The magnetic field, Ampere’s law and its applications, Faraday’s

laws of induction, Magnetic properties of matter,

Electromagnetic Oscillations. Simple A.C. Circuits.
Electromagnetic waves.

Dr I. R. Akomolafe
 Some recommended Textbooks

• University Physics with Modern Physics by Sears and

Zemansky{First Australian SI Edition}
• Fundamental of Physics by Haliday and Resnick, 9 th
Edition
• College Physics, by Frederick J. Bueche and Eugene
Hecht, {Schaum Outlines}, 9th Edition
 The Magnetic Field

• The concept of magnetic poles may

appear similar to that of electric charge.
• North and south poles may seem
analogous to positive and negative charge.
• Do not confuse magnetic poles with
electric charge; they are not the same
thing.
• If a bar magnet is broken in two, each
broken end becomes a pole.
The magnetic field
• A compass needle tends to align with the magnetic field at the
needle’s position.
• The earth itself is a magnet. Its north geographic pole is close to a
magnetic south pole, which is why the north pole of a compass
needle points north.
Electric Field & Magnetic Field
• Magnetic forces acting at a
• Electric forces acting at a distance distance through Magnetic field.
through electric field. • Vector field, B
• Vector field, E. • Source: moving electric charge
• Source: electric charge. (current or magnetic substance,
• Positive charge (+) and negative such as permanent magnet).
charge (-). • North pole (N) and south pole (S)
• Opposite charges attract, like • Opposite poles attract, like poles
charges repel. repel.
• Electric field lines visualizing the • Magnetic field lines visualizing the
direction and magnitude of E.
direction and magnitude of B.
 Magnetic Field lines
The region surrounding a magnet is the region of magnetic field. By convention, the magnetic field lines always point
away from a north pole and towards a south pole. The magnetic field is strongest where lines are closest together. We
shall use the symbol B to denote magnetic field.
 Polarity of a bar magnet using Compass needle
• One easy way to tell which pole is north and which is south is to set your magnet near a compass.
• The needle on the compass that normally points toward the north pole of the Earth will move toward the magnet’s
south pole.
• This happens because the needle in a compass is actually a magnet. So the north pole of the compasses 'needle
magnet is attracted to the south pole of your magnet.
Magnetic Forces on moving charges
Four characteristics of the magnetic force on a moving charge are:
• The magnitude of the force is proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
For instance, 1�� charge and 2�� charge move through a given magnetic
field with the same velocity, experiments show that the force on the 2��
charge is twice as great as the force on the 1�� charge.
• The magnitude of the force is also proportional to the magnitude or
strength of the field; if we double the magnitude of the field without
changing the charge or its velocity, the force doubles.
• The magnetic force depends on the particle’s velocity. A charged particle at
rest experiences no magnetic force.
• The magnetic � of the force is found to be proportional to the component
of � perpendicular to the field; when that component is zero (that is, when
� and � are parallel or antiparallel), the force is zero
 Magnetic forces on moving charges
Experiment shows that a charge q near a current experiences an unusual force F.
• If q is at rest there is no force, i.e. F depends on q’s velocity v (this cannot be an electrical force F = qE which is independent of
v).
  
Magnetic force
FB  q v  B
Right-hand rule determine the direction of magnetic force. So
the magnetic force is always perpendicular to v and B.
The magnitude of the magnetic force is

�� = � �����∅
The electric force is along the direction of the electric field, the magnetic force is perpendicular to the
magnetic field.
The electric force acts on a charged particle regardless of whether the particle is moving, the magnetic force
acts on a charged particle only when the particle is in motion.
The electric force does work in displacing a charged particle, the magnetic force does no work when a
particle is displaced.

