B UILDING MATERIAL – I

Introduction
In this modern age of technology, building material plays an important role. Without building material, any construction
activities cannot be act. Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, sand, wood and rocks even thatch and leaves
have been used to construct building. Apart from naturally occurring materials, many industrial products are in used like
brick, concrete, glass, reinforcement, paints etc. For example:
a) Rock: Rocks are usually available. There are many types of rock e.g. igneous rock, sedimentary rock and
metamorphic rock.
b) Wood: Natural and locally available material for building construction. It can be moulded in desired shape and size
which makes it more usable. The main problems with wood structure are fire risk and durability.
c) Thatch: Thatch is one of the oldest of building materials known; grass is a good insulator and easily harvested. It was
easily available material.
d) Mud and clay: The amount of each material used leads to different styles of buildings. The deciding factor is usually
connected with the quality of the soil being used. Larger amount of clay usually mean using the cob/adobe (sun dried
brick) style. Soil and especially clay is good thermal mass; it is very good at keeping temperature at a constant level.
Homes built with earth tend to be naturally cool in the summer heat and warm in cold weather.
e) Lime: Lime is a general term for calcium-containing inorganic materials, in which carbonates, oxides and hydroxides
predominate. In general lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide, obtain from lime stone. These materials are still
used in large quantities as building and engineering materials (including limestone products, concrete and mortar)
f) Sand: Used with cement and sometimes lime, to make mortar for masonry work and plaster. Sand is used as a part of
the concrete mix. Sometimes it also used as damp proof materials.
g) Cement: Cement is a artificial building material, manufactured by mixing the calcareous and argillaceous material
then burning and then grinding.
h) Concrete: Concrete is a composite building material made from the combination of aggregate and a binder such as
cement.
i) Glass: It is a generally made from mixtures of sand and silicates, mixed in a kiln with high temperature. It is very
brittle and hard in nature.
j) Metal; Metal is used as structural frame work for larger buildings such as sky scrapers. Steel is a metal alloy whose
major component is iron. There are many types of metals used for building.
k) Plastic: Plastic is an organic material prepared from resins, natural or synthetic with or without fillers.
l) Paints: Paints are artificial building material. They are used to protect wood from decaying, corrosion of metal and
harmful effects of atmospheric agencies.

Importance of building material in architecture and engineering.

Any types of dwelling, shelter are the basic need of civilization. Stones, bricks, timber and lime concrete are the
traditional materials used for the construction of building. The invention of cement and concrete has provided durable
building. Reinforced concrete which is composite construction of steel and concrete has helped in building large
structure. Steel, aluminum, glass, plastics, tiles, plaster of paris, linoleum, paints and varnishes have improved the quality
of buildings.

Objectives of Building Materials.

− Architects should have proper knowledge about the different building materials available in the market.
− The major objective is to introduce different building materials along with pros and cons, which helps in applying
the appropriate material in related construction.
− It also provided knowledge about the properties, quality of materials with its uses.
− It also includes the manufacturing process along with the chemical composition of different materials.
− It provides the knowledge of applying techniques of different types of building materials.

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 CEMENT

Cement is a back bone of all types of other building materials like stone, brick, sand, gravel, and even reinforcing bars.
These materials are useless without cement. The work in which cement is used is called “civil works”.
Cement is a very important building material in the construction industry. It may be natural or artificial. Natural cement is
manufactured by burning and then crushing the natural cement stones. Natural cement stones are such types of stone
which contain 20%--40% of argillaceous matter i.e., clay and other remaining content mainly Calcareous matter which is
either calcium carbonate (CaCO3) alone or mixture of Calcium Carbonate or Magnesium Carbonate (MgCO3). Natural
cement is very closely eminent Hydraulic lime.

Artificial cement
Artificial cement is manufactured by burning appropriately proportioned mixture of calcareous or argillaceous material at
a very high temperature and then grinding to a fine powder. The burnt mixture of Calcareous and Argillaceous mater is
known as klinker. In order to delay the setting action of cement, when mixed with water, a little percentage of gypsum is
added in klinker. It should be done for natural and artificial stone. When water mixed with cement, chemical reaction is
takes place, as a result which the cement paste first sets and then hardens into a like stone.

When cement is mixed with fine sand and water, the mixture is called cement mortar. When cement is mixed with sand,
crushed stone aggregate and water, the mixture is called cement concrete. Cement is always used in form of mortar and
concrete in construction works and never alone.

Difference between cement and lime

1. Colour of lime is always whitish but colour of cement is generally grey. But it can be made in desired colour.
2. Cement when mixed with water, starch setting in a matter of 10 to 30 min and gains sufficient strength in a day or two.
Lime doesn’t starch setting at such a short time and its takes quiet a long period before hardening.
3. Cement is many times stronger binding material than lime.
4. Lime is not allowed to come in direct contact of iron, girders or other fittings as lime is the alloy of iron. Cement on the
other hand, protect iron and other metallic fitting from the atmospheric action.
5. When water is added to quick lime, lot of heat is generated, but in case of cement heat generated is not noticeable.
6. Cement can’t be used for white washing the walls like lime.

Natural Cement
1.Roman Cement: It is the best cement of natural category. It is known as Parkers cement. This clay contains 30% to 40%
of clay and remaining contents as calcium carbonate (Ca CO3) and magnesium carbonate (MgCO3). The clay for roman
cement is burnt in low temperature and then grinded to fine powder. Then cement sets immediately, when mixed with
water. Hence small quantity is mixed water and used immediately due to its fast setting character. It should be carefully
stored so as to avoid direct contact with atmosphere.
2.Pozzolana Cement: It is volcanic clay, which was first obtained at a place named Pozzuoli in Italy. This clay contains
80% clay along with lime, magnesia and iron oxide. Its colour is generally red or purple due to iron oxide. This type of
cement is more resistant to chemical reaction than ordinary Portland cement.
3.Medina Cement: This cement is manufactured by using Sepria clay occurring in England. It is quick setting and light
brown in colour.

The artificial cement is used almost everywhere because of following reasons:

1.Artificial cement can be manufactured in any desired colour.
2.Their initial setting time and rate of hardening can be easily regulated.
3.The rate of evolution of heat can be regulated.
4.They can be manufactured in vaery large quantities.

