Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Modelling, solution and application of optimization techniques in HRES:

From conventional to artificial intelligence
Vivek Saxena a,*, Narendra Kumar b, Saibal Manna a , Saurabh Kumar Rajput c,
Kusum Lata Agarwal d, Sourav Diwania e , Varun Gupta f
a
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, ABES Engineering College, Ghaziabad, U.P., India
b
Director, East Campus, Netaji Subhas University of Technology, New Delhi, India
c
Centre for Internet of Things, Madhav Institute of Technology and Science, Gwalior, India
d
Dean, Unitedworld Institute of Technology, Karanvati University, Gandhinagar, Gujrat, India
e
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad, India
f
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Sikkim, India

H I G H L I G H T S

• HRES reduce GHG emissions and cut electricity costs.

• AI-based optimization enhances efficiency and speed.
• Hybrid algorithms boost HRES reliability and cost-effectiveness.
• HOMER aids HRES design with user-friendly tools.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The escalating costs of electricity, coupled with the urgent environmental challenges posed by fossil fuel con-
Artificial intelligence sumption, underscore the necessity of transitioning to renewable energy sources (RES). Hybrid renewable energy
Classical approaches systems (HRES), which integrate resources such as solar, wind, and hydropower, offer a promising pathway for
Computational techniques
sustainable energy solutions that reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, mitigate environmental degradation,
Hybrid approach
and alleviate financial burdens on consumers. Despite their potential, the deployment of HRES remains complex
HRES
Software due to factors such as resource variability, multidimensional system architectures, and substantial net present
costs. This study provides a comprehensive review of recent advancements in HRES optimization, evaluating
classical methods, artificial intelligence (AI)-based approaches, hybrid algorithms, and software-driven tools.
The findings highlight the advantages of AI-based techniques, which demonstrate superior global optimization
capabilities and reduced computational times, albeit with certain limitations. Hybrid algorithms, combining
multiple optimization techniques, emerge as particularly effective for enhancing system efficiency and reliability.
Optimization platforms like HOMER are also noted for their practical utility in facilitating HRES design through
user-friendly interfaces. This analysis underscores the potential of optimized HRES configurations to contribute

Abbreviations: AEO, Artificial Ecosystem Optimization; B&B, Branch and bound algorithm; BB, Big Bang; BC, Big Crunch; BPFPA, Hybrid Bee pollinator Flower
Pollination Algorithm; CMMI, correction matrix method; DGn, Distributed Generation; DHS, discrete harmony search; DMGWO, Discrete Multi-objective Grey Wolf
Algorithm; EVCS, EV charging stations; GPSBBO, Greedy particle swarm and biogeography-based optimization; HF, High frequency; HGSO, Henry gas solubility
optimizer; HOMER, Hybrid optimization model for electric renewables; HSWPS, hybrid solar-wind power systems; IACA, Improved Ant Colony algorithm; LCOHE,
levelized cost of hydrogen, and emissions; LF, Low frequency; MEA, Mind Evolutionary Algorithm; MLP, Multi-layer perception; MLUCA, multi-objective line-up
competition algorithm; MOCSA, Multi-objective crow search algorithm; MOHTLBOGWO, Multi-Objective Hybrid Teaching–Learning Based Optimization-Grey
Wolf Optimizer; MOOD, Multi-objective optimization dispatch; MOPSO, Multi objective PSO; MOSaDE, multi-objective self-adaptive differential evolution algo-
rithm; NAS, Nitrifying-enriched activated sludge; PIO, Pigeon-inspired optimization; PSOMCS, PSO-based Monte Carlo Simulation; SMA, Slime Mold Algorithm;
SOMA, Self-Organizing Migrating Algorithm; SSA, Sparrow Search Algorithm; WPE, Wind-PV-Energy storage; WT, Wind Turbine.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (V. Saxena).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.125047
Received 26 August 2024; Received in revised form 12 November 2024; Accepted 29 November 2024
Available online 7 December 2024
0306-2619/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
V. Saxena et al. Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

significantly to load management, reduce GHG emissions, and achieve cost savings, ultimately guiding readers in
selecting the most suitable optimization strategies for various HRES applications.

1. Introduction and wind turbines (WT). These technologies offer sustainable and effi-
cient alternatives to traditional, centralised power systems, providing
One significant challenge currently facing the global community is reliable energy solutions while minimising environmental impact [2].
the escalating demand for energy, as well as the attendant challenges Yet, RES are inherently stochastic and less predictable compared to fossil
associated with the finite availability of fossil fuel resources. Economic fuels. HRES addresses this by combining different sources to leverage
growth and population expansion contribute to higher energy demand, their strengths and mitigate their weaknesses. For example, combining
leading to increased consumption of fossil fuels. Traditional fossil fuel wind and solar irradiation exploits complementary regular and seasonal
sources, including coal, petroleum, and natural gas, pose environmental patterns [3]. Additionally, integrating hydropower facilities into hybrid
hazards, entail substantial costs, and pose significant risks to future systems enhances flexibility and stability [4]. Energy storage technolo-
energy stability. Furthermore, the rapid depletion of these finite con- gies, including batteries, fuel cells (FC), and pumped hydroelectric
ventional reserves underscores the necessity of implementing sustain- storage, serve as effective measures to mitigate the unpredictability
able measures to prevent future energy crises. Furthermore, fossil fuels associated with RES [5]. In rural areas where traditional electricity
contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions, exacerbating the generation methods that rely on fossil fuels, as well as widespread grid
problem of global warming. Consequently, there is a growing inclination expansion, are not feasible, the implementation of HRES emerges as a
towards the integration of RES alongside its non-renewable counter- particularly suitable alternative. These regions often face logistical and
parts, aimed at enhancing energy efficiency and addressing the associ- economic challenges that make conventional power solutions imprac-
ated challenges. For cost reduction and improved system reliability, it is tical. In such scenarios, HRES offers a promising and effective means of
preferred to use hybrid technology that leverages multiple power providing reliable electricity. By integrating multiple RES, these systems
sources. Hybrid distributed energy networks’ reliability and mathe- can ensure a steady and sustainable energy supply, addressing the
matical optimisation for operation and planning represent advance- unique needs and constraints of rural environments. This suitability
ments [1]. However, designing renewable energy systems of optimal stems from HRES’ inherent adaptability, allowing them to function
scale remains challenging, with overly large or small systems posing seamlessly in both grid-connected and off-grid configurations. Further-
issues of energy supply unpredictability. Due to the considerable costs more, these systems make significant contributions not only to global
associated with grid expansion, rural areas in countries like India persist sustainability, economic efficacy, and reliability but also to social
in experiencing disconnection from centralised electricity networks, advancement. However, optimising HRES configurations for efficiency
despite notable technological advancements and heightened global and profitability remains challenging due to location-dependent
consciousness. One of the most promising approaches to addressing this resource availability. The graphical abstract, depicted in Fig. 1, pro-
challenge involves the implementation of decentralised electricity sys- vides a visual representation of the article’s content.
tems that harness RES. This strategy includes the use of small-scale Studying hybrid systems poses significant challenges due to the
hydroelectric power, biomass energy, photovoltaic (PV) solar panels, diverse array of generating systems involved. The optimisation

Fig. 1. A visual representation of the article’s content.

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V. Saxena et al. Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

objectives for hybrid systems based on RES encompass achieving ideal Furthermore, there has been significant attention devoted to
operational conditions and conducting economic evaluations while modelling and optimising off-grid HRES [12]. These systems, which
ensuring performance optimisation that meets all physical and technical operate independently of the main power grid, require specialised
constraints. A fundamental aspect of scaling HRES is to effectively and design considerations to ensure reliable and efficient performance in
economically utilize RES. Prevalent weather conditions inherently in- remote or isolated locations. Configuration and control strategies for
fluence the generation of electricity from renewable sources like wind HRES have also been explored to optimise system operation and ensure
and solar. This underscores the importance of maximising power output stability [13]. These studies delve into the complex interplay of various
during conducive weather conditions by employing efficient system energy sources and storage systems to develop robust control algorithms
designs. We assess the feasibility of harnessing RES through a techno- and management strategies.
economic examination of hybrid systems. Designing hybrid energy Finally, research efforts have extended to the operation and planning
systems increasingly involves utilising various optimal sizing method- of HRES, addressing key challenges such as system integration, resource
ologies. Hybrid system configuration and control approaches are inter- management, and long-term viability [14]. These studies provide valu-
connected, which complicates system sizing, design, and evaluation. able insights into the practical implementation and sustainable man-
Optimal sizing strategies aid in optimising component utilisation while agement of renewable energy systems in real-world scenarios.
maximising performance and minimising investment. Moreover, scholarly examinations have been conducted concerning
As the complexity of HRES grows, efficient scaling of system com- the optimisation of software tools [15] and the HOMER software spe-
ponents necessitates optimisation approaches to handle the expanding cifically tailored for HRES scaling [16]. However, these reviews pri-
number of variables and parameters. To mitigate the risks associated marily focused on systems exclusively reliant on solar or wind energy,
with under sizing or oversizing, sizing and optimisation methodologies omitting comprehensive evaluations encompassing economic, environ-
necessitate proficient exploration. This guarantees the determination of mental, reliability, social, and technological facets of HRES modelling.
system design with optimal cost-efficiency and reliability. Overcoming Additionally, there was a noticeable absence of comparative analyses of
challenges in hybrid renewable-based systems is achievable through optimal outcomes derived from diverse methodologies, thorough eval-
flexible, resilient, and computationally intelligent optimisation uations of hybrid systems integrating biomass and hydroelectric energy,
approaches. and investigations into recent advancements in AI techniques for scaling
Designing and optimising HRES components enhances system reli- hybrid HRES. These deficiencies underscore the need for further
ability and reduces investment costs, making them a crucial solution for research and exploration in these areas.
combating climate change and reducing reliance on fossil fuels. There has been a lot of research recently on HRES and how to make
To support stakeholders and researchers in further exploration, them work best at scaling up. This study is different from others because
conducting updated literature reviews on HRES, including recent ad- it looks at a lot of different studies. Unlike earlier endeavours, this
vancements, applications, and optimisation methods, is essential. analysis encompasses a diverse array of hybrid systems, problem for-
Within the domain of optimisation methods, a spectrum of approaches mulations, application scenarios, and geographic contexts. Through a
encompasses various methodologies and software-based tools. Collec- systematic examination of optimisation problems, it elucidates the un-
tively, these methodologies furnish a versatile toolkit for the optimisa- derlying objectives, decision variables, and reliability constraints
tion of system performance. inherent in such processes.
Previous scholarly literature has delved extensively into the realm of By disseminating these findings, the study facilitates a deeper un-
RES, conducting comprehensive investigations into a wide array of derstanding of recent advancements in the techno-economic feasibility
configurations and methodologies. These include studies focusing on PV assessment of HRES, thereby laying a foundation for future research
and wind systems, examining their individual contributions to sustain- endeavours. Moreover, it equips readers with valuable insights for
able energy generation [6]. Additionally, there has been dedicated selecting the most suitable combination of RES tailored to specific
research into systems solely reliant on solar energy, exploring their geographical locations, thus effectively addressing supply-demand
potential and limitations [7]. dynamics.
Amid growing concerns over climate change, global renewable en- The document follows a structured approach to discussing optimi-
ergy capacity expanded significantly in 2023, increasing by 50 %. By the sation strategies for HRES. It begins with an introduction that likely
end of the year, the total capacity of renewable sources—including solar, outlines the significance of optimising HRES and sets the context for the
wind, hydropower, geothermal, marine, and biogas—reached approxi- subsequent sections. The second section provides an overview of various
mately 3372 GW worldwide. The renewable energy sector is projected to optimization strategies and the challenges they pose. This could include
continue growing at a rate of 4.22 % annually, indicating a worldwide traditional methods like mathematical modelling and linear program-
transition to sustainable energy solutions. China and the United States ming, as well as the difficulties in applying them to HRES. Moving on,
currently lead in solar PV capacity, with 760 GW and 265 GW installed, the document explores traditional optimisation strategies specifically
respectively. In Africa, renewable capacity reached about 221 GW, tailored for HRES. This section may delve into the historical applications
primarily from hydropower, solar PV, and biomass energy sources [8,9]. of these methods for optimising renewable energy systems, as well as
Hybrid systems that integrate both PV and wind technologies have their inherent limitations. The focus then shifts to optimisation strate-
also been a subject of considerable interest in the academic community gies based on AI techniques. This section likely explores the application
[10]. These studies aim to understand the synergistic effects of of AI methods like genetic algorithms (GA) or neural networks to opti-
combining different RES to optimise energy production and system mise complex systems like HRES. Next, the document examines hybrid
reliability. Furthermore, scholars have developed computational optimisation methods, which combine elements of traditional optimi-
frameworks and employed methodologies grounded in AI to enhance the sation approaches with AI techniques. These methods aim to leverage
approach for optimising the size of RES [2]. These innovative ap- the strengths of both approaches to achieve improved optimisation re-
proaches leverage advanced algorithms and modelling techniques to sults. Another section discusses recent advances in AI algorithms and
accurately assess the requirements and performance of renewable en- their potential applications in HRES optimization. This may include
ergy installations. newer algorithms like deep learning or swarm intelligence, as well as
Optimisation techniques have been another focal point of research, how they can improve optimization outcomes.
particularly concerning the enhancement of horizontal WT performance Various optimization techniques, ranging from traditional methods
[11]. By fine-tuning the design and operation parameters, researchers to AI-based approaches, have been applied to improve efficiency, reli-
seek to maximize energy output while minimising costs and environ- ability, and cost-effectiveness. For instance, the Whale Optimization
mental impacts. Algorithm (WOA) has been utilised to integrate RES with solar-to-

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V. Saxena et al. Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

vehicle technology, optimising energy distribution in hybrid systems (LSTM) networks with historical data to develop dynamic equivalent
[17]. Additionally, Monte Carlo simulations have been employed to models, accurately capturing HRES power responses over the year for
assess random power flow in vehicle-to-grid operations [18]. Further- stability studies [21]. Another integrates Artificial Neural Networks
more, power management and sizing optimization, with a focus on cost (ANNs) and weather data to optimise system sizing and energy man-
and reliability; have been explored for isolated systems, particularly in agement, significantly improving resource utilisation [22]. In off-grid
specific climatic regions [19]. These studies highlight the growing role applications, a modified salp swarm algorithm (LSC-SSA) has been
of both conventional and AI-based optimization techniques in enhancing shown to reduce costs and outperform Genetic Algorithms in managing
the performance and economic viability of HRES in diverse conditions systems with multiple renewable sources like PV, biomass, and
[20]. hydrogen fuel cells [23]. Additional tools, such as a macro-level energy
Recent advancements in HRES optimization have introduced dy- demand model tailored to telecom networks, enable HRES designs
namic and AI-driven approaches that enhance system efficiency and specific to regional energy needs, aiding cost-effective green energy
adaptability. For example, one study employs Long Short-Term Memory adoption [24]. The Evolved Opposition-based Mountain Gazelle

Fig. 2. Categorisation of optimization problem.

4
V. Saxena et al. Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

Optimizer (EOBMGO) further optimizes HRES by minimising costs and facilitating optimisation processes, as depicted in Fig. 3 and summarised
enhancing reliability, proving valuable for complex sizing challenges in Table 1. Conducting a thorough viability assessment covering several
[25]. These methodologies highlight the growing impact of AI in aspects is crucial in the field of HRES design.
refining HRES design and operation. Technical, financial, dependability, ecological, and social aspects
Furthermore, the document delves into linked software tools must all be considered. Optimising component sizing can significantly
commonly used for optimising HRES. This section provides insights into reduce life cycle costs and enhance system reliability, ensuring an un-
simulation software, optimisation platforms, or custom-built algorithms interrupted, high-quality power supply. Examining reliability in-
that aid in the optimisation process. The final section presents a sum- dicators, including load and energy loss, informs system performance
mary of the research findings and debates. This section likely synthesises improvement strategies. Table 2 provides a detailed compilation of the
key results and highlights areas of disagreement or uncertainty within frequently utilised indices related to cost, reliability, social aspects, and
the field of HRES optimization. Finally, the document ends with a environmental impact, along with their corresponding formulas.
concluding statement or perspective based on the findings and discus- To effectively address optimization challenges in renewable energy
sions presented throughout. This may include recommendations for systems, it is crucial to develop accurate mathematical models for each
future research directions or practical implications for optimising HRES energy source. These models capture the unique characteristics and
in real-world scenarios. constraints of different renewables—such as the intermittent nature of
wind and solar energy or the storage dynamics in batteries—, which are
2. Types of optimization challenges and solution techniques essential for designing optimization strategies. Table 3 presents math-
ematical models commonly used for renewable energy sources, high-
Optimisation, as the process of enhancing or minimising an objective lighting key parameters and the specific optimization challenges they
function, is crucial across various engineering applications, addressing introduce. These models serve as the foundation for selecting appro-
specific constraints and conditions [26]. It involves determining the priate optimization techniques, which range from conventional ap-
most effective strategy or circumstances to maximize desired factors or proaches to advanced AI-based algorithms, depending on the complexity
reduce undesired aspects, known as the objective function, within a and variability of each source.
specific problem. This necessitates finding an appropriate algorithm by
establishing mathematical relationships between objectives, constraints, 3. Optimal capacity of HRES using classical optimization
and decision variables, highlighting the complexity of obtaining optimal methods
solutions. The classification of optimisation problems considers factors
like the number and types of objectives, variables, constraints, and Methods of optimisation rooted in classical principles are deter-
problem structure. Real-world optimisation tasks often involve ministic, employing mathematical frameworks to identify global
numerous control variables while adhering to diverse regulations. optimal solutions. This approach offers the advantage of yielding
Evaluation methods may employ single or multi-objective approaches. definitive solutions; however, it struggles when faced with a high
Single-objective methods focus on a sole objective function, potentially number of variables within complex spaces, a limitation evident in
causing convergence issues in evolutionary algorithms due to insuffi- practice. In the initial design and optimisation stages, traditional
cient diversity. In contrast, multi-objective strategies address various methods encompass graphical, numerical, iterative, analytical, and
objectives simultaneously, enhancing adaptability. Optimising the probabilistic analyses, often in combination [3]. These methods derive
objective function requires assigning variables within their bounds, solution approaches by applying differential calculus to compute energy
ensuring optimal performance. Various optimisation issues are illus- models effectively. Classical optimisation-dependent techniques excel at
trated in Fig. 2, emphasizing the necessity of designing effective opti- finding optimal, continuous, and differentiated solutions. Nonetheless,
misation strategies. These strategies fall into three categories: classical their applicability diminishes in scenarios where objective functions
techniques, AI, and software tools. Classical methods rely on differential lack continuity and/or differentiability, constraining the scope of these
calculus, while AI mimics learning processes without explicit mathe- optimisation methods.
matical modelling. Software tools encompass computer programs

Fig. 3. Categorisation of optimization techniques and constraints.

