’–
12’, it is plausible that the incipit should be reconstructed according to
Ms E.
13’ The same incipit appears to have followed the prayer “Sîn 6” in Ms E
(line 12’: [KA.INIM.MA dS]U[EN?].⌈NA⌉.K[ÁMv].
x+23’ The translation given to this rubric in Reiner 1995, 135 is “Incantation
to recite in order to turn the evil into good at the first visibility of the
moon”. IGI.DU8.A d30 ḪUL has to be understood, however, as an “un-
propitious appearance of Sîn” – a translation adopted in Mayer 1976,
504 V. Text Editions

531 and Jaques 2015, 235. For further discussion see also p. 163ff.
above.
x+26’ Unfortunately, no similar instructions involving covering knots with the
heel are known to me (see the attestations of eqbu, “heel”, in CAD E,
248–249 and AHw, 231 as well as the attestations of the verb katāmu,
“to cover” in CAD K, 298–303). The purpose of covering the knots
must be similar to burning the white wool in the previous section (lines
6’–7’) although no instruction for actual disposal is given here. A plaus-
ible interpretation is the subjugation (of the ill influence?) by treading
on the knots.
x+27’ For the use of the verb napāḫu to describe the rising of celestial bodies
see CAD N/1, 265–267. The form tattapḫa is attested with a similar
meaning in the incipit of the incantation ta-tap-ḫa GIN7 MUL.MEŠ,
“You have risen like the stars” (K. 2453 [CT 23, pl. 10], III 13).
x+29’ What is preserved of this line points toward transgressions committed
by the supplicant. For the use of itâ etēqu, “crossing the border”, as a
metaphor for transgression see CAD I–J, 314 and van der Toorn 1985,
52–53. See also Šurpu III, 56: ma-mit i-te-e DINGIR e-te-qu, “the oath:
to transgress the commands of god” (Reiner 1958, 20 and Borger 2000,
43). For the expression anzilla kubbusu with the meaning “to commit a
sacrilege”, see CAD K, 10. Note the use of the pair etēqu and kubbusu
in the 5th house of Bīt rimki, 93–94 (Læssøe 1955, 59; see also Jaques
2015, 237). The reconstruction here – transgressions against the di-
vine – is the counterpart of the next line which involves breaches
against the society.
x+36’ The spacing of the line in Mss C and D suggests that these manuscripts
included an additional address to Sîn before the epithets bēlu and nan-
nāru. The suggestion in Lambert 1974, 295 is that this lacuna may have
contained the 2. Sg. independent pronoun [at-t]a, and this same sugges-
tion is included in Jaques 2015, 232–233. Whether this is true or not
cannot be decided on the basis of available evidence: the only clues to
the possible missing part are the minute remains of a vertical wedge in
both manuscripts. The citation of the incipit in Ms D II 17’ does not in-
clude any additional element before be-lum U4.SAKAR.
Moreover, the collation of Ms C (drawing below) shows that the
section read a[s-ka-ru] in Lambert 1974, 295 and Jaques 2015, 232
should more plausibly be read as n[a-nar(or:-nàr)]. This is supported by
the preserved traces of na (including traces of the vertical wedge not
copied in BAM 3 no. 316), and by the fact that there is enough space
for only one sign in the destroyed section.
 V.8. Making the Unpropitious Appearance of Sîn Good (K. 6018+//) 505

The fact that the logogram U4.SAKAR here must stand for the epithet
nannāru, “luminary”, is made clear not only by the syllabic spelling in
Ms A, but also by its use in other contexts (see the discussion on p.
31ff. above). The variation between the different manuscripts for this
incipit led Wilfred Lambert to deem it corrupt and without meaning
(Lambert 1976, 296: “[...], whichever interpretation is adopted, the res-
ultant meaning is very poor. ‘Crescent (or: Nannaru) of all creation’ can
hardly be what the first author intended since it is almost meaning-
less.”). However, if the manuscripts are divided into two different pray-
ers – “Sîn 6a” and “Sîn 6b” – the problems regarding textual variation
become much more manageable. This is illustrated by the lines 9’–10’
and x+37’–38’ in Ms A, which despite their similarities differ from each
other to a great enough extent that they can be interpreted as parts of
two different recensions of the prayer.
x+38’ The beginning of the line in Ms D is read [ki-m]a šam-mi KI-ti in Lam-
bert 1974, 295 and in Jaques 2015, 233. There is, however, enough
space in the damaged part at the beginning of the line to restore a-šar.
x+40’ As transliterated in Lambert 1974, 295 and Mayer 1976, 530, the verbal
form in Ms A is lim-ḫu-ru-in-[ni] (rendered incorrectly as lim-ḫu-ru-ni-
[ni] in Jaques 2015, 234). The use of the suffix -inni together with the
plural ending -ū is grammatically problematic, but since the parallel
line in the 5th house of Bīt rimki (Læssøe 1955, 62 [line 93]) shows the
correct verbal forms lim-ḫu-ru-nin-ni and lim-ḫu-ru-ni-ni, we have to
assume that also here the spelling -in-ni must stand for the 1. Sg. accus-
ative suffix -ninni.
x+41’ Cf. 5th house of Bīt rimki, 94 (see Læssøe 1955, 59; Jaques 2015, 237
and CAD E, 176).
x+43’ Collation of the Ms D (drawing below) reveals that the sign copied as
uk in LKA 25 is in fact ak.

After this line Ms C adds two more lines to the prayer:

VI 22’ ⌈lu⌉-uš-lim-ma lu-ut-⌈ta⌉-⌈’i⌉-id DINGIR-ut-⌈ka⌉
VI 23’ [(empty) dà-l]í-lí-ka lud-l[ul]
May I become healthy and may I heed your divinity! May I pro-
claim your glory!
x+44’ The incipit for the prayer “Sîn 6b” in found in Ms D, II 10’:
KA.INIM.⌈MA⌉ DINGIR.ŠÀ.DAB.⌈BA⌉ GUR.RU.D[A.KAM].
x+45’ff. A similar ritual instruction is attested in Mss C and D. As pointed out
above, the underlying principle in both of these cases is the appease-
ment of an angry god – this is stated explicitly in Ms D in the rubric
given to “Sîn 6b”. For the sake of comparison, a transliteration of the
instructions in both Ms C and D is given here.
506 V. Text Editions

Ms C (BAM 3 no. 316)

VI 24’ [DÙ.DÙ.B]I e-nu-ma d+EN.ZU in-[n]am-ma-⌈ru⌉
VI 25’ [ana IGI] d+EN.ZU NÍG.NA šimLI GAR-an ⌈KAŠ⌉.SAG
BAL-[qí]
VI 26’ [IM] ú-šal-lì ÍD TI-qé ZA.NA NITA DÙ-[uš]
VI 27’ [É]N 3-šú ana IGI d+EN.ZU ana UGU ŠI[D-nu]
VI 28’ [ZA.N]A NI[T]A ku-tal-la-nik-ka ana ÍD ŠUB-di-ma [x x
(x)]
Ms D (LKA 25)
II 11’ DÙ.DÙ.BI ina GI6 ana IGI d30 ⌈ina⌉ ⌈ú⌉-⌈šal⌉-li Í[D]
II 12’ NÍG.NA šimLI [GAR- an]
II 13’ u mi-iḫ-ḫa [BAL-q]í
II 14’ IM ú-šal-li ⌈ÍD⌉ T[I]-⌈qé⌉
II 15’ pa-sa NITA D[Ù]-⌈uš⌉
II 16’ ina GÙB-ka ÍL-š[i]-⌈ma⌉
II 17’ be-lum U4.SAKAR kul-la-tum bi-n[u-t]u[m?]
II 18’ 3-šú ŠID-nu-ma pa-⌈sa⌉ [ina Í]D ŠUB-di
II 19’ tuš-ki-in-ma DU8-ár
x+49a’ This is the incipit of the prayer “Nergal 2” (see the edition in Mayer
1976, 478–481), which is also attested elsewhere in connection with
unpropitious omens: one of the manuscripts of this prayer contains an
attalû-formula naming Assurbanipal, and another manuscript has a for-
mula against unpropitious omens naming Šamaš-šumu-ukīn. The prayer
also stresses the reconciliation of the deity with the individual and the
release from the transgressions that had caused the divine anger, which
makes its association with the present ritual understandable.
x+49b’ Ms B clearly progresses in a different direction than Ms A. Unfortu-
nately, the section is very poorly preserved in Ms B, making it im-
possible to ascertain what the ending in that manuscript contained. Still,
the few preserved words show that a reference to unpropitious omens
and signs is made.
 V.9. Avoiding Childbirth during the Month Nisannu (VAT 8004//) 507

V.9. Avoiding Childbirth during the Month Nisannu (VAT 8004//)

According to the menology Iqqur īpuš, the birth of a child during the first month
of the year, Nisannu, was an inauspicious omen: this child will disperse the
house of his father (Labat 1965, 132–133; see also Stol 2000, 93–95). The evil
that resulted from the ill-timed birth could be warded off by the means of a
namburbi-ritual, as attested in several manuscripts deriving from Assur, Ninev-
eh, Kalḫu, and Ḫuzirīna (Maul 1994, 400–408). In the case that the expected
time of the birth coincided with Nisannu, countermeasures could be taken before
the child was born, and the procedure for this is known to us from two manu-
scripts. The manuscript from Assur, VAT 8004, derives from the private tablet
collection of the āšipu-family (Pedersén 1986, N 4 [no. 99]; see also Maul 2010,
189–228). The colophon at the end of the tablet states that it was written by
Kiṣir-Nabû, son of Šamaš-ibni. This manuscript was copied and published by
Erich Ebeling already at the beginning of 1900s, but due to the damaged state of
the tablet, important parts of the text remained obscure. New information is
provided by the manuscript K. 8666, a tablet with Neo-Babylonian script from
Nineveh, which for a long time remained unpublished although it had already
been identified as a duplicate of VAT 8004 50 years ago (see Reiner 1967, 191
note 15 and Stol 2000, 94 note 21). Furthermore, the fragmentary manuscripts
recently published by H. Stadhouders and U. Steinert (BM 68458+K. 11550+;
79-7-8, 95 and K. 13315; see Stadhouders & Steinert 2018, 64–65) provide ele-
ments much needed to fill the gaps.2472
The procedure described in VAT 8004// involves the manufacture of an ob-
ject, presumably a belt, out of 60 spindle heads made of tamarisk and musukkan-
nu-wood strung in multi-coloured wool, 30 kernels of musukkanu-wood strung
in red wool, 14 cuttings of ēru-wood strung in red wool, and amulet stones
(lines 2–5). The belt was most likely tied around the woman, who consequently
cut off one (or two) spindle head(s) each day until the inauspicious time to give
birth had passed (line 6–7). The manufacture of the belt is followed by a plea to
Sîn made from the roof of a house and a plea to Šamaš made on the ground
(lines 8–27). These two deities were implored to allow the month of Nisannu to
pass by before the birth.
The tablet from Assur, VAT 8004, has deteriorated since the copy KAR 223
was made by Erich Ebeling. The signs in the parts of the tablet that we available
to him, but have since broken away, are marked in the transliteration in bold
text. These readings are confirmed by the excavation photograph Ph. Ass. S.
3954.2473

2472
U. Steinert has announced the publication of copies of these fragments in her forth-
coming book Women’s Healthcare in Ancient Mesopotamia: An Edition of the Textual
Sources.
2473
Access to this photograph was kindly made possible by S. M. Maul.
508 V. Text Editions

Manuscripts
A: VAT 8004 (KAR 223; Pls. 11–12)
B: K. 8666 (CDLI P238752; Pls. 13–14)
C: BM 68458+K. 11550 (BM 68458: Lambert Folio 10259, Stadhouders &
Steinert 2018, 76; K. 11550: Geers N 95, CDLI P239012; copy of the
joined pieces: Hätinen 2019, 139)2474
D: 79-7-8, 95 (Geers Ab 54; CDLI P236879)
E: K. 13315 (Geers M 117; CDLI P239201)

Editions: Ebeling 1931a, 3–8; Stadhouders & Steinert 2018, 64–73

Translations: Stol 2000, 93–95 (ll. 2–15); Hunger 1968, no. 208 (colophon, Ms
A)
Literature: Mayer 1976, 409 (“Sîn 12”); Mayer 1976, 417 (“Šamaš 55”)

Score transliteration
1 A1 [e-nu-ma] ⌈ITI⌉ šá Ù.⌈TU⌉-šá KU4-ma [(empty)] itiBÁRA šu-
[tu-qí]
B1 [e-n]u-ma ⌈ITI⌉ šá Ù.TU-šá ⌈i⌉-ru-ba-am-ma itiBÁRA ⌈šu⌉-
⌈tu⌉-⌈qí⌉ (single ruling)
D 0’ [ ]
(single ruling)
2 A2 [DÙ.DÙ.B]I 1 šu-ši SAG.DU ⌈giš⌉⌈BAL⌉ 30 ša ⌈giš⌉[Š]INIG
30 šá gišMES.MÁ.KA[N.NA ]
B 2–3 DÙ.DÙ.BI DIŠ+⌈ŠU⌉ SAG.DU gišBAL 30 SAG.DU gišBAL
ŠINIG / ⌈30⌉ SAG.DU gišBAL ⌈giš⌉⌈MES⌉.MÁ.⌈KAN⌉.NA
DÙ-uš
D 1’ [ ]→
giš ?
[ ] M]ES.MÁ.⌈KAN⌉.⌈NA⌉ ⌈DÙ⌉ -[uš]
3 A3 [ ba-r]u-un-di È-⌈ak⌉ 1 šu-ši KA.KEŠDA KEŠDA 30
⌈ŠE⌉ gišMES.MÁ.KAN.NA ina SÍK SA5.A [È-ak]
B3 ina SÍK ba-ru-un-du È-ak
D 2’ [ ]
4 A4 [30 KA.K]EŠDA KEŠDA 14 GIG gišMA.NU ina [S]ÍK
SA5.A È-[ak]

2474
K. 11550 was identified as a manuscript of this text by G. Van Buylaere, and it was
published as Ms F in Stadhouders & Steinert 2018. However, a recent collation (see Hät-
inen 2019) of the manuscripts at the British Museum proved that this fragment is in fact
a direct join to BM 68458 (Ms D in Stadhouders & Steinert 2018). Since the records of
the British Museum appear to be incorrect regarding the origin of these two fragments –
the other belonging to the Kuyunjik collection and the other to the tablets excavated by
Hormuzd Rassam at Sippar (see Leichty & Grayson 1987, 234) – the actual place of ori-
gin of the tablet remains unclear.
 V.9. Avoiding Childbirth during the Month Nisannu (VAT 8004//) 509

5 A5 [ KEŠ]DA? NA4.MEŠ MURUB4.MEŠ šá

MUNUS NU SI.SÁ ⌈it⌉-ti-šú-nu ta-ṣa-m[id]
6 A6 [(x) x MURUB4.MEŠ šá] KEŠDA-si ul-te UD.1.KÁM šá
iti
BÁRA EN UD.⌈30⌉.⌈KÁM⌉ šá itiGU4 u4-mu 1-en SAG.DU
giš
⌈BAL⌉
B 4–6 [ina? MURUB4-ša?] KEŠDA x x x tú? UD.1.KAMv šá
⌈iti⌉BÁRA EN UD.30.KAMv / [UD?] ⌈1+en⌉ SAG.⌈DU⌉
giš
⌈BAL⌉ g[iš]ŠI[NIG] ù 1-en SAG.DU giš⌈BAL⌉ /
[giš]M[ES?].⌈MÁ⌉.⌈KAN⌉.⌈NA⌉
D 2’ [ UD.1].KAM šá itiBÁRA EN
UD.30.[KAM]
7 A7 [ ] x-tum i-bat-⌈taq⌉-ma i-na-suk
B 6–7 ina x x x x i-bat-⌈taq⌉-ma / [(x) i?-na?]-⌈suk⌉?
D 3’–4’ [ i-ba]t-taq-m[a] / [ ]
? d
8 A8 [ illi-m]a ana IGI 30 GI.DU8 tara-kás
NÍG.NA ⌈šim⌉⌈LI⌉ GAR-an KAS BAL-qí-ma
B 7–8 ⌈a⌉?-na ú-⌈ri⌉ ⌈il⌉-li-ma ana IGI ⌈d⌉30 G[I.DU]8 KEŠDA-as /
[NÍG.NA šimLI GAR-an] ⌈KAŠ⌉.[SA]G BAL-qí-ma
D 4’ [ illi-m]a ana IGI d30 GI.DU8 KEŠDA /
[ BA]L-⌈qí⌉-⌈ma⌉
?
E 1’–2’ ⌈i⌉ -[ ]/
NÍG.⌈NA⌉ [ ]
túg
9 A9 [ MA.AN.DU]L ul-tú KI ÍL-ma i-šad-da-ad-⌈ma⌉
⌈TA⌉ É sim-mil-⌈tum⌉ ana ÙR ⌈E11⌉
B 8–10 la? tuš?-ken t[úg]⌈MA⌉.⌈AN⌉.[D]UL / ⌈ul⌉?-⌈tu⌉? [ ] Í[L]-ma
⌈i⌉-šad-⌈da⌉-ad-ma ul-⌈tu⌉ É / ⌈a⌉-di Ù[R ú-še]l-⌈li⌉ ⌈a⌉?-⌈na⌉?
[ú?-r]i? ⌈il⌉-⌈li⌉-ma
D 4’–6’ tuš?-ken? túg?MA.AN.DUL / [ ] ⌈i⌉-⌈šad⌉-da-ad-ma
TA É sim-mil-ti / [ Ù]R ú-šel-li ana ÙR E11-ma
E 3’–4’ TA ⌈qaq⌉-[qa-ri ] /
a-di ⌈ú⌉-[ri ]
10 A 10 [ ] i-ma-ga-⌈ag⌉-⌈ma⌉? [ana IG]I d30 ŠUII-šá
LUḪ-⌈si⌉ ana d30 kam ⌈DU11⌉.GA
túg
B 11–13 MA.AN.DUL i-⌈ma⌉-⌈ak⌉-⌈ka⌉-ak [ina mu]ḫ-ḫi i-qé-ri / i-
teb-bi-ma iz-za-⌈az⌉-ma ana IG[I d30 Š]UII-šú LUḪ-si / ana
d
30 ki-a-am i-⌈qab⌉-bi
C 1’–2’ ⌈GUB⌉-⌈az⌉ ⌈ana⌉ [ ] / a-na d30 ⌈kam⌉
[ ] (single ruling)
túg
D 6’–9’ MA.AN.DUL / ⌈i⌉-ma-ak-ka-ak-ma ina muḫ-ḫi i-qé-er-⌈ri⌉
/ i-teb-bé-e-ma GUB-az-ma ana IGI d30 ŠUII-šá LUḪ-si /
ana IGI d30 UR5.GIN7 DU11.GA
E 4’–5’ [ ] / ⌈i⌉?-[ma-ak-ka-ak-ma ]
(the rest broken away)
510 V. Text Editions

11 A 11 [ UD].1.⌈KÁM⌉ šá ⌈iti⌉BÁRA EN ⌈UD⌉.30.KÁM šá

iti
GU4
B 13–14 É[N na-a]n?-na-⌈ra⌉ AN-[e u] KI-tim / ⌈ul⌉-tu UD.1.KAMv
⌈šá⌉ ⌈iti⌉BÁRA ana UD.1.⌈KAMv⌉ ⌈šá⌉ ⌈iti⌉GU4
C 3’–4’ ÉN 30 d+Nanna-ra A[N-e ]/
v iti it i
UD.1.KAM šá BÁRA ⌈a⌉-na UD.1.KAM šá [ ] ⌈GU4⌉
D 9’ TA UD.1.KAM šá itiBÁRA EN UD.1.KAM šá itiGU4
12 A 12 [piq-dan-ni-m]a [l]u-u[š]-⌈te⌉-⌈šir⌉
B 14 piq-[dan]-⌈ni⌉
C 5’ piq-dan-ni-ma lu-uš-lim lu-ši-r[a?]
D 10’ piq-dan-ni
13 A 12–13 IGI-ka / [ l]i-⌈mur⌉ nu-u-ru ⌈nàr⌉-bi-ka
⌈lu⌉-⌈šá⌉-⌈pí⌉ dà-lí-lí-⌈ka⌉ lud-lul
C 6’–7’ ⌈IGI⌉-ka ⌈šèr⌉-ri li-mu-ra nu-ru [(x)] / [nar]-⌈bi⌉-ka lu-šá-pi
dà-lí-lí-ka lid-lul (single ruling)
14 A 14 [ DU11.G]A-ma ina qaq-[qa-ri ur-ra]-⌈dam⌉-⌈ma⌉
ú
⌈AK⌉.TAM úIGI-lim ina Ì+GIŠ ŠÉŠ
B 15–16 3-šú ⌈i⌉-qab-bi ana ⌈qaq⌉-qa-⌈ra⌉ ur-ra-dam-ma úAK.TAM /
⌈ú⌉[IGI.LIM ina Ì.G]IŠ i-nam-⌈di⌉ ip-pa-áš-ši-⌈iš⌉
C 8’–10’ [ ] DU11.GA-ma ana qaq-qa-ru ur-ra-dam-ma /
[ A]K⌉.TAM úIGI.LIM a-na Ì.GIŠ ŠUB-di-ma / [ip-p]a-ši-
ú

iš!(tablet: KA)
D 10’–11’ 3-šú DU11.GA-ma ana qaq-qa-ri ur-ra-dam-ma /
⌈ú⌉AK.TAM ana Ì.GIŠ ŠUB-ma ŠÉŠ
15 A 15 [ ] ⌈šàḫ⌉-⌈lé⌉-⌈e⌉ [mu-šá-ṭa NUMUN GADA a-d]i
Ù.⌈TU⌉ ina ⌈DÈ⌉ SAR-ši (single ruling)
B 17–18 [ ]sar ⌈ZÀ⌉?.⌈ḪI⌉.LIsar [mu]-šá-⌈ṭi⌉ N[UMUN
GADA] / [adi (u-)ul-l]a-⌈du⌉ ina DÈ ⌈SAR⌉-[ši]
C 10’–11’ kal GÚR.GÚR GAZIsar ZÀ.ḪI.L[I] / [ ]→
[a-d]i? ⌈ul⌉-⌈la⌉-d[u ] (rest broken away)
šim sar
D 11’–12’ GÚR.GÚR GAZI / [ša]ḫ-lé-e mu-šá-ṭi NUMUN GADA
a-di Ù.TU ina DÈ SAR-[ši] (single ruling)
16 A 16 [ana IGI dUTU GI.DU8 KEŠDA-as? NÍG.N]A šimLI GAR-
an KAŠ.SAG ⌈BAL⌉-q[í]
B 19 [ ] dUTU ⌈GI⌉.[D]U8 ⌈KEŠDA⌉-⌈as⌉ [NÍG.N]A š[imLI
GAR-an]
D r. 1 DIŠ KI.MIN ina še-rim ana IGI GI.DU8 KEŠDA-as
NÍG.NA šimLI GAR KAŠ BAL-qí
17 A 17 [ina UGU šuk-bu-si GUB-ma ÉN dUTU EN š]ur-bu-u 3-šú
ŠID-⌈nu⌉
B 20 only few traces of signs visible, rest broken away
D r. 2 ina UGU šuk-bu-si GUB-az-ma ÉN dUTU EN šur-bu-ú 3-šú
 V.9. Avoiding Childbirth during the Month Nisannu (VAT 8004//) 511

[ŠID-nu]

18 A 18 [ÉN dUTU EN šur-bu-u ZÁLAG AN.TA] u KI.T[A.MEŠ]

D r. 3 [ÉN] ⌈d⌉UTU ⌈EN⌉ šur-bu-ú ZÁLAG AN.TA.MEŠ u
KI.TA.MEŠ
E r. 1’ ⌈ÉN⌉ ⌈d⌉[UTU ]
d
19 A 19 [ Í-gì-gì dA-nun-na-ki NUN pa-ri-is EŠ.BAR]
⌈AN⌉-⌈e⌉ [u KI-tim]
C r. 1’ [ ] ⌈pa⌉-⌈ri⌉-is EŠ.B[AR ]
D r. 3 DI.KUD dÍ-gì-gì NUN pa-ri-is ⌈EŠ⌉.⌈BAR⌉ [ ]
20 A 20 [mu-šim NAM.MEŠ x x x x] ⌈ka⌉-⌈su⌉-u i-⌈še⌉-⌈su⌉-[ka-a-
šá]
C r. 2’–3’ [ NA]M.MEŠ ṣab-tu šal-la u ka-⌈su⌉-[u] / [i-ša]-
su-ka ka-a-šá
D r. 4 [ NAM.ME]Š ṣab-ta šal-la ù ka-su-ú i-šá-as-si-ka
ka-šá-a-šú
E r. 2’ mu-šim ⌈NAM⌉.[MEŠ ]
munus
21 A r. 1 [šá-pal-ka ak-mis] ana-ku N[ENNI-tum
DUMU.MUNUS NENNI]
C r. 3’–4’ šá-pal-ka ak-mis / [a]-⌈na⌉-[k]u al-si-ka munusNENNI-tú
DUMU.MUNUS NENNI-tum
D r. 4–5 šá-pal-ka ak-m[is] / [ NEN]NI-tum
DUMU.MUNUS NENNI-tum
E r. 2’–3’ [ ] / ana-ku al-si-ka [ ]
22 A r. 2 [šá DINGIR-šá NENNI d15-šá] ⌈NENNI⌉-tum gi[šM]Á ma-
li-tú ana-ku [ ]
d
B r. 1’ [ 15-š]a N[ENNI-tu]m giš⌈MÁ⌉ m[a-li-tú ]
C r. 5’ [šá] DINGIR-šú ⌈NENNI⌉ ⌈d⌉[15-š]a NENNI-tum gišMÁ ma-
li-ti ana-ku
D r. 5–6 šá DINGIR-šú NENNI d15-šú NENNI-t[um] /
[ ]
E r. 3’–4’ [ ] / gišMÁ ma-lītu ana-k[i ]
23 A r. 3 [ ši-man-ni]-⌈ma⌉ mu-gur tés-⌈li⌉-[t]i MU šu-tu-qí
[ ]
B r. 2’–3’ [ši-man]-⌈ni⌉-ma ⌈mu⌉-gur tés-li-t[um ]/
[IT]I-⌈ia⌉? ⌈iti⌉⌈BÁRA⌉?
C r. 6’–7’ ⌈d⌉UTU ši-man-ni [r]e-man-né-e-ma mu-gur tés-li-tú / áš-šú
šu-tu-qí ⌈ITI⌉-⌈ia⌉ itiBÁRA
D r. 6 [dU]TU ši-man-⌈ni⌉ ⌈re⌉-man-ni mu-gur tés-l[iti] / [
]
E r. 4’–5’ [ ] / áš-šú šu-tu-qí ITI
[ ]
512 V. Text Editions

24 A r. 4 [asḫur-k]a a-⌈še⌉-[e]-ka TÚG.SÍ[K-ka aṣ-bat]

B r. 3’ ⌈as⌉-ḫur-ka ⌈eš⌉-e-k[a TÚG].⌈SÍK⌉-⌈ka⌉ [ ]
C r. 7’–8’ as-ḫur-ka eš-⌈e⌉-⌈ka⌉ / TÚG.SÍK-ka aṣ-bat
D r. 7 [ ] eš-e-ka TÚG.SÍK-ka aṣ-[bat]
E r. 5’ [ ]
25 A r. 5 [ Ḫ]UL-tim šu-tu-⌈qu⌉ [ki]-ṣir lum-ni pa-⌈ṭa⌉-r[i] →
[ ]
B r. 4’–5’ ⌈GISKIM⌉ Ḫ[U]L-⌈tim⌉ šu-⌈tu⌉-⌈qu⌉ ki-ṣir lum-ni pa-ṭ[a-r]i /
⌈KI⌉-[ka] ⌈ba⌉-⌈šu⌉-ú
C r. 8’–9’ áš-⌈šú⌉ GISKIM ḪUL-tim šu-t[u-qu] / ki-ṣir lum-ni pa-ṭ[a-
r]i ⌈KI⌉-ka ba-šu-⌈u⌉ (rest of the reverse broken away)
D r. 8 [ ] lum-ni ⌈DU8⌉
KI-ka ba-šú-⌈ú⌉
E r. 6’ GISKIM ḪUL-tim [ ]
26 A r. 6 [ ] ⌈Ù⌉.⌈TU⌉-⌈ia5⌉ ⌈an⌉-ne-⌈e⌉ ⌈šu⌉-ti-q[a-an-ni]
B r. 5’ ITI ⌈Ù⌉.⌈TU⌉-ia ⌈an⌉-ni-i šu-ti-qa-an-⌈ni⌉
D r. 9 [ ]
E r. 7’ ITI Ù.T[U-ia ]
27 A r. 7 [nar-bi-k]a lu-šá-pi dà-lí-l[í-k]a lud-lul TU[6 ÉN]
B r. 6’ ⌈nar⌉-⌈bi⌉-ka lu-šá-[p]i dà-lí-lí-⌈ka⌉ ⌈lud⌉-⌈lul⌉ T[U6.ÉN]
D r. 9 [na]r-⌈bi⌉-ka lu-šá-pi dà-lí-lí-ka ⌈lud⌉-⌈lul⌉
E r. 7’ [ ]

28 A r. 8 [ÉN an-n]i-tam 3-šú t[u-ša]d-bab-šú MUNUS BI uš4?-ken-

ma ⌈tu⌉-še-eš-šeb-⌈ši⌉
B r. 7’–8’ [É]N ⌈an⌉-ni-ti 3-šú ⌈tu⌉-šad-bab-ši MUNUS BI uš4?-ken-
m[a (x x)] / [t]u-še-šeb-ši-ma
D r. 10 [ ] ⌈uš4⌉?-ken-ma
E r. 8’ ⌈ÉN⌉ an-n[i-ti ]
(traces of few signs visible in the next line; the rest broken away)
29 A r. 9 [síkḪÉ.ME.D]A [(empty)] GEŠTUGII.ME-šá SA5-ma
sík
B r. 8’ ḪÉ.ME.DA GEŠTUG⌈II⌉-šú SA5[(-ma)]
D r. 11 [ ]
30 A r. 10 [ M]U4.⌈MU4⌉-si Ì.GIŠ sír-di úTAR.MUŠ
NUMUN gišŠINIG
B r. 9’-10’ [tú]g⌉MA.AN.⌈DUL⌉ MU4.MU4-si Ì.GIŠ ⌈sír⌉-⌈di⌉ /
⌈ú⌉⌈TAR⌉.MUŠ NUMUN gišŠINIG
D r. 11 [ MU4.MU4-s]i ⌈Ì⌉.GIŠ sí[r-d]i
ú
TAR.[MU]Š / [ ]
31 A r. 11 [ ŠÉ]Š-si a-di ITI šá Ù.TU ú-še-et-te-qu-⌈ma⌉
B r. 10’-11’ina Ì.GIŠ BUR ŠÉŠ-[s]i / [E]N ITI šá Ù.TU-šá ú-še-ti-iq
D r. 12 [ ]
32 A r. 12 [ ]-šá la i-da-’i-ip itiBÁRA ú-qa-ta-ma ⌈Ù⌉.TU
 V.9. Avoiding Childbirth during the Month Nisannu (VAT 8004//) 513

B r. 12’ ⌈ra⌉-man-šá la ⌈ú⌉-⌈da⌉-a’-ap

D r. 12 ⌈ra⌉-⌈man⌉-⌈šá⌉ ⌈la⌉ ú-[da]-⌈a’⌉-[a]p (rest of the reverse broken
away)

Colophon (Ms A)
A r. 13 [i]na ZAG la-bi-ri-šú SAR-ma IGI.KÁR
A r. 14 [a-na] ⌈ṣa⌉-bat DÙ-ši IKi-ṣir–d+AG šá d+AG NIR-su
A r. 15 [A I].⌈d⌉UTU–ib-ni lúMAŠ.[M]AŠ ⌈É⌉ AN.ŠÁR

Colophon (Ms B)
B r. 13’ ⌈i⌉-na itiBÁRA UD.1.KAMv EN UD.30.KAMv ⌈lú⌉?⌈TUR⌉? Ù.TU
B r. 14’ x ⌈ki⌉-⌈ma⌉ la-bi-ri-šú ‹ša›-ṭir-ma
Br. 15’ IGI.[KÁ]R IM.GÍD.DA (erasure)

Translation
1 [Wh]en the month of her birth-giving has come and (in order) to let
Nisannu pass by. (single ruling [Mss B and D])
2 Its ritual: You make 60 spindle heads – 30 (var.: 30 spindle heads [Ms B])
out of tamarisk wood, 30 (var.: 30 spindle heads [Ms B]) out of musukkan-
nu-wood.
3 You string (them) in a multi-coloured yarn; you make 60 knots. [You
string] 30 kernels of musukkannu-wood in red wool;
4 you make [30 kn]ots. You st[ring] 14 cuttings of ēru-wood in red
[wo]ol;
5 [... you bi]nd. You ti[e] the amulet stones for the hips of a woman, who
cannot give birth easily together with them;
6 you gird her. From the 1st of Nisannu until the 30th of Ayyāru, one
spindle head per day (var.: [from] the 1st of Nisannu until the 30th, one spindle
head of tama[risk] wood, one spindle head of [mus]ukkannu-wood [per
day][Ms B])
7 [...] ... she cuts off and throws away.
8 She goes up to the roof and you set up a portable altar before Sîn. You
place an incense burner with juniper there, you libate beer,
9 you prostrate yourself (var. you should? not? prostrate yourself [Ms B]). She
picks up MA.AN.DUL-garment from the ground and drags (it along)
while going up to the roof from the staircase.
10 She spreads out a MA.AN.DUL-garment and then (var.: She spreads out a
MA.AN.DUL-garment, extends an invitation (while being) on it, gets up and
stands and [Mss B, C & D]) washes her hands [befor]e of Sîn. She speaks
to Sîn thus:
11 “O Sîn, luminary of the heav[en and] the earth! ([O lum]inary of the
heave[n and] the earth! [Ms B]) From the 1st of Nisannu to the 30th of
514 V. Text Editions

Ayyāru (var.: From the 1st of Nisannu to the 1st of Ayyāru [Ms B and C])
12 look after me so that I may be well (and) I may be set aright!
13 May my baby see the light before you! Let me declare your greatness,
let me proclaim your glory!”
14 She says (this) three times and descends to the ground, and then she will
be anointed with aktam-plant and imḫurlim-plant (that are) in oil (var.:
she will put aktam-plant and imḫurlim-plant in oil and then she will be anointed
(with it) [Mss B, C, and D]).
15 You fumigate her with kukru-aromatic, mustard, cress, combings, (and)
flax seed (that are put) on charcoals until she gives birth. (single ruling
[Mss A and D])
16 You set up a portable altar before Šamaš, you place an incense burner
with juniper there, you libate beer.
17 She? stands on a step and recites the incantation ”O Šamaš, mighty
Lord” three times.