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Common Artificial Cement
It is known as normal setting cement or ordinary cement. This cement was first invented by a Lead’s mason named Joseph
Aspdin of England in 1824. This cement resembles very closely to a sand stone, which is found in very large amounts at a
place called Portland in England. Thus this cement is called as Portland cement. This is basic artificial cement

Different type of cement:

1. Normal setting cement
2. Rapid hardening cement
3. Quick setting cement
4. High Alumina Cement
5. Water-proof cement
6. White and colored cement
7. High quality cement

1. Normal setting cement: Portland cement starts setting after 30 min. and develops full strength after 24 hours.
2. Rapid hardening cement: The rate of strength development is much rapid than that of ordinary cement. Strength
attained by 3 days whereas by ordinary cement 7 days. This is caused due to higher degree in fineness in grinding,
burning at high temperature and adding line content in the composition.
Uses: Repair of bridge, highway slab which is to be opened to the traffic earlier moment.

3. Quick setting of cement: When concrete has to be laid under water, quick setting cement can be used. The setting
action of this cement starts within 5 minutes and it becomes stone-hard in less than one hour. This property of cement
is developed by adding small percentage of aluminum sulphate and also by grinding much finer than the ordinary
cement.
4. High alumina cement: This is also known as aluminous cement. It is another rapid hardening cement of chocolate
color by melting the mixture of bauxite (Al2O32H2O) and lime and grinding the clinkers into very fine powder. This
cement is very dark in color. The initial setting time is 3 to 6 hrs and final setting is within 2 hours of initial setting. In
this cement, content of alumina is 32%. This cement is very costly. It evolves considerable heat in setting and should
not be used in massive construction as after setting there is no expansion. It is capable of resisting the action of acid
and high temperature. It is used for sealing rocks, concreting internal water flow, heat resistant concreting, etc.
5. Water proof cement: Water-proof cement is prepared by mixing to ordinary cement a small percentage of metal
separate (Al and Ca) to ordinary cement at the time of grinding. Concrete made with such cement is more resistant to
water penetration. Such cement is used for the construction of tanks, reservoirs, retaining walls, swimming pools,
dams, bridges, etc.
6. White and colored cement: It is ordinary cement having pure white color. It is very costly. It is used for terrazzo
flooring, face plasters, traffic curbs and other ornamental works. Colored cements are produced by adding suitable
mineral pigments to ordinary white cement. Pigments are added at the time of grinding process.

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7. High quality cement: High quality cement can be described in the following manner:

High quality of cement Balanced Chemical Composition

(Contribute to) higher durability of

(Will produce) Higher strength
concrete structure
of concrete

Benefits
Benefits − Character Hydration
− Saving in concrete − Improved soundness
− Saving in cement − Resistance against chemical attacks
− Early removal of formwork − Lower heat of hydration
− Early and ultimate strength of concrete − Optimum initial setting times
− Reduces construction time − Low level of impurities
− Slimmer construction resulting reduced − Higher durability of structure
structural load
− Economy in steel reinforcement

Properties of ordinary or Portland cement

i. It should posses good plasticity
ii. It should be easily workability
iii. It should be stiffen easily
iv. It gives good strength in masonry
v. It is an excellent binding material
vi. It offers good resistance to moisture.

Characteristics of Portland cement

The value of cement greatly depends upon its chemical composition, thoroughness of burning and fineness of grinding.
The best guarantee of the goodness of cement is that it comes from a reliable and well-known cement manufacturer’s,
who exercises control on the quality of the cement by conducting regular analysis. A little deviation in the manufacturer
of cement may make a great difference in its quality.

The Colors of cement should be grey or greenish grey speaking of good Portland cement. This color is due to oxide of
iron and manganese. The color also varies with the degree of calcinations (burning). The brown color indicates an excess
of clay, which makes cement shrink and disintegrate in setting. A yellowish shade gives the indication of poor burning. To
obtain a white color of cement the product should not have more than 0.8% of Fe2O3’

Fresh well burnt Portland cement should have:

- Specific gravity of at least 3.00.
- Fineness of cement is very important. The finer the cement the quicker in setting.
- Common cement should have an initial setting time of 30 min and final setting time not more than ten hours.
- Quick-setting cement should have initial setting time of 2 min and a final setting time is of 30 min.
- Tensile strength of Portland cement and sand (1:3) after 7 days immersion should not be less than 25kg/cm2.
- The compressive strength of cubical block of Portland Cement and sand (1:3) after 7 day’s immersion should not
be; less than 175kg/cm2
- The weight of cement varies from 1200kg/m3. to 1800kg/m3 according to its over burnt or under burnt oaf
clinkers

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 Composition of Common Cement

Name Of Constituents Percentage

1. Alumina or Clay (Al2O2) 5%
2. Silica (SiO) 22%
3. Lime (CaO) 62%
4. Iron oxide 3%
5. Magnesia (MgO) 2%
6. Sulphur Trioxide 1%
7. Alkalis (Soda and potash) 1%
8. Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4) 4%
(Gypsum)

Function of each ingredients

1. Alumina or Clay: alumina is responsible for the setting action of the cement. Larger the amount of alumina present in
the cement, quicker it will start setting. Excess quantity of alumina weakens the cement. Alumi9na forms complex
aluminates with silica and calcium and imparts the setting property to the cement.
2. Silica: it also goes into chemical combination with calcium and forms hard silicates which are responsible for
imparting strength to the cement.
3. Lime: It is the most important ingredient of the cement. Its proportion should be carefully decided. If lime is added
unnecessarily in excess quantity some part of it, left in forms of free limes which causes expansions and disintegration
of cement at the time of setting and hardening. Lesser than the required quantity will cause decrease in the strength of
the cement, as then sufficient calcium silicates will not be formed, which are mainly responsible for the strength of the
cement.
4. Iron oxide: This ingredient mainly imparts colour to the cement. Besides this, it also goes into chemical combination
and helps increase strength and hardness of cement.
5. Magnesium oxide: It also imparts strength and hardness to the cement, but only when present in small amount.
6. Sulphur trioxide: Small percentage of sulphur renders cement sound. Excess amount of it may make unsound.
7. Alkalies: It the present in the raw materials used for the manufacture of the cement are mostly driven out by flue gases
during burning. Still it may be pre3sent in the cement, but only in very small amount. Excess of Alkalies, causes
efflorescence in the cement.
8. Calcium sulphate or gypsum: It is used to retard or prolong the initial setting action.