5
 V. Saxena et al.
Table 1
Optimization techniques and their advantages and disadvantages.
Algorithm Advantages Disadvantages Ref.

Efficiency Speed Simplicity Robustness Adaptability Optimal Balance Searching Scalability Minimal Premature Local Optima Slow Inaccuracies Control
Solutions Ability Effort Convergence Trapping Convergence Parameters
Tuning

Genetic ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ [27]
algorithms
Cross entropy ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ [28,29]
Simulated ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ [30,31]
annealing
Particle swarm ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ [27]
Artificial Bee ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ [32]
Colony
Biogeography- ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ [33,34]
based
Flower pollination ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ [35]
Social Spider ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ [36]
Optimizer
6

Grey wolf ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ [37]

optimizer
Jaya Algorithm ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ [38]
Dragonfly ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ [39]
algorithm
Pity Beetle ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ [40,41]
Algorithm
Coyote ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ [42]
Optimization
Deer hunting ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ [43,44]
optimization
Forensic-based ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ [45,46]
algorithm
Manta ray
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ [47,48]
foraging
Golden eagle
✓ ✓ ✓ [49]
optimizer
Tunicate Swarm ✓ ✓ ✓ [50]
Jellyfish optimizer ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ [51]

Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

V. Saxena et al. Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

Table 3
Various assessment and their indicators.

Renewable Emissions
of CO2

✓ [64]
Source Mathematical modelling Ref.
⎧
Wind ⎪
⎪ [65]
⎪
Energy ⎪
⎪
⎪ ( )
⎪
⎪ VZ,t − Vcut−

creation fraction
in
⎨ Prat Vcut− < VZ,t < Vcut−

✓ [53]
in off
EW = Vrat − Vcut− in
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ 0 VZ,t ≤ Vcut− in OR VZ,t ≥ Vcut− off

✓ [53]
Where: Prat is the rated power of the wind turbine at rated
Job

wind speed Vrat , Vcut− in and Vcut− off are the cut-in and cut-
development

off wind speeds, and VZ,t is the wind speed at the wind
turbine hub height (hZ ) and it is calculated from: VZ,t =
Human

( )∝
✓ [53]
hZ
index

V0,t , where, V0,t is the wind speed at a certain

h0
elevation (h0 ) and α is the wind shear coefficient.
Solar ] Ht [66–68]
probability

[
absorption
Novel grid

PPV = PSTC 1 + βp (Tcell − TSTC )

Energy HSTC
✓ [63]
energy autonomy power

Where: TSTC and Tcell are the celll’s surface temperature at

Standard Test Condition, βp is the power temperature
coefficient. The challenge that researchers will face is to
Excess Level of

find an empirical equation to determine the cell surface

✓ [62]

temperature Tcell For example: Tcell = T∞ + 7.8 × 10− 2 Ht

Hydro Ph = ηρgQH [69]
Energy Where: Ph is hydropower (W), η is turbine efficiency, ρ is
fraction

✓ [61]

✓ [53]

water density (kg/m3), g is gravitational acceleration (m/

s2)
Q is flow rate (m3/s), and H is head height (m)
Equivalent
loss factor

Biomass Pb = ηb⋅LHV⋅m [70]

✓ [60]

Energy Where: Pb is biomass power (W), ηb is biomass conversion

efficiency, LHV is lower heating value of biomass (MJ/kg)
and m is mass of biomass feed (kg)
probability
Loss of

✓ [59]
reliability supply
power

3.1. Numerical approaches

Mathematical tools that allow the derivation of approximate solu-

energy not Dissatisfaction index of
Energy

✓ [58]

tions are known as numerical methods, and they provide practical av-
enues for problem-solving. The development of a HRES serves as a
notable example of this application. This system’s feasibility was thor-
oughly evaluated in the context of Ghardaïa, Algeria. The implementa-
✓ [57]

tion of a techno-economic optimisation methodology, integrating

Expected Load

Rate

considerations of both reliability and economic efficiency, is anticipated

to yield a tailored configuration aimed at cost reduction. Drawing from
expected supplied

models that assess both reliability and economic factors, the objective
✓ [56]

centres on nullifying energy deficits. Moreover, the study recommends

equipping a desalination plant with an integrated hybrid system that can
harness multiple renewable energy sources. This system architecture
Loss of

✓ [56]
load

would incorporate WT, solar PV panels, and hydrogen-based technolo-

gies to ensure a reliable and sustainable energy supply for the desali-
interruption
probability probability

nation operations. Employing iterative optimisation methodologies,

adjustments are made to the dimensions of PV arrays, WT, FC, electro-
Hourly

✓ [55]

lysers, hydrogen storage facilities, and desalination units. The primary

objective of these methodologies is to substantially mitigate expenses
and enhance the dependability of the energy supply. Analysis reveals
✓ [55]
Deficit
power

that the Kerkennah Islands exhibit high solar and wind penetration,
resulting in decreased hydrogen tank capacity requirements and
Levelized

consequently improving system reliability. These findings emphasise the

Annual

✓ [54]

efficacy of RES integration in enhancing hybrid system performance

Various assessment and their indicators.

Cost

[71,72].
Finding the appropriate capacity of solar PV power systems for res-
pollutants
Penalty
cost for

idential use has been the subject of a significant amount of statistical

carbon

✓ [53]

investigation. These systems are designed to work in conjunction with

net metering programs, which allow homeowners to offset their elec-
Levelized

tricity costs by generating their own solar energy and feeding excess
✓ [52]
energy
cost of

power back into the grid.

The aim of these approaches is to identify the most efficient and cost-
Environment
Assessment

effective solar PV capacity that meets the energy needs of residential

Reliability
Economic
Table 2

users while maximising the benefits of net metering. Researchers have

Social

explored both deterministic and stochastic approaches. The findings

7
V. Saxena et al. Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

delineated in a scholarly investigation [73] evinced that stochastic straightforward to implement, they necessitate considerable time due to
optimisation methodologies yielded an optimal power output of around the multiple loops required for complex calculations [80]. To optimise
20 KW, a magnitude inferior to that achieved through deterministic the size of renewable energy components at CDER (Bouzar’eah),
approaches. Deterministic approaches aim to optimise generation and Algeria, for residential electricity supply, an iterative optimisation-
storage unit sizes to reduce capital and energy costs for residential ap- based model is proposed. Comprising three sub-models—hybrid sys-
plications, as illustrated in a study focusing on Monastir, Tunisia [74]. tem, technical, and economic—the model aims to determine optimal
Results indicate that a HRES with energy storage offers cost-effective configurations considering system stability criteria and cost-
electricity, ranging from 0.3082 to 0.3716 euros per kilowatt-hour, effectiveness [84]. An iterative approach is undertaken to assess the
considering different residential demand profiles. most advantageous dimensions for solar PV, wind, and battery compo-
To enhance micro grid accuracy and reliability, it’s recommended to nents, characterised by iterative refinement. This thorough evaluation
employ stochastic optimisation for determining optimal energy storage spans a range of scenarios, encompassing varying levels of loss of power
sizes, particularly in scenarios with wind uncertainty [75]. Integrating supply probability (LPSP) and consecutive hours, ensuring comprehen-
optimal battery capacities with renewable-powered micro grids can sive coverage of potential operational conditions. Additionally, the
reduce power outage frequency and duration. A novel discrete tabu analysis incorporates the application of a statistical model to accurately
search approach has been introduced to enhance the optimisation of estimate the power generation capabilities derived from both solar and
standalone energy systems that integrate solar panels, WT, and battery wind sources, enhancing the precision and reliability of the findings
storage units. This method has demonstrated exceptional effectiveness, [85].
outperforming several other optimisation algorithms, as documented in Iterative methods are essential for optimising HRES due to their
reference [76]. Comprehensive economic analyses suggest that the ability to handle complex interactions and uncertainties. For example, in
robust solar radiation available in the studied regions should prioritize a topography-based hybrid power system, iterative optimization tech-
configurations combining PV panels with batteries. niques were used to evaluate system feasibility and economic viability,
The efficacy of independent hybrid solar PV/wind/battery systems in ensuring optimal configurations [86]. Similarly, in an isolated renew-
South Tyrol is assessed utilising mixed integer linear programming able hybrid system with pumped hydro storage, iterative methods
(MILP), focusing prominently on the technical and economic facets of ensured both reliability and cost-effectiveness [87]. These methods were
these systems [77]. High initial battery costs, as well as significant also applied to integrate pumped hydro storage in hybrid PV/wind
operation and maintenance expenses in remote areas, impact system systems, optimising energy storage sizes for better performance [88]. In
costs. Linear programming offers optimal solutions quickly but may the assessment of solar potential, iterative approaches allowed for pre-
struggle with increased variables and dimensions. Analytical approaches cise adjustments to align energy production with demand [89], while in
require more computations and may not converge to absolute solutions rural microgrids, iterative techniques balanced system reliability and
[78]. economic feasibility for PV, wind, diesel, and battery integration [90].
These examples demonstrate the value of iterative methods in refining
3.2. Graphical construction method HRES designs for efficiency and sustainability.

When employing graphical methods, it is often straightforward to 3.4. Probabilistic method

identify a solution to optimisation programming problems involving
only two variables. However, addressing more complex problems using In the realm of energy system optimisation, a sophisticated analytical
graphical construction methods can be challenging, necessitating the paradigm rooted in the bedrock of probability theory emerges, collo-
exploration of various estimations [79]. Although this approach is un- quially known as the probabilistic approach. Contrary to intuitive ex-
complicated overall and lacks intricate steps, it does not tackle high- pectations, the adoption of such methodologies in pursuit of optimal
dimensional problems with numerous variables. solutions does not inherently guarantee their categorical superiority.
Both graphical and mathematical approaches, when appropriately Traditional methods for sizing system parts usually only look at one or
applied, can be advantageous for practical applications [80], notwith- two performance metrics, not taking into account the complex dynamics
standing their individual limitations. In exploring the realm of carbon of multiple goals, nonlinear system behaviours, and the long-term in-
dioxide (CO2) emissions within multifaceted industrial settings, an teractions of meteorological variables.
innovative graphical methodology has been advanced, encompassing an Navigating the convoluted landscape of electricity generation from
evaluation that intertwines technological viability with economic con- solar and wind sources unveils a formidable challenge, owing to the
siderations [81]. In a parallel vein, a sophisticated model characterised labyrinthine nature of their probability density functions [91]. Conse-
by a graphical user interface harnesses the power of a time-series quently, the field has made a notable stride forward by harnessing a
approach, adeptly optimising off-grid hybrid systems while meticu- pioneering probabilistic methodological framework to illuminate the
lously balancing the delicate interplay between energy storage solutions sustained effectiveness averages of HSWPS. This innovative approach
and the utilisation of diesel generators (DG), all with a steadfast aim finds practical utility in the real-world development of such systems,
towards minimising life cycle costs [82]. Furthermore, in the quest to leveraging a sophisticated hybrid programming model that seamlessly
ascertain the optimal dimensions of a PV system necessary to ensure integrates probabilistic analyses, Monte Carlo simulations, artificial
uninterrupted power supply to a specific load, a meticulously crafted neural network training, and GA optimizations. Such reliable integra-
geometrical construction technique, informed by extensive longitudinal tion vastly enriches our comprehension of hybrid system behaviours,
solar radiation data, emerges as a pivotal tool in decision-making [83]. particularly in the face of unforeseen environmental exigencies [92].
Furthermore, we have meticulously crafted a bespoke probabilistic
3.3. Iterative method methodology to fine-tune the parameters of an off-grid HES that includes
PV and WT components. Concurrently, the battery level coefficient
An iterative process, commonly employed in mathematics, generates mode emerges as a pivotal yardstick in assessing the energy storage
approximate solutions to various problems. Typically relying on looping capacity of such hybrid configurations. Through an exhaustive regimen
structures, iterative algorithms iterate through essential stages to attain of sensitivity analyses and optimisation exercises, it has been empiri-
the desired outcome. These procedures are recursive, terminating upon cally ascertained that the conventional performance metric of loss of
discovering the appropriate configuration meeting specified criteria. In power supply (LPS) 1 % lacks the universality requisite for reliable
the realm of hybrid RES, iterative methodologies play a pivotal role from evaluation within the unique maritime confines of the South China Sea,
the onset of research [79]. While iterative algorithms are efficient and thereby underscoring the imperative of contextual specificity in gauging

8
V. Saxena et al. Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

system effectiveness [93].

Additionally, to meticulously appraise the efficacy of a solar tracking

Computational
Increased
system in augmenting the performance output of the HSWPS, a sophis-

Efforts
ticated probabilistic framework grounded in closed-form solutions has
been meticulously engineered. We meticulously conduct reliability an-

✓
alyses, premised upon a diverse array of annual load demand profiles,
harnessing the predictive power of the energy index of reliability (EIR)

Decision
Variable
Shifts
to furnish invaluable insights into system robustness across varied
operational scenarios [94].

✓
Probabilistic approaches play a crucial role in optimising residential

Coefficient

Challenges
Estimation
energy management systems, especially under renewable energy un-
certainties. For example, one framework optimizes customer costs in
solar-based home energy hubs by accounting for solar output fluctua-

✓
tions [95]. Another model uses Markov chains and Cox regression to

Overlooking

Parameters
Critical
predict daily occupancy patterns, enhancing energy savings through
tailored energy use [96]. Advanced forecasting models, combining
wavelet transforms and deep learning, provide precise household elec-

✓
✓
✓
tricity predictions, improving planning accuracy [97]. Additionally, an

Performance
Indicators
enhanced salp swarm algorithm (ESSA) addresses cost and emission

Limited
challenges in renewable micro-grids, demonstrating superior perfor-
mance in managing energy uncertainties [98]. These studies highlight

✓
probabilistic methods’ value in refining residential energy management.

Suboptimal
Solutions
3.5. Analytical methods

✓
✓
Computation
Analytical techniques are essential for determining the optimal size

Longer

Time
of renewable energy components, focusing on their economic feasibility.
These techniques depend on computational models rooted in mathe-
matical and theoretical foundations that leverage historical data to

✓
✓
ensure reliability. For example, to reduce the total annual cost of a

Determination
Feasibility
standalone hybrid PV-wind-battery system, an analytical method com-
bined with Improved Particle Swarm Optimisation (IPSO) is used to
ascertain the optimal component sizes [99]. Moreover, an innovative

✓
analytical method is applied. This approach utilises explicit equations Identification
Early Threat

along with manufacturer-provided data to accurately and efficiently

extract these parameters [100].
Furthermore, an effective analytical methodology is delineated for

✓
the modelling of small-scale energy systems, integrating DG, wind, and
solar sources, with its accuracy and computational efficiency bench-
Optimization
Solutions

marked against Monte Carlo simulations [101].

Visual

Evaluating the usability of solar radiation is crucial for determining

the availability of surplus energy from solar installations. Factors such as
✓

solar array and turbine generator specifications, meteorological condi-

Methodologies

tions, and consumption patterns significantly influence the efficacy of

Simplified
Sizing

renewable energy units, particularly those incorporating hydrogen

storage [102]. Analytical models play a vital role in predicting perfor-
mance under variable conditions. These models utilize methods such as
✓
Classical methods and their advantages and disadvantages.

the trade-off approach to address multi-objective problems amidst un-

Interval
Regular

Insights

certainty [103], scenario analysis for the allocation of PV systems [104],

and knowledge-based methodologies [105,106].
✓

While traditional approaches have merits in simplicity, they entail

Computational
Efficiency and

drawbacks such as increased computational effort, rigid iterations, and

Simplicity

limited flexibility. These methods, prevalent between 1990 and 2000,

often utilised numerical simulations over hourly or daily intervals,
leading to suboptimal decisions due to linear changes in decision vari-
✓

ables. Moreover, estimating the coefficients of location-dependent

Optimization

Probabilistic
Technique

equations proves challenging with analytical methods, despite their

Numerical
Analytical

Graphical
Iterative

straightforward size computations. Although graphical techniques are

intuitive, they lack flexibility and require numerous estimations. Recent
advancements incorporate AI to address optimisation challenges in
HRES, offering the potential for achieving global optima and over-
[100,115–117]
References

[100,113]
[100,114]

coming traditional method limitations. Table 4 demonstrates the ad-

[62,115]
[62]

vantages and disadvantages of classical methods, while Table 5 presents

Table 4

a comparative assessment of the literature review based on classical

methods to optimise HRES.