18 Incantation: “O Šamaš, mighty Lord, the light of upper and lower

world,
19 judge of the Igigū (and the Anunnakū; Ms A) gods, decision-maker of the
heaven [and the earth],
20 decider of fates! It is you that the seized, the captives, and the bound ap-
peal to!
21 I have bowed down in front of you, I (have invoked you [Mss C and E]),
so-and-so, daughter of so-and-so,
22 whose god is so-and-so and whose [goddess is so-and-so: I am a fully
laden boat!
23 Šamaš, hear me(, have mercy on me [Mss C and D]) and accept my sup-
plication! Because of making my month, Nisannu, pass by
24 I have appealed to you, I have sought you out, I have grasped your hem!
25 Because it is within your powers to make the evil sign pass by, to undo
the knots of evil,
26 allow this month of my labour pass by me!
27 Let me declare your greatness, let me proclaim your glory!” Incanta-
tio[n-formula]

28 Your let her pronounce this incantation three times. The said woman
prostrates herself? and after that you have her sit down.
29 You fill her ears with red wool,
30 you clothe her with the MA.AN.DUL-garment. With olive oil, lupin,
and tamarisk seeds
31 in pūru-oil you anoint her. Until the month of her labour has been al-
lowed to elapse
32 she should avoid pushing herself. She will complete the month Nisannu
 V.9. Avoiding Childbirth during the Month Nisannu (VAT 8004//) 515

and (only then) give birth.

Colophon (Ms A)
A r. 13 Written [i]n accordance with its old original and collated.
A r. 14 [For] the preparation of the performance. Kiṣir-Nabû, whose pro-
tection is Nabû,
A r. 15 [son] of Šamaš-ibni, the mašmaššu of the Aššur temple.

Colophon (Ms B)
B r. 13’ (If) in the month Nisannu, 1st day to the 30th, a child? is born.
B r. 14’ Written according to its old original,
B r. 15’ collated. Long-tablet (erasure)

Commentary
1 The preposition ana is expected before the infinitive šūtuqu, “to avert;
to make pass by” (see CAD E, 394–395), but as the other similar struc-
tures with infinitive in this text show (ll. 23 and 25), its absence here
appears not to be a scribal mistake.
2 Spinning was associated with femininity and womanhood in Mesopot-
amia (see the overview in Waetzoldt 2011, 1–3). This is exemplified by
the way female children are given a spindle, according to Sumerian
birth incantations (see Stol 2000, 60–63). Moreover, a spindle, along
with women’s clothing, women’s speech, and hair clasps, is one of the
feminine attributes that can be given to men by the goddess Inanna/Ištar
(Sjöberg 1975, 224–225). Therefore, it is plausible that by using spindle
heads to manufacture a therapeutic object, the femininity of the patient
was stressed. Any further conceptual connotations of using spindle
heads in this procedure remain unclear.
5 Amulet stones for therapeutic purposes in the context of childbirth are
known from other Neo-Assyrian or Late Babylonian texts (see Stol
2000, 132–133). Amulet chains intended for women who cannot give
birth easily are listed in the text STT 241 (Schuster-Brandis 2008, 149),
according to which the stones for the waist are šubû and lodestone (STT
241, 5: na4šu-bu-u na4KUR-nu DAB.BA ina MURUB4.MEŠ-šá). Amulet
stones also play a role in a ritual for ensuring a safe pregnancy, pre-
served in a Late Babylonian manuscript from Uruk (see Couto-Ferreira
2013, 97–116).
6 The beginning of this line undoubtedly refers to binding the belt-like
object around the woman. In Stadhouders & Steinert 2018, 65 this part
of Ms B is read ⌈ina MURUB4.MEŠ-ša KÉŠ⌉. The traces in the tablet
are, in my opinion, too indistinct for reading, but, nevertheless, this in-
516 V. Text Editions

terpretation is supported by the excavation photo (Ph. Ass. S. 3954) of

Ms A that reveals the remains of the signs MURUB4.MEŠ-šá.
The instructions for this section in Ms A are in Stadhouders & Stein-
ert 2018, 59 note 20 taken to be evidence of a corrupted manuscript. In
Ms A from Assur, the belt made out of spindle heads is worn for 60
days (cf. line 11 where the same length time is named), encompassing
both Nisannu and Ayyāru. During this time one spindle head is dis-
carded each day. In Mss B and D, the time span is only one month (30
days), and the instruction specifies that two spindle heads – one made
of tamarisk and one made of musukkannu-wood – should be simultan-
eously discarded each day. The entry for Ayyāru in Iqqur īpuš is not
fully preserved (see Labat 1965, 132–133), but the endeavour to avoid
childbirth in that month in Ms A indicates that it was also perceived as
unpropitious for birth.
7 The beginning of this line in Ms B is read ina ⌈É⌉ sim-⌈mi⌉-il-ti i-bat-
taq-ma in Stadhouders & Steinert 2018, 65. The signs in question are
badly preserved, which makes their interpretation difficult. This reading
of the first two signs seems to be correct, but sim-mi-il-ti does not cor-
respond to the traces visible in the tablet nor fit into the damaged part of
the line. An alternative possible reading is ina ⌈ṭú⌉-⌈ri⌉ ⌈1+niš⌉ i-bat-taq-
ma, but it cannot be corroborated by any other attestations. For this
reason, it is best to leave this part of the line without a reconstruction. In
Ms A, reconstruction with either [sim-mi]l-tum or [sin-ni-i]š-tum is
possible.
10 In their edition of this text, Stadhouders and Steinert read the name of
the garment as túgBA.AN.DUL (which would have the Akkadian equi-
valent zibnu or ib/pšu (Stadhouders & Steinert 2018, 60 note 28). This
logogram is, however, attested only with the determinative gi for objects
made out of reed (see CAD I–J, 171 and CAD Z, 104), not textiles.
Even more problematic is the fact that in all the pertinent lines in the
manuscripts the name of the textile is clearly written túgMA.AN.DUL,
not túgBA.AN.DUL. This can be observed especially reliably by com-
paring the signs MA and BA in Ms D 4’ and r. 8. For this reason, the
name of the textile must be as it is given in the text. Such a textile is al-
most completely unattested outside of the present text, but one other at-
testation can be found in a Middle Babylonian list HS 157, 89–90 (Aro
1970, 16) amongst the pieces of clothing that were distributed on the
occasion of a wedding. In this text the garment túgMAN.DUL belongs to
the last and the largest group (44 pieces of garments) that was given to
the bride. The number of the túgMAN.DUL-clothes is seemingly high in
comparison to the number of other garments in the group: on average
only one or two pieces of a particular type of clothing are listed, in con-
 V.9. Avoiding Childbirth during the Month Nisannu (VAT 8004//) 517

trast to the six pieces of túgMAN.DUL. In the list, this type of textile is
preceded by two nargītu-headdresses (2 túgnar-gì-tum TAG) and fol-
lowed by two taktīmu-blankets (2 túgAN.TA.DUL). This reference to the
túg
MAN.DUL as a piece of clothing given to the bride suggests that it
was used by women, but otherwise its nature or function remains elu-
sive. The use of the Sumerian verb dul, “to cover”, in the logogram to-
gether with the verb makāku, “to spread out” (written magāgu in Ms A)
suggests that the textile in question was large enough to be used as a
covering and to be spread out.
The verb after ina muḫḫi must be a G-stem present form of qerû, “to
invite” (CAD Q, 242–243). Despite the lack of an object, this interpret-
ation seems more likely than the suggested ikerri from the the verb
karû, “to be short” (Stadhouders & Steinert 2018, 71–72). For an ex-
ample of qerû used in a ritual context see the attestation in BM 78076,
39 George 2000, 283.
11 Corresponding with the varying information about the spindle heads in
the two manuscripts (see the comments to line 6–7), Ms A speaks of a
span of time encompassing both Nisannu and Ayyāru, whereas Ms B
refers only to the month of Nisannu.
12 As to the wish expressed in the latter part of this line, it is translated
here in its literal meaning “may I be set aright” (see AHw, 255). The
other option would be to translate “may I thrive before you” (see Stol
2000, 94 and CAD E, 359), but since the basic premise of the ritual is to
ensure divine protection and guidance for the pregnant woman during
this potentially dangerous period, the notion of her being set aright is
relevant here. The translation “may I give birth easily” is not suitable
here (so in Mayer 1976, 295), since going into labour is exactly what
should not happen during the months Nisannu and Ayyāru.
14 The spelling [ip-p]a-ši-KA in Ms C is clear, but no explanation apart
from a mistake (due to the similarity of the signs KA and IŠ) can be
found (see also Stadhouders & Steinert 2018, 72).
17 The reconstruction is based on the assumption that the female patient
stands on the step (šukbušu) and recites the prayer to Šamaš. Only few
attestations of the use of šukbušu, “step; rung”, are available (see CAD
Š/3, 214 and AHw, 1263), and, therefore, its precise character remains
unclear. Since the staircase separates the ritual actions on the roof and
on the ground, it is possible that the lowest step of the stairs is meant
here instead of a separate object.
17 The prayer with the incipit Šamaš bēlu šurbû nūr elâti u šaplâti
(“Šamaš 55”) is attested only here according to Mayer 1976, 417.
21 The end of the line is read ana-ku (sinništum)[annannītum mârat an-
nanna] in Ebeling 1931a, 6. The traces at the end of the line, however,
518 V. Text Editions

suggest the sign G[EME] instead of MUNUS N[ENNI].

22 Boat metaphors are common both in Sumerian and Akkadian birth in-
cantations (see the overview in Stol 2000, 62–63). The statement of the
pregnant woman here differs from most of the other attestations, since it
emphasises that the woman herself is the boat: this contradicts the wide-
spread interpretation of the foetus as a boat. I have argued elsewhere
(Hätinen 2017, 169–186) that it is indeed the woman who is the boat in
Mesopotamian birth incantations: she is metaphorically described as a
boat that needs to be guided by the gods through this dangerous time in
her life (i.e. while in labour). In this text, the metaphor is used to obtain
divine guidance through the potentially dangerous period of time (dur-
ing Nisannu or Nisannu and Ayyāru), when the baby should not be
born.
23 See the similar lack of the preposition ana in the infinitive form in line
1. It is plausible that the month Nisannu is mentioned in the lacuna.
28 The form of the verb šukênu in this line is problematic. The normal
reading of the signs used here would be tuš-ken-ma, but this is incon-
gruent with the subject sinništu šī, “that woman”. In previous sections
of the text, the predicate verbs with “the woman” as the subject have
forms with the prefix i- while the verbs with the āšipu as the subject
have the prefix ta- or tu-. Therefore I tentatively suggest the value uš4
for the sign KU (or TÚG) here (see MZL no. 809). This reading results
in more logical sinništu šī uškênma tušeššebši, “the said woman pros-
trates herself and after that you have her sit down”.
31 šaman pūri is explained as “high-quality oil used in ritual anointing” in
CAD P, 527. It should be noted that this type of oil has a prominent role
in childbirth in the incantation Cow of Sîn: šaman pūri is brought from
heaven by a lamassu who descends from heaven in order to assist the
cow with her difficult labour (see the further interpretation involving a
pun pūru–būru in Veldhuis 1991, 50).
32 The reconstruction [ša libbi-]šá la i-da-’-ib, “she will not push off her
[foetus]” in Ebeling 1931a, 6 is proven incorrect by Ms B. The principal
meaning of da’āpu is “to push; to knock over” (CAD D, 1), and con-
sequently the translation in Stadhouders & Steinert 2018, 70 is “she
must avoid bumping herself”. However, the attestations of the verb to-
gether with ramānu (CAD R, 119) suggest that at least in an astrologic-
al-astronomical context this verb denotes the act of moving after a sta-
tionary phase. An example of this can be found in SAA 10 no. 8, 25–26:
d
UDU.IDIM.SAG.UŠ ITI-ma an-ni-ú ra-man-šú i-da-’i-ip, “Saturn
‘will push itself’ this very month” (see the comments on this line in Par-
pola 1983, 18–19). This leads to the question of whether a similar
meaning involving the woman remaining stationary and not setting her-
 V.9. Avoiding Childbirth during the Month Nisannu (VAT 8004//) 519

self in motion during the dangerous time period is intended in our text.
If the negation used with the verb were ul (“she will not set herself in
motion”), it would be reasonable to see this as an expression for the un-
wanted labour. Because the prohibitive (both in G- and D-stems) is used
here (“she should avoid ...”), the basic meaning of the verb da’āpu
seems to fit better with it.
Colophons
B r. 13’ This catch-line appears to derive from the menology Iqqur īpuš § 64, 1
(Labat 1965, 132). In the composite edition of the text, the format of the
entry is DIŠ ina itiBÁRA lúTUR Ù.TU, but a few of the manuscripts of
the text include a fuller form, e.g. K. 7938, 4–5: [DIŠ ina iti]NE TA
UD.1.KÁM EN UD.30.KÁM lúTUR [Ù.TU] / GENNA BI uq-ta-at-tar;
see Virolleaud 1906a, 194 and Labat 1965, 132–133 note 5). This latter,
longer format is found also in the first line of the namburbi that aimed
to ward off the evil caused by a childbirth in Nisannu (see Maul 1994,
401–402).
520 V. Text Editions

V.10. A War Ritual before the Moon and the Sun (CBS 1516)
The tablet CBS 1516 contains a royal war ritual to obtain divine support, which
takes place before the moon and the sun. The obverse of the tablet is poorly pre-
served, but it is clear that it involves a ritual in which a substitute image is
drawn on the ground with flour. This is followed by an offering to the gods Ea,
Šamaš, and Marduk and the prayer “Ea, Šamaš, and Marduk 11” (Mayer 1976,
383). No separate offering to Sîn and Šamaš is included in the instruction, but
the prayer “Sîn & Šamaš 1” (Mayer 1976, 409) immediately follows on the re-
verse. Performing the latter prayer to Sîn and Šamaš must have been linked to
the performance of the ritual before the moon and the sun, referred to in the
prayer “Ea, Šamaš, and Marduk 11” (CBS 1516, 27: “Pro[vide] with [li]fe be-
fore the moon and the sun!”).
The script in CBS 1516 is Neo-Assyrian, but the tablet has also been identi-
fied as Neo-Babylonian (CDLI P258850) or even Old Babylonian (Jean 2013,
110). This is understandable since its copy (PBS 1/2 no. 106) is misleading in
respect to the overall appearance of the script. No provenance for the tablet is
available because it was purchased in January 1889 from the antiquities market.
The transliteration provided here is based on the collation of the tablet from pho-
tographs provided to me by E. Jiménez. The tablet has deteriorated after it was
copied by H. Lutz, and for this reason the parts that were visible at that time but
have since disappeared are marked in bold text.

Manuscript: CBS 1516 (PBS 1/2, no. 106; CDLI P258850)

Editions: Ebeling 1949, 178–183; Elat 1982, 5–8

Translations: Falkenstein & von Soden 1953, no. 68 (“Sîn & Šamaš 1”); Seux
1976, 489–491 (“Ea, Šamaš, and Marduk 11”; “Sîn & Šamaš 1”); Foster 2005,
762 (“Sîn & Šamaš 1”)
Literature: Rochberg 1996, 476–477; Jean 2006, 92

Transliteration
1’ [ ] x x x [x] x x [ ]
2’ [ ] x giš [x] ⌈ḫu⌉? u [ ]
3’ [ ]xx[ ] nu [x] x x x [ ]
4’ [ ] x x pu x x x [ ]
5’ [NU šá ZÌ].⌈DA⌉ IGI d[UTU ina qaqqari teṣṣir]
6’ [LUGAL t]il-le-⌈e⌉ [ ]xx[ ]
7’ [ina UGU] LUGAL pu-uḫ(i) ⌈šá⌉ ZÌ?.[DA? ]xx[ ]
8’ [giŠUTU]G ana dÉ-a dUTU ⌈u⌉ [d]AMAR.UTU [ŠUB-d]i
9’ [KEŠDA] ana dÉ-a dUTU ⌈u⌉? dAMAR.⌈UTU⌉ [tara]-⌈kás⌉
10’ [NÍG.N]A šim⌈LI⌉ [(x x x)] GAR-an
11’ [uduS]ÍSKUR BAL mi-i[ḫ-ḫa] ⌈BAL⌉-qí
 V.10. A War Ritual before the Moon and the Sun (CBS 1516) 521

12’ [ina IG]I dÉ-⌈a⌉ dUTU u dAMAR.UTU ⌈ki⌉-⌈a⌉-[am?] D[U11.GA]

13’ ⌈ÉN⌉ dÉ-⌈a⌉ d⌈UTU⌉ u ⌈d⌉⌈AMAR⌉.⌈UTU⌉ D[INGIR.ME]Š G[AL.M]EŠ

14’ e-piš mim-[m]a ⌈šum⌉-šú x ⌈nu⌉ ⌈man⌉? DÙ.A.BI
15’ ba-nu-ú ⌈ṣa⌉-bat ki-⌈ik⌉-k[i-š]i x ⌈ba⌉? a lim
16’ mu-tu u ba-[l]a-[ṭu i]na ŠU-ku-nu-ma
17’ ul-la-nu-⌈uk⌉-⌈ku⌉-⌈nu⌉ x x [ ] ARALI
18’ šá KU5-su x x x x [x] x x [ ] ana? UD?
19’ tu-tar-ra-⌈ni⌉ t[a? ] x x x [ x x] ḫi šú
20’ ⌈a⌉-⌈ma⌉-⌈tu⌉-⌈ku⌉-⌈nu⌉ [ ] ⌈DINGIR⌉?.⌈MEŠ⌉?
21’ ⌈šá⌉ šak-nu BAL-šú [ ni? ḫa]
22’ kal? reš pu-ḫi-ia ⌈a⌉?-⌈na⌉? x [ ku un]
23’ ana ṣu-mi-rat lìb-⌈bi⌉-⌈ia⌉ [u?] ⌈mim⌉?-[ma ma-la ep?-pu-šú]
24’ ki-ma NU lab?-šá-ku [x] x x ki x [( ) ŠUII-a-a]
25’ qí-ba-a-ma ina qí-bi-[ti]-⌈ku⌉-nu ut? x [pu šú šá-ni-na]
26’ GISKIM.MEŠ-⌈ia⌉ ḪUL.M[EŠ] šu-me-da k[ar-as-su]
27’ ina IGI 30 u 20 [(x) T]I ⌈šuk⌉-[na]
28’ us-ḫa ḪUL.ME-⌈ia⌉ šuk-na du-un-q[a]
29’ at-tu-nu-ma taš-ku-⌈na⌉? a-lak u ta-a-r[i]
30’ šu-zi-ba ZI-ti ina KI.KAL iṭ-⌈ra⌉ ina qab-rì
31’ ina e-peš MURUB4 u MÈ šá-ni[n] a-a ár-ši
d
32’ É-a dUTU u dAMAR.UTU šuk-na-ni ri-ṣa
33’ ÁII-a-a lil-li-ku gišTUKUL.MEŠ-ku-nu GAL.⌈MEŠ⌉
34’ [šá t]a-a-ri u ⌈sa⌉-⌈ka⌉-pu šu-kun gišTUKUL.[MEŠ-ia]
35’ [e]p-šet ep-pu-⌈uš⌉ ⌈li⌉-ṭib UGU-k[u-nu]
36’ [mi]m-ma ep-pu-[šú] liš-[lim]
r. 1 [I]GI.BAR.MEŠ ⌈NUN⌉ šá ⌈is⌉-⌈ḫur(u)⌉ q[í-bit-ku-un]
r. 2 ⌈šur⌉-⌈ka⌉-⌈ni⌉ DU10.GA lìb-b[i b]a-lá-ṭa [qí-šá-a-ni]

r. 3 ÉN d30 u dUTU DINGIR.MEŠ [ki-lal-la-an]

r. 4 30 šá GI6 dUTU [šá kal u4]-mi
r. 5 EŠ.BAR AN-e u KI-tim [at-tu-nu]-ma
r. 6 mìn-da-at u4-mi ITI u MU IGI.BAR-s[a u4-mi]-šam
r. 7 ta-šim-tú KUR.KUR 30 u 20 at-tu-nu-m[a ta-ši]m-ma
r. 8 DINGIR.MEŠ ru-qu-tu a[t-tu-nu-ma]
r. 9 šá u4-mi-šam KA UN.MEŠ ta-[ḫi]-⌈ir⌉-[ra]
r. 10 ba-lu-uk-ku-nu ina dÍ-gì-gì ul uk-ta-ni SÁ.DU[G4]
d
r. 11 A-nun-na-ki ka-li-šú-nu tu-nam-ma-ra ki-⌈ma⌉ u4-m[e]
r. 12 NIDBA.MEŠ-šú-nu ta-ḫir-ra-ma ta-paq-⌈qí⌉-da AGRUN-⌈šú⌉-u[n]
r. 13 ⌈a⌉-⌈na⌉ ⌈ta⌉-⌈mar⌉-ti-ku-nu i-ri-iš-š[ú KUR.KUR]
r. 14 [ ] x šá i-paq-qí-⌈da⌉ [BAR.MEŠ-ši-in]
r. 15 ⌈a⌉-⌈na⌉ ⌈šup⌉-⌈ṭu⌉-⌈ur⌉ ⌈GIŠKIM⌉.MEŠ šá AN-⌈e⌉ [u KI-ti]
522 V. Text Editions

r. 16 ⌈at⌉-tu-nu-ma ta-az-[zi-za]
r. 17 ⌈a⌉-na-ku ÌR-ku-nu na-ṣi[r-ku-nu]
r. 18 šá u4-mi-šam-⌈ma⌉ ⌈a⌉-⌈nam⌉-⌈ṭa⌉-lu p[a-ni-ku-un]
r. 19 a-na ta-mar-ti-⌈ku⌉-⌈nu⌉ ba-ša-a [G]EŠTUGII-a-⌈a⌉
r. 20 GIŠKIM.MEŠ-MU ḪUL.MEŠ a-ḫi-tam-ma šu-bi-’a-a
r. 21 Á.MEŠ SIG5 u tèš-me-e šu-uk-na ana SU-MU
r. 22 šá kun-nu BALA-e-a qí-ba-ma nap-li-sa a-ḫa-meš
r. 23 [UD].⌈MEŠ⌉-⌈ku⌉-nu ZÁLAG.MEŠ-[ti?] šur-ka-ni ia-a-ši
r. 24 [ur]-ri u GI6 lu-uk-tar-rab-ku-nu-ši
r. 25 ⌈ù⌉ ana-ku ana ⌈e⌉-là-tú nar-bi-ku-nu lu-šá-pi

r. 26 [an-n]a-a DU11.GA-ma LUGAL UDU(“KU”) pu-uḫ(i) KU5.MEŠ-ma

r. 27 [ana UG]U NU šá ZÌ.DA šá ina KI eṣ-ru ŠUB-ma
r. 28 ⌈TU5⌉ ana muḫ-ḫi DÙ-uš
r. 29 EGIR-šú áš-⌈ḫu⌉-uṭ MIN DÙ-ma ana KUR KI.BAL iz-zib

r. 30 a-na ⌈KA⌉ UM.ME.A šá-⌈ṭir⌉ gaba-ru-u la-bi-ru ul a-⌈mur⌉

Translation
1’–4’ too fragmentary for a translation
5’ [You draw an image of flo]ur [on the ground] before [Šamaš],
6’ [the king ...] a [t]illû-garment [...]
7’ [on top] of the substitute king (made) of flo[ur ...] ... [...],
8’ [you set u]p [a reed shelte]r for Ea, Šamaš, and Marduk,
9’ [you set] out [an offering (arrangement)] for Ea, Šamaš, and Marduk,
10’ you set out [an incense b]urner with juniper [(...)],
11’ you make a [sheep off]ering, you libate mi[ḫḫu-beer],
12’ [you] s[peak] thu[s] [in fro]nt of Ea, Šamaš, and Marduk:

13’ Incantation: Ea, Šamaš, and Marduk, the g[reat god]s,

14’ makers of everything, ... of all,
15’ creators of ‘seizing the reed-hut’ for? us?,
16’ li[fe] and death are indeed in your hands!
17’ Without you [...] the Underworld,
18’ what you decide ... [...] for the day?,
19’ you return to me [...] ...
20’ your words [...] the gods?,
21’ who will bring about his retreat [...].
22’ The whole? head of my substitute for? [...]
23’ for the wishes of my heart and? what[ever? I do?]!
24’ I am clothed like the image ... [... my hands]
25’ Give a command and through your command ... [... a rival]!
 V.10. A War Ritual before the Moon and the Sun (CBS 1516) 523

26’ Assign my bad omens [to his military camp]!

27’ Pro[vide] with [li]fe in front of the moon and the sun!
28’ Take away my misfortune, provide with goodnes[s]!
29’ It is you – you bring about my advancement and retre[at]!
30’ Save my life in difficulties, rescue from the grave!
31’ May I have no riva[l] in battle and combat!
32’ Ea, Šamaš, and Marduk, provide me with assistance!
33’ May your great weapons go beside me!
34’ Make [my] weapon[s] cause retreat and defeat!
35’ May may [ac]tions be pleasing to [you],
36’ [wh]atever I do, may it be completed!
r. 1 [Lo]ok favourably at the prince, who has sought your c[ommand]!
r. 2 Bestow happine[ss] upon me, [grant me l]ife!

r. 3 Incantation: Sîn and Šamaš, [the pair of gods],

r. 4 Sîn of the night, Šamaš [of every d]ay,
r. 5 it is [you] (who) are the decision(s) of the heaven and earth!
r. 6 You inspec[t dai]ly the measure of the day, the month, and the year,
r. 7 it is you (who) [dec]ree the destiny of the lands!
r. 8 You indeed are the distant gods,
r. 9 who daily have people’s interest at [he]art.
r. 10 Without you the regular offeri[ng] is not arranged among the Igigū-
gods,
r. 11 you illuminate the Anunnakū-gods like the da[y]light,
r. 12 you prepare their provisions and you take care of their living quarters!
r. 13 At your appearance [all the lands] rejoice,
r. 14 [ ] ... they provide (to you) [their gazes]!
r. 15 For allowing the signs of heaven [and earth] to be undone
r. 16 you are the[re]!
r. 17 I, your servant, [your] obser[ver],
r. 18 who daily gazes at [your] f[aces],
r. 19 my [at]tention is directed to your appearances!
r. 20 Let my unpropitious portents pass aside,
r. 21 place auspicious signs and compliance in my body!
r. 22 Command permanence to my reign and look (at me) together,
r. 23 bestow your bright days upon me!
r. 24 May I pray to you [d]ay and night,
r. 25 and may I make your great deeds glorius to the people!

r. 26 You say [th]is and then the king slaughters the substitute sheep,
r. 27 throws it on the image that is drawn with flour on the ground and
r. 28 performs the washing above it.
524 V. Text Editions

r. 29 Afterwards he performs ‘I have stripped away, I have stripped away’

and leaves (it) in the enemy land.

r. 30 Written according to the spoken word of the specialist; I have not seen
the old copy.

Commentary
6’ The traces of signs (collation below) in the tablet support the reading
[t]il-le-⌈e⌉ for this line.

According to the overview concerning the definition of a tillû, this term

appears to have been used to describe the proper attire of a person (e.g.
the king), and therefore it is not a designation of a specific garment but
pertains to the function of clothing (Wiggermann 1992, 53–54). For the
attestations of tillû, see also CAD T, 412. It is plausible that this instruc-
tion is connected to the statement concerned with being clothed in the
following prayer (line 24’).
15’ If my reading of the traces (collation below) is correct, this line refers to
kikkišu, “reed fence; wall” (CAD K, 352).