Harmful constituents of cement

Out of the above mentioned eight ingredients, alkalis, which are oxides of potassium and sodium and magnesium oxide
(MgO) are the harmful for the quality of cement. More than1% of Alkalis causes unsoundness of the cement. If MgO
exceeds 5% it causes crack is hardened mortar or concrete. This cracking is due to the fact that MgO burns at a
temperature of 1500°C and slakes very slowly when mixed with water.

MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF CEMENT

Cement can be manufactured by following two methods:

1. Dry process (Modern Technology)
2. Wet Process (Old Technology)
Both the processes of manufacture of cement are more or less alike except for the different that the raw materials are
ground and mixed and fed into the burning kiln in dry state in dry process, whereas they are in form of a slurry in case of
wet process
.

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 FLOW DIAGRAM OF DRY-PROCESS OF CEMENT MANUFACTURE
1. Mixing of raw materials 2. Burning 3. Grinding

Calcareous material (Limestone) Argillaceous material (clay)

Crushing Crushing

Grinding Grinding

Storage Storage

Mixing-in-correct-proportion 1

Storage of raw mix Coal dust

Rotary Kiln 2

Clinker Formation
Gypsum

Clinker Grinding 3

Packing and distribution

Mixing in dry process: This process of mixing is adopted when raw materials are very hard. All the involved materials
are first of all broken in crushers in size of about 2.5cm separately. The crushed materials are then dried with the help of
drought of dry air being passed over them. All the dried materials are then pulverized separately into fine powders with
the help of ball mills and tube mills and stored separately in hoppers.

Burning: All the pulverized materials are then mixed together thoroughly in appropriate proportion. The prepared dry
mix is kept stored in silos, ready to be fed into the kiln for burning.

Grinding: Cooled clinkers are fed into ball and tube mills for grinding to fine powder. During the process of grinding,
gypsum is added to control the initial setting time of the cement. The ground cement as it comes out from grinding mills,
it forced by compressed air in to the silos. The cement from silos is packed in to bags by packing machine automatically.
Each bag of cement contains 50 kg which volume is taken at 35 liters.

Step by step process is as follows:

1. Most of the cement factories are located closed to the limestone quarries. The limestone boulder are brought to the
factory from quarries in dumpers and dumped in the hoppers of the crusher.
2. Crushers are used to reduce big boulders of limestone to 75mm size and this crushed limestone is moved from
crusher by a series of conveyors for stacking. The stacker helps in spreading the crushed materials in horizontal
layers.

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 3. Clay material (argillaceous) found in the quarry are also dumped into crushers and stacked along with crushed
limestone.
4. All the crushed materials are checked for calcium carbonate, lime, alumina, ferrous oxide and silica contents. Any
component found short is added separately.
5. Now all the materials including crushed limestone are conveyed to the storage hoppers;
6. The raw materials are fed to raw mills by means of a conveyer and proportioned with the help of weight feeders
which are adjusted as per the chemical analysis done on the raw materials.
7. The materials are ground to the desired fineness in raw mill.
8. The material from raw mill is led to the pre- heater of temperature 60OC to 850OC maximum temperature is
1000OC.
9. The material from pre-heater is fed to rotary kill
10. Clinkers coming out from rotary kiln are ground and gypsum is added and cement is ready for packing an d
distribution

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Figure 1 Page 7
 Flow diagram of wet- process for cement manufacture

Calcareous mat. (Lime stone) Water Argillaceous mat. (Clay)

Crushing Washing

Silos Storage - tank

Mixing and wet
grinding

Slurry- Formation

Correcting Basin

Storage-Tanks

Pumping
Coal Dust

Rotary Kiln

Formation Of clinkers

Clinker Coolers
Gypsum

Grinding in balls and tube mills

Storage in silos

Weighting and packing in bags for distribution

Wet Process

This process of mixing is usually adopted when raw materials are quite soft. Chalk or limestone is crushed in balls or
roller mills and stored in silos. Clay or argillaceous materials are mixed with water in containers known as wash mills.
This washed clay is stored in basins. Now crushed dry limestone or chalk from silos and wet clay from basins are allowed
to fall in a channel in correct proportion. The channel leads the mix to grinding mills, where both the materials are
intimately mixed. Some water may be added, if resulting mix is quite thick. This mix is known as slurry. The slurry thus
prepared is stored in tanks where it is kept constantly stirred. The chemical composition of slurry is checked here and if it
needs any correction, it is done. The corrected slurry is kept stored in storage tank and kept ready for feeding into the
rotary kiln for burning.

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Setting and Hardening of Cement
During burning and fusion in rotary kiln, all the ingredients given in composition in ordinary cement, undergo chemical
combination and form what are known as Bogue Compounds in the finely ground cement. Bogue compounds and their
accepted abbreviation forms are given below:

Name of Bogue Compund Abbreviation

Tri-calcium silicate (3 CaO SiO2) C3S
Di-calcium silicate (2 Cao Sio2) C2S
Tri-calcium aluminate (3 CaO Al2O3) C3A
Tetra-calcium alumina Ferrite (4 CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3) C4AF

The proportion of bogue compounds vary is various types of cements. Tri-calcium silicate (C3S) and di-calcium silicate
(C2S) are the compounds mostly responsible for the strength characteristics of the cement. After addition of water in
cement, tri-calcium aluminates (C3A) is the first compound which starts hydrating and is responsible for early setting of
the cement. Hydration of C3A does not contribute any strength to the concrete. But it is mainly responsible for setting
action of the cement. After C3A hydration of tri-calcium silicate (C3S) starts. It is C3S, whose hydration process is
responsible for the initial strength of the cement. The strength acquired during first 7 days is mostly due to hydration of
C3S.
di-calcium silicate (C2S) reacts with water at a very slow rate and hence, strength of the concrete, after 7 days, is mainly
due to hydration of C2S. C2S starts contributing strength after 7 days of its placement and continues for about one year,
through rate of getting strength from its compound goes on decreasing with passage of time. Tetra-calcium-alumino
ferrite is more or less inactive compound and does not play any significant role in setting and hardening properties of the
cement. In short it can be said, that the rapidity of initial setting of the cement is controlled by amount of tri-calcium
aluminate, where as high early strength by that of tri-silicate. Strength of cement developing after 7 or 8 days of its
placement is dependent on the amount of Di-calcium silicate.
Laboratory Test for Portland cement
1) Soundness
2) Fineness
3) Tensile strength
4) Compressive strength
5) Test for chemical composition
6) Rough and ready method of examining cement
7) Setting time
1) Soundness: Due to presence of free lime and magnesia, cement undergoes volume change after setting as these
substances go on slaking very slowly. The expansion is called unsoundness. The mortar and concrete prepared by
such cement is liable to crack and disintegrate. Soundness test is done to determine the resulting expansion. The
xpansion of cement under test should not be greater than 10mm.For soundness test “Le-chartelier” apparatus is
used.