9
 Table 5

V. Saxena et al.
Comparative assessment of the literature based on Classical methods.
Method Energy Location Optimal indicators Objective function(s) Findings Ref.
sources
Reliability Economic Technical Energy Minimize Minimum Minimize Minimize Minimize Minimize Maximize Minimize
conversion LPSP TLCC the cost LCC COE LCOE reliability LLP

Stochastic PV/ Brazil ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ In comparison to deterministic [118]

Battery approaches, stochastic methods are
system more realistic, economically
feasible, and more accurately
predict system operation
Graphical PV/WT/ Massachusetts ✔ ✔ For a given load demand and a level [119]
Battery of reliability, the optimum size of
batteries and PV modules were
calculated based on the economic
approach of the power system
Numerical PV Turkey ✔ ✔ For a certain LLP level, the life cycle [120]
system cost differs significantly. The
proposed system’s energy and CO₂
payback periods are 6.2 and 4.6
years, respectively
Numerical PV/WT/ India ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ The proposed IREOM model is [121]
iterative BM/BG/ entirely reliant on renewable
MHP energy sources, reduces the need for
traditional energy sources, and
balances energy needs with a
sufficient energy supply. COE
($/kWh): For 0.999 EIR: 6.80; For
0.99 EIR: 6.40
Iterative PV/WT/ Ege ✔ ✔ Sizing variables and performance [122]
10

Battery University variables are identified according to

the objective function under
constraints. COE ($/kWh): PV/WT/
BS: 0.89, Grid: 0.23; CO₂ emission
(Equiv./kWh): PV/WT/BS: 82,
Grid: 493
Probabilistic PV/WT/ Dharwad ✔ ✔ The utmost utilisation of energy [123]
Battery sources is analysed by evaluating
different reliability indices. The
results of the spring season indicate
maximum reliability for all
reliability indexes, followed by
summer, winter, and finally autumn
Probabilistic WT/ Kythnos- ✔ ✔ The loss of power supply [124]
Battery Greece probability and expected unserved
energy are calculated to assess the
planned system’s reliability.
Analysis: LOLP (Hrs/yr):
Chronological: 2328, Probabilistic:
2475; EUE (kWh/yr):

Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

Chronological: 37055,
Probabilistic: 33707
Analytical PV/WT/ Corsica Island ✔ ✔ ✔ The LCE for hybrid energy system [125]
Battery/ configurations that achieve the
UPS optimal LPSP is highly dependent
on the efficiency of available
renewable energy
Analytic PV Spanish ✔ ✔ ✔ The proposed new model is [126]
system accurate as a numerical and simple
model as an analytic model
V. Saxena et al. Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

4. A method for optimising HRES sizing that makes use of AI associated with designing energy hybrid systems [110].
Achieving peak performance for system components while mini-
The realm of computer science referred to as AI is dedicated to mising costs and maximising efficiency is of paramount importance. In
crafting intelligent software and machinery through learning processes. recent years, there has been a significant development and deployment
When discussing AI, we imply the capability of a machine or artifact to of various algorithms designed to evaluate the feasibility and optimal
undertake tasks akin to those reflecting human cognitive abilities. AI is configuration of HRESs. Various locations across the country have
described as “the study and development of intelligent agents” and fo- applied these algorithms, ensuring they adequately address the unique
cuses on the creation of entities that are designed to proactively pursue characteristics and requirements of each site. One such algorithm em-
actions that increase their chances of achieving success. This involves ploys a GA approach to optimise the size of stand-alone PV arrays,
engineering agents capable of making decisions and taking actions that battery banks, and hydrogen systems for various sites with differing
optimise their performance in various tasks and environments [107]. An climatic conditions. The objective is to minimize overall expenses while
AI algorithm comprises instructions executed during operations. reducing the risk of energy supply disruptions and optimising long-term
Employing intelligent methods judiciously yields valuable systems with storage capacity. Furthermore, local meteorological data is applied in
superior performance or unconventional attributes that are not achiev- order to ascertain thermal requirements and the possibility of solar
able by conventional means. Finding the collection of constraints that, power generation, thereby highlighting the impact that local conditions
when applied to an objective function, maximises or minimises function have on cost concerns. Table 6 exhibits the comparative assessment of
evaluation is the essence of an optimisation issue. It also involves rec- the literature based on a single AI technique to optimise HRES.
ognising how human aspects correlate with actions while considering Local environmental factors and the thermal demands of buildings
optimisation procedures. Specific constraints and criteria guide the se- heavily influence the effectiveness of battery energy storage systems
lection of the optimal solution. AI has proven to be highly effective in (BESS) [111]. To optimise the placement and sizing of BESS, a novel bio-
addressing optimisation challenges. Understanding the intersection of inspired optimisation technique is proposed. The optimisation process
decision-making, AI, and optimisation is pivotal. focused on minimising overall system losses in a 48-bus distributed
Technically, AI is grounded in strategies and procedures that trans- system. Results indicate that the proposed algorithm outperforms
late logical and mathematical processes into adaptable, realistic actions. existing methods such as the Firefly algorithm (FA), the WOA, and
AI is preferred for optimisation problems due to traditional techniques’ particle swarm optimisation (PSO) [112]. This optimisation was con-
inadequacies. AI techniques offer efficiency, speed, flexibility, practi- ducted utilising an enhanced coyote optimisation approach.
cality, and effectiveness [108]. Fig. 4 depicts AI-based optimisation al- A hospital in India has meticulously crafted a sophisticated energy
gorithms, categorised into population-based approaches like swarm infrastructure to address its cooling needs. The research focuses on a
intelligence, physics-based, human-based, and evolution-based algo- detailed simulation and comparative analysis of various configurations
rithms. Swarm intelligence algorithms take inspiration from the col- within this comprehensive system. Specifically, the study explores the
lective behaviour observed in animal groups, such as the coordinated implementation of three distinct types of biomass-based heaters, each
movements of birds or the efficient foraging patterns of ants. offering different efficiency levels and cost implications. Through this
Physics-based algorithms, on the other hand, draw from the funda- comparative evaluation, the research aims to identify the most effective
mental principles governing physical laws, mimicking phenomena like configuration for meeting the hospital’s cooling requirements while
gravity or electromagnetic forces. Human social behaviour-based algo- optimising performance and cost efficiency. Additionally, the study
rithms mimic human interaction and collaboration within societies, explores the utilisation of three distinct varieties of local biomass re-
incorporating aspects of communication, learning, and decision-making sources. To refine and optimise these configurations, an advanced
processes. Lastly, evolution-based algorithms are modelled after the evolutionary algorithm is employed. This algorithm operates with the
principles of Darwinian evolution, utilising mechanisms like natural dual objective of minimising both the levelized cooling expenditure and
selection, mutation, and reproduction to optimise solutions over suc- the carbon dioxide pollution index simultaneously. Through this
cessive generations [109]. comprehensive approach, the research seeks to identify the most effi-
The growing intricacies of contemporary real-world challenges have cient and environmentally sustainable configuration for fulfilling the
driven the development of increasingly sophisticated optimisation hospital’s cooling requirements [127].
techniques, with a particular focus on advancements in AI over recent In the realm of formulating and evaluating a hybrid energy system
decades. This evolution has given rise to a variety of random search integrating solar, wind, and DG, a novel optimisation technique is set
algorithms and AI-based optimisation strategies that tackle optimisation into motion. This methodological approach not only allows for the
issues through stochastic methods, effectively integrating prior knowl- integration of battery storage but also entertains the prospect of incor-
edge about the prerequisites of random searches. The user-friendly na- porating pumped hydroelectric storage technologies as viable alterna-
ture and proven efficiency of AI have led to its broad acceptance and tives. The overarching goal of this initiative lies in furnishing vital
implementation. AI-powered optimisation algorithms are particularly electricity to a significant RO project, prioritising the attainment of the
valued for their proficiency in managing complex, non-smooth, and most economically viable electricity cost. Furthermore, the pivotal goal
nonlinear problems, as well as their ability to converge quickly to of this project is to consistently meet freshwater demands for the Pharma
optimal solutions. Maintaining a dynamic equilibrium between Tourism resort in Baltim, Egypt, demonstrating a commitment to sus-
competing requirements, such as intensification and diversification, is tainable and reliable resource allocation. [128].
an essential aspect to take into account while working with AI. Diver- Recent years have seen significant advancements in the development
sification, on the other hand, seeks to investigate a wide range of po- and deployment of efficient methodologies for treating wastewater,
tential solutions over the entire global search space in a complete including both municipal and industrial effluents. These innovative
manner, whereas intensification involves concentrating the search on a approaches aim to protect the health and integrity of aquatic ecosys-
specific region depending on the information that is currently available. tems, demonstrating a significant advancement in environmental stew-
Each AI optimisation algorithm carries its own set of advantages and ardship. Among the array of techniques under scrutiny, membrane
limitations, making the pursuit of a singular best algorithm somewhat bioreactors have surfaced as a promising avenue for water conservation
elusive. The efficacy of an algorithm heavily hinges on the nature of the and purification.
problem it addresses. Therefore, optimisation challenges often require Researchers have suggested adding a NAS to membrane bioreactors
the employment of multiple algorithms to determine the most favour- to make them work better, mainly to help control microbial groups and
able approach. Robust methods, characterised by high optimisation reduce fouling problems [129]. The intricate ecological-physiological
speed and precision, are imperative for tackling the complexities interplay between ammonia-oxidising and nitrite-oxidising bacterial

11
V. Saxena et al. Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

Fig. 4. Categorisation of AI based optimisation techniques.

12
V. Saxena et al. Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

Table 6
Comparative assessment of the literature based on single AI techniques.
Ref. Algorithm Objectives Location System Components

Economic Technical Reliability Cost PV WT BT DG FC HT HS EL SB

[141] DMGWO ✓ ✓ ✓ – Jaisalmer, India/ Telecom Towers ✓ ✓ ✓ – – – – – –

[142] MOCSA ✓ – – ✓ Kerman, Iran/ Community load ✓ – – ✓ – ✓ – ✓ –
[143] Fuzzy-TOPSIS ✓ – ✓ – Vietnam, South Asia/ Wastewater ✓ ✓ ✓ – – – ✓ – –
treatment plant
[144] GA ✓ ✓ – – Arizona, USA/ Desalination ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ – – – – –
[145] Jaya ✓ ✓ – – Rafsanjan, Iran/ Consumer load ✓ ✓ ✓ – – – – – –
demand
[146] TSA ✓ – ✓ – Abu-Monqar, Egypt/ Small village ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ – – ✓ – ✓
[77] MILP – ✓ – ✓ South-Tyrol, Italy/ Mountain ✓ ✓ ✓ – – – – – –
Lodge
[147] Improved ✓ – – – Perak, Malaysia/ Universitiy ✓ – ✓ – – – – – –
numerical algo. Teknologi
[148] PIO ✓ ✓ – – Boston, USA/ Logan International ✓ ✓ ✓ – – – – ✓ –
Airport
[149] NSGA-II ✓ – – – Tunisia/ Remote area ✓ ✓ ✓ – – – – – –
[150] Multimodal delayed ✓ – ✓ – Essaouira, Morocco/ Small fishing ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ – – – – –
PSO village
[151] MOSaDE ✓ – ✓ – Yanbu, Saudi Arabia/ Household ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ – – – – –
applications
[152] IACA ✓ – ✓ – Zhejiang, China/ Remote Island ✓ ✓ ✓ – – – ✓ – ✓
[153] GA ✓ – – – Fanisau, Northern Nigeria/ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ – – – ✓ –
Remote village
[154] GA ✓ – – – Near to Colorado, USA/ ✓ ✓ ✓ – – – – – –
Residential remote area
[155] MLUCA ✓ – – ✓ Residential home/ Pacific ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ – – – – –
Northwest
[156] ABC – – ✓ – Italy/ Residential load ✓ ✓ ✓ – – – – – –
[157] MOPSO – – ✓ ✓ Ismailia Governorate, Egypt/ ✓ ✓ ✓ – – – – – –
Rural community
[158] ACO ✓ – – – Madhya Pradesh, India/ Remote ✓ ✓ ✓ – – – – – –
area
[159] MOEA ✓ – – ✓ Tindouf/ Small community ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ – – – – –
[160] ICA ✓ – ✓ – Northwest region of Iran/ IEEE ✓ ✓ – – – ✓ – ✓ –
load profile
[161] GA ✓ – – – Catalonia/ Rural township ✓ ✓ – – – – – – –
[162] NSGA II ✓ – – – Kent, UK/ Household ✓ ✓ ✓ – – – – – –
[163] PSO ✓ – – – Morocco, Africa and Baghdad, Iraq ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ – – – – –
[164] PSOMCS ✓ – – – Rafsanjan, Iran/ Remote area ✓ ✓ ✓ – – – – – –

communities has garnered particular attention, reflecting a concerted and wind energy resources has been conceptualised, aimed at ensuring
effort to curtail metabolite levels and alleviate the adverse impacts of the dependable operation of decentralised wastewater treatment facil-
carbon dioxide emissions on environmental equilibrium [130]. ities [133]. Notably, this integrated system has undergone thorough
Moreover, investigations have delved into the autotrophic synergy scrutiny across a spectrum of climatic conditions to ascertain its
between Chlorella vulgaris and NAS within wastewater treatment facil- robustness and adaptability. Table 7 presents a comparative assessment
ities, aiming to bolster nutrient removal capabilities, enhance carbon of the literature based on various AI techniques to optimise HRES.
sequestration, and optimise metabolite production. These endeavours The integration of sustainable energy outlets, such as PV systems,
underscore a multifaceted approach towards refining wastewater WTs, and DG, with BESS mechanisms contributes significantly to
treatment practices, aligning with broader imperatives of sustainability bolstering their operational stability and dependability. Nevertheless,
and ecological preservation [131]. the sporadic nature of renewable energy production emphasizes the
The water industry’s environmental degradation poses a significant need for supplementary reinforcement from dependable energy reser-
challenge to sustainable development. Fouling-related maintenance voirs, such as biomass fuel. Biomass fuel, derived from abundant and
costs and increased energy consumption due to physicochemical in- cost-effective sources such as animal excreta and agricultural residue,
teractions have hindered the widespread adoption of membrane biore- serves as a critical adjunct to mitigate the intermittency inherent in RES.
actor technology, despite its advantages over conventional treatment This symbiotic integration of renewable energy and biomass-based
plants. However, integrating membrane bioreactors with RES could systems assumes paramount importance, particularly in rural locales
alleviate these concerns, leading to cost reductions and operational where electrification efforts hinge upon the exploration of viable energy
improvements, thereby expanding their application. frameworks rooted in biomass resources. Such initiatives not only
A pioneering strategy has been devised, introducing a dual-scale promise to elevate the quality of life but also hold the potential to
optimisation methodology crafted specifically to engineer an exem- transform the socioeconomic landscape of these regions.
plary grid-connected HRES infrastructure comprising PV, WT, and bat- The integration of biogas and solar technologies presents a multi-
tery components. The primary objective underlying this innovation is to faceted solution characterised by decreased complexity, reduced unit
cater to the fluctuating energy demands inherent in membrane biore- expenditures, swift adaptability, and streamlined processes for optimi-
actor systems. This methodological approach aims to curtail the cumu- zation and regulation. Nevertheless, the formulation of an optimisation
lative environmental and financial burdens by meticulously fine-tuning framework assumes paramount importance in discerning the most
the configurations of each constituent within the system, all while duly suitable locations for deploying such systems to ensure their operational
considering carbon dioxide emissions mitigation [132]. Likewise, in a efficacy. A hospital in India has meticulously crafted a sophisticated
cognate endeavour, an integrated power framework harmonising solar energy infrastructure to meet its cooling demands. The core objective of

13
 V. Saxena et al.
Table 7
Comparative assessment of the literature based on various AI techniques.
Proposed Compared PV BG BM MHG SB VDG WT DG FC HSS ROD PHES Tidal Location Objective Findings Metrics/Results Ref.
Method Methods Function

ALO, CS, FPA ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Egypt Total annual cost Proposed ALO and GWA TAC ($/year): [165]
GWA and System techniques give more reliable 548,800; 550,013;
emissions results with superiority than the 559,640; 573,050
CS and FPA Emission (ton/yr
x10^10): 1.66; 1.62;
1.66; 1.71
TAC ($/year):
1,549,031;
1,550,814;
1,555,800;
1,555,377 Emission
(ton/yr x10^11):
1.62; 1.57; 1.65;
1.75
GWA PSO ✓ ✓ ✓ Ahvaz, Iran Minimize TNPC The GWO algorithm was TNPC (M$): 1.199; [166]
superior and capable of yielding 1.201 LPP (%):
lower cost and higher reliability 0.653; 0.655
than the PSO
GWA DHS, B&B ✓ ✓ ✓ – Minimize system GWA is a good candidate, it is TAC ($): 5470.37; [167]
total annual cost superior to the DHS and B&B. 5652.66; 5652.63
GWA has fast convergence than
DHS. B&B does not guarantee a
global optimum solution
GWA HS, PSO ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Haryana, Minimize system GWO provides more optimized NPC ($): [168]
14

India / To NPC results compared to HS and PSO. 636,923.07;

electrify GWO converges faster than the 641,538.46;
Households compared methods. The optimal 836,923.07
configuration in the study region COE ($/kWh):
is the grid-connected 0.088; 0.089; 0.099
configuration
GWA GA, SA ✓ ✓ ✓ Karabuk Minimize TNPC, GWA technique has achieved TNPC ($): 697,675; [169]
University LCOE better output performance than 728,257; 763,371
Campus the GA and SA LCOE ($/kWh):
0.3061; 0.3195;
0.3349
TNPC ($): 581,428;
582,658; 586,714
LCOE ($/kWh):
0.2551; 0.2557;
0.2574
GWO PSO ✓ ✓ ✓ Djanet, south Minimize TAC The proposed optimizer ACS ($): 16825.64; [170]
Algeria / and determine performs fast convergence, lower 16,872.66
Rural village optimal sizing of cost, and higher superior
the system capabilities than PSO

Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

ABC PSO, ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Patiala, India To deduce the The performance of ABC is NPC ($): 75,218.17; [171]
HOMER / Small optimal size of satisfactory as compared to PSO 73,001; 72,378 COE
village components with in terms of computational time ($/kWh): 0.181;
the least LCOE by and results. Both ABC and PSO 0.176; 0.173
minimising NPC perform better than HOMER.
ABC provides an optimal
combination with LCOE and may
be chosen as the best optimizer.
ABC shows a minimum deviation
than PSO
 V. Saxena et al.
Improved AEO, ✓ ✓ ✓ Ataka, Egypt Minimize COE IAEO provides fast convergence NPC ($): 9,957,537; 9,972,230; [172]
AEO PSO, characteristics and minimum COE. When 10,210,924; 10,078,019; 10,567,013
SSA, compared to other techniques proposed, COE ($/kWh): 0.41243; 0.41304;
GWA IAEO could be used to solve complex and non- 0.422926; 0.417422; 0.437675
linear problems NPC ($): 10,865,694; 10,870,047;
12,784,625; 11,285,398; 11,055,336
COE ($/kWh): 0.45004; 0.45023;
0.509257; 0.467403; 0.459901
NPC ($): 9,423,136; 9,448,473;
10,044,733; 9,638,349; 10,007,762
COE ($/kWh): 0.39029; 0.39135;
0.416043; 0.39921; 0.414512
Improved CSA, ✓ ✓ ✓ Zanjan, Iran / Minimize TNPCS More convergence speed. Less convergence NPC ($/MS): 1.050; 1.053; 1.051 [55]
CSA PSO Residential load tolerance. Low TNPCS. Better reliability NPC ($/MS): 1.062; 1.054
NPC ($/MS): 1.398; 1.401
CS PSO ✓ ✓ ✓ Ghardaia, Algeria Minimize TCOS, Needs fewer iterations to converge the best Optimal system cost ($): 15,705, [63]
/ Residential & Minimize grid configuration. Faster convergence. Better Optimal system cost ($): 45,790
cattle farm load utility accuracy.
CS GA, PSO ✓ ✓ ✓ Almora, India To satisfy demand Faster in optimization. Reduces – [56]
reliably, Minimize computational burden. Minimal computer
total system cost resource utilisation. Fine-tune parameters are
less.
CS, FA PSO ✓ ✓ ✓ Bouzaréah, Algeria Minimize Convergence optimal solution more quickly. EC ($/kWh): 1.1666, 1.1666, 1.1685, [57]
/ Household electricity cost High accuracy. Effective in dealing with 1.1780 (PV/wind/battery 1 % LDR),
multimodal and nonlinear problems. EC ($/kWh): 1.1903, 1.1903, 1.1990,
1.1990 (PV/battery 1 % LDR)

CS, FA PSO ✓ ✓ ✓ – Minimize Total Proposed techniques are better, more TAC ($/year): 885803, 920,091, 897,451 [58]
annual cost, powerful, and recommended for use to (PV/SB), TAC ($/year): 768950, 772,575,
increase reliability, get the optimal solution for hybrid 810,460 (WT/SB)
15

Reduce pollutants power generation systems.