This is the reed wall through which Ea speaks to Atraḫasīs in the flood
myth. The use of the word in this prayer must be related to the presence
of a reed shelter (šutukku) in the present ritual (see line 8’). Note that
kikkišu is named in connection with the substitute king ritual in letter
SAA 10 no. 210: the “farmer” (i.e. the king) enters kikkišu on the 13th of
Du’ūzu (see also SAA 10 no. 211).
19’ Collation of the tablet confirms that the reconstruction tu-tar-ra ḫ[a]-
a[b-ta u šal-la ana aḫ-]ḫi-šú offered in Ebeling 1949, 178 and cited in
CAD T, 263 should be discarded (see already Elat 1982, 6).
21’ For the use of the expression nabalkatta šakānu to mean “to bring about
retreat”, see CAD N/1, 10.
22’ The suggested reading in Elat 1982, 6 is: KAL(?) SAG pu-ḫi(?)-ia(?) x
x x [...]. The translation here remains uncertain since no parallel expres-
sions can be found.
23’ The reading of this line is not certain. Collation (drawing below) shows
that traces of lìb-⌈bi⌉-⌈ia⌉ can be seen after the signs ana ṣu-mi-rat.

For a similar formulation see BBR 82, r. 23: ana ŠÀ.SÌ.SÌ.KE.MEŠ u

mim-ma ma-la [teppušu], “for an enterprise an whatever you [do]”. The
noun ṣummirātu receives the translation “enterprise” in CAD Ṣ, 245–
 V.10. A War Ritual before the Moon and the Sun (CBS 1516) 525

246; see also AHw, 1112 with the translation “wish; goal”.
29’ The verbs alāku, “to go”, and târu, “to turn back”, are here most likely
used in a military sense, i.e. “to advance” and “to retreat”, respectively
(see CAD T, 257).
35’ The beginning of this line is read [t]e-rit eppuš in Ebeling 1949, 178.
The possibility that the first sign on this line was ep has been noted in
Elat 1982, 6, and this view finds support in the collation of the tablet
from a photograph.
r. 1 Contrary to the results of the collation in Elat 1982, 6, the signs at the
beginning of this line are not ÉN.MEŠ, but clearly [I]GI.BAR.MEŠ, as
shown here.

This logogram must be the predicate verb (naplisā) of the main clause.
Since the following signs GIŠ and ḪUR do not provide much sense as a
logogram, I suggest that they should be regarded as the predicate
(isḫuru) of the relative clause attached to rubû(NUN).
r. 3 The epithet ilū kilallān can be found also as a part of the prayer “Sîn &
Šamaš 2” in BAM 4 no. 323//, 101 (see the citation on p. 108 above). It
is also used to refer to Sîn and Šamaš in a Late Babylonian manuscript
for the New Year ritual from Uruk, BRM 4 no. 7, 34: DINGIR.MEŠ ki-
lal-la-an d30 u dUTU ina IGI.DU8.ÀM-šú-nu lik-ru-bu-ka, “May the
pair of gods, Sîn and Šamaš, greet you in their appearances!” (see the
edition in Linssen 2004, 209–214).
r. 4 This expression is found also in K. 1939+, r. 3: d+EN.ZU ša mu-ši
d
[UTU ša kal ūmi]. For the concept that the night and day were divided
between Sîn and Šamaš see the discussion on p. 96ff. above.
r. 9 The translation of the idiom pî nišī ḫiāru is here according to CDA, 115
(cf. AHw, 343: “sich der Menschen annehmen”).
r. 14 The beginning of the line was reconstructed [ur-ra u mu]-šá in Ebeling
1949, 179. However, traces of a single horizontal wedge before the sign
šá (collation below) show that another solution should be sought.

Since no duplicate of this prayer is preserved, the matter remains

unsolved.
The reading niṭlu, “ability to see; view; gaze” for BAR.MEŠ was
suggested in Ebeling 1949, 179. This interpretation was adopted also in
Rochberg 1996, 476 where this line is translated: “Day and night they
entrust (to you) their ability to see”. Unfortunately, no other instances
of niṭla paqādu are attested, which means that the translation is
uncertain.
526 V. Text Editions

r. 19 Read as na-ša-a IGIII-a-a in Rochberg 1996, 477 according to the

doubts about the copied sign GEŠTUGII expressed in Ebeling 1949,
182. Collation of the tablet shows that the copied sign GEŠTUGII is,
however, correct. For the use of the noun uznu, in this context “atten-
tion”, with the verb bašû see CAD U–W, 368–369. It should be noted
that the signs ba and na look very similar in this tablet: they can be dis-
tinguished by the fact that the upper Winkelhaken in ba is written more
to the right than the upper Winkelhaken in na.
r. 23 According to Elat 1982, 6 the broken sign at the beginning of the line
should be UD, not MÚ as Ebeling suggests (Ebeling 1949, 179). This
must be so because the available space is too small for the sign MÚ.
r. 25 The noun elâtu, “the upper parts”, is used here to refer to the people liv-
ing in the upper part of the world (as opposed to the Netherworld; see
AHw, 202). In Mayer 1976, 62 the line is translated “auch ich will den
auf (der Erde) Lebenden eure Grosstaten verkünden”.
r. 29 For the procedure ašḫuṭ ašḫuṭ, “I have stripped away, I have stripped
away”, which involves the purification of the body against harmful
powers see Maul 1994, 72–73. The logogram KI.BAL is read nukurtu,
“hostility; enmity” in Ebeling 1949, 179 and Elat 1982, 6–7. Although
the reading of the logogram KI.BAL is nabalkattu, “crossing; uprising”,
in MZL no. 737, the meaning “enemy land” for KUR KI.BAL appears,
indeed, to be more fitting in this context. For the correspondence of the
Sumerian ki-bal and Akkadian māt nukurti in bilingual sources see
CAD N/2, 329. Apotropaic procedures similar to the one prescribed
here are known from other texts in which materials or persons that have
been in contact with the king are deposited in enemy land (see Schwe-
mer 2007c, 31). As an example, in a ritual taking place before the moon
(Ki. 1904-10-9, 18 [BM 98989], r. 11’–27’), a pig’s skin stuffed with a
figurine and the dagger used for its slaughter is taken to the border of an
enemy land after a purification procedure similar to the one described in
the present text.
Abbreviations
1R Rawlinson, H. C. & Norris, E. (1861) A Selection from the His-
torical Inscriptions of Chaldæa, Assyria, & Babylonia
3R Rawlinson, H. C. & Smith, G. (1870) A Selection from the Mis-
cellaneous Inscriptions of Assyria
4 R2 Rawlinson, H. C. & Pinches, Th. G. (1891) A Selection from
the Miscellaneous Inscriptions of Assyria, Second edition
5R Rawlinson, H. C. & Pinches, Th. G. (1909) A Selection from
the Miscellaneous Inscriptions of Assyria and Babylonia
AbB Altbabylonische Briefe
AbB 1 Kraus, F. R. (1964) Briefe aus dem British Museum (CT 43 und
44)
ABL Harper, R. F. (1892–1914) Assyrian and Babylonian Letters,
Volumes 1–14
ABRT I Craig, J. A. (1895) Assyrian and Babylonian Religious Texts.
Vol. I
ACh Virolleaud, C. (1908–1912) L’astrologie chaldéenne
ADD Johns, C. H. W. (1898–1923) Assyrian Deeds and Documents,
Volumes 1–4
AHw von Soden, W. (1965–1981) Akkadisches Handwörterbuch
AOAT Alter Orient und Altes Testament
AOAT 34 Loretz, O. & Mayer, W. R. (1978) Šu-ila-Gebete. Supplement
zu L. W. King, Babylonian Magic and Sorcery
ARM Archives royales des Mari
ARM 26/1 Durand (1988) Archives épistolaires de Mari I/1
ARM 27 Birot, M. (1993) Correspondance des gouverneurs de Qaṭṭu-
nân
BA Beiträge zur Assyriologie und semitischen Sprachwissenschaft
BA 10 Meek, T. J. (1913) Cuneiform Bilingual Hymns, Prayers and
Penitential Psalms
BAM Die babylonisch-assyrische Medizin in Texten und Untersu-
chungen
BAM 3 Köcher, F. (1964) Keilschrifttexte aus Assur 3
BAM 4 Köcher, F. (1971) Keilschrifttexte aus Assur 4; Babylon, Nip-
pur, Sippar, Uruk und unbekannter Herkunft
BAM 5 Köcher, F. (1980a) Keilschrifttexte aus Ninive 1
BAM 6 Köcher, F. (1980b) Keilschrifttexte aus Ninive 2
BATSH Berichte der Ausgrabung Tall Šāḫ Ḥamad / Dūr-Katlimmu
BATSH 6 Radner, K. (2002) Die neuassyrischen Texte aus Tall Šāḫ
Ḥamad
BBR Zimmern (1901) Beiträge zur Kenntnis der babylonischen
Religion
528 Abbreviations

BE The Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania

BE 6/2 Poebel, A. (1909) Babylonian Legal and Business Documents
from the Time of the First Dynasty of Babylon chiefly from
Nippur
BL Langdon (1913) Babylonian Liturgies
BMS King (1896) Babylonian Magic and Sorcery
BRM Babylonian Records in the Library of J. Pierpont Morgan
BRM 4 Clay (1923) Epics, Hymns, Omens, and Other Texts
CAD The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the Univer-
sity of Chicago, Volumes 1–21 (1956–2010)
CCP Cuneiform Commentaries Project (Yale University. URL:
ccp.yale.edu)
CDA Black, J., George, A. & Postgate, J. N. (2000) A Concise Dic-
tionary of Akkadian. 2nd (corrected) printing
CDLI Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative (University of California,
Los Angeles; University of Oxford; Max Planck Institute for
the History of Science, Berlin. URL: cdli.ucla.edu)
CH Codex Hammurapi
CLBT Thompson, R. C. (1927) A Catalogue of the Late Babylonian
Tablets in the Bodleian Library, Oxford
CT Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets in the British
Museum
CT 4 Pinches, T. G. (1898) Commercial Documents from the Period
of the First Dynasty of Babylonia until the Seleucid Period,
Late Babylonian Prayers and Incantations
CT 8 Pinches, T. G. (1899) Commercial Documents from the Period
of the First Dynasty of Babylon
CT 13 King, L. W. (1901) Mythological Texts (En. el.), Legends of
Early Kings
CT 15 King, L. W. (1902a) God-hymns, Fables, Myths (Anzu, In-
anna’s Descent, Ea and Atrahasis)
CT 21 King, L. W. (1905) Royal Inscriptions (from Sargon to
Samsuiluna)
CT 23 Thompson, R. C. (1906) Medical Prayers and Incantations
CT 24 King, L. W. (1908) God Lists (AN = Anum)
CT 25 King, L. W. (1909) God Lists (AN = Anum) II
CT 29 King, L. W. (1910) Old Babylonian Letters, God Lists
CT 36 Gadd, C. J. (1921) Royal Inscriptions, Sumerian Hymns
CT 37 Smith, S. (1923) Royal Inscriptions, Chronicals, Lexical Texts,
Omens
CT 40 Gadd, C. J. (1927) Šumma alu III
CT 46 Lambert, W. G. & Millard, A. R. (1965) Babylonian Literary
 Abbreviations 529

Texts
CT 51 Walker, C. (1972) Miscellaneous Texts
CT 54 Dietrich, M. (1979) Neo-Babylonian Letters from the Kuyunjik
Collection
CT 55 Pinches, T. G. (1982a) Neo-Babylonian and Achaemenid Econ-
omic Texts
CT 57 Pinches, T. G. (1982b) Neo-Babylonian and Achaemenid Econ-
omic Texts
CT 58 Alster, B. & Geller, M. J. (1990) Sumerian Literary Texts
CTH Laroche, E. (1971) Catalogue des textes Hittites
CTMMA Cuneiform Texts in the Metropolitan Museum of Art
CTMMA 2 Spar, I. & Lambert, W. G. (eds.) (2005) Literary and Scholastic
Texts of the First Millennium B. C.
CTN Cuneiform Texts from Nimrud
CTN 2 Postgate, J. N. (1973) The Governor’s Palace Archive
CTN 4 Wiseman, D. J. & Black, J. A. (1996) Literary Texts from the
Temple of Nabû
EAE Enūma Anu Enlil
ETCSL The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (University
of Oxford. URL: etcsl.ox.ac.uk)
GAG von Soden, W. (1995) Grundriss der akkadischen Grammatik.
3., ergänzte Auflage
HES Heidelberger Emesal-Studien
IAS Biggs, R. D. (1974) Inscriptions from Tell Abū Ṣalābīkh
KAI Donner, H. & Röllig, W. (1966) Kanaanäische und aramäische
Inschriften
KAL Keilschrifttexte aus Assur literatischen Inhalts
KAL 2 Schwemer, D. (2007) Ritual und Beschwörungen gegen
Schadenzauber
KAL 4 Maul, S. M. & Strauß, R. (2011) Ritualbeschreibungen und
Gebete I
KAL 5 Heeßel, N.P. (2012) Divinatorische Texte II. Opferschau-
Omina
KAL 10 Maul, S. M. (2019) Bannlösung (nam-érim-búr-ru-da). Die
Therapie eines auf eidliche Falschaussage zurückgeführten
Leidens
KAR Ebeling, E. (1915 & 1923) Keilschrifttexte aus Assur religiösen
Inhalts 1 & 2
KAV Schröder, O. (1920) Keilschrifttexte aus Assur verschiedenen
Inhalts
KBo Keilschrifttexte aus Boghazköi
KBo I Figulla, H. H. & Weidner, E. F. (1916) Keilschrifttexte aus
530 Abbreviations

Boghazköi. Erstes Heft

LKA Ebeling, E. (ed.) (1953) Literarische Keilschrifttexte aus Assur
LKU Falkenstein, A. (1931) Literarische Keilschrifttexte aus Uruk
MDP Mémoires, Délégation en Perse
MDP 2 Scheil, V. (1900) Textes Élamites-Sémitiques
MDP 6 Scheil, V. (1905) Textes Élamites-Sémitiques
MSL Materialien zum sumerischen Lexikon
MSL 5 Landsberger, B. (1957) The Series ḪAR-ra » ḫubullu. Tablets
I–IV
MZL Borger, R. (2010) Mesopotamisches Zeichenlexikon. Zweite, re-
vidierte und aktualisierte Auflage
OECT Oxford Editions of Cuneiform Texts
OECT 11 Gurney, O. R. (1989) Literary and Miscellaneous Texts in the
Ashmolean Museum
OIP Oriental Institute Publications
OIP 38 Loud, G. (1936) Khorsabad. Part I. Excavations in the Palace
and the City Gate
PBS University of Pennsylvania, Publications of the Babylonian
Section
PBS 1/2 Lutz, H. F. (1919) Selected Sumerian and Babylonian Texts
PNA Prosopography of the Neo-Assyrian Empire
RIMA The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia Assyrian Periods
RIMA 1 Grayson, A. K. (1987) Assyrian Rulers of the Third and Second
Millenia BC (to 1115 BC)
RIMA 2 Grayson, A. K. (1991) Assyrian Rulers of the Early First Mil-
lennium BC I (1114–859 BC)
RIMA 3 Grayson, A. K. (1996) Assyrian Rulers of the Early First Mil-
lennium BC II (858–745 BC)
RIMB Frame, G. (1995) Rulers of Babylonia from the Second Dynasty
of Isin to the End of Assyrian Domination (1157–612 BC)
RIME The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia Early Periods
RIME 1 Frayne, D. R. (2008) Presargonic Period (2700–2350 BC)
RIME 3/2 Frayne, D. R. (1997) Ur III Period (2112–2004 BC)
RINAP The Royal Inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Period
RINAP 1 Tadmor, H. & Yamada, S. (2011) The Royal Inscriptions of
Tiglath-pileser III (744–727 BC), and Shalmaneser V (726–722
BC), Kings of Assyria
RINAP 3 Grayson, A. K. & Novotny, J. (2012 &2014) The Royal In-
scriptions of Sennacherib, King of Assyria (704–681 BC)
RINAP 4 Leichty, E. (2011) The Royal Inscriptions of Esarhaddon, King
of Assyria (680–669 BC)
RINAP 5/I Novotny, J. & Jeffers, J. (2018) The Royal Inscriptions of
 Abbreviations 531

Ashurbanipal (668–631 BC), Aššur-etel-ilāni (630–627 BC),

and Sîn-šarra-iškun (626–612 BC), Kings of Assyria, Part I
RlA Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäo-
logie
RT Recueil de travaux relatifs à la philologie et à l’archeologie
égyptiennes et assyriennes
SAA State Archives of Assyria
SAA 1 Parpola, S. (1987) Letters from Assyria and the West
SAA 2 Parpola, S. & Watanabe, K. (1988) Neo-Assyrian Treaties and
Loyalty Oaths
SAA 3 Livingstone, A. (1989) Court Poetry and Literary Miscellanea
SAA 4 Starr, I. (1990) Queries to the Sungod. Divination and Politics
in Sargonid Assyria
SAA 6 Kwasman, T. (1991) Legal Transactions of the Royal Court of
Nineveh, Part I: Tiglath-pileser III through Esarhaddon
SAA 7 Fales, F. M. & Postgate, J. N. (1992) Imperial Administrative
Records, Part I: Palace and Temple Administration
SAA 8 Hunger, H. (1992) Astrological Reports to Assyrian Kings
SAA 9 Parpola, S. (1997) Assyrian Prophecies
SAA 10 Parpola, S. (1993) Letters from Assyrian and Babylonian
Scholars
SAA 11 Fales, F. M. & Postgate, J. N. (1995) Imperial Administrative
Records, Part II: Provincial and Military Administration
SAA 12 Kataja, L. & Whiting, R. (1995) Grants, Decrees and Gifts of
the Neo-Assyrian Period
SAA 13 Cole, S. W. & Machinist, P. (1998) Letters from Priests to the
Kings Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal
SAA 14 Mattila, R. (2002) Legal Transactions of the Royal Court of
Nineveh, Part II: Assurbanipal through Sîn-šarru-iškun
SBH Reisner, G. (1896) Sumerisch-babylonische Hymnen nach
Thontafeln griechischer Zeit
SLTNi Kramer, S. N, (1944) Sumerian Literary Texts from Nippur in
the Museum of the Ancient Orient at Istanbul
SpTU Spätbabylonische Texte aus Uruk
SpTU 2 von Weiher, E. (1983) Spätbabylonische Texte aus Uruk. Teil II
SpTU 3 von Weiher, E. (1988) Spätbabylonische Texte aus Uruk. Teil
III
StAT Studien zu den Assur-Texten
StAT 2 Donbaz, V. & Parpola, S. (2001) Neo-Assyrian Legal Texts in
Istanbul
STC King, L. W. (1902b) The Seven Tablets of Creation
STT The Sultantepe Tablets
532 Abbreviations

STT I Gurney, O. R. & Finkelstein, J. J. (1957) The Sultantepe Tab-

lets I
STT II Gurney, O. R. & Hulin, P. (1964) The Sultantepe Tablets II
TCL Textes cunéiformes, Musées du Louvre
TCL 3 Thureau-Dangin, F. (1912) Une relation de la huitième cam-
pagne de Sargon (714 av. J.-C.)
TCL 9 Contenau, G. (1926) Contrats et lettres d’Assyrie et de
Babylonie
TCL 12 Contenau, G. (1927) Contrats néo-babyloniens: de Téglath-
phalasar III à Nabonide
TCL 15 de Genouillac, H. (1930) Textes religieux sumériens du Louvre
I
TIM Texts in the Iraq Museum
TIM 9 van Dijk, J. (1976) Cuneiform Texts of Varying Content
TuM NF Texte und Materialien der Frau Professor Hilprecht-Sammlung
Vorderasiatischen Altertümer im Eigentum der Friedrich-
Schiller-Universität Jena, Neue Folge
TuM NF 4 Kramer, S. N. & Bernhardt, I. (1967) Sumerischer literarische
Texte aus Nippur. Band II: Hymnen, Klagelieder, Weisheitstexte
und andere Literaturgattungen
UET Ur Excavations, Texts
UET 1 Gadd, C. J. & Legrain, L. (1928) Royal Inscriptions
UET 2 Burrows, E. (1935) Archaic Texts
UET 4 Figulla, H. H. (1949) Business Documents of the New-Babylo-
nian Period
UET 5 Figulla, H. H. (1953) Letters and Documents of the Old-Baby-
lonian Period
UET 6/1 Gadd, C. J. & Kramer, S. N. (1963) Literary and Religious
Texts. Part One
UET 6/2 Gadd, C. J. & Kramer, S. N. (1966) Literary and Religious
Texts. Part Two
UET 6/3 Shaffer, A. & Ludwig, M.-C. (2006) Literary and Religious
Texts. Part Three
UET 7 Gurney, O. R. (1974) Middle Babylonian Legal Documents and
Other Texts
VS Vorderasiatische Schriftdenkmäler der Königlichen Museen zu
Berlin / Vorderasiatische Schriftdenkmäler der Staatlichen
Museen zu Berlin
VS 1 Messerschmidt, L. & Ungnad, A. (1907) Vorderasiatische
Schriftdenkmäler der Königlichen Museen zu Berlin. Heft I
VS 2 Zimmern, H. (1912) Sumerische Kultlieder aus altbabyloni-
scher Zeit
 Abbreviations 533

VS 17 van Dijk, J. (1971) Nicht-kanonische Beschwörungen und son-

stige literarische Texte
VS 24 van Dijk, J. (1987) Literarische Texte aus Babylon
YOS Yale Oriental Series, Babylonian Texts
YOS 1 Clay, A. T. (1915) Miscellaneous Inscriptions in the Yale Baby-
lonian Collection
YOS 7 Tremayne, A. (1925) Records from Erech, Time of Cyrus and
Cambyses (538–521 B.C.)
YOS 11 van Dijk, J., Goetze, A. & Hussey, M. I. (1985) Early Mesopot-
amian Incantations and Rituals
YOS 12 Feigin, S. I. (1979) Legal and Administrative Texts of the Reign
of Samsu-iluna
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Index
Compositions n1834, 328; III, 39: 328; III, 40:
Adda-guppi Stele; see Schaudig 2001, 322 n1835, 328; III, 41–43: 324–
3.2 325 n1852, 328; III, 44–48: 328;
a-gal-gal buru14 su-su, a+121: 61 n272 III, 44–48: 328; III, 49–57: 328;
Alandimmû III, 86–88: 273 III, 58: 329; III, 58–96: 329; III,
Amarsuen 12, 19–21: 359 n2023 59–61: 329; III, 62–64: 329; III,
An = Anum: 10, 30 n87, 34, 45–46, 65: 243 n1373, 290 n1623, 329;
60, 68, 71, 74, 77–78, 83, 127 III, 66: 329; III, 67: 329; III, 68:
n719, 138 n738, 150–151, 191, 329; III, 70: 329; III, 71–84: 329;
197, 207, 236, 242–243, 248–249, III, 85: 329; III, 86–87: 329; III,
252, 290, 292–294, 297, 305, 314– 88–96: 329; III, 96: 78 n374; III,
315, 317–318, 321–322, 324, 327– 100: 46 n189; III, 102: 78 n374,
329, 335, 327; I, 139–146: 355 305 n1721; III, 106: 46 n189, 305
n2003; I, 145: 127 n717, 316 n1721; III, 189: 191 n1072
n1795; I, 163: 294 n1653; I, 184: An = Anu ša amēli: 137; 24: 37 n139;
354 n1992, 370 n2078; I, 201: 187 25: 138 n737, 151 n798; 29: 78
n1044; I, 252: 354 n1996, 314 n377; 32: 60 n267; 33: 83 n410;
n1786; I, 281: 370 n2079; I, 298: 34–35: 243; 36: 46 n192; 38: 74
354 n1994; I, 306: 354 n1998; I, n352
318–319: 354 n2000; I, 324: 354 An-gin7 dím-ma, 69: 204 n1163; 131:
n1994; II, 21: 305 n1716; II, 143– 145 n766
147: 294 n1653; II, 178: 297 an-na e-lum-e: 380 (see also SBH no.
n1670; II, 295: 252 n1431; III, 1– 24, 3)
22: 34 n118; III, 1–26: 327; III, 1– Antakya Stele: see RIMA 3, A.0.104.2
29: 327; III, 4: 78 n373, 305 Assurbanipal Prism A, I 1–7: 214; I 3:
n1720; III, 5: 83 n410; III, 6–7: 200 n1122; III 118–127: 193; IV
243 n1365; III, 8–11: 60; III, 9: 34 110: 152 n801; IV 110–111: 295
n118; III, 9–10: 248 n1404; III, n1654
12: 93 n491; III, 14: 45 n188, 305 Assurbanipal Prism B, V 3–10: 58; V
n1720; III, 15: 372 n2091; III, 15– 9: 153 n811; V 78–79: 36, 37 n137,
16: 293 n1636; III, 16: 293 n1640; 88 n450
III, 17–18: 197 n1102; III, 19: 236 Assurbanipal Prism C, I 78–79: 398
n1326; III, 20: 243 n1369; III, 21– n2266; I 71–98: 214 n1215, 403
22: 151 n792; III, 22: 34; III, 23– n2291; VI 80–81: 36 n131, 37
25: 34, 74 n352, 327; III, 24–25: n137, 88 n450; VII 115–121: 58
46 n191; III, 26: 74 n351, 327; III, n259
27–29: 327; III, 28: 297 n1671; Assurbanipal Prisms CND: 403 n2291
III, 30–35: 328; III, 30–57: 328; Assurbanipal Prism E: 225
III, 31–35: 318 n1814; III, 36: 320 Assurbanipal Prism F, III 33–34: 152
n1821, 322 n1829, 328; III, 37: n801, 295 n1654
322 n1835, 328; III, 38: 322 Assurbanipal Prism G: 403 n2291
 Index 597

Assurbanipal Prism I: 403 n2291; II text b, 13’: 59 n260; 16, § VII 12:
28’–33’: 214 n1215 50 n218; 17, § VI 4: 361; 20, con-
Assurbanipal Prism T: 214 n1215, cluding paragraph: 169 n917; 22,
390, 436; II 29–35: 214; II 29–III concluding paragraph: 136 n730,
14: 403 n2291; II 39–40: 398 169–170; 51, Text X 24–35: 295
n2266; II 49–51: 404 n2302; III n1656
18–35: 435 n2451; III 32–35: 435; E’amaškuga Cylinder: see Schaudig
V 33–34: 414 n2353 2001, 2.6
Assyrian King List: 82 n403, 226 “Ea, Šamaš, and Marduk 11”: 520
Astrolabe B, I 5–6: 295 n1656; I 10– Ebabbar-Ekurra Cylinder: see
11: 295 n1656 Schaudig 2001, 2.4
Aššur Charter, 16–19: 395 n2249; 21– Eclipse Hemerology: see Bu. 88-5-12,
23: 203 n1157 11
Atraḫasīs: 289 n1619 Eḫulḫul Cylinder: see Schaudig 2001,
Babylonian Almanac: 104 n559, 111, 2.12
113 n623, 114–115, 117–118, 126– E’igikalama Cylinder: see Schaudig
127, 326, 412 n2341 2001, 2.5
Babylon Stele: see Schaudig 2001, Elugalĝalgasisa Cylinder: see
3.3a Schaudig 2001, 2.2
Banquet Stele: see RIMA 2, En-niĝaldi-Nanna Cylinder: see
A.0.101.30 Schaudig 2001, 2.7
Bīt mēseri, II 119: 321 n1825 “Emesal šu’ila to Sîn 1”: see K.
Bīt rimki, 93–94: 504–505 2529+, 48
Black Obelisk: see RIMA 3, “Emesal šu’ila to Sîn 2”: see K.
A.0.102.14 2529+, 49
Canonical Temple List, 271: 381 “Emesal šu’ila to Sîn 3”: see 4 R2 9+//
n2156 Enlil and Ninlil: 291
CH, I 13–15: 206 n1173; L 47–48: Enūma eliš: 62, 93–95, 137, 158, 244,
257 n1455; L 47–51: 256 n1453 441; I, 11–16: 147 n780; I, 148–
Coronation Hymn of Assurbanipal: 162: 145; IV, 3–6: 145; V, 9–10:
212–213 83; V, 12: 31; V, 12–22: 93–94,
Cow of Sîn: 30 n87, 69 n319, 239 158 n847; V, 24: 125, 154; VII, 59:
n1341, 241, 286, 288, 444, 518 494; VII, 66: 143 n758
Diri VII, 59: 317 n1803 Eponym Chronicle: 390 n2212
e-lum di-da-ra: 35, 45 n187, 147–148, Eponym List: 390 n2212
244; b+86: 89 n466; b+86–89: Exaltation of Inanna, 49–56: 95–96;
148; b+88: 353 n1986 55–56: 83; 87–88: 49–50, 67–68
e-lum gu4-sún, c+250: 335 n1895 Gilgameš III, 101–106: 212; VIII,
EAE: 5, 33–34, 48, 50, 62, 125–126, 140: 71–72 n335; IX, 8–14: 247
136–137, 150, 158–159 163–164, n1400
167, 170–171, 244, 246 n1392, Götteradressbuch, 1–2: 64 n294; 1–
361; 1, §0a: 94–95; 1, §0b: 95; 3, 18: 315 n1790; 16: 422 n2395; 20:
598 Index

421 n2390; 57: 421 n2394; 63–64: “Ištar 6”: 310 n1755
421; 156: 397 n2259; 156–157: “Ištar 23”, 3: 310 n1757
420–421 “Ištar 31”, 7: 309 n1751
Great Prayer to Ištar, 5: 312 n1769 Ištar’s Descent to the Netherworld, 1–
Great Star List: 143; 281–287: 137; 3: 309; 81–84: 309 n1752
288: 109 n592, 146 n777 Kagal Bog F, I 14: 371–372 n2090
Gudea Cyl A, XXI 18: 49 n212; XXIV Labbu: 174
10: 60 n264 Lamaštu I, 82: 152 n806
Ḫarrān Census: 389, 398 n2268 Lamentation over the Destruction of
Ḫarrān Stele: see Schaudig 2001, 3.1 Sumer and Ur, 409: 322; 438: 359–
Ibbi-Suen A, 9–10: 204 n1160; 31: 204 360; 438–440: 323; 477: 302
n1160 Lamentation over the Destruction of
IIT: 414; 40–41: 435 n2451; 60–69: Ur, 13–16: 349; 113: 349
403 n2291; 62: 404 n2302; 64: 414 LET, r. 43–69: 403 n2291
“ikrib to Sîn 1”: see K. 2751+//, 1’–3’ Ludlul bēl nēmeqi II, 67: 199 n1114
“ikrib to Sîn 2”: see K. 2751+//, 4’– Luzag. 1, I 21–22: 368 n2067
22’ má-gur8 kù an-na: see BM 13930
“ikrib to Sîn 3”: see K. 2751+//, 23’– Malku III, 151–153: 125 n696; IV,
56’ 62–65: 282 n1581
“ikrib to Sîn 4”: see K. 2751+//, 57’– Maqlû I, 122–124: 315 n1789; I, 123:
78’ 315 n1787; II, 19: 32 n103; II 20:
“ikrib to Sîn 5”: see K. 2751+//, 79’– 32 n103; III, 98: 70; III, 116–135:
87’ 48; III, 118–139: 48; IV, 52: 110
Imgur-Enlil Cylinder: see Schaudig n596
2001, 2.1 Marduk Prophecy, I 15: 145
i-NAM-ĝiš-ḫur-an-ki-a: 57–58, 62, 93 Mila Mergi rock inscription: see RI-
n488, 98 n519, 103, 121, 123, 137– NAP 1 no. 37
139, 152, 243, 460 (see also K. MUL.APIN: 20; I, i 1–ii 35: 136
170+, K. 2164+) n728; I, i 5: 434 n2444; I, i 6: 319
Inbu bēl arḫi: 54–57, 59, 65–66, 97, n1818, 324; I, i 28: 180 n992; I, ii
100–105, 110–113, 115–118, 122, 29: 180 n992; II, Gap A 8: 93
128 n722, 179 n989, 183, 248, n487; II, i 9–21: 111
325–326, 447 (see also K. 2514+; Muššu’u IV, 13: 308, 434 n2446; IV,
K. 3269+; K. 4068+; K. 4093+; K. 18: 98
4231+ & K. 7079+) mu-tin nu-nuz dím-ma, c+376: 335
Iqqur īpuš: 294–295, 325–326, 507, n1895
516 Nanaya Hymn of Sargon II: see SAA 3
Iqqur īpuš § 64, 1: 519 no. 4
Iran Stele; see RINAP 1 no. 35 Nanna A: 240 n1349
Išme-Dagan A+V, 72–75: 206 n1172 Nanna F: 240 n1349
“Ištar 1”, 3–4: 310; 4: 308 Nanna H: 292 n1632
“Ištar 2”, 5: 310 Nanna K, r. 26: 292 n1631
 Index 599