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 2) Fineness: This test is done to verify the standard of grinding of cement.
i) Sieve test: Residue on IS sieve no. 1, should not exceed 10%. In sieve test, the cement sample weighting
100 gms is taken and is sieved through IS sieving no. 1 for 15 minutes. The residue left over the sieve
should not be more than 10% of the original weight.
ii) Surface area test: Ordinary cement has specific surface area of 2250 sq cm /gm

3) Tensile strength: this is tested by making briquettes of cement sand mortar (1:3) and subjecting them to tension in
tensile strength testing machine. The tensile strength should not be less than 25 kg/cm2 after 7 days immersion of
briquettes in water.

4) Compressive strength: It should be less than

175 kg/cm2 after 7 days of immersion in water.

5) Test for chemical composition: Composition of cement. (see above constituents)

6) Rough and ready method of examining cement at field:

i) When hand is plugged into a bag, it should feel cool not warm.
ii) A handful of cement thrown into a bucket of water should not flow but sink.

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 iii) A block of cement 2.5cm X 2.5cm and 20cm long after 7 days immersion placed on supports 15cm apart,
should not show sign of failure when loaded 34kg.
iv) Thick pastes of Portland cement with water on a piece of thick glass, when kept for 24 hours, should not crack
but set.

7) Setting time:
Initial setting time is not less than minutes and final setting time notmore than 10 hours. Setting time is tested by
Vicat’s needle apparatus.

Cement Mortar: Mixture of cement, sand and water in a form of paste. It is stronger than mud mortar or lime
mortar. Hence used in construction works of load bearing walls, pillars, columns and plastering brick and stone masonry.

Ratio of cement mortars

1) 1:6 – for masonry works
2) 1:3 ; 1:4 – for foundation (RCC), arches
3) 1:2 ; 1:1 - for pointing, plastering ceilings
4) 1:4 ; 1:6 – for plastering walls
5) 1:4 ; 1:8 – for all kinds of masonry

Types of Cement Mortar:

1) Gauged mortar
2) Light weight mortar
3) Water resisting mortar
4) Sound absorption mortar
5) X-ray shielding mortar

1) Gauged mortar: This mortar is nothing but lime mortar prepared as before, but in it some cement is also added at
the time of using it. It is also known as lime cement mortar. Addition of small amount of cement in lime mortar
increases the strength, hydraulicity and the rate of setting of the mortar. Such mortar is more plastic and workable.
As hydraulic lime itself has got sufficient strength characteristics, no useful purpose is served by adding cement in
it. Cement is mostly added to lime mortar having fat lime. This type of mortar (gauged mortar) is excellent for
brick or stone masonry in foundation, plinth and super structure. It is very good mortar for rubble stone masonry.

2) Light weight mortar: this mortar is obtained by adding materials such as asbestos fibers, jute fibers, wood powder,
saw dust, etc to ordinary cement or lime mortar. It is very useful in heatproof and soundproof structures. The
mortars having bulk density of less than 1500 kg/m2 are termed as light mortars.

3) Water resisting mortar: When it is required to carry out a work with mortar in presence of running water, the
work can’t be done safely and even with quick setting and rapid hardening cement. In such case. Entry of water
should be stopped or diverted as far as practicable at least for several hours and dry mix of 3 parts of cement and
one part of sand with wood charcoal powder and potash moistened with a solution of sea salt should be used.

4) Sound absorption mortar: Its main purpose is to reduce noise level. The bulk density of such mortar varies from
600-1200 kg/m3. The composition of this mortar consists of cement, sand, lime, gypsum slag, etc. the aggregates
are taken from light weight porous materials such as ciners, pumice, etc.

5) X-ray shielding mortar: These plasters are used to cover walls and ceiling of X-ray cabinets. It is heavy type of
mortar having bulk density over 2700 kg/m3.

6) Fire resistance mortar: This is obtained by mixing powder of fire bricks or fire clays with aluminous cement.
Thus mortar can withstand the effects of very high temperature and as such is used for lining of furnaces, fire
places and ovens, etc.

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Storage of Cement
Cement has to be stored in factories where it is manufactured and also at the field construction sites where it is to be used.
Moisture is the greatest enemy of cement. Cement has great affinity for moisture and it should be stored in such a way that
moisture may not reach it. If somehow moisture happens to reach cement, it gets set in form of lumps. If lumps formed so
hard that they cannot be pressed to powder between fingers, it should be taken useless. Hence cement should be stored in
specially constructed stores having damp-proof floors, water-proof walls and leak-proof roofs. Cement stakes should be
raised leaving a clear distance of 30cm from the wall of the storeroom. Height of the stakes should not be more than 15
bags. Width of the stakes should not be limited to 3m. Stock received in the stores should be properly tagged with bin
cards. The stocks received first should be issued first. All the doors, windows and ventilators should be sealed to prevent
ingress of moisture in store.

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 CONCRETE

Concrete is an artificial material, obtained by mixing together cementing material, coarse aggregate (C.A.), fine aggregate
(F.A.) and water. If cement is used as cementing material in the mix, it is known as plain cement concrete. If steel rods are
embedded in the plain cement concrete it is then called reinforced cement concrete (RCC). In lime concrete steel rod can’t
be used because of chemical reaction between lime and steel makes distortion of steel (decay of steel). Lime concrete is
used for foundation blocks or as under coats in case of flat roofs and floors. Cement concrete is the concrete which is
universally used. There is no structural element which can’t be made from cement concrete or RCC.