FPA TLBO, ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Ardabil, Iran Minimize TNPC Easily implement and determine TNPC (MUSS): 3.1415, 3.2617, 3.8453 (PV/ [173]
PSO optimal decision variables. Fast FC 5 % LOE/EMax and LOLEMax), TNPC
convergence. Lower cost. Better (MUSS): 2.6724, 2.8145, 2.9802 (PV/WT/FC
reliability values for different indices. 5 % LOE/EMax and LOLEMax), TNPC
(MUSS): 5.6518, 5.7164, 5.8125 (WT/FC 5 %
LOE/EMax and LOLEMax)
Hybrid HS- – ✓ ✓ ✓ South To minimize TLCC, The hybrid algorithm obtained more TLCC ($): 17900, 18,360, 19,029 (IHS-SA- [52]
SA-GIS, Khorasan, Iran LCOE accurate results compared to HS and GIS), LCOE ($/kWh): 0.4429, 0.4571, 0.4441
SA-GIS SA. Probability of finding the global
solution for a complex optimization
problem increases.
MFO, FPA ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Egypt To minimize total Proposed MFO and MVO are more TAC ($/year): 279,486, 376,851, 253,246, [174]
MVO annual cost, superiority and effectiveness than 342,235, 294,389, 328,419 (Winter
System pollution using FPA. Scenario),
TAC ($/year): 466,041, 563,401, 427,671,
524,536, 489,612, 572,098 (Summer
Scenario)
PSOGSA PSO, GSA ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Pamarawan To minimize LCOE, PSOGSA gained the lowest cost of LCOE ($/kWh): 0.21376, 0.26608, 0.25537, [175]

Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

Island, LPSP electricity followed by GSA and PSO. LPSP (%): 0.10096, 0.11109, 0.10507
Philippines PSOGSA provides a better record
benchmark.
SSO HIHO, ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Sakaka, Saudi To minimize COE Simple construction. Requires fewer COE ($/kWh): 0.1349, 0.2523, 0.1438, [176]
GWO, Arabia controlling parameters. Superior for 0.2326, 0.1587, 0.3780
MVO, reliable design and costless MG.
ALO, Consumes less elapsed time.
WOA
(continued on next page)
 V. Saxena et al.
Table 7 (continued )
TLBO GA, PSO ✓ ✓ Tehran, Iran To minimize TLBO is superior in solving TNPC: 23978, 23,985, 23,909; LCOE [177]
TNPC, COE optimization problems compared to ($/kWh): 0.174, 0.175, 0.176
GA and PSO. Reaches final solution
faster than PSO and GA. Provides best
convergence rate. Simple execution.

WCA, GA, FA, ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Silchar, India / To minimize TNPC WCA provides a better solution than LCOE ($/kWh): 0.4864, 0.4865, [178]
MFO GWO Radio transmitter other algorithms. WCA converges 0.9632, 0.9116, 0.9109
station faster than MFO and avoids traps at
local optima.
DHS DSA ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Rafsanjan, Iran To minimize total DHS outperforms DSA in terms of TAC ($): 15790.38, 15,843.67 (PV/ [179]
annual cost and accuracy. DHS is easy to implement. DG/SB); 19,963.8, 19,663.9 (PV/SB);
environmental DHS leads to obtaining the system’s 15,672.94, 16,036.8 (WT/DG/SB);
impacts objective function. 46,055.46, 46,055.46 (DG only)
GA HOMER ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Chamarajanagar, To minimize TNPC, By comparing GA and HOMER COE ($/kWh): 0.163, 0.214; NPC ($): [180]
India COE, To reduce optimization techniques, GA is the 856013, 890,013
Unmet load, CO2 more cost-effective technique with the
emissions least NPC, more PV penetration, and
fewer CO2 emissions.
PSO, Hybrid ✓ ✓ ✓ Rabat, Morocco / To determine the Hybrid IWO-PSO predicts the least NPC ($): 52513.962, 54,037.255, [181]
IWO, IWO-PSA Irrigation unit optimal size of system NPC with a minimum COE of 49,656.7544
BSA components that 0.023 $/Wh. Compared to other
minimize TNPC algorithms, IWO-PSO is the most
efficient in terms of speed of
convergence and results.
WOA, PSOGSA ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Abu-Monqar, Egypt To determine the best The WOA technique is capable of NPC ($): 5418863.799, [59]
WCA, optimal size based on obtaining the minimum value of an 5,860,988.725, 5,869,036.077,
MFO COE objective function. In terms of 6,300,997.882; COE ($/kWh):
economic and convergence efficiency, 0.185004, 0.2003754, 0.2003736,
16

WOA operates at a high level. 0.205093

Hybrid PSO, ✓ ✓ ✓ Qazvin, Iran To minimize TNPC Hybrid HBB-BC indicates the best TPC ($): 1,794,835, 1,794,867, [182]
BB-BC DHS performance with high accuracy 1,805,291 (PV/WT/SB 25 %
compared to PSO and DHS. Compared ENSMax); 1,468,926, 1,468,944,
to DHS, PSO is better. 1,478,610 (PV/WT/SB 10 %
ENSMax); 1,159,481, 1,159,485,
1,166,839 (PV/DG only)
HS GA, PSO ✓ ✓ Bardsir, Iran To minimize TNPC HS indicates the best performance TNPC ($): 1672226, 1,677,406, [183]
compared to GA and PSO. While 1,677,205; LCOE ($/kWh): 0.1855,
comparing GA and PSO, GA is 0.1860, 0.1856
outperformed by PSO.

CSA GA, PSO ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ – To minimize TNPC CSA finds the most accurate outcomes, requires TNPC ($): 1271407.27, [184]
less run time to find an optimal solution, and 1,300,610.09, 1,473,506.54
has a better convergence rate than GA and PSO.
MBA PSO, CS, ✓ ✓ ✓ Helwan, To achieve minimum The proposed MBA technique saves costs by TAC ($): 5598167.26, [185]
ABC Egypt system annual cost about 24.8 %, 11.5 %, and 8.9 % corresponding 4,623,953.2103,
to PSO, ABC, and CS algorithms respectively. 4,759,967.5368,
MBA requires less time to reach an optimal 4,209,827.3116 (PV/WT/FC)
solution.

Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

ACO_R GA, ABC, ✓ ✓ – To minimize the total ACO_R outperforms other techniques in terms TNPC ($): 6692.6132, [186]
B&B design cost of optimal results and speed. The average 6692.6132, 6692.6132;
gamma convergence and fitness values of the Convergence time (s): 0.1813,
proposed methods are better than others. 0.1813, 0.55029
GA-PSO, HOMER ✓ ✓ ✓ Tehran, Iran To minimize the total MOPSO gives a wider choice of optimal points, COE ($/kWh): 0.508, 0.511; [187]
MOPSO present cost, to maximize optimizes two objectives simultaneously. NPC ($): 787193, 1,652,300
reliability Compared to the HOMER single objective
technique, GA-PSO has more convergence rate
and better results.
(continued on next page)
 V. Saxena et al.
Table 7 (continued )
Hybrid HS- HS, SA ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Fedeshk, Iran To minimize life cycle cost, Hybrid HS-SA improves the solution through LCC ($): 20,534, 20,534, [188]
SA to reduce emissions better quality and fast convergence rate 20,674; CPU ($): 1872.511,
compared to individual HS and SA. 1978.826, 1887.75
CLONALG GA ✓ ✓ ✓ Troyes To determine the optimal The proposed method is very effective for Cost ($): 1237855.095 [189]
Barbery, systems with minimum selecting a suitable design and achieving its (Troyes Battery Station);
France / cost and fewer fluctuations objectives. Compared to GA, the proposed one 741,039.85 (Qena Al-Gadida)
Egypt in output provides better power reliability and requires
less battery capacity.
FPA ABC, ✓ ✓ Egypt To formulate minimum The proposed FPA technique has less fulfilment TNPC ($): 3,244,897; LCOE [190]
PSO total annual cost, To time, better rendering, and superior ($/kWh): 0.334
maximize reliability performance when compared to ABC and PSO.
IBA HSA ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ South To determine the most The performance of the IBA is better than the Total cost ($): 2,730,760, [191]
Khorasan, cost-effective system HS algorithm. Battery energy storage is more 2,778,680 (PV/HSS/RO);
Iran design, To minimize total cost-effective than hydrogen storage. 238,580, 445,050 (PV/BS/
LCC cost, To maximize RO)
LPSP

MOCSA MOPSO ✓ ✓ Kerman, Iran To minimize TNPC, LPSP, MO-CSA provides more promising results than TNPC ($): 4.016 × 105 (With [192]
and CO2 Emissions MOPSO as the proposed algorithm obtains well- Operating Reserve), 3.727 ×
distributed and widely spread Pareto front. The 105 (Without Operating
cost of the system increases significantly when Reserve); TECO₂ (kg): 2.527
the operating reserve is considered. × 105, 2.322 × 105
Jaya, PSO ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Lat. 29◦ 49.794′ To determine the minimum The HS technique has faster convergence, and NPC ($): 581,218, 591,402, [61]
HS N Lon. 39◦ value of effective NPC, high minimum deviation and is more efficient at 590,137; COE ($/kWh):
34.362′ E efficiency, and reliability determining the optimal system than the Jaya 0.254, 0.259, 0.258
17

system and PSO algorithms.

MFFA FFA ✓ ✓ ✓ Ataka, Egypt To minimize the COE, To MFFA reaches the best objective function faster COE ($/kWh): 0.3570, [193]
ensure high reliable power with fewer iterations and implementing time 0.3570; No. of iterations: 11,
supply with low energy than FFA. 8; Execution time (s): 6792.7,
fluctuations within the 5664.6
utility grid
FA SFLA, ✓ ✓ ✓ Beni-Suef, Egypt To design the optimal The Effectiveness of FA is better than SFLA and COE ($/kWh): 0.45, 0.51, [194]
PSO system with minimum PSO algorithms. 0.45; NPC ($): 2,698,325,
Levelized cost of energy 3,073,583, 2,698,325;
Executing time (s): 118.61,
131.00, 909.88
HFA/ PSO ✓ ✓ ✓ Hurghada, Egypt To determine the optimal The proposed HFA/HS algorithm takes much less COE ($/kWh): 0.887, 0.878; [195]
HS sizing at the lowest cost execution time than the PSO algorithm to find NPC ($): 8,312,920,
the optimal solution. Shows better performance. 8,317,000
Using FC provides better performance than
battery banks.
BBO GA, ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Uttarakhand, To develop an optimal CC strategy is more cost-effective than LF and COE (₹/kWh): 5.64, NPC (₹): [64]
PSO India system with minimum COE PSS. The cost of energy obtained using BBO is the 33,076,784 (BBO), COE: 5.66,
most cost-effective compared to PSO and GA NPC: 33,208,069 (PSO), COE:

Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

algorithms. The cost of energy decreases 5.67, NPC: 33,309,626 (GA)
significantly when the clean development
mechanism is considered.

(continued on next page)

V. Saxena et al. Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

this research is to conduct detailed simulations and comparative ana-

[196]

[197]

[198]
lyses of various configurations within this comprehensive system. Three

[53]
distinct types of biomass-based heaters, each exhibiting different de-
grees of efficiency and cost implications, distinguish these configura-
tions. Through this approach, the study aims to identify the optimal

Total cost ($): 8.83 × 10^4

(GA), 8.87 × 10^4 (PSO),

(ABSO), 106,140.5 (SA),

COE ($/kWh): 0.205789

Total cost ($): 56281.59

following: 0.2625 (GA),
configuration that balances performance and economic feasibility

8.82 × 10^4 (TLBO-CS)

charging: 0.2396 (GA),

(GA), 0.196498 (PSO),

COE ($/kWh): Cycle
[134].
0.2393 (PSO), Load

0.196945 (BFPSO),
0.195166 (TLBO)
To address the intermittency of renewable energy generation, eval-

0.2617 (PSO)
uating battery energy technology is crucial. Different storage technolo-
gies have an effect on the best way to design hybrid solar/biomass/DG/

Rank 1
battery systems. Lithium-ion technology has lower levelized electricity
costs (LCOE) and higher efficiency than lead-acid alternatives [135].
Integrating thermal energy storage further enhances system effi-

ABSO yields more promising results quickly than IHSBSA,

GA. For all objectives, TLBO has superior performance in
For six different combinations of hybrid systems, the best
Less DG operating hours, minimum COE, less algorithm

The proposed Hybrid TLBO-CS can perform exploration

solutions are obtained for TLBO, then BFPSO, PSO, and

ciency, ensuring thermal energy utilisation during periods of low solar

and exploitation simultaneously and is more efficient
terms of technical, economic, and social parameters.
running time, and also reliability is higher for cycle

radiation.

IHS, IPSO, PSO, TS, and SA in terms of the TAC

Researchers have analysed innovative renewable energy systems
that combine solar, wind, and biomass sources for energy and energy
performance to achieve desired outcomes [136]. Moreover, researchers
have conducted economic analyses on integrated systems that utilize
biomass and geothermal energy for desalination plants, emphasizing the
charging strategies using PSO

significance of optimising CO2 emission rates. For example, Turkey

could benefit from implementing integrated geothermal systems fueled
by geothermal energy and municipal solid waste combustion to produce
freshwater and power, thereby optimising energy efficiency, product
cost rates, and CO2 emissions [137].
than GA, PSO

An extensive examination was undertaken to appraise the techno-

logical and economic feasibility of a multi-generation integrated facility
fuelled by biomass. This comprehensive system encompasses a range of
processes, including power generation, hydrogen production, and other
operations. It is anticipated that as the rates of energy and hydrogen
maximize RF, HDI,
To minimize COE,

To minimize TAC,

To minimize TAC
electricity price

production escalate, there will be a corresponding increase in the sys-

LPSP, PMI, To
To minimize

tem’s procurement rate. Moreover, the flow rate of biomass directly

correlates with the expenses associated with procuring the biomass
LPSP

gasification subsystem. In accordance with findings from [138], the

JCI

multi-generation plant exhibits notable energy and exergy efficiencies,

registering at 63.84 % and 59.2 %, respectively.
Jeju Island,

Rafsanjan,

Experts have recommended the adoption of energy-intensive meth-

Barwani,

Barwani,

odologies in the realm of microalgal biodiesel energy production. To

Korea
India

India

Iran

advance the sustainability and reliability of wind power, a novel hybrid

system has been devised. This system integrates a FC alongside an array
of RES, including solar, wind, hydro, biomass, and geothermal sources.
The meticulous analysis reveals an impressive 82.3 % capacity factor of
the wind turbines within this hybrid system, with a unit power price of
$0.161 per kilowatt-hour [139,140].
The exploration of alternative avenues for electrolytic hydrogen and
natural gas production from biomass has been undertaken through a
comprehensive life cycle analysis. This study delves into various envi-
✓

ronmental indicators, such as global environmental potential, societal

energy dissipation, and acidification potential. Although the synthesised
✓

substitute natural gas (SNG), produced from biomass and electricity,

✓

exhibits a tendency for higher acidification potential, it presents a

reduced overall environmental impact when compared to traditional
✓

natural gas. Despite the increased risk of acidification, the environ-

mental benefits of the SNG are significant, highlighting its promise as a
more sustainable alternative to conventional natural gas [199].
✓

A university in Cuenca has conducted a comprehensive evaluation to

analyze the technological, economic, and energy dimensions of off-grid
✓

hybrid PV systems, hybrid kilowatt-hour (HKT) setups, and battery-

powered generators (BMG). This detailed assessment includes the
BFSO, GA,

IPSO, HIS,

simulation of biomass gasification processes, which utilize residues from

GA, PSO

IHSBSA,
Table 7 (continued )

wood, bananas, sugarcane, and cocoa. The HOMER Pro software per-
ABSO
PSO

PSO

forms these simulations, applying three different control strategies to

optimise the performance and efficiency of these systems [200]. BESS
and SA
PSO, TS,
TLBO-

plays a crucial role in offsetting renewable power intermittency, utilis-

Hybrid
TLBO

CS
GA

ing various smoothing techniques to ensure consistent power output

[201].