Nanna O: see UM 29-15-570 13’: 279; 19/20, 45’: 277; 19/20,

Nanna-Suen’s Journey to Nippur: 46 112’–113’: 277; 22, 19: 274–275
n195, 71 n334; 259–318: 370 n1542; 27, 11: 273–274; 27, 32–36:
n2079 277–278 n1555; 27, 34: 278
“Nergal 2”: 165 n890, 166, 506 n1556; 27, 35–36: 278 n1557; 29,
Nimrud Monolith: see RIMA 2, 5: 281 n1577; 29, 8–9: 281 n1577;
A.0.101.17 29, 19: 281 n1579; 33, 4: 274
Nippur Compendium: 296; § 6 ii 11’– n1540; 33, 114: 283; 40, 35: 276
13’: 80–81; § 6 ii 14’: 357; § 13 iii n1547; 40, 42: 276 n1546; 40, 47–
16’: 370–371; § 14 iv 14–18: 355; 48: 276; 40, 55–57: 276–277; 40,
§ 14 v 2–6: 355, 370; § 14 v 11– 56–57: 277–278 n1555; 40, 120–
13: 355, 370; § 14 v 7–8: 355, 370 122: 279
Offering Bread Hemerology: 99, 102– Shamash-shum-ukin Dream Ritual
106, 111–113, 115, 117, 119–120, (SDR): 190–191, 452
122, 126, 128, 183, 248 (see also “Sîn 1”: 11, 13, 35, 85–88, 176–177,
KAR 178//) 190–192, 295, 452–461, 462; 1:
Pazarcik Stele: see RIMA 3, A.0.104.3 31–32 n100, 32–33 n109, 35 n123,
Poem of Erra IIc, 14–15: 167 88, 493; 1–10: 86; 2: 86 n426; 3:
Prostration Hemerology: 219–220; 3– 86–87; 4: 87; 7: 87; 9: 146, 155;
4: 117; 6: 102; 10: 113; 14: 111; 10: 306; 11: 151; 11–13: 151; 11–
21: 103; 25: 102; 26: 127 16: 125; 14: 293, 492; 16: 128; 17:
Psalm in Praise of Uruk: see SAA 3 76, 155, 415 n2360; 19–25: 190;
no. 9 21–24: 192
Rīm-Sîn G, 22: 206 n1171 “Sîn 2”: 13, 462–463; 3: 88; 4: 82; 6:
Ritual vor Gottheiten Assyriens und 87; 8: 142 n754
Babylons: 431; 7–8: 422; 17–19: “Sîn 3”: 13, 238–239, 464–473, 479;
422; 103–109: 421; b+204: 436; 1: 36–37; 3: 81, 198, 235; 6: 151
b+205–206: 435 n2450; c+234– n793; 7: 239; 8: 496; 10–11: 239;
241: 435 n2449; c+242–248: 433– 14: 239
434; c+250–252: 436; d+303: 424; “Sîn 4”: 13
i+487–516: 381; i+521: 381; “Sîn 5”: 13, 497–506; see also K.
k+537: 381 6018+//, 1’–4’
Royal Chronicle: see Schaudig 2001, “Sîn 6a”: 13, 166–167, 497–506; see
P4 also K. 6018+//, 8’–13
Sa-gig: 270; 3, 91–92: 283; 4, 24: “Sîn 6b”: 11, 13, 37, 166–167, 497–
274–275 n1542; 9, 47: 283; 10, 6: 506; see also K. 6018+//, x+36’–
273 n1536; 12, 128: 285 n1599; x+44’
15, 10’: 284; 15, 23’: 273 n1531; “Sîn 7”: 13, 83, 155, 166, 497–506;
15, 41’: 285 n1599; 16, 56’: 278 see also K. 6018+//, x+27’–x+33’
n1559; 17, 90–94: 279; 18, 1: 279; “Sîn 8”: 13
18, 22: 283, 284; 19/20, 9’: 279; “Sîn 9”: 13, 284 n1594, 474–476
19/20, 11’: 278 n1559; 19/20, 12’– “Sîn 10”: see BM 121037, r. 1–8
600 Index

“Sîn 11”: 13, 151 n793, 477–478; 1: 154: 254; IV, 92: 97; VIII, 25:
89, 491; 4: 211; 5: 238; 6: 490; 6– 323–324
7: 286–287; 8–9: 237; 10–11: 287; Šu-Suen F, 8–12: 236–237
13: 153; 14: 162–163; 15: 86; 16– Tākultu-Ritual Aššur-etel-ilānīs, 1–5:
17: 287 422
“Sîn 12”: see VAT 8004//, 11–13 Tašrītu Hemerology: 103
“Sîn 13”: 14, 479 The Temple Hymns, 101–118: 333;
“Sîn 14”: 14, 238–239, 280, 464, 479– 103: 249 n1407; 110–111: 79; 153–
482; 1: 293; 2–4: 239; 9: 273, 287, 154: 321; 155: 317–318
463 Tintir II, 34: 381; IV, 8–9: 380–381;
“Sîn 15”: 14, 280, 287–288, 479; 3: IV, 24: 379; V, 49–56: 207 n1181;
288; 4: 288 V, 71–72: 207
“Sîn 16”: see KAL 4 no. 40, 11’–18’ u4-dam ki àm-ús, 195: 47; 197: 335
“Sîn 17”: see IM 148516, 1–r. 3 n1895
“Sîn & Šamaš 1”: see CBS 1516 Udug-ḫul:, 174, 181, 206–207, 295,
“Sîn & Šamaš 2”: see BAM 4 no. 443; 4, 94’: 302–303; 4, 95’: 322–
323//, 99–102 323; 4, 96’: 321; 4, 98’–99’: 325;
“Sîn & Šamaš 3”: see Si. 34(+)//, 15– 5, 59: 243–244; 5, 118: 29–30 n85,
30 294; 5, 162: 74–75; 12, 44: 326;
Sîn-šarru-iškun Cylinder A: 200 16, 29–30: 171; 16, 37–53: 171;
n1128; 3–5: 210; 9–11: 211 n1196 16, 39: 85; 16, 40: 198; 16, 54–78:
Sîn-šarru-iškun Cylinder B: 210 n1195 171; 16, 58: 293–294; 16, 66–69:
Sîn-šarru-iškun Cylinder C, 3: 225 169; 16, 79–81: 171; 16, 82–84:
n1260; 11: 200 n1127; 11–12: 210 229 n1286; 16, 83–84: 33 n111,
n1196 172–173; 16, 84: 34; 16, 109’–
Sîn-šarru-iškun Cylinder D: 210 116’: 169; 16, 110’–112’: 173; 16,
n1195 120’: 172; 16, 147’: 172
Stele of Vultures; see RIME 1, umun-ĝu10 za-e, 13–15: 87 n437
E1.9.3.1 unkin-ta eš-bar til-la: 394
Sumerian Flood Story: 48 n207 Ur-Namma EF, 21–22: 360
Sun God Tablet: 41 Ur5-ra; see MSL 5
“Šamaš 1”, 1: 73, 306, 354–355 n2001 Verse Account: see Schaudig 2001, P1
“Šamaš 7”: 307 Weidner God-list, I 15–16: 324
“Šamaš 55”: 507–519 Zinçirli Stele; see RINAP 4 no. 98
“Šamaš 78”, 7: 306
Šammu šikinšu: 272
Text publications and museum num-
Šulgi B, 193: 306
bers of cuneiform sources
Šulgi X, 139: 302
1 R 55, IV 25–28: 379; IV 61–62:
Šumma izbu 17, 54’: 282
161; IV 61–65: 383
Šumma Sîn ina tāmartīšu: 70, 170–
1 R 65, II 44–45: 342; II 45: 213
171; 1, 64–65: 220
3 R 55 no. 3: 68 n315; see also K.
Šurpu III, 56: 504; III, 104: 254; III,
2074
 Index 601

4 R2 9+// (“Emesal šu’ila to Sîn 3”): AO 6451, 41: 317–318, 372

15, 31, 137 n735, 148; 1: 197; 1–4: AO 6461, 5–6: 63 n285, 68, 148 n786
147; 1–9: 33 n110; 2: 353; 5–9: AO 6471, III 13–14: 316
197–198; 7: 63; 7–14: 245; 10: 241 AO 6479, III 1–14: 355 n2003; III 14:
n1352, 245; 11: 54, 245; 12: 245; 127 n717
12–13: 231–232; 14: 27–28 n75; AO 6494, 15–16: 148 n786
15–16: 197, 232; 16: 97 n514; 17: AO 6775: see KAL 10 no. 36
153, 212; 18: 156; 20: 84, 87; 22: AO 21371, 25–29: 89–90
152; 28–30: 237, 247; 35: 204 AOAT 34 no. 1: see K. 2832+
4 R 13 no. 2+: 75, 307 n1735 AOAT 34 no. 2: see Sm. 1382
4 R 23 no. 3+: 307 n1735 AOAT 34 no. 17: see K. 16342
4 R 32, II 8–9: 67 n311 AOAT 34 no. 59: see K. 6018+
4 R 46 no. 1, 4–5: 434 n2444 ARM 26/1 no. 24, 10–12: 251, 385
5 R 34, II 28–38: 340–341 ARM 27 no. 80, 8: 385 n2174
5 R 44, II 25: 197 n1102 Ash. 1922.256: 365 n2052
11N-T3: 293 n1638; 17–19: 69–70, BA 10 no. 1, 1–6: 307–308
171; 21: 241; 22–23: 243–244 BAM 3 no. 202//, r. 5’–7’: 272
79.B.1./20, 7: 317 n1808 BAM 3 no. 244, r. 69: 464
79-7-8, 95: 507–519 BAM 3 no. 248: 241; II 57–59: 476;
80-11-12, 484: 291 n1626 III 20–24: 288; III 21–22: 288
81-2-4, 251+, 6: 161 n1615
81-2-4, 256 (BBR 5)+, I 1’–16’: 184– BAM 3 no. 248//, I 40–41: 69 n320
187 BAM 3 no. 311, 51’–52’: 272 n1527
81-2-4, 306, r. 9’: 394; r. 10’–11’: BAM 3 no. 316, VI 14’–23’: 497–506;
393–394 VI 22’–VI 23’: 505; VI 24’–VI
82-5-22, 528, 10’: 116 n643 28’: 506; VI 29’: 166
82-7-14, 4005, 15–20: 33–34, 94 n493 BAM 4 no. 323//, 89–108: 108; 93:
AbB 1 no. 106, 17–19: 124 108; 96–99: 108, 247; 99–100:
ABL 210, 3–7: 367 108–109; 99–102: 14 (“Sîn & Ša-
ABL 459, 4: 228 maš 2”); 100: 37; 101: 154, 525;
ABL 514: see SAA 13 no. 187 105: 78, 108
ABL 736, 3–6: 367 n2063 BAM 4 no. 379, II 51’: 272 n1528
ABL 974, 3–5: 31; 6: 31 BAM 4 no. 385//, I 15’–17’: 278
ABL 1000, 19: 368 BAM 4 no. 401: 253 n1434
ABL 1241+, r. 10–12: 339 BAM 5 no. 449+//, 24’–28’: 110; 36’–
ABL 1246+, 3’–11’: 339–340 40’: 110
ABRT I no. 58: see K. 2096 BAM 5 no. 471, II 21’–22’: 278
ACh Sin 3, 44: 219 n1557
ACh Supp. 2 Sin 6: see K. 7192 BAM 6 no. 516, II 30–31’: 285–286
ACh Supp. 2 Sin 18: see K. 2181 BAM 6 no. 580, II’ 1’–28’: 283, 289;
ADD App. no. 2: see Sm. 55+ V’ 5’: 123, 283; V’ 17’–20’: 283–
AO 4153: 141 n749 284, 474, 476; V’ 20’: 476
602 Index

BAM 6 no. 584, II’ 25’–26’: 283 BM 63751, 7’: 375

n1588 BM 64359, 4’: 118
BATSH 6 no. 64, r. 7: 229 BM 64882, 9: 376 n2124
BBR 1–20: 184, 186 n1036; 41: 185 BM 65454+: 310 n1753
n1028; 41–53: 185 n1027; 51: 185 BM 68458+: 507–519; see also “Sîn
n1033; 215–216: 185 n1032 12”
BBR 4: 185 n1029; 53: 186 n1034 BM 78076, 39: 517
BBR 6: 185 n1029 BM 78432, 1’–r. 4: 452–461 (“Sîn
BBR 7: 185 n1029 1”); r. 8: 192
BBR 26, III 53: 35, 452 BM 85965 (CT 37, pl. 13), II 42: 379
BBR 82, r. 23: 524 BM 87521 (CT 15, pls. 5–6), II 5–9:
BE 6/2 no. 111, 1–33: 125 297
BL 27, 7’: 359 n2022; 8’: 344 BM 90842 (CT 21, pls. 40–42): 206
BL 158: see K. 3238 BM 92649 A (CT 8 no. 47 a): 373
BM 13930 (CT 15, pls. 16–17)//: 12; BM 92690: 276 n1548
1: 35–36, 45; 2–4: 231; 9: 45; 18: BM 96706 (CT 36, pl. 26), 15: 72
197 n338
BM 15285: 49 n209 BM 98989: see Ki. 1904-10-9, 18
BM 22696, 22: 22 n56 BM 113927: 255 n1447
BM 31076, 6–7: 254 BM 113966+, 3’: 332 n1880
BM 32516//, 1–9: 313 n1778, 384; 7: BM 114028+: 254
380 BM 114151, 1’: 332 n1880
BM 34030: 149 n790 BM 116230, 44–45: 262
BM 34584+: 127; IV 106–109: 219 BM 121037 (CT 51 no. 190), 4’–8’:
BM 34602, r. 8: 103 165–166, 177; 9’–14’: 177; r. 1–8
BM 34850, 5’–6’: 79 (“Sîn 10”): 13, 177; r. 3: 38; r. 13’:
BM 35046, 19: 372 452
BM 38599, 15–18: 235; r. 17–18: 235 BM 121206, V 7’: 418; VII 5’–7’:
n1315 102–103, 113, 116, 419; VIII 28’:
BM 41237+, r. 21’: 383 418 n2377; VIII 39’–42’: 418
BM 41623, 7’: 272–273 n2377; VIII 55’: 396
BM 42408, 4: 376 BM 122614+, 6’: 399
BM 45749: 42 n172 BM 127940, I 6: 225
BM 46559 (CT 29, pl. 46), 26–28: 29– BM 130827: 255 n1447
30 BM 134701: 180–181
BM 46562, VII! 18: 114 n632 BMS 1: see K. 155
BM 47406 (CT 24, pl. 50), 8: 86 BMS 6: see K. 2106+
BM 47509+, 7’–10’: 40, 280 n1567; BMS 10: see K. 5780+
7’–21’: 280; r. 1–13: 479–482 BMS 12, 102: 185 n1030
(“Sîn 14”); r. 1–22: 280; r. 18–22: BRM 4 no. 6: 180–181; 33’: 371
14 (“Sîn 15”); r. 19: 86 BRM 4 no. 7, 34: 525
BM 47860: 138–139 n739 Bu. 88-5-12, 11 (CT 4, pl. 5): 178–180
 Index 603

Bu. 89-4-26, 209, 1–11: 301–302, 309; CTN 4 no. 110, r. 25: 119
2: 234; 5: 37, 87, 203; 7: 37, 81 CTN 4 no. 116//, r. 10’–15’: 289
n392; 9: 76 n360; 10–11: 404; 23: Cyr 40, 6: 376 n2124
413; r. 19: 203; r. 19–21: 259–260 Cyr 256, 14: 376 n2124
Camb 150, 3’: 376 n2124 Da Riva 2012, WBC, VIII 14: 162;
CBS 1516: 14, 109, 520–526; r. 4: 96; VIII 14–16: 342
r. 5: 154; r. 6: 96–97; r. 6–7: 154; Da Riva 2013, C22, II 27–30: 85
r. 10–12: 98; r. 11: 81–82, 124; r. DT 161, 10: 59
13: 494; r. 17–25: 223 Frahm 2013, l. 16: 203, 492; ll. 16–19:
CBS 1695: 164, 166, 497–506 395
CLBT, pl. 1: 180 n995 Grayson 1975, no. 3, 58–65: 405
CT 4, pl. 5–6: see Bu. 88-5-12, 11 HS 157, 89–90: 516–517
CT 8 no. 47 a: see BM 92649 A HS 194: 369
CT 13, pls. 33–34: see Rm. 282 IAS no. 114, I 14–16: 291
CT 15, pls. 5–6: see BM 87521 IAS no. 253: 29 n81
CT 15, pls. 16–17: see BM 13930// IAS no. 388, IV’ 3: 309
CT 21, pls. 40–42: see BM 90842 IM 48414: 234 n1310
CT 23, pl. 10: see K. 2453 IM 80213: 182 n1011
CT 24, pl. 50: see BM 47406 IM 80214: 182 n1007
CT 25, pl. 28: see K. 2115 IM 148516: 110 n597, 497 n2473; 1:
CT 25, pl. 32: see K. 2124 37 n137; 1– r. 1: 495; 1–r. 3: 14
CT 25, pl. 42: see K. 4559 (“Sîn 17”); 2: 495; 6–10: 84 n420,
CT 25, pl. 49: see K. 1451 496; 10–12: 238 n1337, 240; 12–
CT 29, pl. 46: see BM 46559 14: 496; 13–14: 248 n1401; 14:
CT 36, pl. 26: see BM 96706 246 n1388; 15–r. 1: 496; r. 1: 246
CT 37, pl. 13: see BM 85965 n1389
CT 40, pl. 49: see K. 4001+ K. 20: 182 n1010
CT 42 no. 9, I 26: 359 n2022 K. 63a+: 39 n149, 42
CT 51 no. 190: see BM 121037 K. 128: 182 n1008; 31–32: 495
CT 54 no. 93, 6: 82 K. 155, 1–28// (BMS 1): see “Sîn 1”
CT 55 no. 469, 5: 375; 9: 102–103, K. 170+, 1: 58; 1–5: 58 n255, 62, 103,
375; r. 19’: 113, 375; r. 19’–20’: 139–140, 149 n788; 2: 243; 9: 57
377 n2127 n252, 58, 152
CT 57 no. 117, 8: 376 n2124 K. 477; see SAA 13 no. 187
CT 57 no. 683, 1–4: 374 K. 891, 10–13: 401–402
CT 58 no. 44, 4: 72 n339 K. 993, 1: 70
CTH 51–52: 251, 285–386 K. 1354: see SAA 3 no. 9
CTMMA 2 no. 32//, 71g’–71h’: 247 K. 1451 (CT 25, pl. 49), r. 4–5: 314
CTN 2 no. 17: 265 n1786; r. 6: 293; r. 6–7: 312–313
CTN 3 no. 101, I 23: 229 K. 1939+, r. 2–3: 96 n502; r. 3: 525
CTN 4 no. 29: 159 K. 2053a+, IV 18: 344
CTN 4 no. 61+, 3: 459 K. 2074, II 1’–13’: 137–138; II 7’–8’:
604 Index

66; II 9’: 143 Sîn 4”); 60’–62’: 84; 63’–66’: 238,

K. 2096 (ABRT I no. 58), o.! 9: 381 240; 68’: 246; 69’: 246; 70’: 247;
K. 2106+, 36–70//: see “Sîn 3” 78’: 77, 110, 146, 189; 79’–87’: 16
K. 2115 (CT 25, pl. 28): 78 n373, 137 (“ikrib to Sîn 5”)
n735 K. 2803+: 404; 11: 203 n1149; r. 9’:
K. 2124 (CT 25, pl. 32), 12’: 197, 232; 260, 315–316 n1794
13’–14’: 127–128 K. 2813+: 404; 11: 203 n1149; 18: 36
K. 2164+: 138 n739; 11–13: 57; 20– n129; 21: 233; r. 7: 73 n343, 315
23: 121; r. 12’–14’: 460; r. 12’– K. 2822+: 404; r. 16’: 260
17’: 123; r. 14’: 295 K. 2823+ (AOAT 34 no. 1), 1–r. 8:
K. 2181 (ACh Supp. 2 Sîn 18), 21: 70 452–461 (“Sîn 1”)
K. 2279+, r. 12–15: 198–199 K. 2876, II 11’–12’: 122
K. 2315+, 43–44: 136 n728 K. 2884, 10–18: 168–169; 12: 459
K. 2453 (CT 23, pl. 10), III 13: 504 K. 3089+, 72: 207 n1179
K. 2514: 66 n302; 2: 100; 45: 111; 49– K. 3238 (BL no. 158), r. 7’: 394
50: 113 K. 3269, I 2–3: 55; I 14: 102; II 26–
K. 2529+, 48: 15 (“Emesal šu’ila to 27: 113; III 4’: 118
Sîn 1”); 49: 15 (“Emesal šu’ila to K. 3367: 42
Sîn 2”); 48–50: 12; 61–102: 12 n K. 3457(+), 20: 15 (“eršaḫuĝa to Sîn
33 2”)
K. 2564: see SAA 12 no. 90 K. 3597//, 3’: 56; 5’: 57; 6’: 57
K. 2600+, A 9–13: 175 K. 3653, 12: 15
K. 2664+, V 14–15: 414 K. 3654 (BBR 83): 187 n1043
K. 2670: 138 n739; 3’: 57–58 K. 3794+: 182, 483–496; 13: 32–33
K. 2725: 294 n1650 n109, 459
K. 2751+//: 21–22, 443, 483–496; 1’– K. 3930: 182 n1010
3’: 16 (“ikrib to Sîn 1”); 4’: 88; 4’– K. 3933, 2: 312
22’: 16 (“ikrib to Sîn 2”); 7’: 88, K. 4001+ (CT 40, pl. 49), 41: 282–283
189; 8’–9’: 155; 13’–15’: 85 n421; n1587
14’–15’: 397; 19’: 323; 23’–56’: K. 4068+: 66 n302; I 48’: 104; II 17’–
16 (“ikrib to Sîn 3”); 23’: 89; 23’– 18’: 113; II 25’: 115
56’: 189, 293; 24’: 88, 293; 25’– K. 4093, II 11’–13’: 116; II 14’: 117;
27’: 198; 28’: 88; 29’: 82; 30’: 88, II 21’–22’: 117; II 23’: 118
189; 30’–31’: 155; 32’–33’: 188; K. 4231: 97; II 2–3: 56, 67, 103 n553;
33’: 32; 34’–36’: 85; 35’–36’: 397; II 8–12: 67, 105, 325; III 12: 118;
37’: 293; 39’: 203 n1156; 43’: 293 IV 13: 54
n1645; 45’–48’: 84 n420; 47’: 89, K. 4240, r. II 11’: 394 n2235
397; 48’–49’: 247–248; 50’: 246; K. 4494+, 23’: 452
53’: 323; 56’: 189; 57’: 37, 89; K. 4559 (CT 25, pl. 42), 1’–2’: 97; 3’:
58’: 88; 59’: 146; 61’: 397; 57’– 68; 4’: 78 n377; 6’: 353 n1989
59’: 76–77; 58’: 88, 189; 58’–69’: K. 4624, I 20’–23’: 224–225
110 n597; 57’–78’: 16 (“ikrib to K. 4940+, 3: 75; 7: 235
 Index 605

K. 5645: 56 n246 K. 13774 (STC 1, p. 191): 137

K. 5780+ (BMS 10), 7’: 73–74, 354– K. 15161, II’ 1’: 117
355 n2001 K. 15528, r. 1–5: 452–461
K. 6018+ (AOAT 34 no. 59)//: 35, 37, K. 16342 (AOAT 34 no. 17), 1–6 :
164–167, 178 n985, 442; 1’–4’: 13 464–473; see also “Sîn 3”
(“Sîn 5”); 5’–7’: 165; 8’–13: 13 K. 18725+, 2’–13’: 333–335; 10’: 334
(“Sîn 6a”); 14’–16’: 165; x+24’– n1889; 13’: 334 n1891
x+26’: 165; x+27’: 83, 155; K. 19751: 71–72 n335
x+27’–x+32’: 166; x+27’–x+33’: K. 21418: 182 n1010
13 (“Sîn 7”); x+34’–x+35’: 165; KAI 225, 9: 392
x+36’–x+44’: 13 (“Sîn 6b”); KAL 2 no. 21: see KAR 26
x+45’: 21 n53; x+45’–x+48’: 165 KAL 3 no. 69: see VAT 11449
K. 6993+: 182 KAL 4 no. 40, r.? 11’–18’: 14 (“Sîn
K. 7079+, II 3’: 118 16”); r.? 12’: 97; r.? 13’: 158; r.?
K. 7192 (ACh Supp. 2 Sin 6), 8’: 48 16: 86; r.? 17’: 211–212 n1200; r.?
K. 7605, 1’–5’: 319 n1820 18’: 238
K. 7606, IV 5’–14’: 319 n1820 KAL 4 no. 41, 1–8: 284 n1594
K. 7938, 4–5: 519 KAL 4 no. 66 (VAT 13854), 1’–r. 5:
K. 7969 (BBR 89): 187 n1043 452–461; see also “Sîn 1”
K. 8162+, 16’–17’: 70–71 KAL 5 no. 70: see KAR 151
K. 8183: 166 n902; 1’: 246; 8–12: KAL 10 no. 11 (KAR 74), r. 2’–24’:
497–506 see “Sîn 11”
K. 8666: 507–519 KAL 10 no. 34–37, 4: 354 n2000; 87:
K. 8759+: 395 n2245; 1: 37 n137; 1– 122–123 n685
15: 141–144; 2: 144; 3: 97; 4: 161, KAL 10 no. 36 (AO 6775), r. 6’: 119;
200; 5: 153; 7: 153; 8: 154; 9: 73 r. 14–15: 98
n343, 75, 81, 86; 11: 292 n1634, KAR 6: 174
463; 11–12: 415 n2360; 12: 154; KAR 19, o.! 6–10: 490–491
13: 144; 14: 208; 15: 153, 238; r. KAR 22, r. 4: 63 n287
2: 203; r. 4: 203; r. 5: 208; r. 7: 315 KAR 25, III 1’–20’: 474–476 (“Sîn
n1791; r. 13: 204, 261 9”)
K. 9143: 404; 11’: 203; r. 8’: 260 KAR 26 (KAL 2 no. 21), 19: 37 n134,
K. 9235+: 307 n1735 159–160; 27: 496
K. 9480, 3: 312 KAR 43, 24//, 22: 331
K. 9618, 1’–11’: 12 n34 KAR 48,2: 6’–16’: 319 n1820
K. 10151: see “Sîn 2” KAR 58, r. 9–10: 192 n1078
K. 10550 (BMS 26): see “Sîn 8” KAR 63: see KAR 43
K. 11333: see SAA 8 no. 299 KAR 69, 22: 87; r. 11–14: 331
K. 12000R: 116–117 n645 KAR 74 (VAT 10067), r. 2’–24’: see
K. 13277 (BMS 23): see “Sîn 4” “Sîn 11”
K. 13315: 507–519 KAR 91: see VAT 10035
K. 13454: 15 KAR 109+: 297 n1671; 6–8: 80
606 Index

KAR 132: 324 Langdon 1912, Nr. 35: see UET 1 no.
KAR 142, I 1: 148 n782; IV 4–8: 187 184
n1041 LKA 25 (VAT 13630): 21–22 n53;
KAR 151 (KAL 5 no. 70), r. 53–56: 166–167; 1.S II 3’–10’: 497–506;
183; r. 53–61: 183 1.S II 10’: 167; 1.S II 11’–19’:
KAR 176+: 106 n571, 117 n649 506; see also “Sîn 6b”
KAR 178//: 117 n649; I 29–30: 102; I LKA 37, 2: 312
41: 102; I 54: 102; I 66: 103; I 84: LKA 39 (VAT 14060), 1’–r. 1’: 452–
105; II 8–9: 106; II 10–11: 106; II 461; see also “Sîn 1”
18: 111; II 36–39: 115; III 2–4: LKA 52 (VAT 13681), 1–r. 22: 464–
120–121; III 8–10: 120; III 9–10: 473; see also “Sîn 3”
248; III 22–24: 121, 126; III 30– LKA 55 (VAT 13688): 474–476; see
31: 126; III 37: 122; III 37–50: also “Sîn 9”
126; III 43: 126; III 45–46: 126; LKA 77//, II 35–36: 294; II 35–47:
III 58–60: 128; III 62–63: 128; V 294 n1650; II 41–42: 296; II 51–
31: 104; V 44–46: 113; VI 40: 113; 52: 303; V 8–46: 319–321; V 45–
r. III 79: 106; r. IV 6–7: 119; r. IV 46: 303 n1700
62: 120; r. VI 64–69: 183 LKU 32 (VAT 14505), 1’–6’: 479–
KAR 196: 241 n1351 482; see also “Sîn 14”
KAR 211: see VAT 10235 LKU 43, 9: 81 n393; 9–11: 76; 10:
KAR 223: see VAT 8004// 305; 11: 304
KAR 307, r. 4: 305; r. 4–6: 174; r. 5: MDP 2 86, IV 10–11: 49
141, 174 MDP 6 38, IV 4: 323
KAR 337, r.? 7’: 158–159; r.? 9: 463 Meturan A, 35: 72 n339
KAV 51, 3: 30 n87; 21–26: 34–35 Meturan B, 18’: 72 n339
KAV 78, 14–15: 416–417 n2368 MLC 2639: 283 n1588
KAV 176: 416–417 n2368 MMA 86.11.379B+, 44: 326 n1866
KAV 218: see Astrolabe B MSL 5, 23, 193–200: 125
KBo I no. 12, o.! 9–13: 146 n775, 490; MSL 5, 177, IV 312: 46
o.! 10: 30 n86, 490; o.! 10–12: 490 MSL 13, 152, I 14: 372–373 n 2090; I
Ki. 1904-10-9, 18 (BM 98989), r. 11’– 20: 335 n1894
27’: 526 MSL 14, 341, 168–171: 35 n126
L4, I 13: 89, 162 MSL 15, Diri Nippur 195: 78 n373
Langdon 1912, Nr. 1: see 5 R 34 N 2234: 291 n1626
Langdon 1912, Nr. 9: see 1 R 65 NBC 7915, 9: 302, 306
Langdon 1912, Nr. 13, I 45: 378 NBC 11108: 141 n749
n2137; II 59–71: 340 n1931 ND 2480, 1–r. 5: 299–300; 5: 235
Langdon 1912, Nr. 15: see 1 R 55 ND 2758, 10’: 423
Langdon 1912, Nr. 19: see Da Riva ND 2769, r. 2 & r. 6: 228
2012, WBC ND 4358+, r. 55–56: 383
Langdon 1912, Nr. 20, I 45: 378 OECT 11 nos. 69+70, I 17’–19’: 112,
n2137; III 4–22: 340 n1931 204–205; I 25’–28’: 119, 205
 Index 607