Classification of Concrete
1. Mud Concrete
2. Lime Concrete
3. Cement Concrete

1) Mud Concrete - Mixture of brick bats in mud mortar. Brick bats may be of kuchha or pukka brick sometimes
crushed stone can be used. It is used for not very important works or on temporary works.
2) Lime Concrete – It is used for foundation works, hard base for floors, over roof slabs. This concrete is cheaper
than cement concrete. Hydraulic lime is always used in this concrete.
3) Cement Concrete – It is prepared by mixing together cement, sand, crushed rock and water. It is used in all types
of construction work universally. This mixture when placed in the skeleton of forms and allowed to cure becomes
hard like a stone. Cement concrete has a major value for building in modern architecture because of the following
reasons:
a. It can be readily molded into durable structural items of various sizes and shapes at practically no
considerable labor expenditure.
b. It is possible to control the properties of cement concrete within a wide range by using appropriate
ingredients and by applying special processing techniques – mechanical, chemical and physical.
c. It possesses adequate plasticity for mechanical working.

Properties of Cement Concrete

1) It has a high compressive strength.
2) It is free from corrosion and there is no effect of atmospheric agents on it.
3) It is proved more economically than others. This is due to the fact that sand and pebbles, which are mainly used about
80% - 90% are usually available at moderate cost. Formwork which is of steel or timber can be used again and again.
4) It binds rapidly wit steel in terms of RCC.
5) It forms a hard surface, capable of resisting all.
6) It should be remembered that apart from other materials, concrete comes to the site in the form of raw materials
only. Its final strength depends on the person, handling it. The materials of which concrete composed may be
subjected to rigid specification.

Constituents of Concrete
The main ingredients of concrete are:

i) Broken stone (Coarse Aggregate)

ii) Sand (Fine aggregate)
iii) Cement
iv) Water

Mixture ratio of concrete

Concrete is designated in 7 grades such as M100; M150; M200; M250; M300;
M1001:3:6
M1501:2:6
M2001:1.5:3
M2501:1:2
Where M refers to mix and the number to the specified compressive stress of that mix expressed in kg/cm 2. The water
cement will be kept min. to give sufficient workability.

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Properties of Cement Concrete
1. Properties of concrete in plastic stage
1.1 Workability
It is a measure of ease with which concrete can be handled from the mixer stage to its final fully compacted stage.

The proportion and properties of water, cement and aggregates influence the workability of the concrete. In other
words, “workability is that property of concrete which determines the amount of internal work necessary to
produce full compaction”. Elements that affect workability can be listed as follows:
a) Quantity of water in the mix. Increased amount of water increased workability.
b) Proper grading of the aggregate mix. If F.A. as well as C.A. is properly graded, workability is increased.
c) Increased amount of cement will also increased workability as more water will have to be added to maintain w/c
ratio.
d) Proper ratio of F.A. and C.A. can improve workability.
e) If aggregates with rounded grains are used, workability will improved.
f) By adding admixtures workability can be improved.
g) Maximum size of C.A. also affects workability.
h) Methods of compaction of concrete affect workability. Compaction can be done by either vibrator or steel rod

Workability of concrete can be measured by “slump test”.

1.2 Segregation
Tendency of separation of C.A. grains from the concrete mass is called segregation. It increases when concrete
mixture is lean and too wet. It also increases when rather larger and rough textured aggregate is used. Segregation
is harmful to concrete properties. Segregation can be avoided as following:

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 a) Addition of little air entraining agents in the mix.
b) Restricting the amount of water to smallest possible amount.
c) All the operations like handling, placing and consolidation are carefully conducted.
d) Concrete should not be allowed to fall from layer height.

1.3 Bleeding
The tendency of water to rise to the surface of freshly laid concrete is known as bleeding. The water raised to the
surface carries with it, particles of sand and cement, which on hardening form a scum layer.

1.4 Harshness
Harshness is the resistance offered by concrete to its surface finishing. It is due to the presence of lesser fines,
lesser cement mortar and use of poorly graded aggregates in concrete mix and insufficient water cement required
for workability. The surface of harsh concrete remains rough and porous.

2. Properties of hardened concrete

Compressive strength, tensile strength, bond strength, impermeability, resistance to wear, weather and chemical attacks
shrinkage, creep, thermal expansion and elasticity are the several properties of hardened concrete. Good concrete has
high compressive and tensile strengths. It also has good bond together with good resistance to wearing, weathering and
chemical attaches. It is also impermeable but concrete having high strength is generally more shrinkable. Tensile
strength and bond strength of concrete are generally 10% of the compressive strength of the concrete.

Concrete is not truly an elastic material but behaves as an elastic material within the range of usual working stresses.
The value of elasticity varies from 14 t/cm2 30 t/cm2.
Sustained loads applied to concrete cause permanent deformation which is called “creep”.
Like other materials, concrete also expands or shrinks with rise or fall of temperature.

Factors affecting proportions of concrete

1. W/C ratio: strength, elasticity, durability and impermeability of concrete is increased with decreased in w/c ratio,
provided the concrete is workable. Shrinkage increases with larger w/c ratio.
2. Cement content: with increased in cement content, w/c ratio is decreased and consequently strength, elasticity.
Durability and impermeability is increased. More cement improved workability, increased shrinkage.
3. Temperature: rate of setting and hardening of concrete is high at higher temperature. If temperature of concrete is
falls below 0°C, free water in concrete turns into ice crystals and expands in volume and the concrete is disrupted.
Such concrete in thowing will have no strength.
4. Age of concrete: strength of concrete goes on increasing with ages though the rate of increase becomes very slow as
time goes on passing.
5. Aggregate: size, shape and grading of the aggregate, control the concrete properties to a large extent. Rounded
aggregates gives better workability than flaky and angular aggregates. Large the size of the aggregate greater will be
the strength, provided mix is workable. Graded aggregates give better workability and strength.
6. Curing: curing is the process of keeping the setting concrete damp, so that complete hydration of cement is brought
about. Besides strength, curing affects following qualities also:
a)It improves wear resisting and weather resistance
b)It reduces shrinkage.
c)It increased impermeability and durability of concrete
7. Frost: it causes disintegration of concrete. Resistance to frost action depends upon the structure of the pores in the
concrete.
8. Entrained air: the entrained air in concrete is due to incomplete compaction. It has the effect of reducing the strength
of concrete. With 1% of entrained of air the strength of concrete is reduced by 5%. It also increases permeability of
concrete.