    
FE qE FB qvB
 The force on a moving charge
FB
Magnetic field: B
qv

SI unit of magnetic field: tesla (T)

1 tesla = 1T = 1 N/A.m = 104 gauss
I G = 10−4 �
Instruments for measuring magnetic field are
sometimes called gaussmeters
Magnetic field lines with similar rules:
• The direction of the tangent to a magnetic
field line at any point gives the direction of
B at that point;
• The spacing of the lines represents the
magnitude of B – the magnetic field is
stronger where the lines are closer together,
and conversely.
 The force on a moving charge
Finding the direction of the magnetic force on a moving charged
particle
 The force on a moving charge
Finding the direction of the magnetic force on a moving charged
particle

(b) If the charge is negative, the direction of the force is opposite to

that given by the right-hand rule.
 Example 1
A beam of protons (q=1.6× 10−19 �) moves at 3.0 × 105 �/� through a
uniform magnetic field with magnitude 2.0 T that is directed along the
positive z-axis. The velocity of each proton lies in the xz-plane at an angle
of 30� to the +z-axis. Find the force on a proton.
• Solution:
• Consider the figure below, vector � and � lie in the xz-plane. The
angle between these vectors is 30� . The target variables are the
magnitude and direction of the force �.
• Since the charge is positive, the force is in the same direction as the
vector product � × �. From the right-hand rule, this direction is along
the negative y-axis. Using equation:
• � = �������
• = (1.6 × 10−19 �)(3.0 × 105 �/�)(2.0�)(sin 30� )
 Example 1 Contd
• Solution:
• � = �������
• = (1.6 × 10−19 �)(3.0 × 105 �/�)(2.0�)(sin 30� )
• = 4.8 × 10−14 �
Magnetic Flux and Gauss’s Law for Magnetism
• Consider the figure on the right hand side,
we can divide any surface into elements of
area ��. From the figure, �⊥ = ����ϕ, where ϕ
is the angle between the direction of � and
a line perpendicular to the surface.
We define the magnetic flux �ϕ� through this area as
�ϕ� = �⊥ �� = ����ϕ �� = �. ��
The total magnetic flux through the surface is the
sum of the contributions from the individual area elements:
ϕ� = �⊥ �� = ����ϕ �� = �. �� (magnetic flux
through a surface)
Magnetic Flux and Gauss’s Law for Magnetism
• Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity. In the special case in which � is uniform
over a plane surface with total area A, �⊥ and ϕ are the same at all points on
the surface, and
ϕ� = �⊥ � = �����ϕ

If � happens to be perpendicular to the surface, then ���ϕ = 1 and equation

reduces to ϕ� = ��.
The SI unit of magnetic flux is equal to the unit of magnetic field (1 T) times
the unit of area (1 �2 ). This unit is called the weber (1 Wb):
1 �� = 1 �. �2
Magnetic Flux and Gauss’s Law for Magnetism
• In Gauss’s law the total electric flux through a closed surface is proportional
to the total electric charge enclosed by the surface. For example, if the
closed surface encloses an electric dipole, the total electric flux is zero
because the total charge is zero. By analogy, if there were such a thing as a
single magnetic charge (magnetic monopole), the total magnetic flux
through a closed surface would be proportional to the total magnetic charge
enclosed. But we have mentioned that no magnetic monopole has ever been
observed, despite intensive searches.
Magnetic Flux and Gauss’s Law for Magnetism
• We conclude:
• The total magnetic flux trough a closed surface is always zero.
• Symbolically,
� . �� = 0 (magnetic flux through any closed surface)
This equation is sometimes called Gauss’s law for magnetism.
Magnetic flux calculation
• The Figure (a) below shows a perspective view of a flat surface with
area 3.0 ��2 in a uniform magnetic field. If the magnetic flux through
this area is 0.90 ���, calculate the magnitude of the magnetic field
and find the direction of the area vector
Solution
• Because the magnetic field is uniform, B and ϕ are the same at all
points on the surface. Hence we can use ϕ� = �����ϕ. Our target
variable is B.
ϕ� 0.90 × 10−3 ��
•�= = = 6.0 �
����ϕ (3.0×10−4 �2 )(���60� )