OIP 38, 130 no. 3: 428; 1–2: 89, 152, 45: 213
160, 162, 217 RIMA 2, A.0.101.26, 40–41: 213
OIP 38, 133 no. 7: 298 RIMA 2, A.0.101.28, V 7–9: 424
Paulus 2014, KuE 1, III 38: 259 RIMA 2, A.0.101.29, 13’–14’: 423
n1464 RIMA 2, A.0.101.30 (Banquet Stele),
Paulus 2014, MAI I 1, V 12–VI 26: 55–59: 423; 59: 423
256 n1450 RIMA 2, A.0.101.32, 9–10: 423
Paulus 2014, MNA 4, IV 12–23: 257 RIMA 2, A.0.101.52, r. 7’–9’: 420
n1454 RIMA 2, A.0.101.67, 11–15: 420
Paulus 2014, MŠ 1, VI 41–VII 1: 256 RIMA 3, A.0.102.1, I 2: 37 n137
n1450 RIMA 3, A.0.102.4, I 6: 37 n137
Paulus 2014, MŠ 3, ⑧ IV 15–19: 257 RIMA 3, A.0.102.6, 4: 200; 6: 87
n1454 RIMA 3, A.0.102.10, 7: 87, 200
Paulus 2014, MŠZ 1, II 8–10: 257 RIMA 3, A.0.102.14 (Black Obelisk),
n1454 6: 87, 155, 200
Paulus 2014, MZŠ I 1, II 10–11: 373; RIMA 3, A.0.104.2 (Antakya Stele):
r. IV 6–10: 256 n1449 251–252, 398; 11–13: 251; 17–19:
Paulus 2014, NAI 3: 41 n164 260
Paulus 2014, NM 2: see MDP 2 86 RIMA 3, A.0.104.3 (Pazarcik Stele):
Paulus 2014, ŠŠU 3: see BM 130827 251–252, 398; 19–23: 262
Paulus 2014, U 10, I’ 15’–17’: 256 RIMA 3, A.0.105.1: 251–252, 398;
n1449 13–20: 262–263
Paulus 2014, U 19: see UET 1 no. 165 RIMA 3, A.0.105.2: 391; 6: 32–33
Paulus 2014, U 40, IV 11–17: 256 n109, 87, 246, 459
n1449 RIMB, B.6.32.2001 (UET 1 no. 169):
PBS 1/2 no. 106 (CBS 1516): 520– 346; 1: 372–373 n2097; 3: 347
526 n1958; 9: 338; 10–31: 358–359;
PBS 1/2 no. 115, I 11: 78 n374; I 11– 29: 348; 29–31: 358 n2019
12: 96 RIMB, B.6.32.2002: 346–347; 1: 31,
RIMA 1, A.0.60.3: 416 372–373 n2097; 2: 204; 3: 347
RIMA 1, A.0.75.1: 416–417 n2368 n1958
RIMA 1, A.0.75.2: 416–417 n2368 RIMB, B.6.32.2003, 345; 1: 31, 347;
RIMA 1, A.0.78.18, 29–43: 416–417 3–4: 338 n1916; 8: 338
n2368 RIMB, B.6.32.2004, 2–3: 338 n1916
RIMA 2, A.0.87.1, I 5–6: 50–51 n221 RIMB, B.6.32.2005, 6–7: 353
RIMA 2, A.0.100.1, 5: 87, 200 RIMB, B.6.32.2006, 1: 347; 5: 338; 6–
RIMA 2, A.0.101.1, I 33: 213; II 135: 7: 354
423; III 90: 89, 419; III 130: 213 RIMB, B.6.32.2007, 1: 347; 6–7: 354
RIMA 2, A.0.101.17 (Nimrud Mono- RIMB, B.6.32.2008, 1: 347; 6–7: 354
lith), I 1–12: 162 n874; I 4: 200; I RIMB, B.6.32.2009, 1: 347; 6–7: 354
4–5: 87, 155; I 37–38: 213 RIMB, B.6.32.2010, 1: 347; 6–7: 354
RIMA 2, A.0.101.20, 5: 87, 200; 44– RIMB, B.6.32.2011, 1: 347; 1–8: 352–
608 Index

353; 6: 149 RINAP 4 no. 98 (Zinçirli Stele), 5: 32,

RIMB, B.6.32.2012: 355–356 n2009; 88, 162; r. 21–22: 213
1: 347; 1–8: 353 RINAP 4 no. 133, 2: 145
RIMB, B.6.32.2013, 1: 347; 6: 74; 6– RINAP 4 no. 2003, II 15’–II 20’: 433
7: 354 RINAP 5/I no. 2: see BM 127940+
RIMB, B.6.32.2014: 304; 1–17: 350– RINAP 5/I no. 3: see Assurbanipal
351; 7: 303 Prism B
RIMB, B.6.32.2015, 1–3: 234; 4–6: RINAP 5/I no. 5: see Assurbanipal
338 n1916 Prism I
RIMB, B.6.32.2016, IV 29–38: 365; RINAP 5/I no. 6: see Assurbanipal
IV 32–33: 338 Prism C
RIME 1, E1.9.3.1 (Stele of Vultures), RINAP 5/I no. 8: see Assurbanipal
xxi 17–xxii 6: 333 Prism G
RIME 3/2, E3/2.1.3.10, 18–21: 296 RINAP 5/I no. 9: see Assurbanipal
RIME 4, E.4.1.2.1, 12–13: 359 Prism F
RINAP 1 no. 35 (Iran Stele), I 8: 88, RINAP 5/I no. 10: see Assurbanipal
208 Prism T
RINAP 1 no. 37 (Mila Mergi rock in- RINAP 5/I no. 11: see Assurbanipal
scription), 5: 88, 208 Prism A
RINAP 3 no. 16, VII 55–62: 208 RINAP 5/I no. 23: see IIT
n1185; VII 59–60: 208 n1185 Rm. 155//: 72 n340
RINAP 3 no. 17, VII 91: 199, 208; Rm. 282 (CT 13, pls. 33–34): 174
VII 92–93: 208 Rm. 288: 141 n751, 142 n754
RINAP 3 no. 18, VII 28’–29’: 208 RT 36 no. 24, 11: 256 n1451
RINAP 3 no. 36, 3–5: 160; 4: 89, 156; S 3, 6–8: 318
5: 152; r. 3’–10’: 431 S 7/1600, 8: 72 n339
RINAP 3 no. 38, 33’: 36 n129 SAA 1 no. 50, 1–8: 44, 399–400
RINAP 3 no. 153, 7: 152, 246; 8: 153; SAA 1 no. 66, r. 4–11: 430
23–25: 213–214 n1212 SAA 1 no. 188: 114, 388; 7–r. 7: 410–
RINAP 3 no. 160, r. 26–31: 419 411
RINAP 3 nos. 172–174: 419 SAA 1 no. 189: 388
RINAP 3 no. 1023, 8: 200 SAA 1 no. 190: 388
RINAP 4 no. 1, II 30–31: 491; II 32: SAA 1 no. 191: 388
200 SAA 1 no. 192: 388
RINAP 4 no. 12, 12–23: 432–433; 24– SAA 1 no. 193: 388
31: 221–222 SAA 1 no. 195: 388
RINAP 4 no. 43, r. 18’: 216 n1222 SAA 1 no. 196: 388
RINAP 4 no. 48, 5: 89, 152, 160; r. SAA 1 no. 198: 388
59–60: 221 SAA 1 no. 200: 388
RINAP 4 no. 54, r. 20–32: 413 n2343 SAA 1 no. 201: 388
RINAP 4 no. 57, I 3’–10’: 157, 220– SAA 1 no. 202: 388, 400
221 SAA 1 no. 203: 400
 Index 609

SAA 1 no. 210: 388 SAA 8 no. 19, 1: 106

SAA 2 no. 1, r. 10–12: 257 SAA 8 no. 21, 1–5: 107
SAA 2 no. 2, IV 1–16: 267 n1505; IV SAA 8 no. 23: 219
4: 259; VI 8: 253 SAA 8 no. 63: 157
SAA 2 no. 3: see VAT 11449 SAA 8 no. 65, 1: 106
SAA 2 no. 4, r. 24’–25’: 260 SAA 8 no. 87, 5–6: 92
SAA 2 no. 6, 27: 253; 36: 253; 419– SAA 8 no. 109, 1: 106
421: 258 SAA 8 no. 111: 219
SAA 2 no. 8, 25–27: 264 SAA 8 no. 119, 5–9: 83–84
SAA 2 no. 9, r. 11’: 37 n137; r. 11’– SAA 8 no. 204, 1–8: 239–240
12’: 258 n1460 SAA 8 no. 293, r. 1–9: 107
SAA 2 no. 10, r. 8’–10’: 264 SAA 8 no. 294, 1–2: 107
SAA 2 no. 11, r. 10’–14’: 258 SAA 8 no. 299: 137–138 n735
SAA 3 no. 4 (Nanaya Hymn of Sargon SAA 8 no. 320, r. 6–9: 163–164
II), r. 17’: 312 SAA 8 no. 360: 219
SAA 3 no. 5, 7: 217 SAA 8 no. 371, 3: 22
SAA 3 no. 8, 20: 312 SAA 8 no. 494, 7–9: 246
SAA 3 no. 9 (Psalm in Praise of SAA 8 no. 499, 1: 107
Uruk), 17: 311 SAA 8 no. 513: 59 n260
SAA 3 no. 11 (Coronation Hymn of SAA 9 no. 1, II 20’–26’: 224
Assurbanipal): 212–213 SAA 10 no. 8, 25–26: 518
SAA 3 no. 39: see KAR 307 SAA 10 no. 13, r. 2’–17’: 157–158,
SAA 4 no. 137: 183 n1017 210, 401
SAA 4 no. 149: 227 n1274 SAA 10 no. 59: 10, 105, 191; 12–15:
SAA 4 no. 307, r. 12: 437 66
SAA 4 no. 308: 437 SAA 10 no. 174, 10–16: 208–209,
SAA 4 no. 331: 183 n1017 302, 396, 401, 414
SAA 4 no. 332: 183 n1017 SAA 10 no. 179: 390; 12: 389; 14:
SAA 6 no. 98, r. 1–4: 267 436; 21: 389
SAA 6 no. 101: 265 SAA 10 no. 197, r. 5–8: 222
SAA 6 no. 102, r. 5–11: 265 SAA 10 no. 210: 524
SAA 6 no. 132, 1 & 6: 391 n2214 SAA 10 no. 211: 524
SAA 6 no. 140, 9’–11’: 266 SAA 10 no. 221, r. 7: 54
SAA 6 no. 196, 1: 390 n2209 SAA 10 no. 222: 227
SAA 6 no. 254, r. 2: 391 n2214 SAA 10 no. 223: 227
SAA 6 no. 297, r. 5’: 391 n2214 SAA 10 no. 240, r. 14–20: 175
SAA 6 no. 334, r. 15: 267 SAA 10 no. 286, r. 5’–6’: 63–64 n288
SAA 6 no. 342, 1’: 30 SAA 10 no. 298: 113, 131, 190–191
SAA 7 no. 1, r. I 1: 394 SAA 10 no. 338: 393 n2233; 9–r. 2:
SAA 7 no. 5, I 51: 394 411–412
SAA 7 no. 151, r. I 5’–6’: 393 SAA 10 no. 339: 393 n2233, 411
SAA 8 no. 15: 218–219 SAA 10 no. 340: 393 n2233
610 Index

SAA 10 no. 341: 393 n2233 Schaudig 2001, 1.7, 1–5: 345–346
SAA 10 no. 342: 393 n2233 Schaudig 2001, 1.8: 362 n2036
SAA 10 no. 343: 393 n2233, 411 Schaudig 2001, 1.9: 404, 408
SAA 10 no. 344: 393 n2233 Schaudig 2001, 1.12.a: 363 n2045
SAA 10 no. 347, 9–10: 181; r. 17’– Schaudig 2001, 2.1 (Imgur-Enlil
19’: 176 Cylinder), I 8: 161, 200; I 13: 201;
SAA 10 no. 502, r. 10–11: 168 I 19: 201
SAA 11 nos. 200–219; see Ḫarrān Schaudig 2001, 2.2 (Elugalĝalgasisa
Census Cylinder): 346; I 1–II 2: 344; I 1–
SAA 11 no. 214, 3’: 390 n2209 9: 346; I 28: 202; I 29: 201, 202; II
SAA 12 no. 19, 3’–6’: 426 3: 201; II 4: 201; II 5: 202
SAA 12 no. 48, 6’: 392 n2224 Schaudig 2001, 2.4 (Ebabbar-Ekurra
SAA 12 no. 90: 262; 1–3: 415–416; 2: Cylinder), I 5: 225
142 n754, 463; 3: 143 n755, 203, Schaudig 2001, 2.5 (E’igikalama
415; 8: 415; 12: 203; 20: 203; r. 3: Cylinder), I 11: 213, 293; II 8:
216–217; r. 11: 86, 203; r. 11–13: 201; II 8–12: 343; II 13–14: 360
261; r. 12: 261; r. 12–13: 162 Schaudig 2001, 2.6 (E’amaškuga
SAA 12 no. 91: 406; 1–2: 392 Cylinder), I 21–23: 211; I 36–39:
SAA 12 no. 93, r. 6–8: 264 367
SAA 13 no. 28, r. 10–12: 44 Schaudig 2001, 2.7 (En-niĝaldi-Nanna
SAA 13 no. 29: 44 Cylinder): 295, 363 n2045; I 1–3:
SAA 13 no. 47, 9’–r. 9: 421 77; I 1–10: 360; I 2: 293; I 6: 161,
SAA 13 no. 58, r. 1–6: 425–426 200; I 6–10: 59; I 10: 361; I 22:
SAA 13 no. 100, 7–13: 112 201; I 39: 351 n1976; I 39–43:
SAA 13 no. 102: 425 361; II 7: 362; II 15–28: 363–364;
SAA 13 no. 187: 389, 396; 6–12: 64– II 29: 82, 89, 200; II 34–38: 211;
65; r. 10’–17’: 65 n299 II 37–38: 161
SAA 13 no. 188: 401; 4–7: 391–392 Schaudig 2001, 2.12 (Eḫulḫul Cylin-
SAA 14 no. 146, r. 1’–12’: 266 der): 233–235, 313–315, 375, 408;
SAA 14 no. 155, 18–r. 5: 263 I 1–5: 215; I 8: 201; I 15–20: 194,
SAA 14 no. 193: 267 407–408; I 39–40: 406; I 67’–69’:
SAA 14 no. 220, r. 2–5: 269, 426 194; II 3–5: 398; II 11: 90; II 16–
SAA 14 no. 213, 17’–18’: 268 19: 316, 404; II 26: 201; II 30–32:
SAA 14 no. 241, 7’–8’: 269–270 234; II 33: 201; II 33–36: 83, 162;
SAA 14 no. 344: 267 II 37–38: 234–235; II 39–40: 233;
SBH no. VIII, II 16: 89–90 n472, 149 II 40–41: 308; II 42: 316; III 12:
n789; II 17: 149 n789 306; III 24: 314; III 35: 314; III
SBH no. 24//: 249, 359 n2022; 3: 353 36–37: 194; III 38–55: 233; III
n1986; 3–14: 333–335; 8: 383; 12: 41–45: 314; III 43: 225; III 45:
249 314; III 55: 314
SBH no. 38: 12 n33 Schaudig 2001, 2.14: 308; I 11–13:
Schaudig 2001, 1.6.a: 304 225; I 26’–27’: 233; I 31’–32’:
 Index 611

201; I 42: 201; I 42’–43’: 202; II Sg Bro. 13: 398

17–18: 233; II 37–38: 215; II 38: Sg R. 7: 398
201; III 14–15: 233; III 27: 201; Sg S4, 10: 398
III 34: 233; III 33–34: 313; III 34: Sg S5, 10: 399
201; III 70: 233; III 73: 201 Sg Stier, 9: 398; 57–59: 298–299
Schaudig 2001, 2.19: 408 Sg Ziegel e: 428–429
Schaudig 2001, 3.1 (Ḫarrān Stele): Sg Ziegel f: 429
10, 41, 114–115, 144, 149, 408, Sg Zyl, 6: 398–399; 57: 6, 32, 152,
442; I 5–6: 201; I 10–14: 194, 160, 294–295
215–216; I 18: 201; I 29: 201; II Si. 18, 1’–r. 5: 452–461 (“Sîn 1”); r.
3–5: 233; II 5: 305; II 5–9: 194; II 10: 192
13: 115, 412 n2341; II 14: 201; II Si. 34(+)//, 2–3: 109, 146; 15–30: 14
20: 201; II 22–28: 140–141; II 23– (“Sîn & Šamaš 3”); 15: 81, 86; 18:
32: 27; II 32–35: 233–234; III 21– 154; 23: 109
24: 404; III 30: 201; III 39: 201; Si. 849, r. 5’–11’: 497–506
III 41–42: 316 Si. 884, 1–7: 452–461 (“Sîn 1”)
Schaudig 2001, 3.2 (Adda-guppi Si. 904, 1’–r. 4: 452–461 (“Sîn 1”)
Stele): I 12: 201; I 17: 201; I 33: SLTNi 85, 25: 318 n1812
201; I 39: 201; I 44: 201; II 5: 201; SLTNi 128, IV 4–5: 72–73 n342
II 5–11: 407 n2320; II 11–12: 201; Sm. 55+ (ADD App. no. 2), VI? 16:
II 17–21: 405 n2312, 409; II 18– 391 n2214; VI? 17: 391 n2214
21: 404; II 21: 201; II 23: 201; II Sm. 80, 1’–2’: 394 n2235
28: 201; II 34: 201; III 45: 201 Sm. 530+: 404; r. 12: 260
Schaudig 2001, 3.3a (Babylon Stele): Sm. 669, 7’: 273
149 n789; VI 1’–36’: 194; X 8’– Sm. 671, 3’: 203; 9: 233, 237, 247; 10:
31’: 405; X 12’–51’: 409; X 25’: 142 n753; 11: 223; 13: 144–145
200; X 32’–45’: 25–26, 409 n2327; n759; 18: 292; r. 3’–4’: 259; r. 5’:
XI 11’–21’: 223–224 413
Schaudig 2001, 3.4 (Tariff Stele), 2–3: Sm. 802, 6’–14’: 187; 8’: 63 n286
201; 14: 201 Sm. 948, 3’: 115
Schaudig 2001, 3.5, I’ 5: 201 Sm. 1319: 187 n1043
Schaudig 2001, 4.1: 25; 1: 201 Sm. 1382 (AOAT 34 no. 2), 1’–4’:
Schaudig 2001, 4.2: 41; I 1: 201; I 2– 452–461 (“Sîn 1”)
4: 409 SpTU 2 no. 12, III 23–26: 100–101
Schaudig 2001, 4.4: 408 n2322 n530
Schaudig 2001, P1 (Verse Account): SpTU 2 no. 22+, II 9: 247
409; I 20’–II 3’: 25–28; V 8’–13’: SpTU 2 no. 38, 21–22: 282
195; V 18’–27’: 202 SpTU 3 no. 64, III 7–8: 321 n1826
Schaudig 2001, P4 (Royal Chronicle), SpTU 3 no. 80//, 11: 185
II 1’–III 16’: 365 SpTU 3 no. 107+, 21: 34; 27: 317; 64–
Sg XIV, 5: 399 76 & 80–87: 290–291 n1624
Sg Ann., 2: 398 StAT 2 no. 53, 19–r. 3: 267
612 Index

StAT 2 no. 114, r. 2’: 422 TuM NF 4, 7 ii 7–iii 6: 297

STC 1, p. 191: see K. 13774 UET 1 no. 30, II 4: 333
Streck 1916, 73–73, IX 9–10: 310 UET 1 no. 159: 356
STT 48 (SU 52/331), r. 6–7: 393; l.e. UET 1 no. 165, II 23–27: 257
1: 393 UET 1 no. 169: see RIMB,
STT 56 (SU 51/107), 19: 32–33 n109; B.6.32.2001
19–r. 7: 452–461 (“Sîn 1”) UET 1 no. 178: 355–356 n2009; see
STT 57+ (SU 51/85+), 36–42: 14, also RIMB, B.6.32.2012
479–482 (“Sîn 14”); 57: 36; 57–84: UET 1 no. 184: 341
464–473 (“Sîn 3”) UET 2 Supp. 14, o. I 1: 322
STT 58 (SU 51/49), o.! 1: 36; o.! 1–28: UET 4 no. 102: 254
464–473 (“Sîn 3”); r.! 8–18: 479– UET 5 no. 249, 1: 365
482 (“Sîn 14”) UET 6/2 no. 402, 16–27: 250; 21: 336;
STT 59 (SU 51/34), 1: 36; 1–29: 464– 24: 323; 36–38: 256, 282
473 (“Sîn 3”) UET 6/3 no. 897, 2’–5’: 69 n321
STT 89, 159–166: 280; 205: 276, 279; UET 7 no. 136, 4’–8’: 352
205–212: 274–275 UM 29-15-367, 10–11: 288 n1614
STT 93, 40’–41’: 272 UM 29-15-570, r. 24: 323
STT 95+, I 35–41: 271, 275 VA Ass 2316, 5: 32, 37
STT 197, 9–11: 306–307 VAS 17 no. 57, 2–14: 333–334
STT 241, 5: 515 VAT 3, r. 1: 114 n632
STT 300, 15: 281 VAT 5394 (VS 1 no. 90), 2: 269; 15–
STT 340, 13: 105–106; 16: 114 16: 268–269
STT 400, 2: 243; r. 41–44: 140 n744 VAT 7525: 22 n56
STT 406+: see SAA 12 no. 91 VAT 7851: 173
SU 51/34: see STT 59 VAT 8004//: 97, 286; 11–13: 14, 507–
SU 51/36, 5–6: 269–270 519 (“Sîn 12”)
SU 51/44, 11–r. 2: 262 VAT 8005, r. 17: 391
SU 51/49: see STT 58 VAT 8901, 13–16: 268
SU 51/85+: see STT 57+ VAT 9330, 40: 422
SU 51/107: see STT 56 VAT 9427, r. 24–26: 272 n1526
SU 52/331: see STT 48 VAT 9805+, 14’–20’: 136 n136
TCL 3, 317–319: 50–51; 318: 200 VAT 9823: see KAR 25
TCL 9 no. 57, r. 16: 30 n88 VAT 10035 (KAR 91), 14’: 303 n1706
TCL 12 no. 13, 11: 256 n1451 VAT 10067 (KAR 74), r. 2’–24’; see
TCL 15 no. 10, 87: 297; 148–150: 71 “Sîn 11”
TCL 15 no. 30, 5: 204 VAT 10231, I’ 9’: 122
TIM 9 no. 55: 199 n1113 VAT 10235 (KAR 211), I’ 10’–12’:
TIM 9 no. 60, III 6’: 140 279; I’ 19’–20’: 285; I’ 21’–22’:
TSF 97 F 200/140(+), r. 2’: 390 n2209 274 n1538; r. IV 8’: 31
Tsukimoto 1999, ll. 41–84: 283; l. 60: VAT 10954+, 7’: 105; 11’: 117; 12’:
283 119; 14’: 122; 15’: 122; 17’–18’:
 Index 613

183 HSM 899.2.282: 409; see also

VAT 11449: 418 n2378 Schaudig 2001, 4.2.
VAT 13596, I 7’–15’: 418 n2377 IM 109007b: 249
VAT 13608+; see BAM 3 no. 316 N 2431: 73 n344
VAT 13630: see LKA 25 ND 1104: 40
VAT 13681: see LKA 52 TA 11381, 3’: 406 n2313
VAT 13688; see LKA 55 VA 511: 51, 53
VAT 13854: see KAL 4 no. 66 VA 968: 64 n295
VAT 14060: see LKA 39 VA 2817: 43
VAT 14505: see LKU 32 VA Ass 4698: 39
VAT 17017: see VS 24 no. 112 WA 89780: 51–52
VAT 21000: 265 WA 91904: 39
VS 1 no. 90: see VAT 5394
VS 2 no. 68: see Nanna K Names of deities
VS 17 no. 34, 4–7: 69, 171, 288 Abaralaḫ (A-bar-ra-laḫ5): 316
VS 17 no. 57, 2–14: 333–335; 7: 333; Abkar (Áb-kár): 139, 242–243, 327
8: 334; 9: 333; 12: 334; 14: 334 Ablulu (Áb-lu-lu): 242–244, 327
VS 24 no. 31: 297; 3’: 302 Áb-na-ar-BU: 240, 317, 327
VS 24 no. 92//, 30’–42’: 212–213 Adad: 23 n62, 53 n229, 84 n416, 86,
VS 24 no. 112 (VAT 17017): 383 119, 159 n858, 168, 171, 172, 184,
VS 24 no. 112, r. 9–10: 384 187–188, 213–214, 216, 225–226,
W.20030/1, 35–36: 87 n437 251, 253, 255, 260–263, 265–267,
Weisberg 2003 no. 37, 19: 263–264; 298–299 n1679, 316, 326, 374
20: 256 n1449 n2110, 378 n2137, 396, 416–417,
YBC 2401, IV 169: 138 n738; V 13: 419, 422–427, 429, 436, 438, 450,
322 n1835 483
YBC 4650, 26’–42’: 62–63; 39’: 63 Adad of Guzāna: 267
n283 Adad-of-Plenty: 425
YBC 7127, 1’–7’: 284 n1594 Adad-of-the-West wind: 119
YBC 18182, r. 4’–5’: 365 Agû: 64
YOS 1 no. 39: 195 Alamuš: 7, 250, 319, 321–324, 328,
YOS 7 no. 185, 20: 373 372 n2093, 434, 437, 446, 487, 489
YOS 11 no. 22, 60: 63, 188, 200 Á-maḫ-tuku: 329
YOS 11 no. 23, 13: 63, 188, 200 Amaraḫea: 230, 290, 324–325, 328,
YOS 12 no. 102, 1–3: 377 437, 446
Amarazu: 230, 290, 324–325, 328,
Museum numbers of other objects 437, 446
BM 118015: 242 Amar-Suen: 328
BM 118805: 40 Anahita: 310–311 n1760
H2.A: 41; see also Schaudig 2001, 3.1 An(-na)-ḫi-li-ba: 328
H2.B: 41, 308 n1741; see also Anšar: 147–149, 353
Schaudig 2001, 3.1 Antu: 419
614 Index

Anu/An: 57–58, 62 n282, 63 n285, 68, Bēl-ṣarbi: 340–341

76, 86, 94–96, 101, 106 n571, 109, Bēlu-Agû: 64–65
128 n722, 136–150, 155, 172, 178– Bennu: 271–274, 281, 287, 445, 463,
180, 184–189, 195, 213, 234, 256 480–481
n1449, 291–292, 307–309, 310– Bēr: 251, 260
311 n1760, 312, 314–315, 324, Birth Goddess: 374 n2110
349, 374 n2110, 395 n2245, 399, Bride-of-Ekur: 374 n2110
416–417, 419, 421–422, 436, 441– Bunene: 184, 374, 421
442, 458, 489–490, 496 BU.NIR: 83, 327
Anunītu: 182, 194 n1086, 233–234, Daddi: 270
256 n1449, 282, 308, 313–314, Dagān: 398–399
375–376, 384, 437, 446–448 Damkina: 424
Anunnakū: 81–82, 97–98, 124, 458, Daragal (Dàra-gal): 50 n220, 294
460, 511, 514, 521, 523 Daughters-of-Ebabbar: 374 n2110
Asalluḫi: 177 n982 Dayyānu: 374 n2110
Asar: 13, 498, 501 Dilbat: 113, 175 n962, 186, 486–487,
AŠimbabbar: see Dilimbabbar 488–489, 495–496
Aššur: 3, 23, 50, 64–65, 147 n780, Dilimbabbar/Namraṣīt: 21, 28, 35, 71–
203, 209–210, 213–214, 216, 226– 78, 81 n391, 86, 142–143, 147–
227, 251, 253, 260–264, 266–268, 148, 155, 291, 306–307, 315
315, 353, 391, 395–396, 399, 401– n1794, 327, 333–334, 354–355
402, 418–420, 422, 425, 434–436, n2001, 389, 415, 440, 455, 458,
446, 449–450, 454, 458, 491, 501, 460, 462, 486, 489, 495
503, 513, 515 Divine Chariot: 374 n2110
Aššur-Divine Judges: 422 Dumugi (Dumu-gi7): 197, 292–293,
Aššurītum: 454, 458 327
Aya: 184, 225, 374 n2110, 377 n2133, DUMU.MEŠ-ZI: 434
391–392, 419, 431–432, 435, 438 Dumununa (Dumu-nun-na): 197, 292–
b‘l ḥrn: 43, 390 293, 327, 372
Baba: 198–199 Dumuzi: 349 n1968
Bēl: 263–264, 380, 384, 425 Ea/Enki: 27, 62 n282, 81, 94–96, 122–
Bēlet-Arba’il: 399 123 n685, 136–145, 149–150, 155
Bēlet-Bābili: 380–381, 448 n833, 171, 184, 186, 190 n1060,
Bēlet-ilī: 67, 71–72 n335, 100–101, 197, 212, 234, 247, 252, 289, 292,
104–105, 111–113, 116–118, 129, 294–295 n1653, 297–299 n1679,
131–134, 289, 305, 325–326, 419, 314, 326, 349, 395 n2245, 419,
422, 446–447 422–424, 429, 438, 441–442, 450,
Bēlet-mātāti: 67, 100–101, 105, 111, 496, 520–524
113, 115–118, 325 Ea-šarru: 422–423, 436
Bēlet-ṣēri/Ĝeštinana: 186–187, 265– Ebeḫ: 421, 438
266 Egi (E4-gi7): 293, 312–314
Bēl-Ḫarrān: 389–391, 436 Ellammê: 68–71, 78 n377, 97 n508,
 Index 615