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Water-Cement-Ratio (W/C ratio)
The ratio of weight of water used to the weight of cement is termed
as “water cement ratio”. Strength and workability of concrete greatly
depends upon the amount of water. For a particular proportion of
materials, there is a specific amount of water which gives optimum
strength to the concrete. It is found that the surplus water in concrete
beyond the required quantity for setting of cement renders the
concrete weak. In other words strength of concrete is
inversely proportional to water-cement-ratio.

Fig. W/C Ratio by Weight

Water in concrete has to perform two functions:
1. Water enters into chemical action with cement and this action causes setting and hardening of concrete due to
hydration.
2. Water lubricates the aggregates and it facilitates the passage of cement through voids of aggregates. This means
that water makes the concrete workable.

The important points to be observed in connection of water cement ratio are:

1. Minimum quantity of water should be used to have reasonable degree of workability. Excess water occupies space
in concrete and on evaporation, voids are created in concrete. Thus excess water affects considerably the strength
and durability of concrete. In general, it may be stated that addition of one extra liter of water to concrete of one
bag of cement will reduce its strength about 15kg/cm2 .
2. Water cement ratio for structures which are exposed to weather should be carefully decided. For instance, for
structures which are regularly wetting and drying, water cement ratio by weight should be 0.15 and 0.55 for thin
reactions and mass concrete respectively. For structures which are continuously under water w/c ratio by weight
should be 0.55 and 0.65 for thin section and mass concrete respectively.
3. Some thumb rules are developed for deciding the quality of water in concrete. Two rules are;
a) Weight of water = 28% of the weight of the cement + 4% of the weight of total aggregate.
b) Weight of water = 30% of the weight of the cement + 5% of the weight of total aggregate

Mixing of concrete
The process of mixing cement, water, F.A. and C.A. in suitable proportion is known as mixing of concrete. This process
should ensure uniform color, consistency and homogeneity of the concrete. Segregation should not take place during
process of mixing. There are two types of mixing of concrete
1. Hand mixing: Hand mixing is used, where quantity of concrete is very small. It can also be used where machines
for mixing are not available or where noise is not desirable. In this process cement and sand are first of all mixed
dry on clean, hard and impermeable platform. Dry mixing is continued until the mix attains uniform color. Now
this mix is spread on the measured stock of course aggregate in required amount and they are mixed dry again to
have uniform color. Shovels are used for this mixing purpose.
Make hollow in the middle of the mixed pile add about 75% of the required quantity of water. Now mixing is done
and the remaining quantity of water is added to acquire the uniform workability. In this method of mixing, about
0% more cement is used to make good the cement lost due to possible water flowing out of the mix and also to
make good strength characteristics due to inferior result of hand mixing.
2. Machine mixing: In large works, machine mixing proves to be economical and convenient. Concrete produced by
machine mixing is more homogenous and can be prepared with comparatively lesser W/C ratio. The concrete
mixtures may be batch type or continuous type. Batch mixtures, mix and discharge each load of materials
separately, where as continuous mixers produce steady stream of concrete so long as it is in operation. Latter type
mixers are not in common use. Batch type mixers are mostly adopted. These may be rotary or non-tilting type or
tilting type

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Transportation of concrete
Concrete prepared either by hand or by machine mixing has to be transported to its place of use, before hydration of
cement starts.
During transportation, efforts should be made to prevent segregation or less of any of the ingredients. The method of
transportation of concrete depends upon the quantity of concrete and work site situation. Transportation of concrete is
done by pans, wheel barrows, truck mixers, belt conveyors and pumps. Mostly concrete mixing is done near the site of the
work. In such circumstances, pans and wheel barrows prove most economical and convenient. If mixer site is far off from
the site of the work, truck mixers may be used where quantity of concrete is to be put at very congested site. Pumps may
be used for the purpose. But conveyors are used when concrete is to be transported continuously and to a higher level.

Placing of concrete
The concrete should be placed and compacted before its setting starts. Following precautions should be taken while
placing:
a) Concrete should be laid continuously to avoid irregular and unsightly lines.
b) To avoid sticking of concrete, formwork should be oiled before concreting.
c) While placing concrete, the position of formwork and reinforcement should not be disturbed.
d) To avoid segregation, concrete should not be drooped from height more than 1m.
e) Concrete should not be placed at rains.
f) Thickness of concrete layer should not be more than 30-45 cm, in case of mass concrete and 15-30cm in case of
RCC works.
g) Walking on freshly laid concrete should be avoided.
h) It should be placed as near to its final position as practicable.

Consolidation or compaction of concrete

Consolidation of plastic concrete is also termed as compaction of concrete. In this process, efforts are only directed to
reduce the voids in the compacted concrete. Compaction of concrete can be done either manually or mechanically. When
it is done manually, it is called hand compaction or tamping. And in second case, it is termed as machine compaction.
Hand Compaction: It is done with the help of steel tamping rod or timber screeds. Narrow and deep members are
compacted with tamping rods. Thin slabs and floors are tamped with the help of screeds. Compaction is done in layer of
30cm for mass concrete and 15cm for RCC. Compaction should be carried out for such a time that a layer of mortar starts
appearing at the compacted surface. Excessive and under compaction of concrete both are harmful.
Machine Compaction: Machine or mechanical compaction of concrete is done with the help of vibrator. Vibrators produce
vibrations which when transmitted to plastic, concrete makes it to flow and affect compaction. Over vibration should not
be allowed as otherwise C.A. particles will get concentrated at the lower layers and only mortar will be left at the top
surface. There are following types of vibrators:
1. Internal Vibrators: It is known as needle or immersion vibrator. It consists of a power unit and a long flexible tube
at the end of which a vibrating head is inverted in concrete. This is useful for compaction for mass concrete.
2. Form Vibrators: It is used by clamping to the formwork. Its parts vibrate to the concrete through formwork. This
vibrator is used only if the use of internal vibrator is not practicable as in the case of thin and congested situation.
It is also called external vibrator.
3. Surface Vibrators: It is also named screed or pan vibrator. It is clamped to the screed. It imparts vibration to the
concrete from the surface when screeding operation of the concrete is carried out. It is effective only for depth of
about 20cm and hence useful for thin horizontal surfaces such as pavements.