18
V. Saxena et al. Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

HOMER is widely used for optimising hybrid energy systems in off- HOMER [208].
grid and isolated settings. A study [202] demonstrated the application The Bees algorithm optimized the size of hydro, solar, wind, and FC
of HOMER in designing a hybrid PV/wind/diesel-electric generator hybrid systems that do not rely on the grid. The analysis concluded that
system for a COVID-19 quarantine center, ensuring reliable power a hybrid system incorporating wind turbines, hydropower, and FC is
during high demand. Another study [203] applied HOMER to design a economically favourable [209]. In the field of waste-to-energy (WTE)
renewable hybrid system for isolated communities, integrating solar, technology, typically involving the combustion of municipal solid waste,
wind, and storage to efficiently meet energy needs. These studies efficiency is often low due to energy losses. A new waste heat recovery
highlight HOMER’s effectiveness in optimising energy solutions for both system that combines the Rankine cycle (RC), the organic Rankine cycle
emergency and remote applications. (ORC), and the absorption refrigeration cycle (ARC) is 376.65 % more
Energy from Biomass: A Techno-economic Model explores the energy efficient and 35.65 % more exergy efficient than regular WTE
feasibility of utilising agricultural leftover biomass from technological plants, which is good for both the economy and the environment [210].
and economic perspectives. The proposed model estimates an electricity Finally, researchers demonstrated a framework to optimise PV ca-
cost of $71.6 per megawatt-hour for a 300-MW plant. Optimisation pacity for small and medium-sized hydro-PV systems, considering un-
challenges persist in HRES models [204]. certainties in runoff and PV power generation. When the model was used
The efficiency of biomass plant operations, particularly at partial on the Naijili hydro-PV hybrid system, it found the best PV capacities,
loads, and the complexities associated with their cost structures present which were between 2 MW and 14 MW depending on the conditions.
ongoing challenges that have yet to be fully addressed. Ensuring a Hydropower was very important in keeping the overall system power
consistent supply of biomass necessitates the development of efficient production stable, with an 80 % confidence level [211].
supply chains and adequate storage facilities. Economic, environmental, The use of WOA in addressing large-dimension optimisation prob-
and societal factors influence the biofuel supply chain, highlighting the lems often leads to decreased diversity among solutions and premature
need for comprehensive modelling and optimization to foster sustain- convergence. In response to these shortcomings, researchers conceived
able solutions and job creation. an enhanced version of WOA, termed non-dominated sorting WOA, to
In contrast, generating electricity from water resources proves to be address the limitations by enhancing population diversity [212]. The
both efficient and cost-effective, offering a significant reduction in primary focus was on reducing overall fluctuations. These frameworks
environmental impact compared to conventional energy sources. Re- were constructed based on parameters such as, in context, factors like
searchers are increasingly focusing on developing integrated hydro- the outcomes of solar and wind power, the specific attributes of hy-
related multi-energy power solutions as environmental protection be- dropower stations, and the nature of hydraulic connections, which were
comes increasingly prioritized and the potential pollution from thermal meticulously considered. The central aim of this research is to supply
power generation becomes more widely recognized. Despite its advan- technical support for the development of hybrid energy systems that
tages, hydroelectric power generation is not without challenges; it is integrate hydropower, PV, and wind energy. This integration aims to
highly dependent on natural rainfall patterns, entails substantial con- advance clean, emission-free energy generation and promote energy
struction costs, and faces constraints related to capacity expansion. conservation [213].
Researchers have developed a generation scheduling model for various For the scheduling of hydroelectric reservoirs used intermittently,
scenarios to optimise power supply reliability and generation equilib- the immune algorithm-based PSO (IA-PSO) algorithm was employed to
rium. This model considers the seasonal and daily uncertainties of these enhance power generation. The IA-PSO algorithm was found to be more
energy sources. accurate and efficient than traditional methods like dynamic program-
To address the inherent natural uncertainties and various policy ming and conventional PSO algorithms. This led to more electricity
considerations, a novel hybrid hydroelectric PV production system has being produced from cascading reservoirs [214].
been proposed, with an emphasis on optimising performance over the Hydro-dominated structures require optimal scheduling that takes
short term while considering multiple objectives. This innovative system into account environmental restrictions and operational constraints,
is designed to concurrently enhance the reliability of the power supply applying mixed-integer nonlinear programming (MINLP) approaches to
and maximize revenue generated from energy sales. To streamline the maximize profits and manage risks. The study involves modelling a
complex process of multi-objective optimisation, a constraint-based cascade hydroelectric system in Portugal, taking into account factors
approach is used to convert it into a more manageable single-objective such as head, start-up costs, operational regions, and hydroelectric
optimisation problem. Researchers then utilised the LINGO solver to limitations [215].
pinpoint the optimal configuration that meets these criteria. Addressing environmental restrictions on hydro-dominated sched-
Based on the computational findings, several observations are pro- uling involves environmental modelling and simulation, incorporating
posed: Equilibrium-based techniques improve power supply flexibility various electrical and operational constraints [216,217]. The scientific
and economic viability, ensure resource complementarity, and allow for literature provides insights into different approaches tailored to specific
changes in energy supply structure based on subsidy regulations [205]. hydro system configurations, considering numerous variables and lim-
A comprehensive study has been conducted to optimise a HRES by itations. Because hydroelectric systems are complicated and have
employing multi-objective models and non-dominated sorting genetic nonlinear objective functions, it is necessary to have good scheduling
algorithms II (NSGA-II). Set in Qinghai, the home of the hydro-PV hybrid tools that take into account system size, computing power, and elec-
system, the research explores ways to achieve peak energy production tricity demand [218].
by adjusting reservoir releases as a controllable variable. The focus on There’s a growing focus on complementary energy systems and
reservoir regulation becomes particularly critical during expected dry optimisation techniques, driven by advancements in AI optimisation
periods [206]. strategies. The Grey Wolf Optimizer (GWO), a swarm-based optimiza-
To enhance resource efficiency, it is essential to integrate dis- tion algorithm, draws inspiration from the hunting behaviour and
patchable and non-dispatchable electricity sources. A coordinated leadership hierarchy of grey wolves to tackle complex problems. GWO is
optimisation method using the Genetic Fuzzy Multi-Objective Evolu- characterised by its simple implementation process, straightforward
tionary Algorithm (GFM-MOEA) is designed to maximize power gener- structure, and high exploitation capability [219].
ation while minimising the standard deviation of joint power GWO’s use has attracted significant attention from scholars since
production. This method establishes a unified framework for operational 2015 due to its superior performance compared to GA and PSO. More-
decisions and multi-objective optimisation in the hydro-PV plant [207]. over, it suffers from drawbacks such as poor convergence rates and er-
The results indicated that SDO hybrids are preferable due to their lower rors in finding local optimum solutions. Ant Lion Optimizer (ALO) was
battery energy use and reduced DG-generated power compared to devised, involving steps like ant random walks, trap construction,

19
V. Saxena et al. Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

entrapment, prey capture, and trap rebuilding. ALO offers advantages necessitating continuous enhancements to improve their effectiveness.
like simplicity, scalability, adaptability, and a balanced exploration- Given the ongoing challenge of accelerating algorithm convergence, the
exploitation trade-off, making it a preferred choice for many re- development of novel optimization strategies remains essential to
searchers [220]. From 2015 to 2019, researchers extensively utilised advance the field of AI-based optimization techniques [234].
ALO across various applications, dedicating 633 publications to its
exploration. Researchers have proposed numerous enhancements and 5. Hybrid optimization techniques
variants of ALO, including binary ALO, enhanced ALO, and chaotic ALO,
to enhance its performance. However, ALO struggles with handling a The notion of hybridization emerges as a cornerstone within the
large number of variables, posing a challenge for real-world applica- realm of engineering systems analysis, embodying a sophisticated inte-
tions. Despite its shortcomings, addressing these limitations is critical to gration of diverse optimisation methodologies into a cohesive strategy.
its improvement [221]. This strategic integration not only enriches problem-solving endeavours,
The concept of brood parasitism in cuckoos inspired the develop- but also magnifies the inherent strengths inherent in each individual
ment of cuckoo search (CS) optimisation, which has proven to be a approach. By integrating various optimisation algorithms, hybrid
successful approach requiring minimal parameter tuning compared to models consistently surpass their singular counterparts, striving towards
GA and PSO. By avoiding local minima, CS ensures global optimization the attainment of global optimal solutions through efficient iterations.
and outperforms other strategies in terms of potential and effectiveness. For instance, consider the refinement of the gravitational search algo-
Nonetheless, challenges such as inadequate spread of nest positions, rithm (GSA) and the teaching-learning-based optimisation (TLBO)
boundary issues, levy flight problems, and suboptimal performance for through a hybrid approach. Here, the GSA is first employed to discern
discrete and multi-objective problems persist [63,222]. Therefore, optimal global solutions, followed by the precise local search refinement
refining these aspects is essential for enhancing the effectiveness of the facilitated by TLBO, exemplifying the potency and efficacy of hybrid
cuckoo search algorithm. methodologies in tackling complex optimisation challenges [235,236].
The Crow Search Algorithm (CSA) drew inspiration from the intel- In response to challenges such as suboptimal convergence rates,
ligent behaviours exhibited by crows, particularly their habit of hiding innovative hybrid methodologies have surfaced within the domain of
surplus food and retrieving it when needed, as well as their knack for optimisation techniques. For instance, a notable approach involves
locating and pilfering food hidden by other crows. CSA, known for its integrating PSO with simulated annealing (SA), resulting in a synergistic
simplicity, minimal parameterization, and enhanced flexibility, has enhancement of exploration capabilities [237]. Similarly, a hybridiza-
gained significant attention for its ability to find global optimal solutions tion of Harmony Search (HS) with the Mine Blast algorithm (MBA) has
in optimization tasks. Notably, CSA demonstrates superior efficiency been introduced, aimed at fostering population diversity and enhancing
over Haris Hawk’s optimisation (HHO) in optimising the design of the exploitation of search spaces [238].
renewable-based microgrids [223–225]. Furthermore, the evolution of hybrid algorithms, such as SGWO and
In a similar vein, the Flower Pollination Algorithm (FPA) draws its real-coded self-organizing migrating GA (RCSOMGA), has garnered
conceptual foundation from the natural pollination processes observed attention for their integration of diverse optimisation methodologies,
in flowers. This algorithm intricately mimics the behaviours associated including but not limited to GWO, Shuffled Frog-Leaping Algorithm
with both cross-pollination and self-pollination, capturing the essence of (SFLA), and Differential Evolution [239]. These hybrid approaches
bloom constancy. Additionally, it integrates mechanisms for both global demonstrate enhanced capacities for both exploration and exploitation,
and local pollination strategies, thereby encompassing a comprehensive making them applicable even in complex domains such as electricity
range of pollination dynamics found in nature. FPA’s adaptability, ease load forecasting.
of implementation, and minimal parameter requirements have made it a The integration of GA with the SOMA culminated in the emergence
popular choice among researchers for sizing renewable-based design of RCSOMGA, a pioneering solution tailored to surmount the constraints
challenges. Compared to PSO and Artificial Bee Colony (ABC), FPA encountered in optimisation tasks characterised by expansive search
significantly reduces the time required to reach a convergent optimal spaces [240]. Similarly, an innovative blend of the GWO and the CSA
solution [190,226,227]. However, addressing discrete optimization has proven remarkably adept at addressing unconstrained function
challenges necessitates appropriate modifications, and FPA lacks its problems, thus offering a viable alternative for optimisation endeavours
applicability to optimization problems. [241].
The Water Cycle Algorithm (WCA) drew inspiration from the natural Furthermore, the realm of algorithmic enhancement has witnessed
water cycle, observing the flow of rivers and streams towards the ocean significant strides through hybridization techniques, as evidenced by the
[228]. On the other hand, the moth-flame optimisation (MFO) algorithm evolution of PSO algorithms. This evolution is exemplified by the
mimicked moths’ biological responses to flames in natural environments introduction of PSOSCALF, which incorporates novel factors such as
[229]. Both WCA and MFO exhibit faster convergence rates to optimal sine, cosine, and Levy factors, yielding notably enhanced efficiency and
solutions compared to GA. WCA tends to produce somewhat more a commendably accelerated convergence rate [242].
favourable design conclusions than MFO, as evidenced by the minimal Recent advancements have spotlighted the exploration of hybrid
objective functions achieved [178]. However, WCA may struggle, methodologies, particularly those grounded in the Seagull optimisation
leading to premature convergence and complex optimisation problems algorithm (SOA). Noteworthy among these endeavours is the develop-
[230]. MFO faces challenges such as premature convergence and ment of SOA and thermal exchange optimisations (SOA-TEO), each
insufficient population diversity [231]. meticulously crafted to optimise feature selection accuracy with
The concept of foraging employed by social spiders has inspired the unparalleled efficacy. Among them, SOA-TEO stands out for its excep-
creation of Sparrow Search Optimisation (SSO), aimed at tackling global tional stability and performance [243].
optimisation challenges. Utilising vibrations on the spider web, this al- In addition to these innovations, the emergence of a novel artificial
gorithm effectively detects prey locations [232]. In comparison to other intelligence paradigm, Hybrid Annealing Krill Herd and Quantum-
algorithms like HHO, GWO, MVO, ALO, and WOA, SSO stands out for its Behaved PSO (AKQPSO), represents a significant leap forward in opti-
ability to construct affordable and reliable microgrids [176]. However, misation methodologies. AKQPSO seamlessly integrates the Krill Herd
SSO does have its drawbacks over global optimisation [233]. Annealing (KH) approach with Quantum PSO (QPSO), leveraging the
Among the described algorithms, GWO emerges as the most exploitation capabilities of QPSO and the exploratory prowess of AKH.
commonly used for hybrid system sizing, outperforming GA and PSO This integration effectively addresses KH’s inherent limitations in local
despite its shortcomings. Nonetheless, some optimisation algorithms search through the application of SA techniques, thereby establishing a
and their variants may not yield optimal solutions for specific problems, robust framework for optimising renewable energy systems [244].

20
V. Saxena et al. Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

To enhance both the economic viability and the dependability of a and search capability, a hybrid BPFPA algorithm is introduced,
hybrid wind-PV energy configuration, a hybrid optimisation method combining aspects of ABC and FPA algorithms [255].
termed GPSBBO is implemented [245]. This innovative technique in- To streamline the future updating process of proton exchange
tegrates the advantageous features of biogeography-based optimisation membrane FC (PEMFC), a comprehensive characterization of its pa-
(BBO) and greedy PSO, thus harmonising the dual objectives within the rameters is imperative. Various models, including empirical, dynamic,
optimisation process. A comprehensive economic assessment of a hybrid and real-time, have been employed, all rooted in the physical principles
PV-wind turbine energy system is undertaken, encompassing diverse of FC. However, certain parameters remain unmeasurable through these
scenarios with and without BESS to address grid disruptions and cur- methods, rendering them inadequate for modelling purposes. Conse-
tailments effectively. This hybrid system, which includes pre-existing PV quently, an enhanced model integrating hybrid World Cup optimisation
panels and wind turbines, is integrated into a 22 kV (KV) feeder network and fluid dynamics, based on Elman neural networks, was developed.
interlinked with a 110/22 kV (KV) substation in Tamil Nadu, India. The Parameter estimation is proposed through fluid optimisation and vali-
economic evaluation employs the RBFNOEHO hybrid technique, which dated across diverse operational scenarios [256].
leverages Radial Basis Function Neural Networks (RBFN) for accurate A comprehensive exploration encompassing tri-objective economic
load demand forecasting and Oppositional Elephant Herding Optimi- dispatch across various scales has been undertaken, taking into account
sation (OEHO) for system optimisation, ensuring a rigorous and precise critical factors such as generation cost, emissions, transmission losses,
analysis of the system’s financial feasibility and performance charac- and practical constraints including multi-fuel operation and the valve-
teristics [246]. point effect. The strong Fuzzy-Based Hybrid PSO-Differential Evolu-
To orchestrate the scheduling of hydro-thermal renewable power tion (FBHPSO-DE) algorithm is used in this project as the best way to
systems with finesse, a sophisticated approach harnessing a multi- solve multi-objective economic dispatch problems because it is easy to
objective hybrid GWO is deployed. This method yields discernible ad- understand and works well [257]. Demonstrating potency, stability, and
vantages across economic and environmental domains, signifying its adaptability, this method showcases its applicability to problems of
efficacy. Going from a 50 % RES capacity to a hundred percent capacity diverse magnitudes and intricacies, adeptly tackling both single- and
in hybrid systems leads to big drops in both operational costs and multi-objective economic dispatch challenges.
pollution emissions, by eleven and 17 %, respectively, as shown by new Strategic positioning and appropriately scaling renewable energy
research [247]. Pioneering the realm of optimisation algorithms, the systems have the potential to substantially mitigate losses within the
MOHTLBOGWO hybrid algorithm emerges as a pivotal tool, designed to system, trim down generation capacity requirements, and curtail life
meticulously ascertain the optimal allocation of HRES within DS. Its cycle expenses, all the while augmenting the quality and reliability of
overarching objective is twofold: to curtail losses and bolster the overall services rendered. A pioneering initiative harnessed an advanced com-
reliability of the system infrastructure [248]. bination of HS algorithms and geographic information systems (GIS) to
Given the significant influence of environmental factors on genera- electrify rural regions. This integrated approach not only facilitated the
tion sources, the strategic placement of such sources becomes para- optimisation of grid configurations but also enabled meticulous sizing
mount for achieving cost-effective load fulfilment and minimising line considerations for solar and hydrogen-based systems, with the primary
losses. To address this need, a sophisticated hybrid Bat PSO (BAPSO) objective of minimising the overall cost of ownership and mitigating
algorithm is proposed as an optimal solution for determining the system losses [258].
placement and maximising the capacity of solar generation within solar The integration of eleven wind turbines into conventional thermal
PV-based battery-based microgrid systems. This innovative algorithm energy infrastructure gives rise to a novel thermal-wind electrical en-
not only overcomes the inherent limitations of traditional PSO tech- ergy system. Elevating the performance of such hybrid power generation
niques, including premature convergence and computational setups necessitates the formulation of innovative strategies for power
complexity, but also integrates features inspired by the bat algorithm to dispatching and the deployment of optimisation algorithms. In response
enhance its efficiency and effectiveness in solving complex optimisation to this imperative, a pioneering solution emerges in the form of the
problems [249]. hybrid Genetic-TLBO (GTLBO) algorithm, tailored to elevate both fuel
For the intricate task of multistep wind speed forecasting, a trio of cost efficacy and operational efficiency, a characteristic particularly
hybrid models are harnessed. Among these, the WPD-EMD (LF)-ELM advantageous for large-scale power-generating installations. Central to
model distinguishes itself by its ability to generate forecasts of superior its efficacy is the precise optimisation of power flow control mechanisms
quality. This distinction is achieved through a sophisticated process and the in-depth analysis thereof within the intricate framework of
involving the decomposition of wind speed series utilising wavelet wind-thermal power systems [259].
packet decomposition (WPD) and empirical mode decomposition In their analysis of various off-grid RBPS, the authors employed
(EMD), followed by the utilisation of extreme learning machine (ELM) simulated annealing, a constrained technique, to pursue three objec-
techniques for prediction [250]. Meanwhile, in the domain of diffuse tives: technical, economic, and environmental. Sensitivity analysis
solar radiation forecasting in Beijing, hybrid Space vector machine revealed that environmental criteria are more likely to conflict with
(SVM) models are deployed, integrating PSO, Bat Algorithm (BA), and economic criteria. However, a limitation of this approach lies in the
WOA. Notably, the SVM-BA hybrid model stands out for its substantial weighting mechanism of the three criteria [260].
enhancement in accuracy when juxtaposed with conventional SVM In the pursuit of minimising annual design expenditures, an intricate
methods [251]. renewable energy system integrating solar energy, distributed genera-
Furthermore, a sophisticated hybrid model, denoted as PLF-NSGAII- tion, and battery technologies is currently in the developmental stages,
MOPSO, is formulated to address the intricate task of allocating BESS specifically tailored for the electrification needs of rural communities in
and optimising generator output planning within the framework of Assam, India. In this endeavour, we have harnessed a cutting-edge
minimising overall system costs while simultaneously optimising carbon approach, the recently devised modified multi-strategy fusion ABC
emissions. This model is specifically designed to navigate the complex- (MFABC), to effectively tackle the multifaceted objective functions
ities arising from uncertainties in wind farm power generation, ensuring inherent in such systems. Through rigorous assessment against estab-
a holistic and efficient approach to energy management [252,253]. lished benchmarks such as HOMER, the original MFABC algorithm, and
A novel hybrid GWO-CS algorithm is proposed to balance global the PSO algorithm, the practical efficacy and superiority of this meth-
exploration and local exploitation for PV parameter extraction. This odology have been meticulously scrutinised.
approach demonstrates superior performance in parameter extraction Comparative analysis reveals that the enhanced version of the arti-
compared to other methods, enhancing the accuracy and convergence ficial bee colony algorithm boasts a reduced dependency on control
rate of PV models [254]. To improve parameter extraction efficiency variables when juxtaposed with alternative optimisation techniques.