• The area vector � is perpendicular to the area in the direction shown

in Figure (b)
 More examples
• 3. An electron in a television picture tube moves toward the front of
the tube with a speed of 8.0 × 106 �/� along the x-axis as shown
below. Surrounding the neck of the tube are coils of wire that create a
magnetic field of magnitude 0.025 �, directed at an angle of 600 to
the x-axis and lying in the x-y plane. Calculate the magnetic force and
acceleration of the electron.
 More examples
• Solution:
Given that � = 8.0 × 106 �/�, � = 0.025 �, � = 600 ,
� = 9.11 × 10−31
Using � = �������
= (1.6 × 10−19 �)(8.0 × 106 �/�)(0.025 T)(sin600 )

= 2.8 × 10−14 �
Recall that � = �� � −14
� 2.8 × 10 16 −2
�= = = 3.1 × 10 ��
�� 9.11 × 10−31
 Questions
• 1. A straight wire 15 cm long, carrying a current of 6.0 A, is in a uniform
field of 0.40 T. What is the force on the wire when it is (a) at right angles
to the field and (b) at 300 to the field?
• 2. Find the force on each segment of the wire as shown in the figure
below if � = 0.15 �. Assume the current in the wire to be 5.0 A.
 Questions
• 3. Calculate the value of the magnetic field at a point 5 cm from a long
straight wire carrying a current of 15 A
• 4. An air-core solenoid with 2000 loops is 60 cm long and has a diameter
of 2.0 cm. If a current of 5.0 A is sent through it, what will be the flux
density within it?
• 5. In the figure shown opposite, two long parallel wires
are 10 cm apart and carry currents of 6.0 A and 4.0 A.
Find the force on a 1.0 m length of wire D if the
currents are (a) parallel and (b) anti-parallel.
 Questions
• 6. A vertical, straight wire carrying 5 A exerts an attractive force per unit
length 6 × 10−4 ��−1 on a second, parallel wire 8.0 cm away. What
current flows in the second wire?
• 7. A solenoid 120 cm long and 3cm in mean diameter has five layers of
windings with 840 turns on each. The current in the solenoid is 5 A.
Calculate the magnetic field at the centre of the solenoid.
Force on a current in a magnetic field
• Since a current is simply a stream of positive charges, a current
experiences a force due to a magnetic field. The direction of the force
is found by the right-hand rule, with the direction of the current used
in place of the velocity vector.

• The magnitude of the force on a small length of wire carrying current I

is given by : � = �������
 Field of a toroidal solenoid
• The Figure below shows a doughnut-shaped toroidal solenoid, also called
a toroid, wound with N turns of wire carrying a current I.
• The field of an idealised toroidal solenoid is confined completely to the
space enclosed by the windings.
• Magnetic field for a toroidal solenoid
within the space enclosed by the
windings is given
�� ��
�=
2��
Outside the space enclosed by the
Windings � = 0
 Field of a solenoid
• Note:
• Inside solenoid, near centre. The magnetic field � = �0 ��
• Outside solenoid, the magnetic field � = 0
Electromagnetic induction
 Electromagnetic induction
•The answer is a phenomenon known as
electromagnetic induction: If the magnetic flux
through a circuit changes, an emf and a current are
induced in the circuit.
• The central principle of electromagnetic induction is
Faraday’s law.
• This law relates induced emf to changing magnetic
flux in any loop, including a closed circuit.
 Demonstrating the phenomenon of induced current
• In the Figure below, a coil of wire is connected
to a galvanometer. When the nearby magnet is
stationary, the meter shows no current. But
when we move the magnet either toward or
away from the coil, the meter shows current in
the circuit, but only while the magnet is moving
(Fig.b)
 Demonstrating the phenomenon of induced current
•
 Faraday’s laws of induction
• The common element in all induction effects is changing magnetic flux
through a circuit.
• Consider the Figure opposite, the magnetic flux �ϕ� through the area is
�ϕ� = �. �� =B dAcos�
• The total magnetic flux ϕ� through a finite
area is the integral of this expression over the area:
ϕ� = �. �� = � ������
If � is uniform over a flat area �, then
ϕ� =�. � = ������
 Faraday’s laws of induction
Faraday’s law of induction states that the induced emf in a
closed loop equals the negative of the rate of change of
magnetic flux through the loop.
�ϕ�
Ɛ =− (Faraday’s law of induction)
��
The negative sign indicates that the polarity of the induced emf
is such that Ɛ opposes the flux change.
For instance, if the magnetic field producing the flux in a circuit
increases, the induced emf drives current in that direction which
reduces the magnetic field.
 Lenz’s Law
Lenz’s law is a convenient alternative method for
determining the direction of an induced current or emf.
Lenz’s law states that the direction of any magnetic
induction effect is such as to oppose the cause of the
effect.
The ‘cause’ may be changing flux through a stationary
circuit due to a varying magnetic field, changing flux due
to motion of the conductors that make up the circuit, or
any combination.
 Magnetic Properties of Matter
The magnetic properties of materials are broadly classify
i nto t h re e : p a ra m a g n e t i s m , d i a m a g n e t i s m a n d
ferromagnetism.
Paramagnetism:
When a material is placed in a magnetic field, the field
exerts a torque on each magnetic moment given � = � ×
�. These torques tend to align the magnetic moments
with the field, the position of minimum potential energy.
Paramagnetism
 Paramagnetism