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Vibration of Reinforced Concrete
Internal vibration is effective in securing adequate bond between concrete and reinforcing steel over the same radius of
action appropriate to a given period of vibration as for unreinforced concrete. Vibration gives a better bond strength than
tamping for stiff mixes particularly in the case of horizontal reinforcements. Stiff mixes when properly vibrated gives
better bond strength than the more workable mixes. It is generally held that direct vibration of the reinforcing rods in
inadvisable except possibly in cases where the amount of reinsforcent is very high and when the concrete is of moist earth
or more workable consistency.
Vibration on reinforcement of accidental contact between the vibrator and reinforcement was not harmful even if the
reinforcement entered partially hardened concrete. It the latter case the vibrations were so damped that no damages was
done.
Vertical reinforcement does not hinder the propagation of vibrations from an internal vibrator but it is necessary to
increase the vibration time considerably if horizontal reinforcement is present. This is explained by the fact that the action
of vibration is to reduce the inter particle friction and thus enable the concrete to compact under the force of gravity.
Horizontal reinforcement bars hinder the action of gravity whereas vertical bars do not. It is difficult to lay down rules to
extra vibration time necessary when horizontal reinforcement is present and the vibration can best be controlled by the
appearance of the concrete surface. Greater bond strength is usually obtained with vertical reinforcement than with
horizontal reinforcement.

Finishing
Finishing means giving desired smoothness or finishing to the surface
of compacted concrete. For achieving good finishing slump of the
concrete should not be more than 5cm. Screeding, traweling are the
usual operations involved in finishing.

Curing of concrete
Curing is the operation by which moist condition s is maintained of finished concrete surface, to improve continued
hydration of cement. If proper curing is not done, complete hydration of cement will not take place, with the result that the
concrete will not acquire its full intended strength. More over shrinkage and cracks will developed in the concrete. Curing
also brings about improvements in durability, impermeability, wear and weather resisting qualities. There are several
methods of curing. Adoption of specific methods depends upon the nature of work and the climatic conditions. Following
are the methods of curing:

1. Shading
2. Sprinkling water
3. Ponding of water
4. Membrane curing: In this method, surface of concrete is covered by a water proof membrane which is kept in
contact with concrete. The membrane prevents evaporation of water from concrete. Wax, emulsion, bitumen
emulsion, bituminized water proof paper, and plastic films are the common membrane materials.
5. Steam curing

Admixtures
Sometimes ingredients other than conventional have to be added in concrete to improve some of its qualities. These
ingredients are known as admixtures. Admixtures improve the concrete width to its strength, hardness, workability; water
resisting power etc. following are the commonly used admixtures:
Alum, aluminum sulphate, barium oxide, bitumen, calcium chloride, coal ash, common salt, lime, iron oxide, mineral oils,
organic oils, potassium fluoride, silicate of soda, tar products, zinc chromate and volcanic ashes.
The use of admixtures is as follows:
1) Quantity of cement is reduced.
2) W/C ratio can be reduced.
3) Durability of concrete gets increased.
4) Permeability of concrete can reduced or increased as desired.
5) Time in saved in repairs and maintenance.
6) Final setting time can be adjusted.
7) Higher early and ultimate strength are achieved
8) Higher slumps and self leveling concretes are obtained.

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Types of cement concrete
1. Plum concrete: In this concrete comparatively large sized C.A. is used. It is used in the construction of gravity
dams, heavy bridge etc.
2. Light weight concrete: in this used light weight C.A. in the place of usual crossed stones. This type of concrete
can be obtained by using either developed gas or form during the process of mixing. Such concrete develops
porous cellular structure.
3. Air entrained concrete: this is developed by either using air entraining cement or other such agent. This concrete
can resist very successfully the effect of frozen water and sulphate action.
4. No fines concrete: this does not have any F.A . . . . It is a mixture of cement, C.A., and water only. Such concrete
can be adopted for castin-site external load bearing walls of houses, small retaining walls, damp, proofing sub
base materials etc.
5. Vacuum concrete: half of the water added in concrete goes into chemical combination and the remaining is used
to make concrete workable. But after laying water which has making concrete workable is extracted by a special
method is known as vacuum method. Thus water left in the concrete is only that which is to go in chemical
combination and hence resulting concrete becomes very strong.
6. Water proofing concrete: It is prepared by adding some water proofing compound. This concrete is used for
rendering structures water proof.
7. Pre stressed concrete: It is also R.C.C. but steel rods are pre stressed before embedded in the concrete these rods
remain pre stressed even after the concrete has fully set. Elements of this concrete when subjected to bending do
not develop cracks.
8. Cellular concrete: It is made by introducing air bubbles in mass.
9. Foamed concrete: It is made by mixing blast furnace slag.
10. Reinforced cement concrete: Ordinary concrete is very weak in tension, but very strong in compression. Steel
rods may be embedded on the tension site of the member. Such concrete in which steel rods are embedded is
called R.C.C...
Quality control of concrete
1. There should be no air bubbles left in the concrete. This consolidation of the concrete should be perfect.
2. Cement used should be finally ground means high graded.
3. W/C ratio should be kept low.
4. In order to achieve good inter looking aggregates of cubical particles should be also used.
5. Curing of concrete should be perfect.
6. There should be high carefulness among the personnel connected with the production of concrete.
7. All suitable precautions must be taken to ensure proper inspection of the ingredients, batching, mixing,
transportation and placing.
Form - work
The temporary enclosure which is used to hold plastic concrete till
it becomes Hard solid and gain sufficient strength. Following points
should be considered in form work design.
1. It should be easily removed.
2. It should be strong and rigid to support the load of the concrete
and load due to vibration.
3. Inside surface should be oiled so that concrete may not stick to it.