171, 440 Igisigsig (Igi-sig7-sig7): 208 n1185

Enbilulu: 143 n758, 291, 494 Il-la-bu-un-du: 328
Enlil: 6, 29–30, 46–47, 50 n220, 59, Il-Śer: 195
62 n282, 66, 71, 74, 89 n457, 94– Irnina: 212
96, 98, 101 n532, 104, 109, 112– Išḫara: 180 n992, 184–188
113, 123, 128 n722, 136–146, 149– Ištar/Inana: 32, 41, 43, 49, 67–68, 80–
150, 155 n833, 171, 174, 178–180, 81, 104, 131, 145, 171–172, 182
184, 186, 189, 195–197, 203, 205– n1011, 184–187, 193, 213–214,
207, 226, 234, 256 n1449, 271 216, 231, 233–235, 247, 256, 264
n1523, 289, 291–296, 308–309, n1489, 267–268, 273–274, 276–
310–311 n1760, 312–316, 324, 277, 282, 290, 292 n1632, 297, 302
326, 330, 334, 347–349, 351–356, n1693, 308–314, 316, 330–331,
358–359, 368–372, 374 n2110, 340–341, 368–373, 376, 380–381,
377, 384, 388, 391, 395 n2245, 384, 391–392, 414, 416, 422, 434,
404, 422, 424, 434, 441–443, 446– 436, 437–438, 446–448, 450, 483,
447, 484–485, 488, 490, 493, 496 495, 503, 515
Assyrian Enlil: 251, 396, 436 Ištar of Akkad: 233 n1307
Enmešara: 127 n717, 355 Ištar of Arbela: 256 n1449, 413
Ennugi: 205, 354–355 n2343
en-Suen: 29–30 n85 Ištar of Ḫarrān: 310–311, 392
Enšalulua: 329 Ištar of Ḫuzirīna: 392
Erra: 167 Ištar of Nineveh: 413 n2343
Ga’u: 329 Ištar of Uruk: 145
Gilsa’a (Gi16-sa-a): 327 Ištar-tašmê: 374 n2110
Gilsa’ana (Gi16-sa-an-na): 93 n491, Išum/Ḫendursaĝa: 74, 297
327 Kaka: 328
Gira/Gibil: 32, 86, 110 n596, 190, 315, Kalkal: 369–370, 437
433–435, 453, 458 Kippat-māti: 419
Ĝišnu (Ĝiš-nu11): 78, 96 Kišar: 147 n780
Ĝišnugal (Ĝiš-nu11-gal): 78–79, 138, Kittu/Kettu: 184, 374 n2110, 421–422
242, 327 Kusu: 354–355
Gods of the Night: 433–434 Laḫar: 329
Gula: 113, 115, 184–187, 264, 374 Lady of Nineveh: 431
n2110, 381, 423–424, 438, 450, Lamaštu: 152, 277, 445
464 Lisi: 383
Ḫár: 318, 328 Lugal: 197, 327
ḪI.A.MU-an-na: 328 Lugalbaḫar (Lugal-báḫar): 318 n1814,
Idimḫuš: 243, 327 328
Iganakešda (Ig-an-na-kéš-da): 252 Lugalgira (Lugal-gìr-ra): 281, 434
Igigū: 76, 80–81, 97–98, 235, 299– Lugalgudgaz (Lugal-gud-gaz): 318,
300, 455, 458, 460, 465, 470, 511, 328
514, 521, 523 Lugalkalamautud (Lugal-kalam-ma-ù-
616 Index

tu-ud): 197, 232 112, 141, 149, 174, 193, 210–211

Lugalkisura (Lugal-ki-sur-ra): 197, n1196, 213, 263, 298–299 n1679,
252–253 313, 378 n2137, 381, 388, 414,
Lugalšudu: 27 416, 425–426, 433–435, 437–438,
Lugalura (Lugal-ùr-ra): 281 n1572 463, 492, 501, 503, 513, 515
Má: 34–35, 46, 77, 327 Nabû-ša-ḫarê: 317 n1808
Má-bàn-da-an-na: 45–46, 305 Namraṣīt; see also Dilimbabbar: 21,
Madānu/Mandānu: 104 n559, 381 28, 35, 71–78, 81 n391, 86, 142–
Má-gu-la-an-na: 45, 78, 305, 327 143, 155, 304–307, 315 n1794,
Magur (Má-gur8): 34–35, 46–47, 50, 327, 354–355 n2001, 389, 415,
67–68, 74 n352, 77, 327 440, 455, 458, 462
Mamu: 374 Nanaya: 185–187, 217, 308–309, 310–
Manzât: 498, 501 313, 368, 383–384, 438, 446, 448
Mārat-Sîn: 310, 437 Nanaya of Dūr-Kurigalzu: 374
Marduk: 31, 37 n134.n137, 50, 51 n2110
n223, 62, 73, 83, 86, 87 n437, 93, Nanna: 1–3, 5, 12 n34, 29, 31–34, 36–
113–114, 137 n731, 143 n758, 37, 45–46, 49 n212, 54 n236, 60
145–146, 148 n782, 150, 154, 159, n264, 63, 68 n315, 71–74, 77–78,
168, 171, 174, 177 n982, 180, 184, 87 n437, 90, 95–96, 98, 101 n532,
190 n1060, 192 n1078, 194, 198– 108 n587, 124 n692, 137–138,
200, 202, 213, 244, 253, 262–263, 147–149, 196–198, 204, 206
272 n1526, 326 n1863, 371, 372 n1171, 224–225, 230–231, 236,
n2087, 374 n2110, 381, 388 n2197, 238 n1327, 240, 242, 250, 256
401 n2284, 407–408, 437, 441, n1452, 290–292, 295–297, 302,
444, 463, 480–482, 491, 494, 496, 306, 309, 317–320, 322–324, 327,
520–523 331, 333–336, 345, 349, 352–353,
Māštu: 308, 434 355, 359, 361 n2034, 368–371,
Māšu: 308, 434 377–378, 380, 387–388, 402
Men-dàra-an-na: 34 n118, 60–61, 248, n2288, 426, 434 n2443, 439
294–295 n1653, 327, 335 Nanna-adaḫ: 250 n1416
Men-dàra-diĝir-ra: 60–61, 248, 294– Nanna-balaĝ-an-ki: 329
295 n1653, 327, 335 Nanna-BALAĜ-maḫ: 328
Men-šu-du7: 60–61, 327 Nanna-igidu: 250 n1416
Men-zalag-búr: 60, 327 Nannāru: 21, 27–28, 31–38, 46, 49–
Meslamtae’a: 291, 434 50, 59, 77, 81, 87 n437, 93–94,
Mīšaru: 184, 324, 374 n2110 147, 159, 161, 171, 192, 197–198,
Mu-ḫé-ĝál-la: 236–237, 243, 327 200 n1123, 207–208, 213, 216,
Mullil: 197 n1103 233, 288, 293 n1639, 301–302, 305
Mullissu: 23, 214, 311, 419, 421, 501, n1722, 327, 389, 439–440, 484–
503 485, 487–488, 490, 493, 505
Assyrian Mullissu: 251 Nanna-ušum-maḫ: 328
Nabû: 37 n137, 50, 89–90 n472, 99, Nanše: 290, 329
 Index 617

Narudi: 422 Nin-kù-nun-na: 328

Našuḫ: 389 n2199 Ninlil: 98, 101 n532, 291, 294, 348,
Nazi: 329 350–351, 354 n2000, 356, 368–
Nergal: 70 n328, 122, 165, 174, 180 370, 384
n992, 184–188, 235, 264, 266–267, Ninmaḫ; see also Bēlet-ilī: 326, 378
269, 291, 316, 374 n2110, 412 n2137
n2340, 425, 434 Nin-MAR.KI: 290–291, 329
Níĝ-ga-ba: 328 Ninmena: 76, 304–305, 350
Nin-Anzu: 329 Ninmenana: 426
Nin-asilal: 321 n1826 Ninmetenten: 329
Ninazu: 291 Ninnu-tab-ba: 328
Nin-báḫar: 328 Ninurta: 112, 119, 140 n744, 144–145,
Nin-da-gal-zu: 329 182 n1008, 184–186, 198–199,
Nin-da-maḫ-di: 329 205, 226, 252 n1431, 264, 294,
Nindara: 243–244, 290, 329 298–299 n1679, 311, 324, 371,
Nineana: 378 n2137 419, 423–427, 429, 436, 438, 450,
Nin(e)igara: 240, 303 n1700, 317– 495
322, 328, 437, 444, 446 Ninurta of the Wall: 419 n2379
Ningal/Nikkal: 36, 65, 74–76, 80–81, Ninsiana; see also Venus: 182
98–99, 106, 115, 129, 149, 211, Ninsun: 212
213–214 n1212, 215, 225, 234– Ninšar: 255
235, 240, 250 n1416, 253–254, 256 Ninšubur: 205, 250 n1416
n1450, 259–264, 266–267, 290, Nin-Urima: 322, 328
296–307, 309–310, 313, 316 Ninzadim: 42
n1797, 317, 322, 325–329, 332– Ninzilzil: 312–313
333, 337–338, 340, 341 n1933, Nisaba: 354 n1994
348–353, 355–356, 361 n2034, nkl: 296 n1660, 392, 403 n2295
362–364, 367–370, 377, 378 nsk: 388, 392
n2136, 380–381, 384, 387–389, Nunamnir: 501, 503
391–393, 396, 403–405, 408–409, Nusku: 7, 64–65, 127 n717, 171, 190,
410 n2335, 413, 419, 421, 424, 192 n1078, 209, 230–231, 233,
426–427, 429–438, 444, 446–448, 260, 270, 290, 294, 300–301, 309,
450 314–317, 324, 354–355, 369, 388–
Ningikuga: 80, 297, 327 390, 392, 393 n2233, 396, 403–
Ningublaga: 7, 230, 240, 290, 303 405, 408–409, 422, 434–436, 438,
n1700, 317–324, 328–329, 372, 446, 448–450
434, 437, 444, 446 Papsukkal: 309 n1732
Ninĝeštinana: 185–186 Qingu: 145
Ninĝišzida: 212 Queen-of-Sippar: 374 n2110
Ninimma: 354–355, 370 Sadarnuna: 314–316, 388, 404–405,
Ninkarrak: 378 n2137 408–409
Ninkasi: 353–355 Salmānu: 226
618 Index

Sebettu: 170–171, 352 n1982, 356 196, 202 n1147, 212, 214, 216–
n2003, 419 n2379, 422 225, 231, 233–235, 240–241, 248,
Sī’/Sē’: 30–31, 268 n1510, 389, 439 250, 253–254, 256, 261–264, 281–
Sîn: passim 282, 286 n1606, 288 n1614, 290,
Sîn of Dūr-Šarrukīn: 269, 426–427, 292 n1632, 296–299, 301–302,
450 305–310, 312, 316–317, 325–326,
Sîn of Elumu: 86, 203, 216, 261– 330–331, 340–341, 438 n1963,
262, 415–416, 449 368–370, 372–378, 381, 384, 388,
Sîn of Ḫarrān: 1, 3, 7, 21 n51, 23– 391–392, 394, 396, 405, 416–425,
24, 37 n137, 41–44, 142–143, 152– 427–438, 441, 444, 446–450, 454,
153, 157–158, 196, 200–203, 209– 458, 463, 490–491, 494, 507, 510–
210, 224 n1253, 227–228, 230– 511, 514, 517, 520–523, 525
234, 236, 250–255, 259–270, 292, Šà-an-ba: 328
302, 311, 315 n1790, 348, 385– Šarrat-Ninūa: 399
402, 406, 409–413, 415, 426–427, Šarrat-nipḫi: 423–424, 438, 450
436, 440, 442–445, 448–450 Šēr: 30–31
Sîn of Ur: 7, 9, 12, 21 n51, 98, Šērūa: 419
196–198, 201–204, 213, 230–232, šmš: 392
254, 259, 296, 331, 333–334, 342, Šulak: 285
387, 447 Šulpae’a: 175 n962, 182, 272 n1526,
Sîn-ša-kisalli: 373, 447 324, 483, 495
Sîn-ša-šamê: 372–373, 375 n2112, Šuziana: 354–355, 369–370, 437
376, 447–448 Tambāya: 421, 438
Suen: 2, 28–31, 46, 54 n236, 71, 75, Tiamat: 93, 145, 419
77 n368, 94, 138–139, 147, 151, Tišpak: 174, 324 n1844, 419 n2379
173, 197, 204 n1161, 206, 236– Tukul-diĝir-ra: 329
237, 240, 291–292, 294, 307, 318 Twins: 434–435
n1812, 320, 323 n1836, 326, 327, U4-é-zi-an-na: 328
331, 346–347, 368–369, 371 U4-kìri-zal-an-na: 328
n2083, 372–373 n2097, 387, 439 U4-me-an-na: 328
SÚN-si: 318 n1814, 328 Ūmu: 374 n2110, 421
Ṣalbatānu: 186 Umun: 197, 327
Šakkan: 179–180 Unkin: 150–151, 243, 327
Šala: 374 n2110, 419, 424 Unkin-úru: 34, 150–151, 243, 327
Šamaš/Utu: 9 n24, 11, 14, 22, 40–43, Uraš: 340–341
45–46, 53, 57–58, 63 n287, 67, 69, Úriki-kìri-zal: 328
70 n328, 73, 75–78, 81–86, 89–90, Urugal (Uru16-gal): 322 n1835, 328
92–103, 105–109, 111–113, 115– U4-sakar: 34–35, 74 n352, 77, 327
121, 124–131, 133–134, 143–144, Ušum-gal-an-na: 353 n1989
146, 154, 157 n842, 163, 167–168, yrḫ: 296 n1660, 403 n2295
169 n915, 171–172, 175 n962, 184, Zálag: 78, 88 n447
187–188, 190–191, 194 n1086, Zálag-ga: 68, 78, 88 n447
 Index 619

Zaqīqu: 191–192, 443, 457, 459–460 Eĝipar (É-ĝi6-pàr): 81, 296, 301–302,
Zarpanītu: 145 n769, 374 n2110, 480– 337 n1909, 351, 360–363, 386,
482 403–404, 408, 438, 447
É-ĝissu-bi-du10-ga: 381, 437
Names of temples and sanctuaries Eḫulḫul (É-ḫúl-ḫúl): 24–25, 75, 81,
Agrunku (Agrun-kù): 296, 303, 349, 86, 90 n476, 97, 141–144, 153–
351–352 154, 157, 160–161, 194, 201, 208–
Agrunmaḫ (Agrun-maḫ): 303–304, 210, 214–216, 233–234, 238, 292,
341 n1933, 343, 362 315 n1791, 375 n2120, 386–388,
É-ad-gi4-gi4: 354 390 n2205, 393, 396–409, 414,
E’agadudu (É-aga-du7-du7): 344, 437 421, 436 n2456, 438, 442, 448–449
E’amaškuga (É-amaš-kù-ga): 367, 437 Eḫulḫuldirdira (É-ḫúl-ḫúl-dir-dir-ra):
É-an-ki-kù-ga: 354 396 n2258, 397, 420–421, 438
Eana (É-an-na): 181, 297, 332, 340– E-ibbi-Anum (É-i-bí-dA-num): 340–
341, 361 n2032, 362 n2039, 365 341
n2052, 371–373, 447 É-idim-an-na; see also É-dim-an-na:
E’anšar (É-an-šár): 148–149, 352–353 374
É-aš-damar: 74 É-íd-lú-ru-gú-kalam-ma: 349 n1968
É-AŠ-AN-AMAR: 74, 354–355 (E)itikuga ((É-)iti6-kù-ga): 333–335,
É-aš-dmár: 74 437
Ebabbar (É-babbar): 181, 225, 233, É-itu-da: 313
332, 340–341, 365, 374–378, 420– É-kišib-gal-é-kur-ra: 354
421 Ekišnugal (É-kiš-nu-ĝál): 46–47, 78–
(E)darakuga ((É-)dàra-kù-ga): 249, 81, 162, 213, 231, 249 n1407, 250,
333–335 259 n1464, 303–304, 319–321,
É-di-ku5-maḫ: 334 n1889 323, 332–343, 345–346, 349–352,
É-dili-damar: 74, 354–355 n2001 357, 360, 363–364, 369, 378–380,
Edimana (É-dim-an-na): 333–335, 437, 447–448
374, 383–384, 437–438, 448 Eĝišnugal (É-ĝiš-nu11-gal): 79–80,
Edimgalana (É-dim-gal-an-na): 333– 197–180, 259 n1464, 304, 319–
335, 437 320, 333 n1881, 338 n1917, 342,
(E)dublamaḫ ((É)-dub-lá-maḫ): 333– 345–346, 350, 379, 437
335, 338, 346, 348, 356–360, 363, E-keš-Nungal (É-kéš-dNun-gal):
369, 437, 447 80–81
Edumununa (É-dumu-nun-na): 181, E-ka-ešnun-gal (É-ká-èš-nun-gal):
371–372, 437, 447 80–81
Edurgina (É-dúr-gi-na): 340–341 Ekur (É-kur): 70, 88, 125, 138–139
É-en-nu-ĝá-ĝá: 352 n739, 293, 295, 315 n1788, 331,
É-èš-bàn-da: 354 333–334, 354–355, 370, 455, 458,
É-GA-DI: 250 n1416 484–485, 487–488, 492–493
É-gar6-kù; see also Agrunku: 349 Elugalĝalgasisa (É-lugal-ĝalga-si-sá):
n1968 153, 343–349, 437, 447
620 Index

É-má-gur8: 47 Adad-nērārī III: 251–252, 260, 262–

Emelamana (É-me-lám-an-na): 203, 263, 265, 398
233, 315, 386, 403–405, 408 Adad-šumu-uṣur: 222
Enitena (É-ní-te-en-na): 380–381, 437, Adapa: 27, 195
448 Adda-guppi: 52, 194, 202 n1148, 406
Enitendu (É-ní-te-en-du10): 333–335, Amar-Suen: 296, 338, 351, 359, 365
378, 380–381, 437, 448 Ammiditana: 380
Enunmaḫ; see also Agrunmaḫ: 303– Ammiṣaduqa: 380
304, 343, 362 Ana-nūr-Sîn-līṣi: 82 n399
Esaĝdili (É-saĝ-dili): 348, 358–359 Arik-dēn-ili: 416–417 n2368
Esaĝil (É-saĝ-íl): 202, 215, 341, 372, Artaxerxes: 310–311 n1760
381, 393 n2231, 408 Asdi-takim: 385 n2174
Ešaduga (É-šà-du10-ga): 352–353, 355 Assurbanipal (Aššur-bāni-apli): 3, 9
Ešara (É-šár-ra): 419 n24, 25, 36–37, 44, 58–59, 73, 75,
É-šu-gán-du7-du7: 344, 437 81, 86, 88–89, 97, 100, 137, 140–
Ešumeša (É-šu-me-ša4): 205 145, 151–154, 159–162, 164–165,
Etemenniguru (É-temen-ní-gùr-(ru)): 174–175, 176–177 n977, 192–194,
203–204, 344, 346–347, 357–359, 196, 200, 203, 208–210, 212–217,
372–373 n2097, 437 220, 222–223, 225, 228–229, 232–
Eturkalama (É-tùr-kalam-ma): 380– 233, 234, 237–238, 247 n1396,
381, 384 n2169, 448 259–262, 264, 292, 294–295, 301,
E’ulmaš (É-ul-maš): 225, 233, 313, 306, 309–310, 315–316, 338–340,
375 n2120 345, 351, 367, 386, 388–390, 392–
É-ur5-šà-ba: 384 n2167 393, 395–398, 400–409, 412
É-ušumgal-an-na: 353 n2340, 413–416, 426–427 n2419,
Ezida (É-zi-da): 89–90 n472, 149 431, 433, 435–337, 441–444, 448–
n790, 215, 341, 346 n1953, 383, 450, 454, 458, 501, 503, 506
408, 448 Aššur-dān II: 8
[É...]ga?-kù-ga: 354 Aššur-etel-ilānī: 228 n1281
giparu: 303, 332, 343, 350–351, 360– Aššur-etel-šamê-erṣeti-muballissu:
363 401–402, 406 n2314, 438
Ĝá-bur-ra: 317 n1804, 321 Aššur-mukīn-palē’a: 401–402
Ĝá-nun-maḫ: 303 Assurnaṣirpal II: 9 n24, 89, 155, 159,
Ĝi6-pàr-kù: 351 162 n874, 200, 213, 216 n1221,
Kar-zi-da: 46 352 n1982, 386, 398, 417, 419–
Ki-du10-ga: 352 420, 423–426, 430, 432–433, 450
Rēš-temple: 402 n2287 Aššur-nērārī I: 416
Aššur-nērārī V: 253, 259, 267 n1505
Personal names Aššur-uballiṭ II: 386, 405
Abi-ešuḫ: 378 n2136 Ataršumki: 251
Adad-nāṣir: 51, 53 Awīl-Sîn: 293 n1638
Adad-nērārī I: 386 Balasî: 66, 191
 Index 621

Balāssu: 393, 438 Kiṣir-Nabû: 507, 513, 515

Balti-yabatu: 263 n1487 Kudurru: 389–390
Bar-rākib: 43, 390 Kurigalzu: 332, 349, 356–357, 360
Bayâ: 224 Lú-Dumu-nun-na: 253, 293
Bēl-Ḫarrān-bēlu-uṣur: 32–33 n109, Lugalkisura-nādin-aḫḫē: 253
228 n1276, 245–246, 390–391, 459 Lugal-nesaĝ-ibila: 197 n1102
Bēl-Ḫarrān-idrī: 390 n2209 Lugalzagesi: 368
Bēl-Ḫarrān-issē’a: 391 n2214 Lu-Nanna: 235 n1315
Bēl-Ḫarrān-killanni: 391 n2214 Mannu-kī-māt-Aššur: 51, 53
Bēl-Ḫarrān-kuṣuranni: 390 n2209 Marduk-apla-iddina I: 323
Bēl-Ḫarrān-ṣabtanni: 391 n2214 Marduk-šumu-uṣur: 208
Bēl-Ḫarrān-šarru-uṣur: 228 Marduk-zākir-šumi I: 257, 373
Bēl-iddina: 64–65, 396 Mati’-ilu: 253, 259, 267 n1505
Belšazzar: 195 Munnabitu: 163
Cyrus: 181, 343, 375 Nabonidus: 1, 3, 8–9, 24–28, 40–41,
Darius: 138–139 n739, 332 n1880, 47 n198, 52, 58–59, 77, 83, 89,
376 n2126 114–115, 137, 140–141, 144, 149,
Eanatum: 333 153, 161–162, 192, 194–196, 200–
Egibi: 254 203, 211, 213, 215–216, 223, 225,
Enanedu: 363 233–235, 293 n1639, 295, 302
Enḫeduana: 331, 333, 402 n2288 n1693, 303–305, 308–309, 313–
Enmenana: 368 316, 340, 342–347, 350–351, 359–
En-niĝaldi-Nanna: 25 n72, 77 n369, 364, 367, 373–377, 386, 388, 396–
343, 351 n1976, 360–365, 402 398, 402 n2288, 404–409, 412
n2288, 437 n2341, 441–444, 447–448
Esagil-kīn-apli: 274 n1538, 383 Nabopolassar: 8, 341, 405
Esarhaddon (Aššur-aḫa-iddina): 9 n24, Nabû-apla-iddina: 41
32, 88–89, 152, 157–160–162, 175, Nabû-balāssu-iqbi: 408
192, 200, 208–210, 213, 215–216, Nabû-dūr-makie: 388 n2197
220–222, 224, 227–228, 246, 253, Nabû-iqīša: 107
258, 260, 302, 337 n1913, 339, Nabû-nāṣir: 190–191
365, 384–385 n2170, 386, 390, Nabû-pāšir: 388, 400, 410
393, 395–396, 400–401, 411, 414 Nabû-šumu-iddin: 365
n2349, 426–427 n2419, 432–433, Nabû-šumu-iddina: 425
435–436, 449, 491 Nabû-zēru-iddina: 393–394, 436, 438
Geme-Sîn: 241 Nabû-zuqup-kēnu: 57, 138–139 n739
Ḫammurapi: 206 Nanna-ibni: 31
Ibni-Ištar: 373 Naqī’a: 392 n2218, 401, 433, 384–385
Il-yabi: 415 n2170
Immerum: 373 Narām-Sîn: 387 n2188
Išme-Dagan: 206, 356 n2011 Narām-Sîn of Ešnunna: 385 n2174
Ištar-šumu-ēreš: 107, 157, 218–219 Nāṣir-Sîn: 226
622 Index

Nebuchadnezzar I: 25 n72, 363 444, 447

Nebuchadnezzar II: 9, 22 n56, 39, 47 Sîn-ēda: 30 n88
n198, 162, 194, 213, 303–304, Sîn-ḫāri: 30–31 n91
335–336, 338, 340–343, 359, 362 Sîn-ibni: 31
n2040, 374, 378–379, 383, 447– Sîn-iddinam: 306, 356, 377
448 Sîn-kāšir: 30 n88
Ningal-iddin: 337, 346–347 Sîn-mušēpi: 31 n96
Nūr-Adad: 73 n343 Sîn-nādin-aḫḫē: 253
Nūr-Sîn: 82 Sîn-nādin-aḫi: 361 n2032
Qalparuda: 251 Sîn-nādin-apli: 227
Ra’īmâ: 384–385 n2170 Sîn-na’id: 44
Rīm-Sîn: 206, 363, 377 Sîn-namir: 226
Sadibbu: 53 n229 Sîn-nammir: 82
Samsu-iluna: 378 n2136 Sîn-natannu: 30–31 n91
Sargon of Akkad: 331 Sîn-nūrī: 82
Sargon II: 6, 9 n24, 32, 43–44, 50, 64 Sîn-per’u-ukīn: 227
n295, 88–89, 137, 138–139 n739, Sîn-šarru-ibni: 228
152, 157, 160, 162, 200, 203, 217, Sîn-šarru-iškun: 8, 32, 37 n134, 200,
226, 228–229, 235, 294–295, 297– 210–211, 225, 227–228, 258, 265,
300, 302, 339, 351, 375, 384–385 444
n2170, 386, 388, 395, 397–400, Sîn-šarru-uṣur: 228, 337 n1913
410, 418, 421, 426, 428, 430, 449– Sîn-šarru-uṣuranni: 228
450, 492 Sîn-šarrūssu-ka’’in: 229
Sē’-barakka: 30–31 n91 Sîn-tabni-uṣur: 337 n1913
Sē’-immē: 268 Sîn-zēru-ibni: 392
Sē’-nūrī: 82 Sumu-abum: 378
Sē’-šarru: 228–229 Sumulael: 373
Sē’-yatê: 268 Šalmaneser I (Salmānu-ašarēd): 386
Sennacherib (Sîn-aḫḫē-erība): 9 n24, Šalmaneser II (Salmānu-ašarēd): 416–
23, 43 n177, 48 n208, 88–89, 138– 417 n2368
139 n739, 151–153, 156, 160, 200, Šalmaneser III (Salmānu-ašarēd): 37
207–208, 213–214 n1212, 227– n137, 40 n158, 43 n180, 155, 200,
228, 265, 384–385 n2170, 400, 216–217, 386 n2178, 398, 403, 406
418–419, 431–433, 444, 449–450 Šalmaneser IV (Salmānu-ašarēd): 228
Silim-Bēl: 254 n1441 n1276, 251, 262, 390, 398
Sîn-aḫu-uṣur: 226–227 Šalmaneser V (Salmānu-ašarēd): 227
Sîn-ālik-pāni: 30 n88 Šamaš-ibni: 507, 515
Sîn-ašarēd-apli: 197 n1102 Šamaš-šumu-ukīn: 22 n56, 190–193,
Sîn-balāssu-iqbi: 31, 74, 144 n763, 228 n1279, 338 n1916, 400–402,
149, 153, 203–204, 228, 234, 304, 455, 458, 506
332, 337–359, 261 n2035, 365, 370 Šamšī-Adad I: 226, 416 n2367
n2081, 372–373, 403–404 n2296, Šamšī-Adad V: 256–257
 Index 623

Šamšī-ilu: 251 n1427 Arbela: 311, 312, 413

Šarrī-taklāk: 416 Arpad: 251, 259, 267 n1505
Šarru-Sîn: 229 Assur: 9, 30 n87, 31 n96, 39, 44, 52
Šattiwaza: 251, 385–386 n226, 64–65, 80, 86–87, 97, 102–
Šēr-idrī: 30–31 n91 103, 110 n597, 116–117, 119, 122,
Šēr-nūrī: 82, 268 129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 169, 174,
Šulgi: 292 n1630, 302, 344, 346 183, 217, 220, 238, 247, 254, 265–
n1953, 368 267, 274 n1538, 296, 303, 305,
Šumu-libši: 393 n2231 315, 319, 330–331, 362 n2041, 365
Šumu-ukīn: 195 n2052, 370 n2080, 395–397, 399,
Šuppiluliuma: 251, 385–386 402, 405, 416–423, 429–431, 433,
Šū-Sîn: 253 434–435 n2448, 436, 438, 446,
Teumman: 36, 37 n137, 58 449–450, 464, 472, 477, 507, 516
Tiglath-pileser I: 50–51 n221 Babylon: 9, 25, 39, 79 n381, 80–81,
Tiglath-pileser III: 88, 208, 226–228, 202, 207, 208 n1183, 215, 254,
390 293 n1640, 298, 304, 312–313, 316
Tukultī-Ninurta I: 416–417 n2368 n1797, 317 n1808, 330, 333–335,
Tukultī-Ninurta II: 200, 431 341, 345–346, 362 n2041, 368,
Ṭāb-šār-Aššur: 44, 399–400, 430 373, 378–384, 388, 401 n2284,
Urad-Ea: 390, 393–394, 412 n2339, 405, 408–409, 428, 448,
436, 438 Baghdad: 17
Urad-Nabû: 426 Baliḫ: 267, 330, 385–386, 448
Ur-Alamuš: 322 Baltil: 399
Ur-Namma: 291, 331, 343–344, 346 Baṣ: 340–341
n1953, 347, 351, 360 Bavian: 213–214 n1212
Ušpilulume: 251, 262–263 Bīt-Suena/Bīt-Sîn: 369
Utuḫeĝal: 333 Boghazköy: 306, 335 n1894
Warad-Sîn: 72 n340 Borsippa: 161, 181, 193 n1083, 313,
Xerxes: 9 330, 335, 368, 374, 380, 383–384,
Yau-bi’di: 203 438, 448
Zakur: 251 Canaan: 265 n1497, 387 n2185
Zakûtu: 264, 433 Carchemish: 52 n226, 261–262, 415
Damru: 381
Geographical names (ancient and Dilbat: 340–341
modern) Diyarbakır: 43
Açaği Yarimca: 43 n177, 45, 400 Dūr-Bēl-Ḫarrān-bēlu-uṣur: 390–391
n2277 Dūr-Katlimmu: 9, 52–53, 229
Akkad: 181, 218–219, 233, 298, 313 Dūr-Kurigalzu: 344 n1948
n1779, 387 n2188, 428 Dūr-Šarrukīn: 6, 89, 162, 217, 220,
Akšak: 29 n81 269, 296, 298, 330, 398, 405, 418,
Arabia: 218 n1228, 248–249, 406 420, 423, 425–430, 433, 438, 450
n2313 Dūrum: 367 n2061
624 Index