• The magnetic state of a substance is described by a quantity called

the magnetization vector M given by
������
• �=
�
• Where ������ is the magnetic moment and V is the volume.
• When a material completely surrounds a current-carrying conductor,
the total magnetic field B in the material is
• � = � � + �� �
• Where �� is the field caused by the current in the conductor.
 Diamagnetism
• Diamagnetism is a very weak form of magnetism that
is induced by a change in the orbital motion of
electrons due to an applied magnetic field. This
magnetism is non permanent and persists only in the
presence of an external field. The magnitude of the
induced magnetic moment is very small, and its
direction is opposite to that of the applied field.
• They always have negative susceptibility. Diamagnetic
s u s c e p t i b i l i t i e s a re ve r y n e a r l y t e m p e ra t u re
independent.
 Ferromagnetism
• In ferromagnetic materials, strong interactions
between atomic magnetic moments cause them to
line up parallel to each other in regions called
magnetic domains, even when no external field is
present.
• When there is no externally applied field, the domain
magnetisations are randomly oriented.
• But when a field �� is present, the domains tend to
orient themselves parallel to the field.
Ferromagnetism
 Electromagnetic Oscillations
Mutual Inductance
• A changing current in a coil induces an emf in an adjacent coil.
The coupling between the coils is described by their mutual
inductance.
• A changing current in a coil also induces an emf in that same coil.
Such a coil is called an inductor, and the relationship of current to
emf is described by the inductance of the coil (or self-inductance).
• Consider the figure on the next slide.
• We denote the magnetic flux through each turn of coil 2, caused
by the current �1 in coil 1, as ϕ�2 . The magnetic field is
proportional to �1 so ϕ�2 is also proportional to �1 . When
�1 changes, ϕ�2 changes; this changing flux induces an emf ∈2 in
coil 2, given by equation (1)
Mutual Inductance
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Questions
1. An inductor with an inductance of 2.50 H and a resistance of
8.00Ω is connected to the terminals of a battery with an emf of 6.00
V and negligible internal resistance. Find the initial rate of increase
of current in the circuit.
2. What voltage is needed to create a current of 29 mA in a circuit
containing only a 0.565�� capacitor, when the frequency is 2.60
kHz?
3. In a series LRC circuit the voltage amplitude is 50 V and the angular
f r e q u e n c y i s 1 0 0 0 r a d �−1 , � = 300Ω , � = 0.9 �, � = 2 �� .
Calculate (a) the impedance of the circuit (b) the current amplitude,
© the voltage amplitude across the resistor and across the inductor,
(d) the phase angle between V(t) and I(t)
 Questions

4. You have a 200 ٠resistor, a 0.400 H inductor, a 5.00 �� capacitor,

and a variable-frequency ac source with an amplitude of 3.00 V. You
connect all four elements together to form a series circuit. (a) At
what frequency will the current in the circuit be greatest? What will
be the current amplitude at this frequency? (b) What will be the
current amplitude at an angular frequency of 400 rad�−1 ? At this
frequency, will the source voltage lead or lag the current?