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Reinforcement Cement Concrete (R.C.C.)
Though strong in compression, concrete is strongly weak in tension, steel in the other hand is equally strong compression
and tension. Thus the combination of concrete and steel has to be ideal, as two materials are used to take up the stresses.
They are most suitable for all types of construction.
Properties of RCC
1. The concrete while setting gaps very fast the surface of the steel bars, therefore the concrete is able to transmit to
the steel bars those stresses which cannot resist itself.
2. The coefficient of linear expansion of steel and concrete are almost the same. Therefore no internal stresses are set
.up within RCC due to variation of temperature.
3. The coating of cement grout on the surface of steel bars protects them from corrosion and does not produce any
adverse chemical effect.
Advantages of RCC
1. It is economical in ultimate cost.
2. Its monolithic character gives much rigidity to the structure
3. It is durable and fir resisting. It does not rot or decay and it not attacked by termites.
4. It is also impermeable to moisture.
5. The cost of maintenance of RCC structure is very low.
6. The materials used in RCC structures are easily available.
7. The flexibility of reinforcement and the fluidity of the concrete make possible the reinforcement members to be
molded in any desired shape. Thus RCC lends itself to a wide range of architectural expression.
Causes of failure of RCC
1. When the member is subjected to excessive tension more than permissible stress in steel.
2. When the load is subjected that the compressive stress in concrete exceeds its safe permissible value.
3. When the concrete is subjected to excessive shear.
4. On account of the sleeping of the steel bars from concrete.
5. Due to bad quality of material used shrinkage, creep or thermal effects.
6. When the member is subjected to extremes of temperature, aggressive liquids of gases.

Why steel rods are used as reinforcement?

The fact, that makes it possible to combine steel and concrete is set, it will be found that considerable force is necessary to
pull it out. If the steel section be in the form of a plate, although it will resist removal when the concrete is set, yet it can
be knocked off by sharp blows. In the first case, the concrete grips the steel, while in the second it only adheres. The grips
depends upon the strength of concrete used in the work as well as the perfection with which the concrete has been mixed,
placed in position, compacted and cured. Besides this, grips also depend upon the conditions of the surface of the rod
whether it is smooth or rough. Specially shaped bars (ribbed bars etc) have therefore been introduced from time to time
with the object of increasing the grip. It is on account of similar co-efficient of expansion of the two materials; superior
bond values high tensile strength and less cost of steel that steel rods are used as reinforcement in RCC work.

Materials used in RCC work

Following materials are required for making RCC
1. Cement: Before the introduction of ordinary Portland cement, lime was used as a cementing material. Most of the
cement concrete work in building construction is done with ordinary Portland cement at present. But other special
varieties of cement such as rapid hardening cement and high alumina cement are used under certain
circumstances. The cement should comply with all the standard requirements.

2. Aggregates: These are the inert or chemically inactive materials which form the bulk of cement concrete. These aggregates
are bound together by means of cement. The aggregates are classified into two categories: Fine and Coarse.
The material which is passed through 4.75mm size B.S test sieve is termed as a fine aggregate. Usually natural
river sand is used as a fine aggregate. But at places, where natural sand is not available economically, finely
crushed stone may be used as fine aggregate.
The material which is retained on 4.75mm size B.S. test sieve is termed as a coarse aggregate. Broken stone is
generally used as a coarse aggregate. The nature of work decides the maximum size of the coarse aggregate. For
thin slabs and walls, the maximum size of coarse aggregate should be limited to one-third the thickness of the
concrete section.

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 The aggregates to be used for cement concrete work should be hard, durable and clean. The aggregates should be
completely free from lumps of clay, organic and vegetable matter, fine dust etc.
The presence of all-such debris prevents adhesion of aggregates and hence, reduces the strength of concrete.

3. Steel: The steel reinforcement is generally in the form of round bars of mild steel. The diameters of bars vary
from 5mm to 40mm. Sometimes, square bars or twisted bars or ribbed tor-steel are used as steel reinforcement.
For road slabs and such other construction reinforcement may also consists of sheets of rolled steel of suitable
thickness. Hybrid which is a steel lath may also be used as steel reinforcement.

4. Water: This is the least expensive but most important ingredient of concrete. Water, which is used for making
concrete, should be clean and free from harmful impurities such as oil, alkali, acid etc. in general, water which is
fit for drinking should be used for making concrete.
It may be noted that sometimes ingredients other than above are added in concrete to give it certain improved
equalities. These ingredients or substances are known as admixtures. The addition of an admixture may improved
the concrete with respect to its strength, hardness, workability, water-resisting power, etc
Corrosion of Steel in Concrete
Corrosion of steel in concrete sometimes occurs to reinforcing bars placed in concrete. The term corrosion is used
to indicate the conversion of metals by natural agencies into various compounds. The terms rusting is used to refer
corrosion of ferrous metals.
Causes of corrosion
1. Coagulated reinforcement in small concrete sections
2. Excessive w/c ratio
3. Improper construction method
4. Inadequate design procedure
5. Incomplete supervising staff of contractor
6. Initially rusted reinforcement before placing concrete
7. Poor workability
8. Presence of moisture in concrete
9. Presence of salts
Prevention of corrosion
1. Avoiding heavily congested reinforcement.
2. Avoiding the steel to come into contact with bricks soil, wood and other porous non-alkaline materials.
3. Cleaning the reinforcement with wire-brush to remove the rust scales before placing of concrete.
4. Maintaining the high degree of workmanship.
5. Proper structural design with due provision of concrete.
6. Providing surface coating of paints, tars, asphalts etc
7. Use of high qualities or impermeable concrete
8. Using stone pebbles in place of badly made concrete blocks
9. Using the correct w/c ratio
Guniting
It is process by which inferior or damaged concrete work can be repaired. It is also used for providing an impervious layer.
Gunite is mixture of cement and sand, usually in proportions of 1:3. A special equipment known as cement gun is used to
deposit this mixture on the concrete surface under a pressure of about 2 to3 kg/cm2.
The surface to be treated is cleaned and washed the nozzle of the gun is generally kept at a distance of about 80cm from
the surface to be treated. Velocity of flow through the nozzle is from 120 to 160 m/sec.
This process gives following advantages:
a) High impermeability is achieved.
b) The repair can be carried out in any situation in a very short time.
c) High compressive strength say 500 to 700 N/mm2 at 28 days can be obtained.

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