Ebla: 28, 385 426, 438, 450, 507

Egypt: 157 n844, 208–210, 271 Kar-[...]: 228 n1281
n1524, 302, 386, 395–396, 401, Karduniaš: 401–402
414 n2349 Keš: 326
Elam: 58, 84 n416, 228 n1281, 295 Khosr: 432–433
Elumu: 86, 203, 216–217, 260–262, Ki’abrig: 317–318, 321
415–416, 438, 449 Kissik: 211, 330, 339, 367–368, 437
Eridu: 319–320, 338–339, 345, 352– Kisurra: 252 n1431
353, 379–380, 485, 488 Kiš: 204, 380, 384
Euphrates: 267, 330, 384 Kullab: 339, 379–380, 448
Fāra: 28 Kurba’il: 393, 411 n2337
Gaeš: 46 Laḫiru: 228
Girsu: 331 Larnaka: 64 n295
Gisgis (Kesentaş): 43–44 Larsa: 181, 202 n1147, 206, 233, 259
Göktaçköyü: 45, 252 n1428 n1464, 317, 330–331, 339, 340–
Gutium: 50 341, 356, 368, 377–378, 437, 448
Guzāna (Tell Ḥalaf): 53, 267 Ma’allanate: 82
Hamath: 203 Maltai: 23–25, 27, 44 n181
Ḫabur: 267 Mari: 242
Ḫarrān: 1, 3, 7, 21 n51, 23–27, 36–37, Marib (Saba): 249 n1405
41–45, 65, 73, 75, 114–115, 141– Mount Amanus: 419
144, 149, 152–153, 157–158, 160– Mount Sinai: 28–29 n80
162, 194, 196, 200–203, 208–210, Nēmed-Laguda: 339
213–216, 222–224, 226–227, 230– Nērab: 30–31 n91, 388, 392, 415
239, 250–255, 259–270, 290, 292, Nineveh: 39, 52 n226, 54, 68, 73, 78
296, 297–298, 300–302, 308–311, n377, 127, 137, 141–142, 165, 182
315–317, 330, 348, 351, 354 n1013, 184, 187–188, 207–208,
n1996, 375 n2120, 384–415, 421– 220–221, 223 n1250, 225, 228,
422, 426, 430, 435–436, 438, 440, 232, 254, 263, 265–266, 273, 301,
442, 444–450, 303, 306, 307 n1735, 311–312,
Ḫuzirīna (Sultantepe): 36, 127 n716, 319, 330, 334 n1889, 344, 386,
261–262, 269–270, 306, 307 389–390, 393–396, 404–405, 413–
n1735, 311, 392–393, 405, 438, 414, 418, 420, 423, 426–427
464, 471–472, 479, 482, 507 n2419, 429 n2428, 431–437, 438,
Inner City: 205 442, 449–450, 462, 464, 472, 483,
Iraq: 3 497, 507
Isin: 206, 356 n2011, 359 Nippur: 7, 46, 48 n207, 80–81, 98, 101
Jebel Hamrin: 421 n532, 112, 119, 138–139 n739,
Kalḫu (Nimrud): 39–40, 52 n226, 100 178, 181, 204–205, 253, 291–293,
n529, 159, 216 n1221, 220, 228– 296, 310–311, 315–317, 325, 330,
229, 249, 252 n1982, 264–266, 333, 348, 352, 354–359, 368–371,
299, 311, 330, 414, 419–420, 423– 379, 384, 404, 437, 446–448
 Index 625

Sam’al (Zinçirli): 43, 390 Yemen: 249 n1405

Samsat: 52 n224, 53 n229 Zalmaqum: 385 n2174
Sippar: 102, 109, 113, 132, 190, 201 Zinçirli; see Sam’al
n1131, 202 n1147, 225, 250, 296–
297, 308, 313, 330, 341, 348 Thematic index
n1963, 365, 368, 372–377, 383 Abraham: 387
n2159, 384, 437, 447–448, 508 Achaemenid rulers: 377
Sultantepe; see Ḫuzirīna advice (from deities): 150–153, 155
Sumer: 428 n831, 301–302, 348
Syria: 23, 43, 51, 53, 195, 290, 296, akītu (festival, house): 46, 114–115,
330, 387, 395 143 n759, 148 n782, 209 n1190,
Šāt-iddin: 339 222–223, 237, 247 n1396, 259,
Tayma: 115, 202 n1146, 343, 406, 412 268, 324, 370–371, 386, 393, 396,
n2341 400 n2276, 403, 410–415, 418–
Tell Abta: 390–391 419, 449
Tell Abū Ṣalābīḫ: 28, 29 n81, 71 n333, amulet, amulet stones: 39–40, 280,
291, 331 439, 507, 513, 515
Tell al-‘Ubaid: 242 animals: 100–101 n530, 123 n687,
Til Barsip (Tell Ahmar): 23–25, 27, 249, 257–258, 272, 282, 321, 494
43, 397 animals (as offerings): 102–103, 113,
Turkey: 43, 330 132, 184–186, 284, 363–364, 374–
Tutub: 331 375, 377 n2127, 433–434, 436,
Ur: 7, 9–10, 12, 21 n51, 25, 31, 46–47, 475, 520, 522–523
74, 76–79, 81 n393, 98, 101 n532, animals (associated with the moon
119, 144 n763, 148–149, 153, 162, god)
193 n1083, 196–198, 201–204, bison, kusarikku: 243
206, 213, 228, 230–232, 234–237, bull, ox: 23 n62, 61, 87 n437, 228
240–242, 247, 250, 254, 256–259, n1281, 240–242, 245, 248, 318,
290–292, 296–298, 304, 313, 317, 340
319–325, 330–372, 374, 377–380, calf: 74, 241, 244–245, 354–355
383–385, 387, 402 n2288, 403–404 n2001, 393
n2296, 405–406 n2312, 430, 434, cattle: 100, 218–219, 230, 236,
437, 443–444, 446–448, 485, 488 240–248, 290, 318, 321–323, 340
Urartu: 50 n1929, 444–446, 494, 496
Uruk: 145, 171–173, 180–181, 292, cow: 39, 69, 171, 241–243, 247,
296–297, 304, 309 n1751, 310– 288, 322 n1831, 444–445, 496, 518
312, 317–318, 324, 330, 332, 339, dragon, lion-dragon: 23, 27, 44
340–341, 361 n2032, 362 n2039, n181, 173–174, 353
368, 371–373, 376–377, 384, 437, gazelle: 55–57, 100–101, 248–249,
446–447, 479, 515, 525 258, 445
Urum: 357 goat: 249
Wadi Brissa: 342 horse: 242 n1363, 250, 264, 266–
626 Index

269, 396, 408 aromatics: 265 n1496, 284, 304

ibex: 60–61, 101 n533, 248–249, n1710, 510, 514
333–335, 445 assembly (divine) : 125–126, 146,
lion: 39 n151, 203–204, 219, 247, 150–153, 156, 184–189, 243, 295,
346–347, 423–424 442–443, 455, 458, 465, 470, 477–
nannāru-bird: 282–383 n1587 478
sheep: 100, 246–248, 322 n1831, astrology-astronomy, celestial divina-
494 tion: 1, 6, 8–10, 12, 19–22, 33, 50,
wild animals: 61, 101 n533, 110, 56 n246, 59, 61–64, 70, 82–85, 91–
120–121, 169, 230, 247–249, 282 92, 94, 98 n519, 101, 106–107,
n1585, 445 109, 121–126, 137, 144, 146–147,
wild bull: 27, 231–232, 240–241, 149–150, 152–153, 155–159, 161–
340, 403 163, 169–171, 189, 195–196, 207
animals (in rituals): 110, 178–179, n1117, 211, 218–223, 244, 246,
321, 385 n2174, 526 255, 260–261, 295, 348, 361, 358
anointing, oil for anointing: 178–179, n2019, 365, 377, 379, 433–434,
241, 272, 281, 304, 510, 512, 514, 440–443, 518–519
518 astrological reports: 22, 82–84, 92,
anti-ghost rituals, therapy: 78, 108– 106–107, 159, 163–164, 170, 218–
109, 154, 247 219, 239–240
anti-witchcraft rituals: 37 n137, 48, āšipu, mašmaššu (healer, incantation
70–71, 81, 84 n420, 86, 109–110, priest, exorcist), āšipūtu (craft of
123, 146, 154, 165 n897, 238 the healer): 11–14, 177–178, 222,
n1337, 240, 246, 326 n1863, 495, 319–320, 364, 474–476, 480–482,
497 n2473 507, 513, 515, 518
anzû-bird: 75, 141–142, 315 n1791, Atraḫasīs: 48, 524
329, 403 attalû-formula: 151, 176, 454, 458,
apotropaic rituals: 170, 175–181, 321, 460, 506
526 balaĝ-gods (gu4-balaĝ): 290, 328–329
Apsû: 80–81, 166, 171, 177, 212, 345, band (woollen): 165, 171–172
498, 500–502 barge (appellation, description of the
Arabic sources: 218 n1228, 387, 397 moon): 33–36, 45–51, 54, 67, 72–
n2263 73 n342, 77, 94–95, 244, 320, 440
Aramaic sources, deities: 30–31, 40, bath (rimku): 101–103, 113, 116, 129,
43, 52 268, 388, 389–390, 392, 131–134, 419
415, 449 beard (lapis lazuli): 244–245
Arameans: 259, 395 n2247 bed-chamber: 125, 296, 302–304, 306,
architecture: 39, 331–332 n1876, 356, 319–320, 322, 325, 349–351, 521,
369 n2074, 390 n2205, 405, 416– 523
417, 439 belt (therapeutic): 507, 515–516
archives: 9–10, 297, 332, 365, 372– benedictions: 105, 114, 198–199
373, 384 n2165, 449 bīt ḫilṣi: 304
 Index 627

bīt mēseri: 179 488, 492, 509–510, 512–517, 520,

bīt rimki: 35, 100–101 n530, 175–177, 522, 524
452 command, divine: 50, 76, 145–146,
bīt salā’ mê: 464 152–156, 167, 171, 189, 192, 194,
blood: 178–179 221–224, 237, 239, 244, 259
boat (appellation, metaphor): 45–54, n1466, 273, 277, 288, 305, 313
77, 94 n493, 305, 337, 440, 511, n1780, 316, 441–443, 445, 466,
514, 518 470, 480–481, 484–490, 498, 501,
border, border contracts: 250–253, 521–523
260, 262–263, 398, 526 commentary: 5, 8, 32–34, 69–70, 80,
bowl (appellation, cultic object): 41, 94 n493, 122–123 170–171, 204–
72–73, 201 n1131, 409 206, 220, 234, 241, 243–244, 252–
brick inscriptions: 148–149, 304, 341, 253, 272 n1526, 282 n1584, 288–
345–346, 352–356, 362, 397, 408, 289, 293 n1638, 305, 355 n2003
416, 428–429 communication: 11, 22, 85, 99, 156–
bricks, glazed (depicting the moon): 163, 192–194, 211, 216, 270, 323
39 constellations, stars: 92–93, 180, 182,
“burning” (in penalty clauses): 265– 186–187, 194–195, 310, 318–319,
266 324, 434
carrying poles (of Ningal/Nikkal): 36– contracts: 6–7, 43, 242 n1363, 249–
37, 234, 259, 301, 309, 392, 403– 256, 261–271, 282, 276, 395–396,
404, 413 445
cattle pen (tarbaṣu): 47, 237, 241, coronation: 208–211, 227 n1275, 302,
246–247, 380, 444–445 395–396
cedar temple (in Ḫarrān): 208–210, cosmos, cosmic forces: 19 n40, 37–38,
414 n2349 81–82, 85, 87, 91, 93, 96, 136–150,
cella: 76, 220, 416–418, 430 n2429, 156, 167, 185, 188, 196, 216–219,
450 222, 232, 234, 315 n1789, 347–
chapel: 149, 380–381, 383–384, 404, 349, 353, 418, 422, 441–442, 444,
414 450
childbirth, labour: 68–70, 94–95, 97, counsel: 94–95, 125, 144, 151, 153–
171, 215, 224, 231, 235, 239, 241, 154, 155 n831, 348, 454, 458
245, 271, 286, 288–289, 299–302, courtyard: 44, 298, 323, 336 n1902,
306–307, 444, 464, 476, 507–519 346, 355, 370, 373, 376, 383, 429–
childlessness: 110, 238–239, 406 430, 447
n2314, 466–467, 470, 486, 489 creation, creator: 27, 35, 37, 55, 62,
children, babies, offspring: 265, 238– 93–95, 97, 136–137, 141–143, 158,
240, 276–277, 279–280, 479, 510, 212–214, 228–234, 236–239, 245,
514, 518 247 n1396, 289 n1619, 293 n1639,
clay nails: 304, 350–351 498–499, 501–502, 505, 521–522
clothing, garments, textiles: 178–179, crescent moon: 1, 16–17, 22–24, 33,
197–198, 411–412, 414–415, 484, 35, 37–45, 47–49, 51–56, 59, 60–
628 Index

63, 73 n344, 77, 84, 89, 92–95, 98– 176, 259 n1466, 521–522
101, 108 n586, 111, 127–128, 136– decision-making, divine decisions: 6–
141, 146, 149 n789, 164, 173, 174 7, 19 n40, 36, 58–59, 76–78, 92,
n955, 195, 216, 219–220, 230, 238, 97, 99, 101, 108–109, 118–121,
242, 245, 248–249, 277–278 125–128, 130, 136–139, 142–143,
n1555, 280, 316, 373, 395, 439– 146–147, 149–162, 169–170, 176,
441, 444–445, 505 188–191, 195–196, 207, 212, 213,
crescent moon emblem, standard 221–222, 246, 248, 286, 294–296,
(šurinnu): 8, 22–24, 39–45, 49, 51– 301–302, 342, 349, 360–361, 379,
52, 111, 127, 149 n789, 219–220, 394, 422, 427–428, 441–443, 446,
238, 242, 249–252, 263, 322 450, 452, 454, 458, 477–478, 491,
n1891, 373–374, 390, 392, 398– 511, 514, 521, 523
400, 439–440 demon(s): 85, 169–174, 183–184, 198,
crown, tiara (of the moon): 27, 49–51, 270–273, 277–278, 285, 287, 295,
56–57, 59–70, 76, 82 n396, 93–94, 321, 443, 445, 463, 477–478
103–106, 114, 138–140, 142–144, divine anger: 11–12, 59, 166–167,
148 n786, 152, 155, 159, 173, 187– 170–171, 177–178, 190 n1063,
188, 191, 197–200, 206–208, 210– 249, 270–271, 275 n1543, 281–
211 n1196, 214, 216, 242–243, 282, 286, 442, 445, 469, 471, 506
245, 248, 257, 305, 335, 344, 350, divine mandate (from the moon god):
396, 440, 444, 449, 486, 489, 492 215–216, 221, 407
crown prince: 227, 376–377, 400–401, Dogon tribe: 229 n1287
448 donations: 194, 216, 260–270, 332,
cult image: 20–28, 41–44, 157–158, 339–340, 392, 396 n2253, 399,
210, 303–304, 322, 350, 409, 419, 401, 405, 415, 416–417 n2368, 445
421, 439–440, 451 dreams, dream rituals, oneiromancy:
cultic paraphernalia: 240, 330–340, 25, 66, 105, 113, 131, 150, 166–
401 167, 189–196, 215–216, 247, 295,
cultic/temple personnel: 363–365, 407–408, 443, 452, 457, 459, 460
368, 374 n2106, 376, 393–394, dynasty, durability of: 216–217, 222,
396, 401–402, 406 n2314, 422, 415–416
425, 437–438, 449 Early Dynastic: 2, 28–29, 52 n224,
curses, curse formulae: 7, 249–250, 141 n749, 242, 291, 309, 349
253–264, 270, 282, 319, 323–324, n1971, 368, 385, 447
398 n2268, 445 elation, joy: 85, 124, 162, 314, 396–
cylinder inscriptions: 6, 32, 37 n134, 397, 409, 419–421, 440, 484–485,
85, 200, 210, 225, 294, 342, 346, 487–488, 493–494
351, 367, 398–399, 408 n2321 Enlil-gods: 203, 346–347, 352–356
dairy, milk products: 108, 240–241, entu-priestess, en-priestess: 25, 77,
247, 321–322, 444, 446, 486, 489, 331, 343, 351, 360–365, 368, 402–
496 404 n2296, 437, 447
death, dying: 124–125, 169–170, 175– eponym, eponymy: 229, 390
 Index 629

equinox: 111, 412 n2341 86, 123–124, 127 n717, 154, 171,
etymology: 32, 69–70, 80–81, 243 189, 196–197, 206–207, 213, 225,
n1368, 286 n1602, 369 230–231, 240, 254, 260, 290–298,
exemption, freedom of debts (kidinnū- 300–302, 305–309, 312–320, 322
tu, zakûtu): 339, 386, 395, 398– n1835, 324, 330, 333–334, 354
399, 426–427 n2419 n1996, 369–372, 376–377, 388–
extispicy, bārû, bārûtu: 11–12, 63, 389, 392, 396, 404, 416, 422, 427,
146, 150–151, 155, 181–189, 196, 433–434, 436, 443–444, 446, 448–
199–200, 203 n1156, 208, 212 450, 454, 458, 462–463, 479, 481,
n1203, 227 n1274, 295, 365, 437, 485, 488, 490, 496, 501, 503
443, 483–496 wife, spouse: 65, 75–76, 184, 211,
family (divine): 2, 142, 209 n1190, 213–214 n1212, 225, 230, 234,
240, 250, 259–260, 289–290, 294, 240, 253–254, 259–260, 264, 266–
310, 327–328, 376, 378, 387, 391, 267, 290, 292 n1633, 296–297,
409, 434, 447, 449 298, 302–303, 305–306, 313, 319–
brother: 139–140, 291, 310, 326, 323, 327–328, 340, 348–351, 367–
412 n2340, 490 370, 377–378, 383–384, 387–389,
children of the moon god: 172, 194 391, 403 n2295, 421, 424, 427,
n1086, 230–234, 282, 290, 297, 430, 434, 446, 448
305–325, 373, 376 n2122, 384, fate, decreeing of: 109, 124 n692,
422, 434, 444, 446 142–143, 145, 147, 149–150, 153–
daughter: 49, 104, 230, 276, 290, 154, 156, 159, 212, 215, 298, 360
309–314, 324–325, 328, 330, 369– n2028, 428, 442, 511, 514
371, 375–376, 381, 384, 391 fertility, procreation, growth: 6, 21
n2217, 422, 436–437, 446–448, n51, 52–53, 55, 59, 110, 189, 206
486, 488–489, 494–495 n1173, 229–230, 232–233, 236–
father: 7, 33 n110, 46, 73, 78, 108, 247, 286, 326, 395, 444, 451, 471–
147–148, 188 n1048, 189, 197, 472, 496
197–198, 225, 230–236, 257, 291– festivals, festivities: 46, 98–100, 105–
294, 305–310, 312–315, 330, 333– 106, 111–112, 114–119, 122–135,
334, 349, 370–372, 378, 381, 388, 205, 303 n1706, 318, 384, 441,
391–392, 424, 434, 444, 446–448, 455, 459
465, 470, 491, 493, 503 figurine, puppet: 48, 165, 498, 500–
husband, spouse: 75, 115, 211, 260 501, 503, 526
n1469, 296, 298, 300–302, 304– fine (in penalty clauses): 255, 264–
305, 413 n2346, 430, 434, 446, 450 270, 426
mother: 80 n385, 234–235, 240, fire (as source of light): 32, 83, 85–86,
296–297, 299–302, 305–307, 310, 453, 458
317, 326, 351, 369, 444 First Dynasty of Babylon: 378–380
sister: 80, 308–310, 312, 326, 446– fruit (appellation/epithet): 54–59, 66–
447 67, 97 n511, 100, 103, 139–140,
son, heir: 6–7, 29–30 n85, 46, 77, 149 n788, 230, 236, 245, 360, 440
630 Index

Galen: 230 271, 288, 291–292, 294, 299–302,

Gallābu archive: 365 305–308, 310, 312, 318–321, 333–
garden (in a temple): 250 n1416, 304 335, 343–347, 352–354, 372–374,
n1710, 425 376, 380, 383, 404–405, 408, 415,
gate, gateway: 171, 178–181, 207– 423, 428, 439, 441, 447–448, 451,
208, 250 n1416, 336, 341, 346– 453–454, 456, 458–459, 465–466,
348, 356–360, 372, 403, 418, 432 468, 470–471, 477–478, 483–495,
Genesis: 387 510–511, 514, 518, 521, 523
gloss: 29–30, 72 n341, 137–138 n735, doors of heaven, gates of heaven:
322 n1835 83–84, 95–96, 485–486, 488–489,
god-list: 4, 6 n17, 10, 29–30, 37, 45– 493–495
46, 60, 68, 71, 74, 77–78, 83, 97, paths of heaven: 136, 141, 184–
127–128, 137–138, 150–151, 187 186, 324
n1044, 191, 197, 207, 232, 236, Hellenistic period: 10, 181, 310–311
242–244, 248–249, 252, 290, 292– n1760, 317, 371–372, 402
294, 297, 305, 312–314, 317–318, n2287,446–447
321–322, 324, 327–329, 335, 353– hemerologies: 5, 7–8, 54–59, 65–67,
355, 372, 446 97, 99–106, 110–122, 126–135,
gods of the king: 263 140 n744, 176–177 n977, 178–180,
Graeco-Roman sources: 230, 271 183–184, 219–220, 248, 325–326,
n1524, 311, 387, 391–392 412–413, 441, 446–447
guard, divine (diĝir-gub-ba): 328–329 auspicious and inauspicious days:
guilt: 165–166, 177, 282 n1581, 467, 183–184, 188, 219–220
470 hero, heroic powers (of the moon
Gurasimmu tribe: 339 god): 287, 294, 477–478
Gurgumites: 251 Hittite sources: 251 n1420, 297 n1660,
headdress: 23–24, 51–52, 60 n265, 385–386, 403 n2295
206 n1171, 492, 517 horizon: 16–17, 56, 74 n350, 83, 93–
healing: 163, 199, 239 n1338, 254, 96, 99, 107, 136 n728, 184, 218,
270–271, 273, 277–278 n1555, 494–495
280, 286–289, 304, 384–385 horned animals: 61, 101, 240, 244–
n2170, 445–446, 451, 462–463, 245, 248–249, 323 n1831
464, 474 horns (of the moon): 35–36, 45 n187,
heaven, heaven and earth: 12, 27–28 48, 89, 93–94, 101, 148, 159, 230,
n75, 32–33 n109, 35–38, 45–46, 244–246, 248–249, 444–445, 486,
51, 58, 60–61, 63 n283, 76, 78–86, 488–489
89, 94–96, 105–106, 108–109, 123, household (divine): 5–7, 197, 230–
125, 136–143, 145–150, 152–156, 231, 243, 250, 252, 289–290, 293,
159–160, 162, 168–172, 177, 184, 296, 302–303, 312–317, 321–330,
188 n1048, 195–197, 201–204, 206 335, 371–372, 376, 388, 390–392,
n1171, 210, 212, 217, 221–222, 396, 405, 421–422, 435–437, 446–
233–234, 237, 241–247, 257–259, 450
 Index 631

housekeeper (divine): 319–322, 329, judgement, judge (divine): 108–109,

444, 446 124–125, 153–154, 168–169, 184,
ḫul-ba-zi-zi: 294–296, 303, 319–320 186–187, 221, 250, 264, 295, 359–
human sacrifice: 265–266 360, 422, 484, 486–489, 511, 514
Hurrian tradition: 251, 296 n1660, 403 juxtaposition, association of Aššur and
n2295 Sîn: 64–65, 203 n1157, 210, 251,
hymn: 20, 29 n81, 54, 71 n333, 75, 262–263, 267–268, 395–396, 399,
79–80, 145 n769, 146 n775, 159, 401–402, 449
212–213, 217, 235, 240–241, 249 kalû (lamenter, lamentation priest),
n1407, 292, 297–299, 302, 311– kalûtu (craft of the lamenter): 11–
312, 317–318, 321, 323, 331, 333, 12, 15, 180–181, 365, 390, 393–
357 n2015, 360, 381 n2156, 463 394, 436, 438
iconography: 2, 8, 22–24, 39, 40–44, Kassite period: 153 n813, 155 n831,
51–53, 60 n264, 84, 240–242, 249, 255–257, 259 n1464, 297, 331–
252–253, 308, 376, 394–395, 439– 332, 337, 344 n1948, 349, 356, 361
440 n2034, 369
illnesses, diseases: 40, 86, 108, 230, kidney (description of the moon): 103,
238–239, 250, 253 n1438, 255– 137–140
259, 264 n1489, 270–289, 310–311 kingship, reign: 4, 7, 26, 60–61, 64,
n1760, 445–446, 451, 462–464, 112, 149 n789, 157–158, 161–162,
474, 479 172–173, 188–189, 193–194, 196–
images of the moon god: 4, 8, 20–28, 229, 217, 221–225, 245, 298–302,
39–45, 51–53, 157–158, 209 342, 348, 352–353, 377, 395, 401–
n1190, 251–252, 316–317 n1801, 402, 406, 408, 415, 428–429, 440,
409, 419, 439–440, 451 443–444, 450–451, 484, 488, 491,
incense, incense burner: 108, 178– 493, 522–523
179, 185–186, 498, 500–501, 503, knot: 165, 499, 502–504, 508–509,
509–510, 513–514, 520, 522 512–514
incipit: 12–16, 31 n100, 35, 37 n138, kudurru: 49, 62 n277, 256–257, 259
83, 88–89, 165, 247, 273, 275 n1464, 323, 365, 373
n1545, 315 n1788, 452, 464, 491, Kultmittelbeschwörung: 331
497, 503–506, 517 Kummuḫites: 251
inhabited regions: 59, 121, 143, 161, lamassu: 241, 288, 518
230, 238, 247–248, 298, 485, 488 Late Babylonian period: 10, 12 n33,
intercession, intermediaries: 12, 115, 33, 63 n285, 68–69, 71, 87 n437,
129, 260, 297–298, 301–302, 316 89–90 n472, 111, 140–141, 148–
n1798, 446 149, 171–174, 180–181, 204, 219,
Isin-Larsa period: 331–332, 349 235, 241, 243–244, 252–253, 254–
n1971 255 n1445, 280, 297, 304, 310
Isin II dynasty: 256 n1449, 257, 332 n1753, 318, 324, 332, 355 n2003,
Islamic era: 311, 387, 391–392 362 n2039, 364–365, 373 n2099,
jewellery: 39–40, 216 377, 383, 402, 479, 515, 525
632 Index

leather bag (therapeutic): 275, 280 271, 292, 326, 349, 375, 395
legal case, procedure: 42, 154, 249– n2245, 439, 440–444, 495–496
250, 261, 360, 373–374 conjunction (with the sun): 16–17,
letter formulae: 31 n97, 64–65, 301, 38 n144, 92–94, 99, 101, 107, 118–
315, 367, 386, 388–389, 391–393, 122, 125–127, 151, 154, 433, 444
396, 410 n2335, 425 disappearance, invisibility of the
letters, correspondence: 31, 44, 50, moon: 38 n144, 58, 91–94, 98–99,
63–66, 82 n401, 105, 111–114, 122–127, 146, 151, 183–184, 229–
124, 157–158, 164, 175–176, 181, 230, 273, 280–281, 283 n1593,
190–191, 208–210, 222, 227, 240, 295, 316 n1795, 380, 441, 455,
306, 331, 339–340, 367–368, 371 458, 460
n2086, 388–389, 391–393, 395– full moon: 16–17, 35, 38, 48–51,
396, 399–401, 410–412, 414 54–59, 61–63, 65–73, 77–78, 81,
n2349, 421, 425–426, 430, 436, 84, 86, 91–92, 94, 98–99, 104,
449, 524 106–113, 127, 136–140, 146–147,
library of Assurbanipal: 164–165, 174, 151, 154, 163–164, 183, 192
306, 412 n2340 n1076, 205–206, 217–220, 223,
light, luminescence, radiance: 5–6, 11, 229 n1287, 239–240, 247, 252–253
16–18, 21, 27–28, 31–38, 45, 46 n1432, 271, 349, 375, 412 n2341,
n197, 60–63, 66, 68–70, 74–90, 417, 419, 440–443, 495–496
93–94, 96, 98, 108–110, 114, 124, gibbous moon: 35, 47–51, 54–55,
141–143, 148–150, 158–160, 162, 59, 62, 65–66, 68–70, 72–73 n342,
167–169, 173, 176–177, 190, 196, 77, 104, 106, 112, 114, 137, 141
204 n1163, 208, 210, 230–231 n748, 191, 413, 419, 440–441, 443
n1287, 236, 242–244, 246–247, half moon: 17, 39 n151, 47–48, 57,
258–259, 261, 271, 281, 285–286, 62, 91, 99, 102–104, 112, 117–118,
290, 292 n1632, 294, 300–302, 137–140, 183, 205, 243, 375, 419,
305–310, 312, 316–317, 333–335, 440–441
388, 404, 408, 418, 430, 439–441, moonrise, moonset: 16–17, 67
443, 445, 450–454, 458–459, 462, n311, 74, 82–85, 87 n437, 89, 108,
464–465, 470, 477–478, 483, 484– 149 n790, 157–160, 162, 188, 222,
491, 498–502, 505, 510–511, 514, 397, 440, 486, 489, 493–495, 499,
521, 523 502, 504
lipšur-litanies: 98, 105, 119, 122–123 opposition (of the moon and the
n685, 354 n2000, 381 sun): 22, 92–94, 106–109, 126–
lunar cycle, phases: 1, 16–19, 21–22, 127, 154, 158, 191, 218–223, 417,
28, 35, 38–39, 49–51, 54–55, 62– 429–430, 433, 441–442, 444, 450
63, 66, 70, 74 n350, 77–78, 83 reappearance of the moon (crescent
n412, 85, 90–141, 144, 149–150, moon): 16–17, 35, 38, 54–56, 59,
152, 158, 161, 163, 183–184, 189, 61–63, 74 n350, 77 n368, 91–92,
191, 198, 205, 216, 218–221, 229– 94–95, 98–101, 122, 124, 126, 128,
230, 236, 244, 253–254 n1432, 136–141, 146, 164, 173, 174 n955,
 Index 633

216, 230, 248, 248–249, 273, 316, menstrual cycle: 229–230

440–442, 444–445, 460 me-powers: 68, 94–95, 204, 440
waning moon: 17, 39, 63, 91, 94, mercy: 142–143, 154 n825, 203, 231–
99, 112, 114, 117–118, 136, 183, 232, 286–287, 297, 301–302, 404
205, 229–230, 252–253 n1432, n2298, 467, 469, 470–471, 477–
413, 441 478, 511–512, 514
waxing moon: 17, 35, 38–39, 47– messenger, mediator: 182, 186, 192,
48, 54, 62–63, 77, 89, 91, 94–95, 276–277, 323, 446, 460
99, 102–104, 112, 114, 136, 140, metals: 30, 40, 171–172, 180 n994,
148, 183, 229–230, 236, 439–441, 242, 280, 358, 399, 403 432
492 gold: 27, 44, 90 n476, 127, 219–
lunar deities of other cultures: 229 220, 240, 264, 266–270, 340, 358,
n1287, 249 n1405 403–404, 426, 445, 498, 501–502
lunar disc: 6, 16–17, 20–21 n49, 40– silver: 44, 47 n198, 90 n476, 240,
41, 47–49, 61–66, 141, 168, 173– 264, 266–270, 358, 373–374, 392–
174, 200, 247, 305, 439–442 393, 399–400, 403, 414 n2347,
lunar eclipse: 10, 20–21 n49, 26–28, 426, 430, 432, 445
50, 58–59, 69–70, 77, 85, 89, 111, metaphor: 45–49, 52–53, 60, 68, 70
113, 117, 126, 130–131, 133, 141 n324, 72–73 n342, 83–84, 89–90,
n748, 153, 158–159, 163–164, 170–171, 204, 245, 248, 288, 440,
165–181, 190, 198, 206–207, 261, 444–445, 504, 518
265 n1498, 281, 288 n1616, 293– Middle Ages: 180 n994, 265
295, 342, 344 n1946, 360–361, Middle Assyrian period: 10, 30 n87,
371, 440, 442–443, 452, 454, 458, 31 n96, 50 n221, 52–53, 178–179
460, 503 n985, 220, 226, 274 n1538, 285,
lunar omens: 1, 22 n56, 50, 70, 82, 303 n1706, 363 n2041, 386, 416–
121, 144, 150–152, 155–156, 158– 417, 429–430
165, 169 n918, 176–177, 190 Middle Babylonian period: 48 n207,
n1063, 196, 207, 216, 219–221, 82 n399, 178–179 n985, 188, 256,
244, 261, 342, 348, 442, 491, 497– 323, 356 n2002, 373, 516–517
506 Mitannian deities: 251, 385–386
lunar phenomena (earthshine, halo): month: 6–7, 33–34, 38, 54–59, 62–63,
61–62, 66 n303, 246, 440, 444–445 66–67, 74 n350, 90–136–147, 149
magnates: 44, 226–228, 252 n1427, n790, 154, 157–158, 161–162, 164,
390, 398 n2269, 430 168–169, 174 n955, 178–180, 183,
māmītu, nam-érim-búr-ru-da: 163, 165 189, 210–211, 216–221, 229–230,
n897, 211, 238, 254, 271, 286, 478 236, 238, 240, 243–248, 254, 257,
“man in the moon”: 141, 173–174 281, 286, 288, 313–314, 316, 370–
mathematics: 48–49, 62, 121, 138–140 371, 375, 412–413, 416, 417, 419,
Medians: 9, 25, 405 432–433, 440–443, 451, 495, 507–
menology: 178–180, 294–295, 507, 519, 521, 523
519 month (in epithets): 57–58, 68, 97,
634 Index