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V. Saxena et al. Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

Moreover, the integration of a selection probability rule within the online mode is more cost-effective than operating independently.
improved MFABC framework is identified as a pivotal enhancement, Additionally, when compared with other heuristic methods such as the
significantly elevating the discernment and prioritisation of criteria, Novel Bat Algorithm (NBA), PSO, and ABC, the proposed algorithm
thereby fostering the attainment of solutions characterised by height- demonstrated superior performance, achieving convergence to a glob-
ened quality and accelerated convergence rates. Particularly noteworthy ally optimal solution with a reduced number of iterations [262].
is the clear improvement that the proposed algorithm shows in terms of The researchers introduced an innovative optimisation model spe-
both minimum annual cost and convergence velocity, which is a big step cifically designed for a self-sufficient microgrid system incorporating a
forward compared to previous approaches [261]. wind turbine, PV panels, diode generator, and battery storage. They
In a novel optimisation methodology aimed at instantaneous oper- combined economic expenditures, environmental impacts, and battery
ation within a DGn-microgrid system—comprising PV panels, WT, DG, wear and tear into a single objective function to achieve their goal. To
FC, and microturbines (MT)—the researchers adopted the ALO strategy achieve this, they devised an integrated methodology that merged PSO
to tackle the MOOD challenge. They employed the weighted sum with SA algorithms. Although there was no conflict between economic
method to transform the multi-objective optimisation problem (MOOP) and environmental costs, the costs associated with battery depreciation
into a single-objective problem (SOP). They performed the modelling presented a significant challenge to balancing both objectives. The study
and simulation of the system, which included both stand-alone and grid- evaluated the system’s performance using the SA and PSO (SAPSO) and
connected configurations. According to the results, operating in an inertia weight PSO (IWPSO) algorithms [263].

Table 8
Comparative assessment of the literature based on Hybrid-AI techniques.
Proposed Existing Method Test Set Findings Application Ref
Hybrid
Algorithm

MFO-TLBO CSA, MFO, TLBO, Seven unimodal, Six multimodal, Eight fixed- Outperforms traditional MFO. The convergence and Visual tracking [234]
GWO, WOA dimensional multimodal success rate of the hybrid approach dominates. Attain
superior outcomes for all benchmark functions
(Minimization) compared to other algorithms.
GSA-TLBO GSA, TLBO, MLR Linear, Quadratic, Exponential, Classical regression The findings obtained with the proposed hybrid Energy [235]
coefficients approach are consistent with training data with demand
correlation coefficients. The proposed approach could estimation
regulate the strategy for energy imports and thus
make energy policies more realistic.
GPSBBO DE, GA, PSO, BBO, Ackley, Fletcher, Griewank, Penalty no. 1, Penalty BBO-PSO outperforms traditional BBO, PSO, and – [245]
Blended BBO, no. 2, Quartic, Rastrigin, Rosenbrock, Schwefel 1.2, blended BBO in all standard benchmark test functions
Hybrid BBO-DE Schwefel 2.21, Schwefel 2.22, Schwefel 2.26, Sphere as a function of the fitness function’s minimum and
mean values. For nine of the thirteen benchmark
functions, the BBO-PSO algorithm outperformed both
the DE and GA algorithms. For eight of the thirteen
benchmark functions, the BBO-PSO algorithm
outperformed the BBO-DE. The BBO-PSO algorithm
can see a much higher success rate than traditional
PSO, GA, BBO, and B-BBO. However, the success rate
of the DE and the BBO-DE is comparable. Simpler than
Hybrid BBO-DE.
AKQPSO BBKH, DEKH, QKH, Classic 100-Digit Challenge The performance of the algorithms is ranked as – [244]
SKH, CCS, VNBA, follows: AKQPSO > QKH > CCS > BBKH > DEKH >
BBO, GA SKH > VNBA > GA. Subpopulation adjustment has a
very clear impact on the precision of AKQPSO.
Accuracy is very high for classical problems, but it is
questionable whether the accuracy of AKQPSO in
general problems remains high.
GSA-TLBO Standard GSA, Constrained G01 benchmark function The proposed method has provided the solution to the Economic [265]
Standard TLBO G01 problem more effectively than other standard dispatch
algorithms. problems
IEEE 30 bus system Fuel cost ($/h): GSA-TLBO 798,609,127; GSA
798,675,174; TLBO 799,0715. Power loss (MW): GSA-
TLBO 875588; GSA 8386049; TLBO 86260
IEEE 57 bus system Fuel cost ($/h): GSA-TLBO 41,651,623; GSA
41,695,877; TLBO 41,686,7915. Power loss (MW):
GSA-TLBO 15,33,112; GSA N/A; TLBO 15,2403
Turkey’s 22 bus system Fuel cost ($/h): GSA-TLBO 31,170,235; GSA
32,828,884; TLBO 31,251,293. Power loss (MW):
GSA-TLBO 30,2279; GSA 43,262; TLBO 36,0993
TLBO-CMMI GA, SFLA, MSFLA, PGP considering reliability, Real power system Performance of proposed technique for test system Power [266]
CPLEX GAMS, PSO, with a different span of planning considering generation
GSA, IGSA, DE reliability constraint. Span (years): 12, 14, 20, 24. PGP planning
cost ($ x 10^5): 1.2745, 1.5442, 1.8424, 2.0469. EENS
(MWh): 31,480, 86.41, 469.26, 1210.25. LOLP (Days/
year): 0.0012, 3.5046 × 10^-6, 1.08 × 10^-5, 2.12 ×
10^-6.
Performance of proposed technique for 14 years PGP cost ($ x 10^5): 1.5581, 1.7219, 1.8626, 1.8969.
planning year considering emission constraint. Test EENS (MWh): 188.57, 1.64 × 10^4, 1.03 × 10^4, 1.86
system: Without emission, considering wind, × 10^3. LOLP (Days/year): 7.47 × 10^-6, 4.93 × 10^-6,
considering solar, Considering solar and storage 3.10 × 10^-4, 9.05 × 10^-5. Emission level (%): 13.15,
system 10.38, 13.40, 8.88.

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V. Saxena et al. Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

Another research effort explored the feasibility of integrating HRES algorithm, the hybrid variant, and the proposed Hybrid Chaos, HS, and
with pumped hydroelectric storage systems within the context of China. SA Algorithm (HCHSA) [269]. The authors also described a three-step
The researchers undertook a comprehensive techno-economic analysis, process that includes an initial step that ignores uncertainty about the
factoring in limitations on the rates of renewable power generation. To parameters, a refinement step that takes uncertainties into account, and
examine the trade-offs between the LCOE and the LPSP, they applied finally determining the parameters based on the results of the previous
MOPSO. The Pareto optimal simulation’s results showed a significant steps [270].
drop in LCOE as RES curtailment rates decreased [264]. Incorporating three distinct electrochemical battery technologies,
After careful consideration, the authors found the best setup for a the researchers devised an energy management scheme to optimise wind
hybrid energy system that includes PV panels, WT, and FC, as well as the and PV power generation. Employing nature-inspired optimisation
ability to store hydrogen. This evaluation utilised the FPA, a novel strategies including ALO, Jaya Algorithm, GWO, and KH, they discerned
exploratory optimisation technique. The primary objective was to the superior performance of the Jaya Algorithm in minimising electricity
minimize the net present cost associated with the off-grid energy system, costs. A study into the system’s future performance also looked at its
all while adhering to reliability constraints such as loss of energy ex- lifetime, the depth of discharge of the batteries, and the variation in
pected (LOEE) and loss of load expected (LOLE). Comparative perfor- battery costs. The results showed that lead-acid battery-based hybrid
mance analyses were conducted between the FPA and other systems were the most cost-effective, followed by lithium-ion and
optimisation methods, namely TLBO and PSO. The findings suggested nickel‑cadmium battery configurations [271].
that, while wind energy systems might not be the most economically In addition, a sophisticated Hybrid Invasive Weed Optimisation-PSO
feasible option, they could still play a significant role in satisfying en- (HIWO-PSO) algorithm was implemented to enhance the efficiency of an
ergy demands, particularly within the context of Iran [173]. Table 8 integrated off-grid hybrid system combining PV panels, biomass, and
illustrates the comparative assessment of the literature based on hybrid BESS. This system was specifically tailored to deliver electrical power to
AI techniques to optimise HRES. a fruit farm located in Egypt. The primary objective of the system design
Fedeshk chose a standalone hybrid system with solar PV panels, WT, was to satisfy the farm’s energy requirements while simultaneously
biodiesel generators, and batteries to meet its energy needs in South reducing its overall environmental impact. This was achieved by uti-
Khorasan, Iran. The elevated oxygen concentration in biodiesel, which lising pruning from apple and grape trees as the biomass feedstock.
enhances its efficiency, contributes to this system’s preference. The Remarkably, in the optimal configuration of the PV-biomass energy
authors of the study undertook a meticulous design optimisation process system, the biomass component contributed to approximately 80 % of
aimed at minimising the overall energy consumption over the system’s the total power supply [272].
operational lifespan. To achieve these optimisation goals, the re- The innovation within this novel technique lies in its adeptness at
searchers employed an innovative hybrid strategy that combined HS and overcoming inherent limitations while finely tuning the delicate balance
SA techniques [188]. between exploration and exploitation phases through the integration of
Within the framework of electric vehicle (EV) rapid charging sta- disparate optimisation methodologies. Introducing an inventive
tions, a sophisticated multi-objective optimisation model was created approach termed the hybrid GA-based Tabu Search (GA-TS), the study
with a focus on demand response. This model aims to simultaneously endeavours to identify the optimal configuration of components for grid-
reduce CO2 emissions and improve overall energy efficiency. To achieve connected systems integrating PV, wind, and biomass technologies, with
these goals, the study employed the MOPSO algorithm for model reso- the principal objective of mitigating power losses within the system.
lution and utilised the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to This integration process entails the synthesis of GA and Tabu Search (TS)
Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) to ascertain the optimal capacity for EVCS in- methodologies [273].
tegrated with WPE systems in China. The determination of system ca- Similarly, in the context of off-grid systems, an innovative hybridi-
pacity was influenced by several critical factors, including the load zation of PSO and HS algorithms, termed PSO-HS, is introduced to
demand of the system, the set objectives, and the employed optimisation ascertain the ideal dimensions of PV, wind, and fuel-based components
methodologies. Effective system capacity and energy scheduling plans within HRESs. Tailored specifically for a geographical region situated in
necessitated careful consideration of these factors, with the option of the northwest of Iran, this hybrid algorithm aims to minimize the net
linking charging stations to the utility grid for stable energy support. present cost while adhering strictly to a predefined loss factor constraint.
Moreover, the inclusion of price-based demand response further Noteworthy is the heightened efficiency showcased by the hybrid
enhanced optimisation performance [267]. In their quest to determine approach, as evidenced by superior convergence rates and a discernible
the optimal capacity for integrating solar power and BESS within the reduction in computational overhead when compared to conventional
IEEE 69-bus Radial DS, the authors innovatively devised a modified PSO algorithms [274].
HGSO approach, integrating SA into the conventional HGSO framework. Despite its recognized effectiveness, SA encounters a drawback in the
After that, they analysed three specific buses in the IEEE 69-bus network form of the protracted processing durations required to ascertain
to determine the best sizes for PV systems and BES. Their research optimal solutions. To address this challenge, we devise a novel hybrid
showed that integrating PV and BES reduces power losses in the system, approach that blends SA with TS. The goal of this new hybridization is to
increases capacity, and improves voltage levels per unit all at once. make it faster and easier to find the best configuration for hybrid systems
For electrifying household loads, the researchers meticulously craf- that use PV, wind, DG, biodiesel, FC, and battery technologies to meet
ted six standalone scenarios within Iran, incorporating both PV and the energy needs of a specific area in Greece. By fusing the capabilities of
wind-based systems. These configurations encompassed two distinct SA and TS, the hybrid methodology endeavours to not only minimize the
energy storage modalities: hydrogen and batteries. After comparing levelized cost of electricity but also to streamline computational re-
different systems, they found that the hybrid system that uses electro- sources, thereby enhancing efficiency. While comparing the hybrid al-
chemical storage was more reliable and cost-effective than systems that gorithm to standard SA and TS methods [275], a careful comparison
only use chemical storage. Nonetheless, with the ongoing advancements shows that it is more effective and flexible.
in FC and electrolyser technologies, the economic viability of chemical In specific geographical contexts, the SA algorithm demonstrates
energy storage remains a plausible prospect for the foreseeable future remarkable efficacy, while the HS method excels at swiftly converging
[268]. towards optimal solutions. A pioneering hybridization endeavour has
Innovatively, a modified approach employing the SA technique, synthesised the strengths of these methods, resulting in the inception of
integrating elements of chaos and harmonic search, was devised to a novel integrated algorithm merging HS and SA. This innovative al-
refine the planned system based on life-cycle cost considerations. A gorithm is tailored for the precise determination of the optimal config-
comparative evaluation was undertaken between the conventional SA uration of a PV-wind/biodiesel/battery-based on-grid hybrid system in

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V. Saxena et al. Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

an isolated region of Iran. Its primary objective is to ensure a dependable 6.2. Sailfish optimizer
power supply while minimising overall life cycle expenditure [188].
Recent years have borne witness to a surge in the deployment of The Sailfish Optimizer (SFO) originated from the intriguing emula-
hybrid algorithms, all geared towards optimising the scales of HRESs. tion of the intricate collective hunting dynamics observed in sailfish, a
Among these advancements are noteworthy implementations such as species renowned for its agile and strategic predatory manoeuvres.
the HS-based SA (HS-SA), the integration of Jaya and TLBO algorithms Drawing inspiration from this natural phenomenon, the SFO algorithm
known as JLBO [276], the Hybrid Grey Wolf Optimizer with Shuffled intricately mirrors the predatory tactics of sailfish during the phase of
Complex Evolution Algorithm (HGWOSCA) [277], and the Simulated intensification while also mimicking the evasive strategies employed by
Annealing PSO (SAPSO) [278]. Leveraging hybrid methodologies, their prey, sardines, during phases of diversification.
which integrate diverse techniques, proves highly efficacious in sur- As the optimisation process unfolds, SFO further refines its approach
mounting the individual limitations inherent in singular artificial in- by integrating sophisticated attack-alternation strategies, reminiscent of
telligence (AI) methods. the calculated manoeuvres employed by sailfish to dismantle the col-
Hybrid techniques are widely acknowledged as the most efficient lective defences of their sardine prey. Through this dynamic interplay,
means for tackling optimisation challenges, particularly those involving the algorithm adeptly navigates the search space, continually updating
multi-objective problems. Notably, a diverse array of combinations the movements of virtual prey within it. This adaptive mechanism en-
encompassing SA, Cultural Algorithm (CA), TS, PSO, GA, GWO, and ables the predators—symbolised by sailfish in this context—to strate-
TLBO, among others, have been harnessed to address the complexities gically relocate their targets to positions that align more closely with
inherent in sizing issues pertaining to HRESs. their previous locations, thus enhancing the efficiency of the optimisa-
These combinations effectively mitigate local optima trapping, tion process.
yielding high-quality solutions. While individual algorithms may excel Central to this methodology is the conceptualization of sailfish as
in exploration, they often lack in exploitation. Previous efforts have representing potential solutions to the optimisation problem at hand,
focused on enhancing exploitation capability by integrating algorithms with their respective positions defining the variables under consider-
with strong exploitation potential, thereby balancing exploration and ation. By harnessing the behavioural dynamics of these marine preda-
exploitation phases to boost performance. Each algorithm possesses tors, the SFO algorithm offers a novel and sophisticated approach to
unique characteristics, prompting interest in integrating them to miti- optimisation, leveraging insights from nature’s own playbook to tackle
gate local optimality and enhance overall capabilities. Hybrid algo- complex computational challenges.
rithms have consistently demonstrated superior exploration and During the iterative process, the algorithm meticulously logs the
exploitation of search spaces, outperforming standalone techniques in optimal locations of both the proficient sailfish and the weakened
resolving challenging scenarios. Consequently, adaptive hybridization sardine. Interestingly, the fittest entity’s superior position significantly
presents a promising avenue for further research, offering superior influences the efficiency of the SFO technique. SFO stands out for its
outcomes compared to individual techniques. array of benefits, including its adeptness in evading localised optima, its
rapid attainment of global optimisation, particularly on extensive scales,
6. Recent “AI-based optimization techniques” and its ability to foster competitive outcomes that optimise the delicate
equilibrium between exploratory and exploitative phases [282].
6.1. Black widow algorithm In order to augment the effectiveness of the SFO algorithm in navi-
gating complex optimisation landscapes, a novel strategy is proposed,
Black widow optimization (BWO), a new population-based artificial referred to as the hybrid adaptive-hill climbing method. This innovative
intelligence technique, draws inspiration from the life cycle of the black approach integrates the Binary Sailfish Optimizer (BSF), thereby inte-
widow spider. This innovative algorithm draws on the unique repro- grating the strengths of both methodologies [283]. The efficacy of this
ductive and survival strategies observed in black widow spiderlings. hybridised technique is evaluated across a diverse array of 18 standard
Central to the algorithm’s design are three critical parameters: mutation datasets sourced from the University of California, Irvine (UCI), span-
rate, cannibalism rate, and reproduction rate. Each of these parameters ning various domains. To ascertain its comparative performance, the
plays a vital role in refining and improving the algorithm’s performance, hybrid approach is juxtaposed against ten distinct artificial intelligence-
mirroring the natural processes that drive the evolution and success of based feature selection techniques. The overarching aim is to fortify the
black widow spiders in their natural habitat. exploitability and efficacy of the BSF within optimisation contexts.
Specifically, the fraction of spiders reproducing, denoted as the PP
rate, fosters diversification, augmenting exploration within the search 6.3. Deer hunting algorithm
space. Furthermore, employing a three-stage cannibalism process, the
algorithm swiftly eliminates unfit individuals, hastening convergence. ` The deer hunting algorithm (DHA) represents an innovative AI
Precise adjustments to the mutation rate achieved a delicate balance optimisation framework that takes its conceptual foundation from the
between the exploration and exploitation stages [279]. traditional human hunting techniques employed in the pursuit of
The field of renewable energy systems has ingeniously developed tracking deer or bucks. This algorithm mimics the strategic methods
advanced controllers for standalone hybrid systems that integrate wind, hunters use to locate and follow their prey, translating these tactics into
tidal, and wave energy sources. These cutting-edge controllers are computational processes aimed at optimising complex problem-solving
designed using the BWO technique, showcasing innovative applications tasks. This algorithm incorporates a variety of factors, such as wind
of this optimisation method in enhancing the efficiency and reliability of direction, deer location, and other pertinent variables. Initially, the al-
HRESs [280]. Leveraging BWO, enhancements to the PI controller pa- gorithm starts with a vector representing the number of hunters within
rameters of a WT emulator were achieved, with performance evalua- the population, designating one hunter as the leader. As the algorithm
tions surpassing those of conventional GA, PSO, and BAT methods. progresses, the remaining hunters incrementally move towards the
While BWO demonstrates promise, its widespread adoption in optimi- optimal position.
sation applications remains limited. Thus, comprehensive testing across Coefficient vectors guide the continuous update of the hunters’ po-
broader iterations is imperative to validate its suitability for diverse sitions until they find the optimal location. The global search process is
applications [281]. enhanced by using the position of the next hunter in line for updates,
iterating until the position angle is finely tuned.
The effectiveness of this optimisation approach has been demon-
strated through its successful application to 39 benchmark problems and

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V. Saxena et al. Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

three constrained engineering tasks, outperforming other modern opti- and global best fitness histories, making AEFA a memory-based
misation methods. Despite its success, the deer stalking algorithm has a approach that integrates both positional and velocity data for each
significant limitation: it has a propensity for premature convergence due agent. In comparison to contemporary optimisation techniques, the
to the involvement of numerous random variables [43]. AEFA has exhibited remarkable effectiveness and inspirational robust-
In a proposed scenario designed to supply residential electricity in ness when applied to an extensive array of 51 benchmark problems.
Yazd, Iran, an optimal configuration of a combined solar chimney power These problems pertain specifically to learning-based, real-parameter,
plant was suggested. This innovative power plant integrates Solid Oxide single-objective optimisation tasks. Additionally, theoretical studies
Electrolyser Cells (SOEC), Solid Oxide FC (SOFC), and Heat Recovery have confirmed the necessary stability conditions that must be met for
Steam Generators (HRSG). To thoroughly examine the economic particles to converge in this algorithmic framework [286].
viability of this solar chimney system, an advanced deer stalking opti-
misation technique was utilised. Additionally, a comparative analysis 6.6. Water strider algorithm
was performed to evaluate the results of this method against those ob-
tained through GA and PSO algorithms, highlighting the relative effi- The methodology draws its inspiration from the multifaceted life
cacy and efficiency of the different approaches [44]. cycle of water strider insects. It intricately weaves in the diverse aspects
of their behaviour, including their sophisticated territorial manoeuvres,
6.4. Tunicate swarm algorithm elaborate mating rituals, and unique form of communication via surface
ripples on the water. Additionally, the methodology takes into account
The Tunicate Swarm Algorithm (TSA) emerges as an innovative AI their foraging strategies and the dynamic processes of succession within
optimisation technique, drawing its inspiration from the swarming their ecosystems, reflecting the complex and interconnected nature of
behaviour and fluid propulsion strategies exhibited by marine tunicates. their existence. This approach, termed the Water Strider Algorithm
These diminutive sea creatures, often measuring just a few millimetres (WSA), emulates the natural progression of these insects’ life stages. The
in length, exhibit fascinating collective movement dynamics. They WSA initiates the search process by identifying the starting positions of
efficiently navigate the ocean’s depths by harnessing the power of jet individual water striders within a simulated lake environment. Next, we
propulsion. TSA seeks to replicate these natural behaviours and mech- use an objective function to assess each water strider’s fitness. Based on
anisms to optimise problem-solving processes in artificial intelligence this fitness assessment, territories are delineated, with the positioning of
applications. Interestingly, tunicates also emit a faint blue-green light, each water strider within these territories being directly influenced by
which assists them in locating distant food sources in the deep sea. its fitness level.
The TSA develops a mathematical model for the fluid propulsion of During mating, the female’s response signal dictates the male key-
tunicates under specific conditions. (a) To mitigate conflicts among the stone’s new position and prompts an update in its location. Mating, an
search agents, a novel vector is implemented. This vector incorporates energetically demanding process for the keystone, requires a search for
considerations of both gravitational forces and social interactions, food, which it determines by assessing the objective function to identify
thereby facilitating the determination of new positional updates for the its availability. Failure to find sustenance leads to the keystone’s demise
agents. due to malnutrition. In such cases, a new mature larva replaces the
(b) The system methodically steers the search agents towards the deceased keystone, randomly assigning its initial position within the
coordinates of the most successful neighboring agent. This directional territory.
guidance helps to leverage the success of well-performing peers. The researchers conducted a series of comprehensive numerical an-
(c) Ultimately, the search agents collectively converge towards the alyses and engineering design challenges to substantiate the efficacy of
position of the highest-performing agent within the group. This this approach. The outcomes of these rigorous evaluations demonstrated
convergence ensures that all agents gravitate towards the optimal so- superior performance compared to other contemporary algorithms,
lution identified during the search process. highlighting the approach’s advanced capabilities and robustness in
Furthermore, TSA uses the first two global solutions to mimic swarm solving complex problems [287].
dynamics, updating the positions of other agents as they move towards
optimal solutions. Building upon this, the Improved TSA (ITSA) is 6.7. Political optimizer
introduced, specifically designed for the optimal allocation and man-
agement of distribution network resources (DNR), distributed genera- The Political Optimizer (PO) algorithm represents an innovative
tors, and circuit breakers (CBs). ITSA’s primary objective is to minimize optimisation technique that derives its principles from the complex and
power losses in Distribution System (DS) while meeting both quantita- multifaceted nature of political processes. This socio-inspired approach
tive and qualitative consumer needs [284]. meticulously mirrors the stages of political activity through a structured
The effectiveness of the ITSA was assessed on various electrical DS. mathematical model [288]. The PO algorithm meticulously mirrors the
This evaluation takes into account a range of rated power demands and intricacies of the political lifecycle through five distinct and pivotal
different operational strategies. A comparative analysis is conducted phases. Initially, it involves the allocation of constituencies, which sets
between ITSA and several other optimisation methods, including the the foundational stage for the subsequent processes. The formation of
traditional TSA, PSO, GA, Evolutionary Algorithm (EA), WOA, Bacterial political parties follows, where alliances and groups establish them-
Foraging Optimisation Algorithm (BFOA), and CSA [285]. selves. The third phase encompasses the election campaign, a period
marked by strategic planning and public engagement to garner support.
6.5. Artificial electric field algorithm The inter-party election phase then addresses the competitive dynamics
between different parties as they vie for electoral success. Finally, the
The implementation of Coulomb’s law of electrostatic force greatly process culminates in the parliamentary affairs phase, where the elected
enhances the performance efficiency of the Artificial Electric Field Al- representatives undertake legislative responsibilities and governance
gorithm (AEFA). Within this algorithm, the agents are conceptualised as activities.
charged particles. The particle with the highest charge, known as the At the outset, the algorithm takes a foundational step by dividing the
leading charged particle, traverses the search space at a reduced speed. population into separate political groups during the initial stages of
This slow movement allows it to effectively influence and guide the party creation and constituency assignment. A one-time initialization
overall search process. The AEFA algorithm attributes this deceleration procedure includes this segregation, laying the groundwork for the
to the attractive nature of the electrostatic force. The algorithm updates subsequent phases of the optimization process. Each of these stages
each search agent’s position and velocity based on the agent’s personal plays a crucial role in the overall functioning of the PO algorithm,

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 V. Saxena et al.
Table 9
Comparative assessment of the literature based on HOMER software.
System Components Analysis Location/ Objective Function Sensitive Findings Ref.
Application Parameters
PV WT DG BT Economic Environmental Sensitive Techno- Reliability Emissions Adaptability
economic

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Adafoah, Ghana / To determine the Solar radiation, Optimal system: NPC($): [301]
Rural areas optimized system based Wind speed, 638,995, COE($/kWh):
on Minimum NPC and Diesel price 0.281
COE
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Kenya and South Minimization of TNPC – Kenya South Africa: COE [302]
Africa / Nitric ($/kWh): 0.200,
acid plant Scenario A: COE
($/kWh): 0.163,
Scenario B: COE
($/kWh): 0.179
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ 12 Different To Minimize LCOE, Solar radiation Solar hybrid systems: [303]
locations in CO2 emissions Ranges between $0.156
Nigeria / to $0.172
Transceiver
Station
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ NEOM, Saudi To minimize NPC, COE – Optimal system: NPC($): [304]
Arabia / Seawater 438,657, COE($/kWh):
desalination plant 0.117
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Djoumde, To minimize NPC, COE Wind speed, Solar Optimal system: NPC($): [305]
Cameroon / radiation, Capital 370,426, COE($/kWh):
Remote village cost multiplier of 0.256
PV and PHS
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Medha, Oman / To obtain Low NPC, – Optimal system: NPC($): [306]
26

Exclave territory COE, To reduce GHG 50,176, COE($/kWh):

emissions 0.070
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Melky Hera, To Minimize NPC, To Solar radiation, Optimal system: NPC($): [307]
Ethiopia increase RF, To reduce Diesel fuel price 997,334, COE($/kWh):
pollutants 0.133
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Khorfakkan, To analyze NPC, COE Derating factor, Optimal system: NPC($): [308]
Sharjah for single-axis and Diesel price 48,473, COE($/kWh):
dual-axis PV systems 0.250
✔ ✔ ✔ Tripura, India / To obtain the lowest Solar radiation, Optimal system: NPC($): [309]
Rice mill GHG emission, To Variation in 78,950, COE($/kWh):
improve RF, To LCOE, Electricity 0.184
minimize the NPC, COE price
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Norway / To Minimize NPC, COE, Prices of diesel, Optimal system: NPC($): [310]
Household To decrease the natural gas, Bio- 7232, COE($/kWh):
applications environmental impacts producer gas 0.306
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Manitoba, Canada To determine the – Optimal system: NPC($): [311]
/ Remote area optimal system 21,364,520, COE
configuration ($/kWh): 0.5158

PV WT DG BT Economic Environmental Sensitive Techno- Reliability Emissions Adaptability Location/ Objective Function Sensitive Parameters Findings Ref.

Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

economic Application

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Warrnambool, To determine optimal – Optimal system: [312]

Australia / design with the least NPC($): 5686, COE
University building NPC ($/kWh): 0.081
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Barwani, India / To minimize cost Solar and wind Optimal system: [313]
Remote Village functions, To reduce resources, Diesel price NPC($): 324178,
Pollutant emissions COE($/kWh):
0.6213
(continued on next page)
 V. Saxena et al.
Table 9 (continued )
PV WT DG BT Economic Environmental Sensitive Techno- Reliability Emissions Adaptability Location/ Objective Function Sensitive Parameters Findings Ref.
economic Application

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Leopard Beach, To minimize system Project lifetime, Optimal system: PV/ [314]
China / Remote NPC, COE Annual discount rate, WT/BG/SB, NPC($):
Village Annual average 547013, COE
electric loads ($/kWh): 0.201
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Cheras, Malaysia / To analyze the Fuel prices, Annual The proposed PV/ [315]
Medical Centre effectiveness of interest rate Wind/BG/Battery
Building economical hybrid system is
parameters and the more economical
impact of sensitive than the grid
variables extension
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Nikouyeh Minimize total – Optimal system: PV/ [316]
Ghadamagh energy cost WT/SB, COE
Moalem, ($/kWh): 0.54, 0.56,
Marvdasht, Iran / 0.799, 0.62
Research center
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Mandhra Saidan, Minimize NPC and Solar PV price, Diesel NPC($): Off-grid: [317]
Pakistan LCOE fuel price, Battery 1,444,310, On-grid:
cost, Exchange rate, 1,042,344
Inflation rate,
Discount rate
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Newcastle, United To calculate and Number of Optimal system: WT [318]
Kingdom / compare NPC and components (1KW)/BG/SB, NPC
27

Residential COE of different ($): 14507, COE

system configurations ($/kWh): 0.588
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Medicine Hat, To determine optimal Solar radiation, Wind Optimal system: PV/ [319]
Canada / Remote design in the order of speed WT/BS, NPC($):
oil well least NPC, LCOE, and 145,150.50, COE
operating cost ($/kWh): 0.5118
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Sakran, Traq / To examine optimal Pipe head losses, Optimal system: PV/ [320]
Rural village configuration based Generator under battery/hydro/
on LCC, COE, and loading, Battery diesel, NPC($):
GHG emissions roundtrip efficiency, 145,150.50, COE
State of charge, ($/kWh): 0.054
Capacity shortage, PV
capital cost

PV WT DG BT Economic Environmental Sensitive Techno- Reliability Emissions Adaptability Location/ Objective Function Sensitive Findings Ref.
economic Application Parameters

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Minya Governorate, To rank the optimal – Optimal system: PV/ [321]

Egypt / Water design based on NPC FC, NPC($): 50321,
pumping application and COE COE($/kWh): 0.588

Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

in a remote area
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Fouay, Benin / Rural To find optimal Diesel fuel price, Optimal system: PV/ [322]
electrification configuration based Load growth, DG/SB (Off-grid), NPC
on NPC, COE, and Interest rate, ($): 555492, COE
GHG emissions Annual average ($/kWh): 0.207
stream flow,
Lifetime
(continued on next page)
V. Saxena et al. Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

reflecting the dynamic and strategic nature of real-world politics. A

[323]

[324]
unique methodology for updating positions during the election

Ref.
campaign phase enhances candidate performance by assimilating in-
sights from prior elections and adjusting member and candidate posi-

11.23/kWh (Grid tariff

BM/WT/Grid, NPC($):
Optimal system: LCOE

kWh (Grid tariff Rs.6/

tions relative to party leadership and constituency outcomes. The inter-

(With DR and ORM),

Optimal system: PV/

SPV, BESS, and grid:

Rs.10/kWh), 8.36/

($/kWh): 0.05744
party election phase simulates constituency-level contests to identify
Findings

180.2 M, COE
victorious candidates, while the ensuing parliamentary affairs phase
witnesses the collaboration among successful candidates from each
party to govern collectively. Leveraging a recent position update

kWh)
mechanism based on past performance, PO elevates candidates’ efficacy.
PO imbues each individual in the population with a dual role, either
Cost of Grid energy

radiation, Biomass
as a party member or a candidate, facilitating precise division into po-
Wind turbine hub

multiplier, Solar
height, Biomass
Parameters

litical entities and constituencies to ensure accuracy. Notably, PO di-

Sensitive

capital cost verges from conventional approaches by engaging with not just the best
solution but two superior alternatives—the optimal party leader and

prices
constituency winner—to refine search agent positions. Evaluation
against fifteen benchmark algorithms across diverse optimisation chal-
lenges underscores PO’s competitive performance [288].
ensure minimum CO2

minimum system cost

Objective Function

To obtain minimum

Optimisation strategies have undergone rapid evolution in recent

LCOE, TNPC with
maximum RF, To

decades, spawning diverse methodologies tailored to specific in-

To determine

spirations and problem domains. The Arithmetic Optimisation Algo-

and COE
emission

rithm [289], drawing insights from mathematical operator behaviour,

the SMA inspired by Physarum Polycephalum’s food search dynamics
[290], and the SSA, rooted in the collective wisdom and foraging stra-
tegies of sparrows [291], exemplify this trend. The Orca Optimisation
Jalalabad, India /

algorithm, mirroring orcas’ hunting tactics [292], and the Strawberry

Electrification to
Application
Location/

Plant Propagation Algorithm [293] further contribute to the expanding

Kallar Kahar,
Rural village

repertoire of optimisation techniques.

Pakistan

7. Software tools
Adaptability

Prior to embarking on any energy infrastructure venture, it is

indispensable to engage in the meticulous process of modelling to
facilitate informed decision-making and preliminary feasibility assess-
ments. An array of software resources, spanning both commercial and
freely accessible domains, exists to facilitate the comprehensive exam-
Emissions

ination of renewable energy system integration. Notable programs

include ARES, CREST, iHOGA, INSEL, HOMER, PHOTO, PVF-Chart, PV-
✔

DESIGN-PRO, PVSYS, RAPSIM, RAPSYS, PVSYST, RETScreen, REopt,

Reliability

SOLSIM, SOMES, TRNSYS, and WATSUN-PV [294]. RETScreen and

HOMER are particularly noteworthy, with installation figures exceeding
200,000 and 28,000, respectively, positioning them as widely used tools
within academic circles. Researchers have conducted an exhaustive
economic
Techno-

examination of environmental analyses facilitated by HOMER, iHOGA,

EnergyPRO, RETScreen EXpert, and TRNSYS. This review aimed to
decipher the processes involved in developing community-level energy
simulation software, enabling a comprehensive assessment of its envi-
Sensitive

ronmental efficacy [295].

An extensive investigation unfolded at VIT University through the
✔

implementation of performance simulations aimed at analysing a 200

KW solar power system, orchestrated via TRNSYS software [296].
Environmental

Moreover, TRNSYS facilitated a multifaceted modelling endeavour that

included a hybrid geothermal-solar-wind system for comprehensive
energy provision. This model not only catered to the technical aspects
✔

but also extended to a thorough economic analysis, envisaging the de-

livery of crucial services such as space heating, cooling, hot water, and
Economic

electricity to residential settings [297].