152, 161 n868, 490 210, 216, 218–221, 244, 440–443

month of Sîn (Simānu, Ṣītaš): 6, 36, offerings: 20–21, 55–57, 65 n299, 67,
179 n990, 294–295, 412 n2340 91, 97–103, 105–106, 108, 110–
mountains: 76 n363, 112, 205, 247 113, 115–119, 124–125, 127, 129–
mourning (lunar eclipse): 20–21 n49, 135, 177–180, 184–186, 188, 220
168–171, 288 n1238, 232, 240–241, 247–248,
musical instruments: 87 n437, 171– 275, 283–284, 303 n1706, 323,
172, 180–181, 393 n2233 325, 331–332, 339, 343, 363–364,
mythology (of other cultures): 122 369, 371–377, 384, 391–393, 413
n678, 173–174, 229–230 n1287 n2343, 418, 425, 433–436, 441,
namburbi: 163–166, 176–177, 180, 443, 447, 455–456, 458, 475, 484,
185 n1032, 190 n1065, 307, 442, 486–487, 489–491, 498, 500–501,
452, 507, 519 503, 509–510, 513–514, 520, 522
natural phenomena: 19–20 Old Akkadian period: 236
Netherworld: 81–82, 98, 122, 124– Old Assyrian period: 372 n2094, 416
125, 183–184, 186, 212, 266, 291, n2367
309, 526 Old Babylonian period: 2, 12 n33, 22
night: 16–18, 21–22, 31–32, 38, 45, n56, 29 n82, 38 n144, 42, 47–49,
55–56, 60, 74–75, 84–86, 89, 93– 62–63, 69 n320, 71, 73 n343, 79
96, 100, 103, 107, 117, 123, 128, n373, 119, 124–125, 146, 178–179
149 n789, 158–159, 167, 173, 175 n985, 184, 187–188, 197, 199–200,
n966, 182, 184–186, 188–190, 206, 240–242, 250, 256, 282, 288
192–193, 198, 215–216, 247, 254, n1614, 292–292, 296–297, 303,
271, 277, 279, 285–286, 289, 309, 312–313, 317, 323, 325, 331–332,
316–317, 348, 380, 384, 396–397, 336, 349, 357, 362, 359 n2024, 361
434, 440–441, 445, 451, 457, 459, n2034, 364–365, 369, 371, 372–
475, 484–485, 487–488, 521–523, 375, 376–378, 380–381, 385, 397,
525 447–448, 472, 520
Nippurian deities in Ur: 347–348, opponent in court (the moon god as):
352–356 261–262
nocturnal deities (gods of the night): oracular utterance (egirrû): 190–191
150, 174, 176, 182, 235, 433–434, ovulation: 229 n1287
443 palace: 44, 89–90, 100 n529, 171, 214,
nocturnal rituals: 21–22, 109–110, 226, 228, 242, 258, 360–362, 376–
181–188 377, 416, 425, 427, 429, 432–433,
oath: 6, 43 n174, 97 n510, 249–256, 447–450, 454, 458, 501, 503
263–264, 282 n1583, 359–360, 393 Panbabylonism: 1, 387
n2230, 398 n2268, 445, 477, 504 pantheon: 1, 3–4, 7 n21, 23, 40, 77,
observation of the moon: 16–20, 48, 147 n780, 150, 200, 202–203, 213,
57 n250, 62, 82–85, 91–92, 95, 216, 234, 250–254, 256–257, 263–
107, 150, 155–156, 158–161, 163– 264, 297, 330–331, 347, 368, 372–
164, 167–168, 170, 175–176, 181, 374, 376 n2121, 386–388, 395,
 Index 635

439–440, 442, 445, 447 240, 246–248, 293, 295, 323, 396–
pasture, pastoral aspect: 238, 240–242, 397, 443, 446, 459, 483–496
246, 249, 486, 488, 494 “incantation prayers”: 11, 13–14,
patron deity: 21 n51, 63–64, 187–188, 452–482, 497–526
259, 311, 331, 410, 439, 444 diĝir-šà-dab-ba: 11, 13, 167, 275
penalty, punishment: 242 n1363, 249– n1543, 505
271, 281–282, 395–396, 416, 426– eršaḫuĝa: 12, 15, 297, 303, 306,
427, 445, 450 411–412
Persian period: 9–10, 181, 332, 343, eršema: 12, 35–36, 45, 87 n437,
365, 376–377, 384, 447–448 197, 231 n1297
personal deities: 173, 184, 188 n1052, šu’ila (Akkadian): 11–12, 32–33
190–192, 254, 283 n1591, 443, n109, 36, 73, 76, 125, 128, 146,
456, 459, 460, 467–471, 480–482 151, 153, 155, 162–163, 165, 176,
personal names, theophoric elements 190–192, 198, 235, 293, 295, 306–
in personal names: 30–31, 82, 197 308, 310, 452–482, 497–526
n1102, 226–229, 253, 268, 270, šu’ila (Emesal, bilingual): 12, 15,
293, 300–301, 315, 322, 373–374, 27–28 n75, 31–33, 37 n137, 42
386, 389–391, 444 n170, 54, 59, 63, 84, 137 n735,
petition, petitioner: 11, 21, 98, 115 147, 152–153, 156, 197–198, 204,
n635, 154, 164–166, 177, 184, 187, 211–212, 231–232, 237, 244–245,
190–192, 203, 250, 260, 301–302, 247, 353 n1986
314, 323, 370, 443, 446, 460, 497 prebend: 364–365, 373 n2087, 373,
pilgrimage: 209 n1191 376, 384
pious fraud: 25 n72 pregnancy: 70, 97, 229 n1287, 239–
planets: 19–20, 83, 91–92, 168, 175, 241, 245 n1382, 286, 289, 466,
182, 186, 195, 220, 235, 272 470, 507–519
n1526, 308–309, 376 n2122, 391, pre-Islamic deities: 391 n2217
396, 422, 446, 483, 495, 518–519 Pre-Sargonic period: 71, 331
plants (medicinal, therapeutic): 166, prince, princess (in divine epithets): 36
177–179, 272, 275, 281, 510, 512, n129, 77, 81, 88, 145 n767, 196–
514 198, 213, 292–295, 301–302, 320–
portable altar: 509–510, 513–514 321, 326, 333–334, 371–372, 377,
poultice: 272, 275 464–465, 470, 484, 487–488, 490
prayers: 10–16 and passim procession: 12, 23, 46–47, 49, 114,
Emesal prayers, lamentations: 11– 149 n790, 324, 377, 410–413, 418,
12, 15, 35, 47, 61, 71–72 n335, 89, 449
147–148, 180, 235, 244, 306, 333– propaganda: 24–28, 195, 202, 252
335, 353, 359, 380, 394 n1429
ikrib: 12, 16, 22 n54, 32, 63, 76– prophecy: 224
77, 82, 84–85, 88–89, 110, 146, prosperity: 142–143, 158, 236–238,
151 n796, 155, 182–183, 188–189, 286, 426 n2416, 477–478
196, 198, 212 n1203, 236, 238, prostration: 102–103, 110, 113, 117,
636 Index

120, 126–127, 129–131, 133, 177– 503

179, 284, 475, 498, 501–502, 509, Roman era, sources: 180 n994, 271
512–514, 518 n1524, 311, 387, 391, 392 n2222
provinces (western): 3, 9, 203, 210, roof: 184, 280, 403, 475, 507, 509,
253, 261, 263, 386, 390, 395 513, 517
pun: 58, 72–73, 244, 518 royal apology: 172–173
pure, purity, purification (cleansing): royal court: 159, 170, 179, 188, 218,
42, 55, 63 n283, 68, 70, 72–73 228, 239, 393–394, 442
n342, 80, 83 n396, 88, 100, 148, royal family: 3, 39, 52, 192–194, 214–
160, 204, 231, 241, 244, 249, 284, 215, 224, 226–228, 249, 384–386,
307, 310, 319–320, 333–335, 354, 391–392, 395–396, 400–402, 406,
364, 367, 419, 440–441, 428, 456, 449
458–459, 468, 471, 475, 484, 487, royal hunt: 100, 120 n670
490–491, 494 royal inscriptions: 4, 7–9, 37 n137, 50,
Qedar tribe: 264 63–64, 73 n343, 87, 144, 157, 162
queen: 39, 249, 391–392, 401 n874, 188, 192, 199, 206, 208, 213,
queen, queenship (as an epithet): 213, 216, 246, 254, 294–295, 299–300
234, 299–300, 304, 349–350, 404 n1685, 306, 315, 331, 348 n1963,
n2298, 498, 501 359, 386, 423, 442–443
query: 89, 168–169, 187–188, 227 royal insignia (sceptre, staff): 23, 60,
n1274, 437, 484, 486–489 64, 112 n615, 149 n789, 173, 197–
rebellion: 203, 339, 395, 401, 402 198, 200, 206–213, 216, 224–225,
n2289 276–278, 305, 323, 440, 444, 477–
reconciliation: 165–166, 176, 190– 478
192, 223–224, 405, 443, 467, 469– royal names: 226–229, 444
471, 506 royal power: 144, 156 n839, 158, 160–
reed shelter, reed hut: 176, 476, 520– 161, 196–198, 207–213, 216, 220,
524 225, 300, 302, 395–396, 491
reliefs: 23–24, 27, 41–45, 48 n208, 62 royal throne: 142–143, 198, 206, 208,
n277, 64, 100, 158 n846, 216, 251, 211–212, 217–220, 223, 428, 484,
308 n1741, 376, 397, 418 488
renewal, regeneration, rebirth (of the rubric: 11, 13–16, 42 n170, 77, 110,
moon): 5, 33–34, 55, 86, 94–95, 146, 164, 166–167, 189, 443, 483,
123–124, 160–161, 173, 211, 216– 490, 495, 503–505
217, 229–230, 236, 286–287, 295, runner (the moon as): 72–73, 78
415–416, 444, 453, 455, 458, 460, Samarra period: 385 n2172
477–478 Sargonid dynasty: 1, 3, 8–9, 65, 137
resin (as incense): 179, 185–186, 498– n733, 200, 210, 215–216, 224
503, 509–510, 513–514, 520, 522 n1253, 226–228, 268, 302, 310–
river: 21–22 n53, 48, 139–140, 165– 311 n1760, 314, 338–339, 348
166, 180–181, 275, 281, 283–284, n1965, 385–386, 395–407, 426–
291, 379, 474–476, 498, 500–501, 428, 444, 449
 Index 637

scapegoat: 321 solstice: 111, 412 n2340

scholars, scholarship: 7–8, 28, 32, 50 South Arabia: 218 n1228, 248–249
n220, 57, 61, 65–66, 93 n488, 123, stability (in the land, of the throne):
136–141, 149, 157, 170–171, 271, 210–211, 217, 220–223, 225, 418,
365, 390 n2205, 393, 406–407, 441 444, 450
seals (cylinder, stamp): 8, 21 n50, 23– star disc: 40–41
26, 39–43, 51–53, 73 n344, 84, 153 station: 50, 312–313, 352–354, 463
n813, 155 n831, 236, 238, 242, statue: 20, 24–28, 39 n151, 42, 47
249, 252, 329, 354, 373, 395, 409, n198, 52 n225, 157–158, 193–194,
439–440 217, 324, 350, 375, 375, 400–401,
sheepfold (supūru): 233 n1304, 237– 409, 418, 421 n2392, 423, 439
238, 241 n1350, 243, 246–247, stele: 23–25, 40–41, 43, 45, 52, 64
367, 444–445, 486, 488–489 n295, 149 n789, 158 n846, 251–
shepherd, shepherd-ship: 55, 214, 252, 260–263, 308, 333, 362–363,
224–225, 240–241, 244, 288, 290, 390–392, 397–398, 400 n2277, 415
319–320, 329, 444–445 steppe: 61, 100–101 n530, 247–249,
signs, signals: 6, 37 n134, 50–51, 58– 258, 278, 282 n1585, 486, 488, 494
59, 77, 85, 92 n483, 94–95, 107, stones: 26–27, 78 n373, 85, 89, 244–
121, 125–126, 136, 142–143, 146, 245, 275, 409, 416 n2368, 427,
150, 152, 155–163, 166–170, 175 432, 484–485, 487–488, 491
n962, 181–182, 189–191, 194, street names: 207–208
210–211, 216, 221–222, 275, 294– substitute: 163, 165–168, 170, 172–
295, 342, 348 n1964, 361 n2031, 173, 175–177, 265 n1498, 411,
383, 428, 442–445, 454, 458, 477– 415, 443, 500, 502, 520–524
478, 501, 503, 506, 512, 514, 521, Sumerian (literary) sources: 1–2, 38,
523 45–46, 48 n207, 52, 54, 60–63, 71–
silence (of the moon god): 85, 171, 76, 78, 89, 94–95, 108, 124, 141
179 n749, 147–148, 196–197, 204, 206,
sky: 16–17, 19–22, 31–32, 38, 45, 47 231, 240, 280, 288 n1614, 292–
n198, 55, 60, 62, 72–73 n342, 75, 293, 296–297, 302–303, 305–306,
78, 82–85, 88–89, 91–92, 94–95, 318, 321, 323, 333–335, 337–338,
98–101, 107, 116–117, 124, 128, 350, 353, 359, 380, 403–404
136 n728, 141, 158–159, 168, 170, n2296, 440, 515, 518
173–174, 184, 186, 188 n1052, sun: 16–17, 19–20 n42, 22, 38 n144,
194–195 n1092, 198, 219–222, 39, 78, 83, 85, 87 n437, 90–96, 98–
244, 247–248, 288–289, 321 99, 106–111, 113, 117 n648, 119–
n1824, 344 n1946, 348, 376, 396– 122, 124–127, 131, 136, 151, 154,
397, 439–440, 451, 463, 494–495 157–158, 167, 174–175, 191, 195,
speaking to deities: 106, 120–121, 206, 211, 216–225, 240, 247, 281,
126, 128, 130 305–309, 330, 391, 417, 422, 429–
spindle, spindle head: 507–509, 513, 430, 433, 441–442, 444, 450, 493–
515–517 494, 520–526
638 Index

sun disc: 40–41, 51 n222, 53, 111, 292, 314, 349, 395, 407 n2318,
127, 216, 219–220, 498, 502 441–442
sunrise, sunset: 16–17, 83 n414, 84 association with Anu: 58, 76, 101,
n417, 92, 96, 100, 107–109, 146 109, 144–149, 149, 155, 189, 486,
n777, 182, 184, 218, 314 489, 496
supremacy of deities: 86, 108, 136– association with Ea: 102–103, 144
137, 144–147, 149–153, 201, 234, n763
293, 296 n1659, 298–300, 306, association with Enlil: 66, 70–71,
315, 347, 351, 353, 441–442, 454, 104, 109, 112, 136–144, 149–150,
458 189, 205–206, 234, 292, 314–315,
sword (of the moon god): 23–25, 194 347–349, 351–356, 358–359, 441–
syncretism: 29, 37 n134, 79–80, 86, 442, 496
149 n790, 159, 297 n1671, 308– therapies: 7, 40, 70, 108, 110, 163,
312, 316–317, 326, 351, 381 211, 238–239, 243–244, 247, 272,
n2156, 463 280–281, 283, 286–289, 439, 445–
taboo: 262–263 446, 464, 474, 476, 477, 479, 515
tassels: 23, 43, 249, 251–252 time, time-keeping: 90–135, 139–140,
temenos: 335–338, 341, 343, 349 152, 154, 161, 196 n1098, 207,
temple, sanctuary, shrine: 7–10, 23– 216, 222, 254, 418, 427–428, 441,
26, 42–44, 46–47, 60 n264, 64, 74, 450–451
76, 78–81, 83 n414, 87, 89–90, 98– torch (description of moon light): 86,
99, 102, 106, 112–113, 141–142, 453, 458
149, 153–154, 157–158, 161–162, transgression: 156–157, 161, 166–167,
169, 180–181, 194, 201–205, 208– 175–177, 256, 270, 282, 285
210, 213–216, 220–221, 225, 231– n1599, 499, 502, 504, 506
234, 249–251, 255, 258, 260–261, treasury (in a divine household): 319–
290 n1623, 296, 298–299, 301– 320, 322
304, 308, 311, 313–315, 317–321, treaty: 37 n137, 223–224, 251–254,
323–324, 330–390, 392–394, 396– 255–260, 264, 367 n1505, 385–
438, 442–445, 447–451, 513, 515 386, 398 n2268, 418 n2378
teratomancy: 282 trees (on cylinder seals): 84, 238
theology: 4–11, 21, 61, 68, 71, 80, 99, tutelary deity: 12, 100, 196–197, 213,
107–108, 144 n763, 149 n789, 247, 250, 255, 300–301, 349, 367,
182–183, 196, 230–234, 236, 248, 370, 385, 387, 394, 427, 430, 447–
254–255, 261, 270, 286, 289–290, 448, 450
302, 305, 316, 321, 335, 342, 347– twin, twins: 70 n328, 220–221, 308–
349, 351, 353, 358–359, 369–372, 312, 318–319, 434–435
376–378, 386–387, 394–396, 406– Ur III period: 28 n78, 38, 46, 47 n198,
407, 410, 413, 415, 425, 429, 436, 100–101, 119, 141 n749, 291–292,
339, 441, 443–447, 449–450 297 n1667, 306, 313 n1779, 317,
“Theology of the Moon”: 62 n282, 322–323, 325, 331–332, 336–337,
112, 136–150, 155 n833, 205, 234, 343–344, 346, 349 n1971, 356,
 Index 639

359–361, 365 n2052, 368–371, 387 355–361, 408–409, 425, 429, 437–
n2188, 413 n2342 438, 447, 450
vegetation: 52–53, 230 n1287, 236–
238, 322 n1821, 323, 395 Selective glossary
verdict: 77–78, 92, 109, 118–121, 127, abrātu, “populace, humanity”: 465,
130, 142–143, 147, 151–156, 182, 470–471
184, 186, 189, 220–221, 248, 295, agû/aga, “crown”: 50, 57, 60–65, 87–
301–302, 323, 359–360, 443, 466, 88, 93–94, 139, 142–143, 152, 155,
470, 483 173, 187–188, 197–200, 206–211,
vizier (divine): 7, 171, 184, 205, 290, 214, 216, 257, 305, 344, 440, 484,
314–316, 318–319, 322–323, 328, 488, 492
354 n1996, 373 n2093, 388, 396, agê tašriḫti, “crown of splendour”:
404, 434, 446, 449, 484, 486–487, 49, 56, 62, 65–70, 103, 105, 137–
489 138, 440
votive gifts: 47 n198, 127, 133 akāšu, “to go; to move”: 463
war ritual: 109, 154, 223, 394, 520– anzillu, “taboo”: 499, 502, 504
526 anūtu, “Anu-ship”: 144–145
warrior: 121, 141 n748, 174, 226, 308 arḫu, “cow”: 139, 243
n1743, 310 n1755 arḫu, “month”: 33, 38, 55–59, 68, 92–
watches of the night: 50, 168–169, 95, 97–98, 142, 152, 122 n679,
277, 361 152, 161, 168–169, 175 n962, 211,
“weapon of Anu”: 140–141 257, 294–295, 310, 432, 454, 458,
West Semitic: 30, 389, 439 490, 511–512, 514–515, 518, 521,
wet nurse (in a divine household): 523
354–355, 370 attalû, “eclipse”: 26–27, 50 n218, 58,
wilderness: 100–101, 169, 247–248, 113, 126, 168–169, 175, 177–179,
282 n1585, 335, 445 281, 361, 454, 458
wisdom (of the moon god): 50–51 bašû, “to be (available)”: 522–523,
n221, 146 n773, 154–155 526
witnesses: 270, 365, 374 n2106, 422 bīt simmilti, “staircase”: 509, 513, 516
womb: 214–215, 231–233, 237–239, bubbulu, “day of the disappearance of
245 the moon”: 98, 122–127, 130, 132–
wood (in rituals): 284, 475, 507–509, 133, 135, 295, 455, 458, 460
513, 516 buginnu, “trough”: 49
wood (as building material): 209, 358, da’āpu, “to push; to knock over”: 513,
378 n2135, 403, 414 n2349, 419, 515, 518–519
430, 432 dārû, “everlasting”: 493
wool (in rituals): 165, 178–179, 498– dublû/dub-lá, “projection”: 356
499, 501–504, 507–508, 510, 512– eddēšû, “constantly renewing”: 89,
514 152 n804, 160, 173, 453, 458, 462,
ziqqurrat: 46–47, 153, 203–204, 303, 490
331–332, 336–338, 341, 343–349, edēšu, “to be(come) new”: 33–34,
640 Index

161, 211, 217, 273, 415–416 139, 408, 521, 523, 525
epqu, “leprosy”: 256, 271 n1523, 281– kinūnu, “brazier”: 467, 470, 472
282 kiṣṣu, “shrine”: 76
eqbu, “heel”: 499, 502, 504 kussû, “throne”: 143, 145 n768, 198,
eršu, “wise”: 50–51 n221, 87 n442, 208, 211, 217, 223, 428, 484, 488
155, 200 n1124 kuṣṣu, “chills”: 474–476
etēqu, “to go past”: 504, 508, 512, kuzbu/ḫi-li, “luxuriance”: 245
514–515 lalû/la-la, “plenty”: 54, 68, 245, 318
gabāṣu, “to squint (convulsively)”: n1816, 499, 502
274 lītu/áb, “cow”: 241 n1355, 288
gadamāḫu, “fine linen garment”: 484, lumun libbi, “grief; sorrow; anger”:
488, 492 170
túg
galamāḫu, “chief lamentation priest”: MA.AN.DUL: 509–510, 513–514,
393–394, 438 516–517
ganūnu, “living quarters”: 472 makāku/magāgu, “to spread out”:
garābu, “leprosy”: 281, 283–284 509–510, 513, 517
gišnugallu (designation for white massû, “leader, expert”: 462–463
stones): 78 mašmaššu, “incantation priest” (as an
ḫadû, “to be joyful”: 162, 314, 397 epithet): 177–178
n2259, 484–488, 493–494 mašqītu, “drinking place”: 237, 246,
ḫanābu, “to grow abundantly”: 236 486, 488–489, 494
ḫidâtu, “joy, rejoicings”: 397 n2259, melammu, “fearsome radiance”: 87
409, 419–421 milku, “advice”: 95, 153, 155 n831,
ḫimṭu, “scorching; fever; anxiety”: 459 454–455, 458
ḫurbāšu, “shivers”: 474–476 miqit šamê/AN.TA.ŠUB.BA, “epilep-
ibšu/ipšu,“mat”: 516 sy”: 40, 271, 273–274, 280–281
ittu/giskim, “sign”: 32 n107, 58, 88 muḫtanbu, “growing”: 236, 484, 488,
n449, 89 n462, 94, 152, 156, 160, 492
162–163, 166, 175 n962, 261, 454, nabalkattu: 522, 524, 526
458, 477–478, 501, 503, 512, 514, nakāpu/du7, “to thrust; gore”: 344
521, 523 namrīrū, “awe-inspiring radiance”: 87,
itû, “boundary”: 499, 502, 504 155, 246, 453–454, 458
kabāsu, “to tread”: 499, 502, 504 namru, “bright, shining”: 16, 32, 36,
kabtu, “important, venerable”: 142, 87–89, 162 n876, 204 n1163, 208,
145, 243, 257 n1455, 299–300, 301 n1692, 308, 421, 462, 484,
454, 458, 460, 462–463 487–488, 490
karû, “to be short”: 517 nannāru/u4-sakar: 5, 13–14, 16, 29,
katāmu: 499, 502, 504 31–39, 47, 67–68, 76 n360, 77, 81,
kayyamānu: 16, 486, 489, 495 88–90, 108, 142–143, 148, 149
kikkišu, “reed fence; wall”: 521–522, n789, 160, 168, 173, 177, 208, 210,
524 244, 258–259, 294, 301–302, 310,
kilallān, “both”: 14, 95–96, 108–109, 327, 372 n2096, 408, 439–440,
 Index 641

453, 458–459, 462–465, 470, 484– qimmatu, “tuft; crest”: 474–476

485, 488, 490–491, 498–499, 501– ramānu, “self”: 44 n184, 54, 148, 513,
502, 504–505, 510, 514 515, 518–519
napāḫu, “to blow”: 35 n126, 83–84, rašbu, “awe-inspiring; fearsome”: 87,
499, 502, 504 462–463
neqelpû/diri, “to float, glide”: 45 n187, rašdu, “firmly founded”: 493
237, 274–275 rēmu, “womb, compassion”: 231, 467,
nērtu, “murder, killing”: 468, 471–472 470
nin-gal, “elder sister”: 326 riāšu, “to rejoice”: 485–486, 488–489,
nipḫu, “lighting, flaring (up)”: 83, 149 493–494, 521, 523
n790, 157–158, 162 rību, “setting”: 83, 157–158, 162
nissatu, “wailing, lamentation”: 468, rīmu, “wild bull”: 26–27, 231, 240,
471–472 340
niṭlu, “look; view”: 521, 523, 525 rītu, “pasture”: 237, 246, 486, 488–
nukurtu, “enmity, hostility”: 522, 524, 489, 494
526 ruššû, “having reddish sheen”: 459
nūru/zálag, “light” saĝ-dili, “lone, single; noble”: 358
palû, “reign, dynasty”: 58, 158, 143, n2019
208, 223, 225, 298, 428–429, 522 saḫaršubbû, “leprosy”: 255–258, 270,
paqādu, “to entrust; appoint”: 105, 281
521, 523, 525 simakku, “shrine”: 76
parṣu/ĝarza, “divine powers; cultic or- simmu, “wound; skin eruption”: 289
dinances”: 136, 140–143, 145, 204, sînu, “moon”: 28
351 n1976, 441 ṣaddu, “sign, signal”: 59, 89, 121,
pirištu, “secret”: 125, 455, 458 142–143, 152, 159–161, 211, 213
piṭru, “gut”: 199 n1207, 294, 383, 428
puluḫtu, “fear(someness)”: 27–28 ṣummirātu, “wish; goal”: 521, 522,
purussû, “decision”: 36, 57 n252, 58, 524–525
89, 97, 108–109, 120–121, 126, šanû, “to run”: 73
128, 138–139, 142, 146, 151–154, šaqû, “high”: 14, 50–51 n221, 61, 87,
158–160, 214, 246 n1387, 294– 203
295, 301–302, 428, 442, 454, 458, šarāpu, “to burn”: 265
477–478, 511, 514, 521, 523 šarūru, “brilliance”: 87, 167, 453, 458
qalû, “to roast; burn”: 265 šelāšû, “thirtieth day of the month:
qerû, “to call; invite”: 509–510, 513, 127–128, 316
517 šipṭu, “verdict”: 142–143, 152–154,
qibītu, “speech; command”: 50, 146, 301–302
152–153, 233, 276, 305, 307, 313 šuddû, “to cause to be in ruins”: 484,
n1780, 314 n1782, 326, 343, 480– 487, 491
481, 484–490, 498, 501, 521–522 šukbušu, “step; rung”: 510–511, 514,
qilûtu, “burnt materials”: 284, 475– 517
476 šukênu, “to prostrate oneself”: 178–
642 Index

179, 284, 506, 509, 512–514, 518 472

šuklulu/šu––du7, “to complete, per- taqānu, “to be placid, orderly, secure”:
fect”: 42, 60–61, 173, 198, 206, 217
245 tēdištu, “renewal”: 123–124, 142–143,
šupalkû, “to open wide”: 84, 485–486, 455, 458, 460
488–489, 493 tillû, “proper attire of a person”: 520,
šupardû, “to brighten”: 491 522, 524
šuparruru, “to spread out”: 60–61 tiqnu, “insignia”: 173
šutātû, “meet (one another)”: 223 ṭā’tu, “bribe”: 468, 471–472
šutukku, “reed hut”: 476 umāmu, “(wild) animals”: 90, 120–
tāmartu, “appearance”: 13, 59, 82, 85, 121, 248
95, 139, 142–143, 158–159, 163– ūmu rīqu, “empty day”: 123
164, 221–222, 442, 485, 488, 499, ûrtu, “order”: 142–143, 153, 319–320
502–504, 522–523, 525 uskāru/u4-sakar, “crescent moon”: 35,
tāmītu, “response (to an oracle 38–39, 42, 60 n264, 94–95, 109
query)”: 125–126, 169–170, 187, n586, 137, 195, 439
455, 458, 484, 486–489 zibnu, “reed mat”: 516
tamṭītu, “reduction; loss”: 468, 471–
Copies of Cuneiform Tablets
 Plate 1

K. 15528 (“Sîn 1”)

K. 10151 (“Sîn 2”)

K. 2751+K. 2792+K. 7973+K. 9242+K. 10011+K. 13785, obv.

(detail of column II)
Plate 2

K. 2751+K. 2792+K. 7973+K. 9242+K. 10011+K. 13785, obv.

(ikrib-prayers to Sîn)
 Plate 3

K. 2751+K. 2792+K. 7973+K. 9242+K. 10011+K. 13785, rev.

(ikrib-prayers to Sîn)
Plate 4

K. 2751+K. 2792+K. 7973+K. 9242+K. 10011+K. 13785, rev.

(detail of column III)
 Plate 5

K. 2751+K. 2792+K. 7973+K. 9242+K. 10011+K. 13785, rev.

(detail of column IV)
Plate 6

K. 3794+Ki. 1904-10-9, 157, obv. (ikrib-prayers to Sîn)

 Plate 7

K. 3794+Ki. 1904-10-9, 157, obv. (detail)

Plate 8

K. 3794+Ki. 1904-10-9, 157, rev. (ikrib-prayers to Sîn)

 Plate 9

CBS 1695, obv. (“Sîn 6” & “Sîn 7”)

Plate 10

CBS 1695, rev. (“Sîn 6” & “Sîn 7”)

 Plate 11

VAT 8004 , obv.

Plate 12

VAT 8004, rev.

 Plate 13

K. 8666, obv.
Plate 14

K. 8666, rev.