Expanding the breadth of its application, TRNSYS tools were
✔

instrumental in evaluating the efficacy of advanced control methodol-

BT

ogies within the realm of energy and economic optimization. Specif-

Table 9 (continued )

ically, the investigation focused on a home heat pump system

DG

integrating a PV array and electrical energy storage. The authors con-

ducted this analysis under varying temperature conditions, aiming to
WT

discern the nuanced impacts of diverse control strategies on both energy

efficiency and economic viability [298].
PV

In the rural town of Jahazpur, located in India, an intricate process of

28
V. Saxena et al. Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

optimisation was undertaken to tailor the electrical load requirements of include solar thermal systems within its range of analysis.
a residential dwelling. This optimisation was designed to seamlessly On the other hand, RETScreen has gained significant traction for its
integrate with a hybrid energy system, combining PV, WT, DG, and effectiveness in evaluating renewable energy solutions. The Canadian
battery storage technologies. Following this integration, the researchers government initiated RETScreen and first released it to the public on
conducted a comprehensive evaluation encompassing both technical April 30, 1998. Researchers widely use this software for renewable en-
and economic aspects using the sophisticated software tool HOMER. ergy projects, providing a detailed five-stage process that includes en-
Subsequently, the authors conducted an in-depth analysis using the ergy modelling, cost analysis, greenhouse gas emission assessment,
versatile platform RETScreen to further explore the financial viability of financial summaries, and sensitivity and risk evaluations. RETScreen’s
the proposed system. This analysis thoroughly explored factors such as robust framework allows for comprehensive analysis and decision-
financial feasibility, payback duration, risk assessment, and the impact making in renewable energy initiatives.
of fiscal policies like taxes and subsidies on the optimal system config- Launched on October 13, 2022, the most recent version, RETScreen
uration [299]. Expert 9, features a range of significant advancements compared to its
Moreover, RETScreen played a pivotal role in determining the most earlier versions. Key enhancements include the integration of modules
suitable dimensions of renewable energy systems to align with various for benchmark analysis, feasibility studies, performance assessment, and
objective functions. The authors conducted this assessment both with portfolio evaluations. Additionally, this version supports 64-bit systems
and without consideration of subsidies, ensuring a comprehensive un- and is available in 38 different languages. RETScreen Expert 9 also
derstanding of the system’s potential in diverse financial landscapes simplifies the input process by reducing the number of required pa-
[300]. rameters and decreasing the demand for computer resources, thereby
The iHOGA tool was harnessed to execute both singular and multi- enhancing its accessibility and efficiency.
faceted optimisation processes for a PV/WT/DG/Battery Hybrid Energy IHOGA PRO, on the other hand, has a lot of extra features, such as
System (HES) tailored to meet the needs of a typical household in pre-sizing, optimising PV panel angles, probability analysis, modelling
France. This broad approach is different from a narrow focus on mini- of battery ageing, and multi-objective timing. Despite these sophisti-
mising the net present cost (NPC). Instead, it focuses on lowering CO2 cated capabilities, the adoption of iHOGA PRO remains limited.
emissions and unmet loads through multi-objective optimisation, even if A significant limitation of the iHOGA PRO software is the insufficient
it means NPC goes up a little. Similarly, when optimising a self- availability of data concerning surplus energy across the various energy
contained hybrid PV/DG/battery system, iHOGA demonstrated its effi- technologies evaluated. Although both HOMER and iHOGA are profi-
cacy. Minimising diesel fuel consumption, making the most of the area’s cient in conducting techno-economic analyses, they fall short in per-
RES, and maintaining a consistent electricity supply throughout the year forming thermal analyses. Conversely, RETScreen and TRNSYS possess
are all ways this application highlighted the possibility of microgrid the capability to efficiently manage both techno-economic and thermal
operation saving money [325]. assessments. Despite this, no single software solution comprehensively
A comprehensive examination blending technological and economic optimizes all renewable energy systems [331].
factors was undertaken by the authors to analyze the feasibility of a A wide array of software tools exists for the comprehensive analysis
renewable energy system integrating PV, WT, and DG technologies. This of hybrid energy systems, focusing on several critical aspects such as
evaluation targeted the electrification of remote regions and was facil- system performance, component sizing, power supply deficiencies, and
itated through the use of the HOMER simulation tool [326]. Subse- the overall cost of energy production. These tools typically include
quently, a bespoke off-grid HRES was meticulously crafted using simulation capabilities for battery banks used in electrical energy stor-
HOMER to meet the energy demands across six diverse climatic zones age. Among these, HOMER and iHOGA stand out for their advanced
within Tamil Nadu, India. This endeavour sought to explore combina- features. Specifically, both programs have the capability to model
tions of renewable resources that are both economically viable and hydrogen-based energy storage systems. HOMER, in particular, is highly
environmentally sustainable for each specific locale. Moreover, sensi- regarded for its robust optimisation functionalities. It integrates both
tivity analyses were conducted on five key parameters to assess the engineering and economic perspectives to identify the most cost-
performance and resilience of the system under varying conditions effective configurations. This integration allows HOMER to present
[327]. optimized system designs and outcomes graphically, enhancing the ef-
The tea industry adopted a tailored approach to design HRESs, ficiency and clarity of the analysis [332].
encompassing both off-grid and on-grid configurations. These systems Despite its utility, HOMER exhibits several limitations. Firstly,
integrated solar, biomass, and hydropower sources to fulfil the multi- HOMER can only solve linear equations of the first degree, which limits
faceted energy requirements, including electrical, thermal, and its capacity to handle more complex mathematical models. Further-
hydrogen demands. Strict analysis and comparison demonstrated the more, it lacks the functionality to import and utilize time series data for
superior efficiency and economic viability of on-grid systems over their meteorological conditions and load demands, which limits its applica-
off-grid counterparts in several critical metrics, such as the LCOE and the bility in dynamic and real-time analysis. HOMER can incorporate
LCOHE [328]. compressed air energy storage into its simulations, but its evaluation
Researchers have extensively explored the complexities involved in criteria narrowly focus on the net present cost as the sole objective
the design and integration of HRESs into intelligent microgrids [329]. function. This approach fails to account for hourly variations in energy
Moreover, the HOMER software performed an in-depth feasibility study supply and demand, and it does not prioritize systems based on criteria
to evaluate six different system configurations specifically for remote such as electricity cost or fluctuations in bus voltage. Furthermore,
regions in Madhya Pradesh, India. This analysis highlighted that a HOMER does not consider potential future increases in load or battery
hybrid energy system comprising solar, wind, biomass, diesel, and bat- discharge depth, both of which are critical factors that can substantially
tery storage was the most practical and efficient solution among the influence the outcomes of optimization efforts [333].
alternatives assessed. [330]. To improve optimization, the discharge component’s battery depth
Table 9 provides an overview of research using the HOMER program in HOMER needs to be upgraded [15]. iHOGA, a version of hybrid
to optimise HRES effectiveness. The specific goals of each scenario optimisation developed by researchers at the University of Zaragoza,
typically influence the limitations of software systems’ functionalities. focuses on simulating and optimising microgrid energy systems based on
Different platforms are designed to address distinct requirements, such renewables. It incorporates multi-objective optimisation and provides
as conducting comprehensive evaluations of energy source efficiency. optimal solutions with low simulation step times. However, its draw-
Among these platforms, HOMER stands out due to its extensive capa- back lies in restricting the daily load to 10 kW.
bilities in assessing RES and related technologies. However, it does not TRNSYS, developed at the University of Wisconsin, is a widely used

29
V. Saxena et al. Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

simulation tool in renewable energy engineering and building model- Therefore, we deemed necessary a multifaceted approach that concur-
ling. It offers precise unit sizing options, digital simulations, and the rently addresses social, environmental, and uncertainty factors to ach-
ability to mimic transient interconnected systems [113]. ieve more realistic results. A plethora of research endeavours have
Research shows HOMER and RETScreen as the most widely used delved into the realm of crafting HRESs designed to independently fulfil
software for estimating renewable energy systems. Future applications the ever-growing requirement for electricity. Within this domain, the
of hybrid energy systems necessitate significant advancements in soft- evolution of integrated technologies such as combined heat and power,
ware tools. These improvements should include the integration of alongside the advancements in hydrogen production and storage, offers
alternative energy sources, such as solar and wind power, as well as a beacon of promise. These innovations have the potential to address the
electric vehicles. Additionally, these tools should be capable of man- multifaceted demands of various industries, catering to a wide array of
aging operations more effectively while incorporating a range of social applications. Such a trajectory beckons for deeper exploration and
and environmental indicators. This includes assessing emission costs to scrutiny, presenting an alluring pathway for future investigation.
ensure a comprehensive approach to sustainability and efficiency in Previous studies have predominantly focused on strategies aimed at
hybrid energy system management. mitigating the effects of global warming, often neglecting the potential
avenues for harnessing thermal energy and producing hydrogen through
8. Discussion and findings renewable resources. Furthermore, no singular software application
exists for designing hybrid energy systems incorporating hydrogen
To facilitate a comprehensive examination of HRES from both technology. Sensitivity analyses evaluating system performance under
technological and economic perspectives, this investigation employed a varying loads, weather conditions, project lifespans, interest rates, and
diverse array of methodologies. These methodologies included tradi- component degradation remain unexplored. Such an examination would
tional optimisation approaches, state-of-the-art AI-driven techniques, provide valuable insights.
hybrid algorithms that synergistically integrate multiple methodologies, Optimising HRESs presents formidable challenges, necessitating
and the application of commercially available software tools specifically consideration of social implications such as societal advancement and
designed for such analyses. job creation. The extended payback period, stemming from the high
One of the primary challenges associated with most optimisation initial capital investment, underscores the need for technical advance-
methods is their complex and context-sensitive nature. Despite their ments to reduce renewable component production costs and subse-
notable performance, proficiency in addressing intricate issues, and quently shorten payback times. The emergence of novel algorithms
flexibility in applying various objective functions, these methods have offers potential for superior results compared to established methodol-
several inherent limitations. Classical techniques, while effective for ogies, urging further exploration and development of hybrid optimisa-
economic optimisation, often operate within a limited parameter space, tion techniques to address current challenges. The complexity of
potentially constraining their overall efficacy. Drawbacks such as ri- effective HRES implementation is now evident, as highlighted in pre-
gidity, difficulties in achieving a global optimum, and challenges in vious studies. The following paragraphs outline the key findings.
adapting to dynamic environmental changes hinder these traditional In recent years, there has been a noticeable decline in the utilisation
approaches. of conventional size optimisation methods, while contemporary ap-
In contrast, AI-based algorithms present a promising alternative by proaches are gaining traction. Modern techniques offer diverse optimal
addressing the limitations of classical methods, ensuring global opti- outcomes, enabling decision-makers to choose the most suitable com-
mality, and achieving rapid convergence. bination for their needs. Studies have demonstrated that distinct algo-
Comparative assessments across technical, economic, and perfor- rithms, including hybrids, and software tools yield markedly varied
mance domains have underscored the superior performance of AI-based electricity outputs and system components that are detectable enough to
algorithms in tackling multi-objective optimisation challenges. These be significant. Consequently, there is a recommendation to embrace
advanced algorithms demonstrate enhanced capabilities in optimising contemporary optimisation strategies for HRES, as they offer promising
HRESs, making them a valuable tool in the pursuit of more efficient and and feasible optimum sizes. Balancing between intensification and
effective renewable energy solutions. diversification is crucial to enhancing optimisation algorithm efficiency,
The pervasive integration of AI methodologies within optimisation marking a pivotal step in the process.
processes can be attributed to their remarkable enhancements in effi- In recent times, several innovative artificial intelligence algorithms
ciency, precision, and rapidity of convergence. Nevertheless, these have emerged from diverse inspirations, yet their adoption for
methods demand a delicate balance between exploration and exploita- addressing complex optimisation challenges in HRES remains limited.
tion phases, as well as significant hardware resources owing to their Notably, novel hybrid algorithms like CSA, Jaya, and DHO exhibit su-
intricate procedures and programs. Despite their complexity, these perior outcomes in terms of quality, computing efficiency, depend-
techniques excel in speed, accuracy, and effectiveness. Moreover, the ability, and accuracy compared to traditional approaches such as GA
integration of multiple algorithms through hybridization can expedite and PSO, showcasing their enhanced accuracy. Published studies on
problem resolution, bolster reliability, and enhance efficiency. This green energies have yet to implement these recently developed algo-
hybridised system design approach, characterised by swift convergence rithms, highlighting the need to utilize them for optimal sizing of HRES
and robustness, entails heightened complexity in system creation and and assess their effectiveness.
code management. While commercial software solutions offer user- The incorporation of renewable sources alongside constraint man-
friendly interfaces and versatility, they exhibit limitations in address- agement can significantly escalate model complexity, particularly with
ing diverse objectives and advanced optimisation tasks. In contrast to multiple objective functions. Therefore, an efficient optimisation strat-
conventional approaches, software-based utilities present a user- egy with superior convergence, optimal solutions, precision, and fewer
friendly interface that facilitates ease of operation, granting enhanced control variables is indispensable for effectively addressing such
adaptability and notably reduced time investment. challenges.
However, they often operate as black boxes, constraining their ca- In the realm of software tools, the most economically viable
pabilities to straightforward optimisation equations. Overcoming chal- approach is to avoid prescribing specific solutions based solely on per-
lenges in remote areas, particularly in accurately locating suitable sites formance factors. These tools function as “black boxes,” concealing the
for HRES installations and assessing renewable energy potential, ne- core optimisation method from users, thereby maintaining impartiality
cessitates the development of precise geographic software tools. towards the achieved results.
The predominant focus of previous research was on singular objec- In order to achieve targeted technical proficiency and agile respon-
tives, which proved insufficient for yielding high-quality outcomes. siveness within the power infrastructure, it becomes essential to

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V. Saxena et al. Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

ascertain the ideal scale of renewable energy elements. Nonetheless, the effective optimisation and sustainable implementation of HRES.
existing dearth of comprehensive instruments tailored for the design and The substantial emission of CO2 and nitrogen oxides resulting from
optimisation of energy systems spanning varied consumption domains the utilisation of fossil fuels in maritime and aerial transportation un-
underscores the urgent need for the creation of an integrated tool. Such a derscores the urgency of seeking alternative fuel sources. While
tool should possess the capability to evaluate numerous energy re- renewable energy solutions have gained traction across residential, in-
sources, load sectors, and their respective attributes concurrently, all dustrial, and commercial sectors, their integration into maritime and
while effectively managing the inherent uncertainties intertwined with aerial transport systems remains largely underexplored. This highlights
these resources. the critical necessity for coordinated and intensive research efforts
Future research endeavours expect to explore alternative pathways aimed at discovering alternative energy sources specifically designed for
within the renewable energy sector, given the inherent nonlinear char- powering the propulsion systems of ships and aircraft. This field is
acteristics of DG. These pathways include investigating oceanic energy anticipated to garner significant focus and development in the near
sources, such as wave and tidal power, as well as biofuels derived from future as the demand for sustainable and efficient energy solutions
seaweed. Additionally, promising advancements in energy storage continues to rise.
technologies will be emphasized. The primary objective of these in-
vestigations is to reduce costs and enhance the feasibility of integrating 9. Conclusion
renewable energy solutions in remote locations, thereby fostering a
more sustainable and efficient energy landscape. This article endeavours to explore the intricacies of addressing
Exorbitant manufacturing costs and the complexity of ensuring optimisation quandaries within the domain of hybrid energy systems by
efficient and secure storage overshadow the viability of hydrogen as a scrutinising the varied optimisation methodologies employed. Partic-
prospective medium for energy conveyance. As a result, further research ular attention will be dedicated to dissecting the nuances of objective
and collaborative efforts are required to facilitate broader hydrogen functions and the plethora of evaluation criteria utilised in this context.
accessibility, laying the groundwork for future hydrogen-based energy Amidst a plethora of software solutions, HOMER emerges as a standout
infrastructures. choice owing to its adeptness in facilitating the seamless integration of
Both customers and suppliers encounter significant hurdles in recy- RES and expediting the evaluation process for myriad system configu-
cling storage batteries, despite the potential environmental benefits of rations via optimisation and sensitivity analyses. However, HOMER’s
recycling and reusing them. Future research warrants substantial efforts reliance on a single objective function throughout its operations is a
to enhance battery effectiveness. Remarkably, within the realm of notable constraint. Currently, scholarly attention is turning to the realm
environmental evaluations, there exists a tendency to neglect the ram- of AI techniques, lauded for their prowess in navigating global optima,
ifications associated with pumped hydroelectric storage infrastructures exhibiting heightened computational precision, and boasting rapid
and their corresponding land requirements. This oversight is particu- convergence rates. Notwithstanding their merits, AI techniques confront
larly noticeable as assessments primarily focus on the environmental hurdles stemming from the heightened demand for inputs, mandating
effects stemming from energy storage mechanisms and DG operations, the adoption of significantly more refined and advanced optimisation
sidelining a comprehensive analysis of pumped hydro storage facilities. strategies.
Hourly load forecasting is essential for optimising HRES. Accurate Hybrid algorithms have captured a greater degree of interest
estimation of future load behaviour is critical for achieving an optimal compared to their single counterparts owing to their prowess in yielding
design. Climate change exerts a profound influence on the resilience of heightened precision in outcomes while adeptly tackling the complex-
HRES, presenting a considerable challenge. Recognising the substantial ities inherent in multi-objective optimisation endeavours. Looking
interplay between local climatic patterns and energy demands, as well as ahead, it behoves researchers to focus their efforts on meticulously
the availability of resources, underscores the necessity of factoring in the delving into the intricacies of developing streamlined methodologies for
evolving dynamics of weather conditions in prospective investigations. AI, strategically integrating these methodologies, and skilfully navi-
Such considerations enable a comprehensive evaluation of whether gating the terrain of diverse objective functions.
hybrid power systems have witnessed enhancements in their resilience
owing to climate change impacts. CRediT authorship contribution statement
Furthermore, the strategic application of a diverse array of policy
mechanisms can markedly enhance the extensive deployment of HRES. Vivek Saxena: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft,
Feed-in tariffs, tax credits, and a wide range of other financial incentives Supervision, Software, Resources, Project administration, Methodology,
are among these. Such policy measures, when implemented at both state Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Nar-
and federal levels, act as potent catalysts for promoting the adoption of endra Kumar: Supervision. Saibal Manna: Writing – review & editing,
HRES technologies. Consequently, these initiatives play a pivotal role in Conceptualization. Saurabh Kumar Rajput: Writing – review & editing,
accelerating the transition towards a more sustainable and environ- Conceptualization. Kusum Lata Agarwal: Supervision. Sourav Diwa-
mentally friendly energy framework. nia: Writing – review & editing. Varun Gupta: Writing – review &
Due to significant cost variations across studies, there can be notable editing.
differences between total present costs and energy cost outcomes. Using
statistical modelling methodologies to describe specific regional cost Declaration of competing interest
factors can help address this disparity.
In the extensive analysis of configurations suitable for HRES, there The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
has been insufficient focus on a holistic evaluation that incorporates interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
technological, economic, social, environmental, and political di- the work reported in this paper.
mensions. The optimisation of these systems requires a multifaceted
approach that must consider a diverse array of factors. These consider- Data availability
ations include the environmental repercussions of deploying renewable
energy installations, the extensive land usage requirements for such No data was used for the research described in the article.
projects, and the economic costs involved. Furthermore, we must
consider the societal implications, including the mitigation of energy
poverty and its impact on public health and employment. A compre-
hensive assessment that integrates these dimensions is essential for the

31
V. Saxena et al. Applied Energy 380 (2025) 125047

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